Conclusion

The linguistic diversity in international legal texts highlights the fact that the legalnorm is not to be confused with the face of treaties, but rather that legal norm canbe identified with the content conveyed by the treaties. International legal discourseis a result of the negotiation and dispute processes concerning the legal content oftreaties and conventions, and of the official languages of international organizations.The law of the WTO, for example, is the product of negotiations and decision-making processes that adopt English as the language of reference. However, wehave noted that the Appellate Body has clearly shown a tendency of resorting tothe Spanish and French versions of the WTO Agreements. Based on this finding wecould broaden the scope of investigation in order to examine whether WTO law is acommon legal culture that amalgamates all legal inputs coming from its Members,or whether this common legal culture is based on an apparent impartiality that, infact, masks an actual clash between legal cultures that have been translated into oneor another language.

It is important to point out that that the legal code of the WTO, once acceptedand incorporated by Member States, conveys legal discourses that create a certain“reality”, which is the current multilateral system of trade. The disputes arising fromdebatable content in WTO Agreement have become the field of a battle to establishthe meaning of international trade law. Solving these disputes is the role of theWTO dispute settlement system in which the Appellate Body plays a major role.The reports issued by the Appellate Body determine, in practice and by virtue ofnegative consensus, the meaning of a rule.

Different interpretation methods are found in legal doctrine and jurisprudence toattribute the meaning to a norm. Since there is no hierarchy among these methods,the interpreter may reach contradictory conclusions. In the domain of the AppellateBody, an examination of the reports has demonstrated that there is a tendency toturn to the letter of the law when interpreting legal-diplomatic texts. By groundingits methodological choice on the Vienna Convention, the Appellate Body, withoutcompletely disregarding a subjectivist and finalist approach, has given priority tothe wording of legal texts.

We have seen that all linguistic signs may be interpreted even when shifted fromthe context in which they were produced. Therefore, the interpretive act can do with-out an investigation into what an empirical author had actually intended to say when

197E.M. de Carvalho, Semiotics of International Law, Law and Philosophy Library 91,DOI 10.1007/978-90-481-9011-9, C© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

198 Conclusion

uttering a text. Once uttered, the text becomes independent from the author – whono longer controls the possible subsequent discourses. However, it may not be goodinterpretation policy to ignore the intention of the Member States when interpretinga legal-diplomatic text. After all, the authors can be easily identified and do, in fact,often refute the interpretations of the dispute resolution bodies. The authors of atreaty cannot be simply ignored by the interpreter and considered irrelevant in thesearch for the meaning of a legal word or phrase. There are cases in which the legit-imacy of the interpretive act appears to depend on referring to what had been theoriginal intention, such as is the case of the act of translation. The legal discourseas conveyed in the reports produced by the Appellate Body would therefore be a“translation” of the intention of the author of the treaty.

However, referring to what the empirical author intended to say is done moreto fulfill a purpose of legitimizing a certain interpretation than proof of the respectto (or the success in) searching for the intentio auctoris. The role of the interpretershows how the construction of legal discourse is the result of a cooperative effortbetween interpreter and author. There is, therefore, a role played by the intentiolectoris, which cannot, however, be taken to the letter in order to continuously moveor freely shift meaning at will.

The legal-diplomatic text is the measure of good interpretation: it intermediatesthe communicative relation between the author and reader, by providing parame-ters for the interpretive act. The Appellate Body’s search for the intentio operis hasthe benefit of setting limits to interpretation and, therefore, controlling the open-endedness of possible meanings that could be applied by the decision-making entity.The text’s intention is essential in legitimizing legal-decisional discourse insofar asit neutralized any loose or authoritarian connotation from the original intention ofthe author or even the reader.

This does not mean that the text provides an only possible interpretation. Anexamination of the auxiliary decision-making bodies of the DSB illustrates well thedilemmas in meaning surrounding various words and phrases, whether legal wordsand phrases or not. A margin of discretion is always left to the interpreter; however,this margin is presumed to be based on an examination of the intention of the text,according to which the plausibility of a term’s interpretation is only accepted whenconfirmed in another part of the text. The historical circumstances and the linguisticcontexts play an important role to this end. After all, the fact that the discourse isproduced by the WTO provides an entire set of possible interpretants that define amore or less precise semantic field for the interpreter.

The WTO law is neither a clear-cut image of reality nor an arbitrary creation ofits authors, but rather a product and producer of social reality and, thus, of a legalculture. Every interpretant produced materializes a given discourse and always rep-resents an actualization of the signification system of the WTO. Even though thisactualization is merely relative, since new interpretations constantly surface. In anycase, the legal code of the WTO, which is initially established in the legal-diplomatictext and bolstered by the decision-making discourse, gains increased legitimacyas it spreads as a linguistic practice among the jurists that work in the field ofinternational commercial law.

Conclusion 199

Studying the decision-making discourse of the Appellate Body helps to under-stand the WTO legal system. On the other hand, because the covered agreementsare conveyed in Spanish, French, and English fully understanding the WTO legalcode is a complex task. It is impossible to guarantee that a specific legal word orphrase in one language will find its exact equivalent in another language system –not because it does not exist in a given language, but because it belongs to a differ-ent and independent meaning network whose reference is another legal culture. The“dictionarized” or “dictionary-based” interpretation of the Appellate Body is a clearattempt to reduce this complexity.

The notion of encyclopedic knowledge in the semiotics of Eco addresses the lim-itations of a dictionarized interpretation – which is in line with the concept of legalculture as discussed in this book. Encyclopedic knowledge is a competence thatrequires the interpreter to be knowledgeable beyond the mere operational aspect ofapplying law. However, no jurist is capable of storing the amount of encyclopedicknowledge encompassing all the different national laws, including their practices,and organization. Therefore, the dictionarized interpretation method the AppellateBody utilizes appears to adequately ensure a minimum consensus on the meaningof law in a multilingual and multicultural society. Despite its limitations, the dic-tionarized interpretation method has the advantage of being a legitimate way ofpromoting semantic cohesion and convergence in negotiating meaning during thedecision-making process of the Appellate Body members. Through this method,one hopes that the legal discourse of the WTO be understood and accepted by eachof the Member States, in order to ensure the uniform application of norms withinthe multilateral trade system.

The dictionarized method contributes to defining a safe margin for interpretation.The effectiveness of the meanings resulting from this procedure will be proven withtime, when certain paths of meaning in earlier decision-making practices are reit-erated. However, this method does not make the act of interpretation a mechanicalone: the Appellate Body has been aware of this since the start of its activities. Itstated that “WTO rules are not so rigid or so inflexible as not to leave room for rea-soned judgments in confronting the endless and ever-changing ebb and flow of realfacts in real cases in the real world”.1

Nevertheless, the “real world” is culturally constituted. Therefore, the referentwill be no other than the one established by the signification system of the WTO.The “reality” of this world – or, if one prefers, the truth values in discourse – dependson whether it is the subject of common opinion, that is, on whether it is acceptedby the group of Member States. Believing that free trade promotes economic justiceand the development of nations may mean much to the Member States and also tosustaining the legal discourse of the WTO, regardless of whether or not this assertionis proven true or false.

1WT/DS8/AB/R – WT/DS10/AB/R – WT/DS11/AB/R. Japan – Taxes on Alcoholic Beverages,at. 36.

200 Conclusion

The fabrication of reality gains new possibility of meaning based on interpreta-tion referenced in other linguistic systems that, in turn, carry their own view of theworld. Despite the complexity of the interpretive act, it is based on firm legal groundand reinforces the legitimacy of the WTO. But not without facing a number of chal-lenges. What Umberto Eco said on his attempt of writing a book in a language otherthan his own, touches the heart of the matter:

[. . .] penetrating another semantically organized system of the universe, the Anglo-Saxon(which was not only a culture, that adopted different signifiers, but that organized signifiedsin a different way) [. . .] I noticed that [. . .] by writing in a language I did not know, I wasless intelligent.2

We hope that this semiotic study of the decision-making discourse of the WTOcontributes to furthering the debates on interpretation methods of treaties authen-ticated in more than one language, thus attracting the attention of jurists to thechallenge that the international system poses: resignifying international law via lin-guistic interaction. We believe that this form of interaction is able to truly open thedoors of international law to the possibilities of learning from and with the manydifferent world legal cultures.

2O conceito de texto, op. cit., at. 2.

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WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION. United States – Standards for Reformulated andConventional Gasoline. WT/DS2/AB/R, April 29, 1996. Appellate Body’s Report.

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION. Japan – Taxes on Alcoholic Beverages. WT/DS8/R –WT/DS10/R – WT/DS11/R, July 11, 1996. Panel’s Report.

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WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION. United States – Measures Affecting Imports of WovenWool Shirts and Blouses from India. WT/DS33/AB/R, April 25, 1997. Appellate Body’sReport.

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION. European Communities – Regime for the Importation,Sale and Distribution of Bananas. WT/DS27/AB/R, September 9, 1997. Appellate Body’sReport.

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION. India – Patent Protection for Pharmaceutical andAgricultural Chemical Products. WT/DS50/AB/R, December 19, 1997. Appellate Body’sReport.

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION. European Communities – Measures Concerning Meatand Meat Products (Hormones). WT/DS26/AB/R – WT/DS48/AB/R, January 16, 1998.Appellate Body’s Report.

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION. European Communities – Customs Classification ofCertain Computer Equipment. WT/DS62/AB/R – WT/DS67/AB/R – WT/DS68/AB/R,June 5, 1998. Appellate Body’s Report.

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION. European Communities – Measures AffectingImportation of Certain Poultry Products. WT/DS69/AB/R, July 13, 1998. AppellateBody’s Report.

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION. United States – Import Prohibition of Certain Shrimpand Shrimp Products. WT/DS58/AB/R, October 12, 1998. Appellate Body’s Report.

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION. Guatemala – Anti-Dumping Investigation RegardingPortland Cement from Mexico. WT/DS60/AB/R, November 2, 1998. Appellate Body’sReport.

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION. Korea – Taxes on Alcoholic Beverages. WT/DS75/AB/R –WT/DS84/AB/R, January 18, 1999. Appellate Body’s Report.

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION. Japan – Measures Affecting Agricultural Products.WT/DS76/AB/R, February 22, 1999. Appellate Body’s Report.

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION. Canada – Measures Affecting the Export of CivilianAircraft. WT/DS70/R. April 14, 1999. Panel’s Report.

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION. Canada – Measures Affecting the Importation of Milkand the Exportation of Dairy Products. WT/DS103/R – WT/DS113/R, May 17, 1999.Panel’s Report.

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION. Canada – Measures Affecting the Export of CivilianAircraft. WT/DS70/AB/R, August 2, 1999. Appellate Body’s Report.

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION. United States – Tax Treatment for “Foreign SalesCorporations”. WT/DS108/R, October 8, 1999. Panel’s Report.

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION. Canada – Measures Affecting the Importation of Milkand the Exportation of Dairy Products. WT/DS103/AB/R – WT/DS113/AB/R, October 13,1999. Appellate Body’s Report.

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION. United States – Tax Treatment for “Foreign SalesCorporations”. WT/DS108/AB/R, February 24, 2000. Appellate Body’s Report.

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION. European Communities – Trade Description of Sardines.WT/DS231/R, May 29, 2002. Panel’s Report.

List of Sources 213

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION. Chile – Price Band System and Safeguard MeasuresRelating to Certain Agricultural Products. WT/DS207/AB/R, September 23, 2002.Appellate Body’s Report.

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION. United States – Continued Dumping and Subsidy OffsetAct of 2000. WT/DS217/R – WT/DS234/R. September 16, 2002. Panel’s Report.

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION. European Communities – Trade Description of Sardines.WT/DS231/AB/R, Septemper 26, 2002. Appellate Body’s Report.

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION. United States – Continued Dumping and Subsidy OffsetAct of 2000. WT/DS217/AB/R – WT/DS234/AB/R, January 16, 2003. Appellate Body’sReport.

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION. United States – Final Countervailing Duty Determinationwith respect to certain Softwood Lumber from Canada. WT/DS257/R, August 29, 2003.Panel’s Report.

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION. European Communities – Conditions for the Grantingof Tariff Preferences to Developing Countries. WT/DS246/R, December 1, 2003. Panel’sReport.

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION. United States – Final Countervailing Duty Determinationwith respect to certain Softwood Lumber from Canada. WT/DS257/AB/R, January 19,2004. Appellate Body’s Report.

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION. European Communities – Conditions for the Grantingof Tariff Preferences to Developing Countries. WT/DS246/AB/R, April 7, 2004. AppellateBody’s Report.

Index

AAppellate Body (AB)

authority of the decision-making discourseof the AB, 124–126

decision-making discourse of the AB:treaties and dictionaries as referents,1, 105, 124–126, 161–195

decision-making instances of the DSB:special groups and the AB, 117–126

English-language based dictionarization ofthe decision-making discourse ofthe Appellate Body, 167–178

and its working procedures: strengtheningthe legal control of the WTO,122–124

linguistic context of the decision-makingdiscourse of the AB, 129–144,145–160, 161–194

Active role of the foreign language, 93–98Authority of the decision-making discourse of

the AB, 124–126Author and reader: between empirical and

imagined subjects, 145–149Authors of legal-diplomatic discourse:

interpreters and intentions, 145–160

C“Camouflage”, subjective and objective

“camouflage” of legal-diplomaticdiscourse, 90–92

Circumstances of enunciation ofdecision-making discourse,106–116, 117–126

Code and language: a distinction and afundamental relation for the conceptof legal culture from a semioticstandpoint, 16–18

Communication, legal culture as acommunication process, 22

Concept for “culture”: two basic notions, 3–5Concept of “legal culture”, 8–12Concepts, epistemological assumptions and

initial concepts, 65Conclusion, 15, 57, 90, 101–102, 111,

119–122, 124–125, 133, 142, 157,160–161, 173, 177, 186

Criteria for a typology of legal discourse,26–28

Cultureand legal culture, a semiotic approach,

3–12semiotics of culture mechanism, 5–9

DDecision-making discourse

of the AB, treaties and dictionaries asreferents, 161–195

circumstances of enunciation ofdecision-making discourse,107–116, 117–126

English-language based dictionarization ofthe decision-making discourse ofthe Appellate Body, 167–178

linguistic context in the decision-makingdiscourse of the AB, 129–144,145–160, 161–195

sardines, softwood lumbers, and GSP:precedents for a decision-makingdiscourse based on the threelanguage versions of the WTOagreements, 178–190

Decision-making instances of the DSB: specialgroups and the Appellate Body(AB), 118

Dictionarizationchallenges of “looking beyond”

dictionarization, 190–195

215

216 Index

Dictionarization (cont.)English-language based dictionarization of

the decision-making discourse ofthe Appellate Body, 167–178

Dictionary, decision-making discourse of theAB: treaties and dictionaries asreferents, 161–195

Diplomacyauthors of legal-diplomatic discourse:

interpreters and intentions, 145–160diplomatic discourse and discourse of

international conventions, 83diplomatic discourse and legal-diplomatic

discourse, senders, 54–56language war in diplomacy, 49–54legal-diplomatic discourse, 37–56, 57–82,

83–102and the issue of a common language, 46

prevalence of diplomatic control duringGATT, 161–167

Diplomatic discourse, 37–56“international signification” of diplomatic

discourse, 42–46and legal-diplomatic discourse, issuers, 7the problem of choosing a common

language, 46–49Discourse

diplomatic discourse and discourse ofinternational treaties, 71

semiotic mechanisms in choosing the pathof meaning of discourse, 122

Discursive practices in the law: legal discourseand other discourse, 142

Dispute-settlement systemof the WTO and the influence of the

decision-making instances of theDSB, 117–126

WTO dispute settlement system and theinfluence of the decision-makinginstances of the dispute settlementbody, 117–126

Dispute Settlement Body (DSB)decision-making instances ofthe DSB, special groups and the e oAppellate Body (AB), 117–126

EEarly stages of the current multilateral

trade system, lack of politicaland economic control in theinternational scenario, 55

English language, English-languagebased dictionarization of the

decision-making discourse of theAppellate Body, 167–178

Enunciation, circumstances of enunciationof decision-making discourse,107–116

Epistemological assumptions and initialconcepts, 10, 186

Epistemology, epistemological assumptionsand initial concepts, 58

FForeign language, active role of foreign

languages, 93–101Founding discourse, a founding discourse for

international legal systems: theWTO as an example, 83–89

GGATT

the GATT, “a mere agreement”, 107–112“a mere agreement”, 107–112prevalence of diplomatic control during

GATT, 161–167to the WTO: the development of legal

controls over multilateral traderelations, 105

“Ghost of the interpreter” in defining themeaning of norms, 153–155

HHermeneutics

interpretation as the search for the intentionof the author in legal discourse ofinternational conventions, 35

unlimited semiosis vs. limits ofinterpretation, 133–138

IIdeology in legal-diplomatic discourse, 98–102“Increased legalness” of the rules under the

dispute settlement understanding(DSU), 117–119

Intentio auctoris. Interpretation as the searchfor intentio operis: an equidistantmethod between intentio auctorisand intentio lectoris, 155–160

Intentio lectoris. Interpretation as the searchfor intentio operis: an equidistantmethod between intentio auctorisand intentio lectoris, 155–160

Intentio operis. Interpretation as the searchfor intentio operis: an equidistantmethod between intentio auctorisand intentio lectoris, 155–160

Index 217

International, diplomatic discourse andthe discourse of conventions,90–92

International law, international legal discourse,3–12, 13–22, 23–33

International legal discourse, 37–56, 57–82,83–102

conclusion of Part I, 3–12, 13–22, 23–33International legal system, a founding

discourse for international legalsystems: the WTO as an example,83–89

Interpretation, “ghost of the interpreter” indefining the meaning of norms,153–155

Interpretation as the searchfor the intention of the author in

legal discourse of internationalconventions, 153

for intentio operis, an equidistant methodbetween intentio auctoris andintentio lectoris, 155–160

Interpretation, unlimited semiosis vs. limits ofinterpretation, 133–138

Introduction, 22, 61–64, 81, 94

LLanguage

code and language: a distinction and afundamental relation for the conceptof legal culture from a semioticstandpoint, 16–22

diplomatic discourse and the problem ofchoosing a common language,46–49

language war in diplomacy, 49–54linguistic context in the decision-making

discourse of the Appellate Body,129–144

unlimited semiosis vs. limits ofinterpretation, 133–138

war in diplomacy, 49–54Law, resorting to the sources of law to

determine relevant discourse for astudy in semiotics of law, 28–33

Legal culturebuilding legal discourse, 3–12, 13–22,

23–33as a communication process, 23concept for “legal culture”, 9–12as a signification system, 138as a system of linguistic signs, 19–22

Legal-diplomatic discourse, 57–82ideology, 98–102

and the language of expression issue,72–75

power, 83–102subjective and objective “camouflage” of

legal-diplomatic discourse, 90–92translation, 75–82

Legal discoursecriteria for a typology of legal discourse,

26–28defining the scope of study: legal discourse,

3–12, 13–22, 23–33diplomatic discourse and the discourse of

international conventions, 83of international conventions, interpretation

as the search for the intention ofthe author of legal conventions,155–160

legal culture building legal discourse, 3–12,13–22, 23–33

resorting to the sources of law to determinerelevant discourse for a study insemiotics of law, 28–33

toward a scientific analysis of legaldiscourse, 3–12, 13–22, 23–33

Língua de expressão, legal-diplomaticdiscourse and the language ofexpression issue, 72–75

Linguistic context of the decision-makingdiscourse of the AB, 129–144,145–160, 161–195

MMechanism

semiotic mechanisms in choosing the pathof meaning of discourse, 122

semiotics of culture mechanism, 5–9

NNorm, “ghost of the interpreter” in defining the

meaning of the norm, 153–155Notion of “code” and its organizing role

in producing and interpretingdiscourse, 96

Notion of sign function and connotation anddenotation, 129–133

PPower of legal-diplomatic discourse, 83–102Preliminary considerations, 90Prevalence of diplomatic control in GATT,

112–116

RReading, legal subcode in defining reading

paths, 156

218 Index

References, 42, 66, 95, 177Resorting to the sources of law to determine

relevant discourse for a study insemiotics of law, 28–33

Resorting to the vienna convention and theprevalence of ordinary meaning,161–167

SScientific analysis of legal discourse, 73Scientific nature, toward a scientific analysis of

legal discourse, 154Scope of study, legal discourse, 39Semiosis

code and language: a distinction and afundamental relation for the conceptof legal culture from a semioticstandpoint, 16–22

culture and legal culture: a semioticapproach, 3–12

legal semiosis, resorting to the sources oflaw to determine relevant discoursefor a study in semiotics of law,28–33

semiotic mechanismsin choosing the path of meaning of

discourse, 5–9of culture, 5–9

unlimited semiosis vs. limits ofinterpretation, 133–138

Senders of diplomatic discourse andlegal-diplomatic discourse, 54–56

Signification“International signification” of diplomatic

discourse, 42–46legal culture as a system of signification,

13–22Signs, legal culture as a system

of legal signs, 23–33of linguistic signs, 19–22

Sources of law, resorting to the sources of lawto determine relevant discourse fora study in semiotics of law, 28–33

Strengthening legal control through the WTO,112–116

Subcode, legal subcode in defining readingpaths, 147

Summary, 20, 97, 120, 137

TThird thing, 69–71Trade relations, from GATT to the WTO: a

evolução do controle jurídico sobreas relações multilaterais comerciais,107–116

Translating legal-diplomatic discourse, 61Treaty, the decision-making discourse of

the Appellate Body: treatiesand dictionaries as referents,124–126

Typology criteria for a typology of legaldiscourse, 26–28

VVienna convention, resorting to the vienna

convention and the prevalence ofordinary meaning, 161–167

WWar, language war in diplomacy, 49–54WTO

agreement, sardines, softwood lumbers,and GSP: precedents for adecision-making discourse based onthe three language versions of theWTO agreements, 178–190

the Appellate Body and its workingprocedures: strengthening the legalcontrol of the WTO, 122–124

decision-making discourse of the WTO,161–195

from GATT to the WTO: the developmentof legal controls over multilateraltrade relations, 122–124

sardines, softwood lumbers, and GSP:precedents for a decision-makingdiscourse based on the threelanguage versions of WTOagreements, 178–190

Strengthening the legal controls throughthe WTO, 122–124

WTO dispute-settlement system and theinfluence of the decision-makinginstances of the dispute settlementbody, 117–126