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Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 1
Computer Structure
Advanced Topics
Lihu Rappoport and Adi Yoaz
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 2
Hyper Threading Technology
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 3
Thread-Level Parallelism
· Multiprocessor systems have been used for many years– There are known techniques to exploit multiprocessors
· Software trends– Applications consist of multiple threads or processes that can be
executed in parallel on multiple processors
· Thread-level parallelism (TLP) – threads can be from– the same application– different applications running simultaneously– operating system services
· Increasing single thread performance becomes harder– and is less and less power efficient
· Chip Multi-Processing (CMP)– Two (or more) processors are put on a single die
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 4
Multi-Threading· Multi-threading: a single processor executes multiple threads· Time-slice multithreading
– The processor switches between software threads after a fixed period– Can effectively minimize the effects of long latencies to memory
· Switch-on-event multithreading – Switch threads on long latency events such as cache misses – Works well for server applications that have many cache misses
· A deficiency of both time-slice MT and switch-on-event MT– They do not cover for branch mis-predictions and long dependencies
· Simultaneous multi-threading (SMT)– Multiple threads execute on a single processor simultaneously w/o switching– Makes the most effective use of processor resources
Maximizes performance vs. transistor count and power
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 5
Hyper-threading (HT) Technology· HT is SMT
– Makes a single processor appear as 2 logical processors = threads
· Each thread keeps a its own architectural state– General-purpose registers– Control and machine state registers
· Each thread has its own interrupt controller – Interrupts sent to a specific logical processor are handled only by it
· OS views logical processors similar to physical processors– But can still differentiate and prefer to schedule a thread on a new physical
processor rather than on a 2nd logical processors in the same phy processor
· From a micro-architecture perspective– Thread share a single set of physical resources
caches, execution units, branch predictors, control logic, and buses
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 6
Two Important Goals
· When one thread is stalled the other thread can continue to make progress– Independent progress ensured by either
Partitioning buffering queues and limiting the number of entries each thread can use
Duplicating buffering queues
· A single active thread running on a processor with HT runs at the same speed as without HT – Partitioned resources are recombined when only one thread is active
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 7
Front End· Each thread manages its own next-instruction-pointer· Threads arbitrate Uop cache access every cycle (Ping-Pong)
– If both want to access the UC – access granted in alternating cycles – If one thread is stalled, the other thread gets the full UC bandwidth
· Uop Cacahe entries are tagged with thread-ID – Dynamically allocated as needed– Allows one logical processor to have more entries than the other
Uop Cache
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 8
Front End (cont.)
· Branch prediction structures are either duplicated or shared– The return stack buffer is duplicated – Global history is tracked for each thread– The large global history array is a shared
Entries are tagged with a logical processor ID
· Each thread has its own ITLB
· Both threads share the same decoder logic– if only one needs the decode logic, it gets the full decode bandwidth – The state needed by the decodes is duplicated
· Uop queue is hard partitioned– Allows both logical processors to make independent forward progress
regardless of FE stalls (e.g., TC miss) or EXE stalls
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 9
Out-of-order Execution· ROB and MOB are hard partitioned
– Enforce fairness and prevent deadlocks· Allocator ping-pongs between the thread
– A thread is selected for allocation if Its uop-queue is not empty its buffers (ROB, RS) are not full It is the thread’s turn, or the other thread cannot be selected
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 10
Out-of-order Execution (cont)· Registers renamed to a shared physical register pool
– Store results until retirement
· After allocation and renaming uops are placed in one of 2 Qs– Memory instruction queue and general instruction queue
The two queues are hard partitioned
– Uops are read from the Q’s and sent to the scheduler using ping-pong
· The schedulers are oblivious to threads – Schedule uops based on dependencies and exe. resources availability
Regardless of their thread
– Uops from the two threads can be dispatched in the same cycle– To avoid deadlock and ensure fairness
Limit the number of active entries a thread can have in each scheduler’s queue
· Forwarding logic compares physical register numbers– Forward results to other uops without thread knowledge
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 11
Out-of-order Execution (cont)
· Memory is largely oblivious– L1 Data Cache, L2 Cache, L3 Cache are thread oblivious
All use physical addresses– DTLB is shared
Each DTLB entry includes a thread ID as part of the tag
· Retirement ping-pongs between threads– If one thread is not ready to retire uops all retirement bandwidth is
dedicated to the other thread
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 12
Single-task And Multi-task Modes· MT-mode (Multi-task mode)
– Two active threads, with some resources partitioned as described earlier
· ST-mode (Single-task mode)– There are two flavors of ST-mode
single-task thread 0 (ST0) – only thread 0 is active single-task thread 1 (ST1) – only thread 1 is active
– Resources that were partitioned in MT-mode are re-combined to give the single active logical processor use of all of the resources
· Moving the processor from between modes
ST0 ST1
MTThread 1 executes HALT
LowPower Thread 1 executes HALT
Thread 0 executes HALT
Thread 0 executes HALT
Interrupt
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 13
Operating System And Applications
· An HT processor appears to the OS and application SW as 2 processors– The OS manages logical processors as it does physical processors
The OS should implement two optimizations:
· Use HALT if only one logical processor is active– Allows the processor to transition to either the ST0 or ST1 mode – Otherwise the OS would execute on the idle logical processor a sequence of
instructions that repeatedly checks for work to do – This so-called “idle loop” can consume significant execution resources that
could otherwise be used by the other active logical processor
· On a multi-processor system, – Schedule threads to logical processors on different physical processors
before scheduling multiple threads to the same physical processor– Allows SW threads to use different physical resources when possible
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 14
2nd Generation Intel® CoreTM Sandy Bridge
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 15
3rd Generation Intel CoreTM Processors
· 22nm process· Quad core die, with Intel HD Graphics 4000· 1.4 Billion transistors· Die size: 160 mm2
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 16
Sandy Bridge Processor Core Overview • Build upon Nehalem microarchitecture processor core
– Converged building block for mobile, desktop, and server
• Add “Cool” microarchitecture enhancements– Features that are better than linear performance/power
• Add “Really Cool” microarchitecture enhancements– Features which gain performance while saving power
• Extend the architecture for important new applications– Floating Point and Throughput
Intel® Advanced Vector Extensions (Intel® AVX) – significant boost for selected compute intensive applications
– Security AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) throughput enhancements Large Integer RSA speedups
– OS/VMM and server related features State save/restore optimizations
Foil taken from IDF 2011
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 17
ALU, SIMUL,
DIV, FP MUL
ALU, SIALU,
FP ADD
ALU, Branch,
FP Shuffle
Load Load
Store Address Store Address
Store
DataSix Execution Ports
32k L1 Instruction Cache
Scheduler
Port 0 Port 1 Port 5 Port 2 Port 3 Port 4
32k L1 Data Cache
48 bytes/cycle
Allocate/Rename/RetireZeroing IdiomsLoad Buffers
Store Buffers
ReorderBuffers
L2 Cache (MLC) Fill
Buffers
Pre decodeInstruction
Queue Decoders
1.5k uOP cache
DecodersDecodersDecoders
Branch Pred
In order
Out-of-order
Front End (IA instructions Uops)
In Order Allocation, Rename, Retirement
Out of Order “Uop” Scheduling
DataCacheUnit
Core Block Diagram
Foil taken from IDF 2011
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 18
Front End
Instruction Fetch and Decode• 32KB 8-way Associative ICache• 4 Decoders, up to 4 instructions / cycle• Micro-Fusion
– Bundle multiple instruction events into a single “Uops”• Macro-Fusion
– Fuse instruction pairs into a complex “Uop” • Decode Pipeline supports 16 bytes per cycle
32KB L1 I-Cache Pre decode Instruction Queue DecodersDecodersDecodersDecoders
Branch Prediction Unit
Foil taken from IDF 2011
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 19
Branch Prediction Unit
New Branch Predictor• Twice as many targets • Much more effective storage for history• Much longer history for data dependent behaviors
Branch Prediction Unit
32KB L1 I-Cache Pre decode Instruction Queue DecodersDecodersDecodersDecoders
Foil taken from IDF 2011
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 20
Decoded Uop Cache ~1.5 Kuops
Decoded Uop Cache
Decoded Uop Cache• Instruction Cache for Uops instead of Instruction Bytes
– ~80% hit rate for most applications
• Higher Instruction Bandwidth and Lower Latency– Decoded Uop Cache can represent 32-byte / cycle
More Cycles sustaining 4 instruction/cycle– Able to ‘stitch’ across taken branches in the control flow
Branch Prediction Unit
32KB L1 I-Cache Pre decode Instruction Queue DecodersDecodersDecodersDecoders
Foil taken from IDF 2011
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 21
• Decoded Uop Cache lets the normal front end sleep– Decode one time instead of many times
• Branch-Mispredictions reduced substantially– The correct path is also the most efficient path
Save Power while Increasing Performance
Decoded Uop Cache
Branch Prediction Unit
32k L1 Instruction Cache Pre decode Instruction Queue DecodersDecodersDecodersDecoders
Decoded Uop Cache ~1.5 Kuops
Zzzz
Foil taken from IDF 2011
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 22
Instruction Decode
· Four decoding units decode instruction into μops– The first can decode all instructions up to four μops in size– The remaining 3 decoders handle common single μop instructions
· μops emitted by the decoders are directed to the μop queue and to the Decoded uop cache
· Instructions with >4 μops generate their μops from the MSROM– The MSROM bandwidth is four μops per cycle– Instructions whose μops come from the MSROM can start from
either the legacy decode pipeline or from the Decoded uop-cache
From the Optimization Manual
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 23
Micro Fusion
· Fuse multiple μops from same instruction into a single μop– The micro-fused μop is dispatched multiple times in the OOO
As it would if it were not micro-fused– Instruction which decode into a single micro-fused μop can be
handled by all decoders– Improves instruction bandwidth delivered from decode to retirement
and saves power
· Micro-fused instructions– All stores to memory, including store immediate
Execute internally as two μop: store-address and store-data– Load + op instruction
e.g., FADD DOUBLE PTR [RDI+RSI*8]– Load and jump
e.g., JMP [RDI+200]
From the Optimization Manual
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 24
Macro-Fusion
· Merge two instructions into a single μop– A macro-fused instruction executes with a single dispatch
Reduces latency and frees execution resources– Increased decode, rename and retire bandwidth– Power savings from representing more work in fewer bits
· The first instruction of a macro-fused pair modifies flags– CMP, TEST, ADD, SUB, AND, INC, DEC
· The 2nd inst. of a macro-fusible pair is a conditional branch– For each first instruction, some branches can fuse with it
· These pairs are common in many types of applications
From the Optimization Manual
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 25
Decoded Uop-Cache· The UC is an accelerator of the legacy decode pipeline
– Caches the μops coming out of the instruction decoder– Next time μops are taken from the UC – The UC can ideally hold up to 1536 μops
32 sets, 8 ways per set, up to 6 μops per way– Average hit rate of 80% of the μops
· Skips fetch and decode for the cached μops – Reduces latency on branch mispredictions– Increases μop delivery bandwidth to the OOO engine– Reduces front end power consumption
· In each cycle provide uops for instructions mapped to 32 bytes– Keeps the front ahead of the back end also for
Fills the large scheduler window, to find instruction level parallelism
· The UC is virtually included in the IC and in the ITLB– Flushed on a context switch
From the Optimization Manual
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 26
Loop Stream Detector (LSD)· LSD detects small loops that fit in the μop queue
– The loop streams from the μop queue, with no more fetching, decoding, or reading μops from any of the caches
– until a branch miss-prediction inevitably ends it
· The loops with the following attributes qualify for LSD replay– Up to eight chunk fetches of 32-instruction-bytes– Up to 28 μops (~28 instructions)– All μops are also resident in the UC– No more than eight taken branches – No CALL or RET– No mismatched stack operations (e.g., more PUSH than POP)
· Many calculation-intensive loops, searches and software string moves match these characteristics– For high performance code, loop unrolling is generally preferable for
performance even when it overflows the LSD capability
From the Optimization Manual
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 27
SchedulerPort 0 Port 1 Port 5 Port 2 Port 3 Port 4
Allocate/Rename/RetireZeroing IdiomsLoad Buffers
Store Buffers
ReorderBuffers
In order
Out-of-order
In Order Allocation, Rename, Retirement
Out of Order “Uop” Scheduling
“Out of Order” Part of the machine
• Receives Uops from the Front End • Sends them to Execution Units when they are ready• Retires them in Program Order
• Increase Performance by finding more Instruction Level Parallelism – Increasing Depth and Width of machine implies larger buffers
More Data Storage, More Data Movement, More Power
Foil taken from IDF 2011
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 28
Sandy Bridge Out-of-Order Cluster
• Method: Physical Reg File (PRF) instead of centralized Retirement Register File– Single copy of every data– No movement after calculation
• Allows significant increase in buffer sizes– Dataflow window ~33% larger
Nehalem Sandy Bridge
Load Buffers 48 64
Store Buffers 32 36
RS – Scheduler Entries
36 54
PRF integer N/A 160
PRF float-point N/A 144
ROB Entries 128 168
Scheduler
Allocate/Rename/Retire Zeroing IdiomsLoad Buffers
Store Buffers
ReorderBuffers
In order
Out-of-order
FP/INT Vector PRF Int PRF
PRF has better than linear performance/power
Key enabler for Intel® AVX
Foil taken from IDF 2011
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 29
Double the FLOPs in a “Cool” Manner
• Intel® Advanced Vector Extensions (Intel® AVX)– Vectors are a natural data-type for many applications– Extend SSE FP instruction set to 256 bits operand size – Extend all 16 XMM registers to 256bits
• New, non-destructive source syntax– VADDPS ymm1, ymm2, ymm3
• New Operations to enhance vectorization– Broadcasts, masked load & store
YMM0 – 256 bits (AVX)XMM0 – 128 bits
Foil taken from IDF 2011
Wide vectors+ non-destructive source: more work with fewer instructions Extending the existing state is area and power efficient
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 30
Execution Cluster• 3 Execution Ports• Max throughput of 8 floating point operations per cycle
– Port 0 : packed SP multiply– Port 1 : packed SP add
Scheduler
Port 0 Port 1 Port 5
ALUALU ALU
JMP
FP Shuf
FP Bool
VI ADDVI MUL
VI Shuffle
DIVVI Shuffle
FP ADD
BlendBlendFP MUL
Foil taken from IDF 2011
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 31
Execution Cluster
Scheduler sees matrix:• 3 “ports” to 3 “stacks”
of execution units
• General Purpose Integer– SIMD (Vector) Integer– SIMD Floating Point
• Challenge: double the output of one of these stacks in a manner that is invisible to the others
Port 0
Port 1
Port 5
GPR SIMD INT SIMD FP
ALU
ALU
ALU
JMP
FP Shuf
FP Bool
VI ADD
VI MUL
VI Shuffle
DIV
VI Shuffle
FP ADD
Blend
Blend
FP MUL
Foil taken from IDF 2011
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 32
Execution Cluster
Solution:• Repurpose existing data
paths to dual-use
• SIMD integer and legacy SIMD FP use legacy stack style
• Intel® AVX utilizes both 128-bit execution stacks
• Double FLOPs– 256-bit Multiply +
256-bit ADD + 256-bit Load per clock
Port 0
Port 1
Port 5
GPR SIMD INT SIMD FP
ALU
ALU
ALU
JMP
FP Shuf
FP Bool
VI ADD
VI MUL
VI Shuffle DIV
VI Shuffle
FP ADD
Blend
Blend
FP MUL
FP ADD
FP Multiply
FP Blend
FP Shuffle
FP Boolean
FP Blend
Foil taken from IDF 2011
“Cool” Implementation of Intel AVX256-bit Multiply + 256-bit ADD + 256-bit Load per clock…
Double your FLOPs with great energy efficiency
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 33
The Renamer· Moves ≤4μops / cycle from the μop queue to the OOO engine
– Renames architectural sources and destinations of the μops to micro-architectural sources and destinations
– Allocates resources to the μops, e.g., load or store buffers– Binds the μop to an appropriate dispatch port
· Some μops can execute to completion during rename, effectively costing no execution bandwidth– Zero idioms (dependency breaking idioms)– NOP– VZEROUPPER– FXCHG– Ivy Bridge: A subset of register-to-register MOV
· The renamer can allocate two branches each cycle
From the Optimization Manual
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 34
Dependency Breaking Idioms
· Instruction parallelism can be improved by zeroing register content
· Zero idiom Examples– XOR REG,REG– SUB REG,REG
· Zero idioms are detected and removed by the renamer– Have zero execution latency– They do not consume any execution resource
· There is another dependency breaking idiom – the "ones idiom"– CMPEQ XMM1, XMM1; "ones idiom" set all elements to all "ones"
Regardless of the input data the output data is always "all ones" No μop dependency on its sources, as with the zero idiom Can execute as soon as it finds a free execution port
– As opposed to 0-idiom, the "ones idiom“ μop must execute
From the Optimization Manual
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 35
Memory Cluster
• Memory Unit can service two memory requests per cycle– 16 bytes load and 16 bytes store per cycle
• Goal:Maintain the historic bytes/flop ratio of SSE for Intel® AVX
Memory Control
32KB 8-way L1 Data Cache
32 bytes/cycle
Load Store Address
Store Data
256KB L2 Cache (MLC)Fill
Buffers
Store Buffers
Foil taken from IDF 2011
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 36
Memory Cluster
• Solution : Dual-Use the existing connections – Make load/store pipes symmetric
• Memory Unit services three data accesses per cycle– 2 read requests of up to 16 bytes AND 1 store of up to 16 bytes– Internal sequencer deals with queued requests
• Second Load Port is one of highest performance features– Required to keep Intel® AVX fed – Linear power/performance
Memory Control
32KB 8-way L1 Data Cache
48 bytes/cycle
Load Load
Store Address Store AddressStore Data
256KB L2 Cache (MLC)Fill
Buffers
Store Buffers
Foil taken from IDF 2011
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 37
Cache Hierarchy
From the Optimization Manual
· The LLC is inclusive of all cache levels above it– Data contained in the core caches must also reside in the LLC– Each LLC cache line holds an indication of the cores that may have
this line in their L2 and L1 caches
· Fetching data from LLC when another core has the data– Clean hit – data is not modified in the other core – 43 cycles– Dirty hit – data is modified in the other core – 60 cycles
Level Capacity ways Line Size(bytes)
Write UpdatePolicy Inclusive Latency
(cycles)Bandwidth(Byte/cyc)
L1 Data 32KB 8 64 Write-back - 4 2 ×16 +16
L1 Instruction 32KB 8 64 N/A - - -
L2 (Unified) 256KB 8 64 Write-back No 12 1 × 32
LLC Varies Varies 64 Write-back Yes 26-31 1 × 32
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 38
Stores· Stores to memory are executed in two phases· At exe: fill store buffers with linear+phy address and with data
– Once store address and data are known,store data can be forwarded to load operations that need it
· After the store retires – completion phase– First, the line must be in L1 D$, in Exclusive or Modified MESI state– Otherwise fetch it using a Read for Ownership request
Look up the line in the following locations, in the following orderL1 D$ L2$ LLC L2 and L1 D$ in other cores Memory
– Then, read the data from the store buffers and write it to L1 D$ Mark the cache line as Modified
– All this done at retirement – preserves the order of memory writes
· Store latency usually does not affect the store itself– However, a burst of stores missing the L1 D$ may hurt performance– As long as the store is not complete, it occupies a store buffer entry– When the store buffer becomes full, allocation stalls
From the Optimization Manual
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 39
L1 Data Cache· Handles two 16 byte loads and one 16 byte store per cycle
· Maintains requests which cannot be completed– Cache misses– Unaligned access that splits across cache lines– Data not ready to be forwarded from a preceding store– Loads experiencing bank collisions– Load block due to cache line replacement
· L1-D$ split into 8 × 8 byte banks (bits [4:2] define the banks)– An unaligned 16-byte loads can cover up to 3 banks
With 2 loads/cycle, can access up to six banks per cycle– A bank conflict happens when two load accesses need the same bank
· Handles up to 10 outstanding cache misses in the LFBs– Continues to service incoming stores and loads
· The L1 D$ is a write-back write-allocate cache– Stores that hit in the L1-D$ do not update the L2/LLC/Mem – Stores that miss the L1-D$ allocate a cache line
From the Optimization Manual
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 40
Load Buffer and Store Buffer
· 64 entry load buffer– Keeps load μops from allocation until retirement– Re-dispatch blocked loads
· 36 entry store buffer – Keeps stores from allocation until the store value is written to L1-D$ (or written to the line fill buffers – for non-temporal stores)
From the Optimization Manual
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 41
Store Forwarding
· Forward data directly from a store to a load that needs it– Instead of having the store write the data to the DCU and then the
load read the data from the DCU
· Rules that must be met to enable store to load forwarding– The store must be the last store to that address, prior to the load– The store must contain all data being loaded– The load is from a write-back memory type and neither the load nor
the store are non-temporal accesses
· Stores cannot forward to loads in the following cases– Four byte and eight byte loads that cross eight byte boundary,
relative to the preceding 16- or 32-byte store– Any load that crosses a 16-byte boundary of a 32-byte store
From the Optimization Manual
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 42
Memory Disambiguation
· A load may depend on a preceding store– A load needs to block until all preceding store addresses are known
· Predict which loads do not depend on any previous stores– Get data from the L1 D$ even when previous store address is unknown– The prediction is verified, and if a conflict is detected
The load and all succeeding instructions are re-executed– Always assumes dependency between loads and earlier stores that
have the same address bits 0:11
· The following loads are not disambiguated– Loads that cross the 16-byte boundary– 32-byte Intel AVX loads that are not 32-byte alignedExecution is stalled until the addresses of all previous stores are known
From the Optimization Manual
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 43
Data Prefetching
· Two hardware prefetchers load data to the L1 DC$
· DCU prefetcher (the streaming prefetcher)– Triggered by an ascending access to very recently loaded data– Fetches the next line, assuming a streaming load
· Instruction pointer (IP)-based stride prefetcher– Tracks individual load instructions, detecting a regular stride
Prefetch address = current address + stride Detects strides of up to 2K bytes, both forward and backward
From the Optimization Manual
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 44
Putting it togetherSandy Bridge Microarchitecture
32k L1 Instruction Cache
Scheduler
Memory Control
Port 0 Port 1 Port 5 Port 2 Port 3 Port 4
32k L1 Data Cache
48 bytes/cycle
Allocate/Rename/RetireZeroing IdiomsLoad Buffers
Store Buffers
ReorderBuffers
Load Load
Store AddressStore AddressStore Data
L2 Data Cache (MLC) Fill Buffers
Pre decodeInstruction
Queue Decoders
1.5k uOP cache
DecodersDecodersDecoders
Branch Pred
In order
Out-of-order
ALU
VI ADD
VI Shuffle
AVX FP ADD
ALU
JMP
AVX/FP ShufAVX/FP Bool
AVX FP Blend
ALU
VI MUL
VI Shuffle
DIV
AVX FP Blend
AVX FP MUL
Foil taken from IDF 2011
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 45
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 46
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 47
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 48
Haswell Execution Units Overview
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 49
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 50
Computer Structure 2013 – Advanced Topics 51