Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a...
-
Upload
spencer-lloyd -
Category
Documents
-
view
214 -
download
0
Transcript of Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a...
![Page 1: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside
of a living cell:
http://www.studiodaily.com/main/technique/tprojects/6850.html
A review of the structure and function of a living cell:
![Page 2: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
OK, now that we know the structures and functions inside different types of
cells, now we need to know:
What makes up those cellular structures??
Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids… all
surrounded by water!
![Page 3: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
Before we can understand how these molecules work together to build a cell, we need to understand some
basic chemistry…
Before we can understand how these molecules work together to build a cell, we need to understand some
basic chemistry…
Chapter 2Essential Chemistry for Biology
Chapter 2Essential Chemistry for Biology
![Page 4: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
The Flow of Matter…Wait a minute,
WHAT is MATTER?– Matter is anything that occupies space and has
mass.– Matter is found on the Earth in three physical
states:
•Solid •Liquid •Gas
![Page 5: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
– Matter is composed of chemical elements.
• There are 92 naturally occurring elements on Earth.
– All the elements are listed in the periodic table.
![Page 6: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
• Four of these make up about 96% of the weight of the human body.
• Trace elements occur in smaller amounts.
Twenty-five elements are essential to life
![Page 7: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
Each Element consists of one type of Atom– Atoms are composed of subatomic
particles.• A proton is positively charged.• An electron is negatively charged.• A neutron is electrically neutral.
Example: a helium atom
Che
ck o
ut:
http
://w
ww
.che
m4k
ids.
com
/file
s/at
om_i
ntro
.htm
l
![Page 8: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
Electron Arrangement and the Chemical Properties of Atoms– Electrons determine how an atom behaves
when it encounters other atoms.
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
![Page 9: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
–Electrons orbit the nucleus of an atom in specific electron shells.
•The number of electrons in the outermost shell determines the chemical properties of an atom.
![Page 10: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
Chemical Bonds– Chemical reactions enable atoms to give up or
acquire electrons in order to complete their outer shells.
• These interactions usually result in atoms staying close together.
• The atoms are held together by chemical bonds.
– Three main types of chemical bonds:• Ionic bonds• Covalent bonds• Hydrogen bonds
Stronger bonds
Weaker bonds
![Page 11: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
Ionic Bonds– When an atom loses or gains electrons,
it becomes electrically charged.• Charged atoms are called ions.• Ionic bonds are formed between oppositely
charged ions.
![Page 12: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
Covalent Bonds– A covalent bond forms when two atoms
share one or more pairs of outer-shell electrons.
![Page 13: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
– Water is a compound in which the electrons in its covalent bonds are shared unequally.
• Oxygen is greedy for electrons and keeps their negative charge closer to itself.
• This causes it to be a polar molecule, one with opposite charges on opposite ends.
-
+
What happens when the electrons in a covalent bond are shared unequally?
Covalent bonds where electrons are shared unequally
![Page 14: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
– The polarity of water results in weak electrical attractions between neighboring water molecules called hydrogen bonds.
Hydrogen Bonds
Covalent bond with unequally shared electrons
![Page 15: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
Chemical Reactions– Cells constantly rearrange molecules by
breaking and forming chemical bonds.• These processes are called chemical reactions.
– Chemical reactions cannot create or destroy matter,
• They only rearrange it.
![Page 16: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
Water and Life
– Life on Earth began in water and evolved there for 3 billion years.
• Modern life still remains tied to water.• Your cells are composed of 70%–95% water.
– The abundance of water is a major reason Earth is habitable.
![Page 17: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
Water’s Life-Supporting Properties
– The polarity of water molecules and the hydrogen bonding that results explain most of water’s life-supporting properties:
• Water’s cohesive nature • Water’s ability to moderate temperature• Floating ice• Versatility of water as a solvent
![Page 18: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
The Cohesion of Water
– Water molecules stick together as a result of hydrogen bonding.
• This is called cohesion.• Cohesion is vital for water transport
in plants.
![Page 19: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
– Surface tension is the measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid.
• Hydrogen bonds give water an unusually high surface tension due to cohesion.
![Page 20: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
How Water Moderates Temperature
– Because of hydrogen bonding, water has a strong resistance to temperature change.
– Heat and temperature are related, but different.• Heat is an amount of energy. This energy causes
movement of atoms and molecules.• Temperature measures this movement of the atoms
and molecules. http://sv.berkeley.edu/chemicalinteractions/menu.html
– Water can absorb and store large amounts of heat while only changing a few degrees in temperature.
![Page 21: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
– Water can moderate temperatures.• Earth’s giant water supply causes temperatures
to stay within limits that permit life.• Evaporative cooling removes heat from the
Earth and from organisms.
![Page 22: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
The Biological Significance of Ice Floating
– When water molecules get cold, they move apart, forming ice.
• A chunk of ice has fewer molecules than an equal volume of liquid water.
– The density of ice is lower than liquid water.
IceFloats!
![Page 23: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
– Since ice floats, ponds, lakes, and even the oceans do not freeze solid.
• Marine life could not survive if bodies of water froze solid.
http://majorlycool.com/category/animals/blogid/1
![Page 24: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
Water as the Solvent of Life– A solution is a liquid consisting of two or
more substances evenly mixed.• The dissolving agent is called the solvent.• The dissolved substance is called the solute.
An aqueous solution
![Page 25: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
An aqueous solution
The slight negative charge of the oxygen in a water molecule attracts it to the positive charge of the Na+ ion.
The slight positive charge of the hydrogen atoms in a water molecule attracts them to the negative charge of the Cl- ion.
As the water molecules surround the ions of NaCl they become dissolved in the water!
![Page 26: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
A Group Challenge:
• Based on the information of how NaCl becomes dissolved in water, can you figure out:– Why carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic
acids can dissolve in water?– Why lipids (fats and oils) cannot dissolve in
water?
![Page 27: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
Acids, Bases, and pH
– Acid• A chemical
compound that donates H+ ions to solutions.
– Base • A compound that
accepts H+ ions and removes them from solution.
![Page 28: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
Chapter 3
The Molecules of Life
![Page 29: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
Organic Molecules– A cell is mostly water.
• The rest of the cell consists mostly of carbon-based molecules called organic molecules.
![Page 30: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
Carbon Chemistry– Carbon is a versatile atom.
• It has four electrons in an outer shell
that holds eight.• Carbon can share its electrons with other
atoms to form up to four covalent bonds.
![Page 31: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
– Each type of organic molecule has a unique three-dimensional shape that defines its function in an organism.
• The molecules of your body recognize one another based on their shapes.
Shape defines function!
![Page 32: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
Giant Molecules from Smaller Building Blocks
– On a molecular scale, many of life’s molecules are gigantic.
• Biologists call them macromolecules.• Examples: DNA, carbohydrates, proteins
![Page 33: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
– Most macromolecules are polymers.• Polymers are made by stringing together many
smaller molecules called monomers.• Cells link monomers by dehydration reactions.
![Page 34: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
Monomer - means “one” unit
![Page 35: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
Monomer - means “one” unitDimer - means “two” units
![Page 36: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
Monomer - means “one” unitDimer - means “two” unitsPolymer - means “many” units
![Page 37: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
– Organisms also have to break down macromolecules.
• Cells do this by a process called hydrolysis.
![Page 38: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
Monomer - means “one” unitDimer - means “two” unitsPolymer - means “many” units
![Page 39: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
Monomer - means “one” unitDimer - means “two” units
![Page 40: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
Monomer - means “one” unit
![Page 41: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
Biological Molecules– There are four categories of large molecules in
cells:
• Carbohydrates
• Lipids
• Proteins
• Nucleic acids
![Page 42: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
Biological Molecules– There are four categories of large molecules in
cells:
• Carbohydrates
• Lipids
• Proteins
• Nucleic acids
![Page 43: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/43.jpg)
Biological Molecules– There are four categories of large molecules in
cells:
• Carbohydrates
• Lipids
• Proteins
• Nucleic acids
short
sugarmolecules
L-O-N-Gstarchmolecules
![Page 44: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/44.jpg)
Monosaccharides
– Monosaccharides are simple sugars.• Glucose is found in sports drinks.• Fructose is found in fruit.
short
sugarmolecules
Monomer - means “one” unit
OR
Abbreviated structure
Monosaccharides are the main fuel that cells use to do work.
![Page 45: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/45.jpg)
Disaccharides– A disaccharide is a double sugar.
• It is constructed from two monosaccharides.
– Disaccharides are joined through a dehydration reaction.
Monomer - means “one” unitDimer - means “two” units
![Page 46: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/46.jpg)
– Lactose is another type of disaccharide.• Some people have trouble digesting lactose, a
condition called lactose intolerance.
![Page 47: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/47.jpg)
– The most common disaccharide is sucrose, common table sugar.
• It consists of a glucose linked to a fructose.• Sucrose is extracted from sugar cane and the roots of
sugar beets.
– The United States is one of the world’s leading markets for sweeteners.
• The average American consumes about 64 kg of sugar per year.
![Page 48: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/48.jpg)
PolysaccharidesMonomer - means “one” unitDimer - means “two” unitsPolymer - means “many” units
– Complex carbohydrates are called polysaccharides.
• They are long chains of sugar units.
• They are polymers of monosaccharides.
![Page 49: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/49.jpg)
An aqueous solution
Remember this??
![Page 50: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/50.jpg)
– Simple sugars and double sugars dissolve readily in water.
• They are hydrophilic, or “water-loving.”
OR
Abbreviated structure
Slight negative charge of oxygen in water and sugar molecules
are attracted to
Slight positive charges of hydrogen in water and sugar molecules.
I LoveYou!
![Page 51: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/51.jpg)
Where are carbohydrates in a cell?
In the cytosol as an energy source
In the cell wall as cellulose
In amyloplasts in plants as starch (organelle not shown)
![Page 52: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/52.jpg)
Biological Molecules– There are four categories of large molecules in
cells:
• Carbohydrates
• Lipids
• Proteins
• Nucleic acids
small
sugarmolecules
L-O-N-Gstarchmolecules
![Page 53: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/53.jpg)
Biological Molecules– There are four categories of large molecules in
cells:
• Carbohydrates
• Lipids
• Proteins
• Nucleic acids
–fats
–steroids
–Lipids are hydrophobic.•They do not mix with water
![Page 54: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/54.jpg)
Fats
Functions: energy storage, cushioning, insulation
Fats are formed by linking fatty acids onto a glycerol molecule by dehydration reactions
![Page 55: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/55.jpg)
– Dietary fat consists largely of the molecule triglyceride.
• Triglyceride is a combination of glycerol and three fatty acids.
No charge! Cannot interact with water! (hydrophobic)
Run Away!
![Page 56: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/56.jpg)
– Unsaturated fats• Have less than the maximum number of hydrogens
bonded to the carbons.
– Saturated fats • Have the maximum number of hydrogens bonded to
the carbons.
(double and triple bonds)
(all single bonds)
![Page 57: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/57.jpg)
– Most animal fats have a high proportion of saturated fatty acids, which can be unhealthy.
• Example: butter
– Most plant oils tend to be low in saturated fatty acids.
• Example: corn oil
Saturated Fatty Acids: Too much of a good thing can be bad
WHY are too many saturated fats unhealthy?
![Page 58: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/58.jpg)
– Not all fats are unhealthy.• Some fats perform important functions in the
body and are essential to a healthy diet.
![Page 59: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/59.jpg)
• Phospholipids form a two-layered membrane, the phospholipid bilayer.
Special Lipid: Phospholipids
Negative charge interacts with water!(hydrophilic)
No charge! Cannot interact with water!(hydrophobic)
Water!
![Page 60: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/60.jpg)
Other Lipids: Steroids– Steroids are very different from fats in structure
and function.• The carbon skeleton is bent to form four fused rings.
– Cholesterol is the “base steroid” from which your body produces other steroids.
• Example: sex hormones
Cholesterol is a key componentof cellular membranes…
![Page 61: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/61.jpg)
– Synthetic anabolic steroids are controversial.
• They are variants of testosterone.
![Page 62: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/62.jpg)
Where are lipids in a cell?
In the all membranes as phospholipids
In the smooth ER where lipids are synthesized
Triglycerides (Ex: fat in animal cells, seed oils in plant cells) stored in cytoplasm (not shown)
![Page 63: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/63.jpg)
Biological Molecules– There are four categories of large molecules in
cells:
• Carbohydrates
• Lipids
• Proteins
• Nucleic acids
–fats
–steroids
–Lipids are hydrophobic.•They do not mix with water
![Page 64: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/64.jpg)
Biological Molecules– There are four categories of large molecules in
cells:
• Carbohydrates
• Lipids
• Proteins
• Nucleic acids
![Page 65: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/65.jpg)
Proteins– A protein is a polymer constructed from
amino acid monomers.– Proteins perform most of the tasks the
body needs to function.
Structural Proteins
Storage Proteins
Contractile Proteins
Transport Proteins
Defensive Proteins
Receptor Proteins
Enzymes
Hormonal Proteins
Sensory Proteins
Gene Regulatory Proteins
![Page 66: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/66.jpg)
Structure of an Amino Acid
![Page 67: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/67.jpg)
Structure of an Amino Acid
Run Away!
I LoveYou!
![Page 68: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/68.jpg)
The Monomers:
Amino Acids– All proteins are
constructed from a common set of 20 kinds of amino acids.
– Some fear water (hydrophobic)
– Some love water (hydrophilic)
Structure givesFunction!
![Page 69: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/69.jpg)
Proteins as Polymers– Cells link amino
acids together by dehydration reactions.
• The resulting covalent bond between them is called a peptide bond.
![Page 70: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/70.jpg)
– Your body has tens of thousands of different kinds of protein.
• The arrangement of amino acids makes each one different.
Structure gives Function!!
![Page 71: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/71.jpg)
Protein Shape
– Proteins have four levels of structure.
• Primary 1st level• Secondary 2nd level• Tertiary 3rd level• Quaternary 4th level
![Page 72: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/72.jpg)
– Primary structure• The specific sequence of amino acids in a
protein
![Page 73: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/73.jpg)
– A slight change in the primary structure of a protein affects its ability to function.
• The substitution of one amino acid for another in hemoglobin causes sickle-cell disease.
![Page 74: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/74.jpg)
Protein Shape
– Primary structure held together by covalent bonds
– Secondary structure held together by hydrogen bonds
![Page 75: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/75.jpg)
– Unfavorable temperature and pH changes can cause a protein to unravel and lose its shape.
– This happens by disrupting the hydrogen bonds that hold together the shape of a protein.
– This is called denaturation.
– If the shape unfolds, the function is destroyed…
A protein’s shape is sensitive to the surrounding environment
![Page 76: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/76.jpg)
The Plasma Membrane:A Fluid Mosaic of Lipids and
Proteins
– The membranes of cells are composed mostly of:
• Lipids• Proteins
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
![Page 77: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/77.jpg)
– The lipids belong to a special category called phospholipids.
– Phospholipids form a two-layered membrane, the phospholipid bilayer.
![Page 78: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/78.jpg)
– Most membranes have specific proteins embedded in the phospholipid bilayer.
![Page 79: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/79.jpg)
– This behavior leads to the description of a membrane as a fluid mosaic:
• Molecules can move freely within the membrane.
• A diversity of proteins exists within the membrane.
Membrane phospholipids and proteins can drift about in the plane of the membrane
![Page 80: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/80.jpg)
Where are proteins in a cell?
In the all membranes as integral membrane proteins
Everywhere!! Proteins are enzymes, and structural, transport, receptor, regulatory, contractile proteins, etc, and perform most of the functions of a cell!
![Page 81: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/81.jpg)
Biological Molecules– There are four categories of large molecules in
cells:
• Carbohydrates
• Lipids
• Proteins
• Nucleic acids
![Page 82: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/82.jpg)
Biological Molecules– There are four categories of large molecules in
cells:
• Carbohydrates
• Lipids
• Proteins
• Nucleic acids
DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid
RNA, ribonucleic acid
![Page 83: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/83.jpg)
Nucleic Acids– Nucleic acids are information storage
molecules.• They provide the directions for building
proteins.
Transcription
Translation
![Page 84: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/84.jpg)
– Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides.
I LoveYou!
Nucleic acids are hydrophilic!
![Page 85: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/85.jpg)
– Each DNA nucleotide has one of the following bases:
![Page 86: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/86.jpg)
– Nucleotide monomers are linked into long chains.
• These chains are called polynucleotides, or DNA strands.
• A sugar-phosphate backbone joins them together.
![Page 87: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/87.jpg)
– Two strands of DNA join together to form a double helix.
![Page 88: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/88.jpg)
– RNA, ribonucleic acid, is different from DNA.
• Its sugar has an extra OH group.• It has the base uracil (U) instead of thymine (T).
![Page 89: Computer scientists and Biologists collaborated, using the latest scientific data, to put together a movie of the inside of a living cell: .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca192a/html5/thumbnails/89.jpg)
Where are nucleic acids in a cell?DNA is in the nucleus, mitochondria, and chloroplasts
RNA is in the nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, cytosol, and ribosomes!