Computer Basics

PROCESS

C.O.P.A. Trade of I.T.I R D S

COMPUTER BASICS

Introduction :-

Computers are now affecting every sphere of human activity and being about many changes in Industry, Government, Education, Medicine, Law, and Social Science even in arts like music and painting.

It has many application:-

1) Design buildings, bridges and machine.

2) Control space vehicles.

3) Aid in preparing country perspective plan.

4) Play games like chess and video game.

In fact any task can be done by using computer so it is essential to know about computer.

What is Computer?

Computer is an electronic device, which takes input in required form. Where Input is unprocessed facts. Process is command given to computer, Output is result given by computer.

INPUT

“Computer is a term which is derived from word compute. To compute means to count or to calculate. Computer is a device which is used for complex calculation and now days it can be a multipurpose device. "

Characteristic of Computer :-

1) Accuracy :-

Fundamentals of Computer Operating and Programming 1

OUTPUT


Computer work with very high accuracy. It gives very accurate results provided that information given to computer should be very correct. This principle of working of compute is called as GIGO (Garbage in Garbage Out.).

2) Speed :-

Computer works with very high speed. Speed of computer depends on speeds on speed of microprocessor fixed in CPU (Central –Processing Unit.). The basic unit used to measure speed of computer is Hz (Hertz).

3) Versatility :-

Computer is a versatile device. It can be adopted or used in any field like education , banking , railway reservation , entertainment. Its principle of working is same in any field.i.e.

a) It takes input from user.

b) Process on given data.

c) Gives output in required form.

4) Deligency:-

Computer is a tired less device which works without any problem 24 hrs.in a day.

5) Automation:-

Computer works automatically without any supervision.

6) Storage:-

Computer can store large amount of data in its memory.

History and Generation of Computer :-

First computer developed for calculation purpose in Abacus then in 17th century by Napier Bone are used.

General purpose electronic computers using valves were developed in 1940. In 1823 Charles Babbage an English mathematician designed for automatic computing machine for automatic computing of mathematical tables. That machine is called as Differential Engine.

First Computer developed is known as ENIAC ( Electronic Numeric Integrator and Calculator).



Generation of Computer :-

The rapid growth and availability of improved electronic component have resulted in making computer smaller and enhanced their reliability and reduced their cost . High speed, large memory are special features in evolution of computer.

1) 1st Generation :-

The 1st electronic computer was completed in 1946 by a team lead by Prof.Eckert and Prof.Mauchly at university of Pennsylvania in U.S.A. This computer is called as ENIC ( Electronic Numeric Integrator and Calculator.) It uses high speed vacuum tubes. It has small memory. It took about 200 microsecond to add two digits and 2800 microsecond to multiply. A idea to store machine instruction in memory of computer along with data was introduced by John Von Neumann in 1946.

The first computer using this principle was introduced a Cambridge university called as EDSAC ( Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator.). In 1951 UNIVAC I built by Univac Division of Remington Rand and delivered in 1951. It also uses vacuum tubes . They has limited life.

During 1st generation computer programming was mainly done in machine language.

2) 2nd Generation :- ( 1955-1965)

A big revolution in electronic took place with invention of transistorin 1946. Transistors are made up of germanium semiconductor material were highly reliable compared to tube. They occupy less space so size of computer become less and speed of computer gets increased. In this generation magnetic cores are invented for storage. Memory capacity in second generation is about 100 KB. Magnetic disk are also invented. The highly reliability of computer led to development of high level language . Fortran, Cobol, Algol, SNOBOL were developed during this generation. New profession in computing such as System Analysis and Programmers emerged during second generation.

2) 3rd Generation :- (1965-1975)

It began in 1965 with germanium transistors being replaced silicon transistor i.e. IC ( Integrated Circuits) consisting of transistors and capacitors growing on single chip of silicon eliminating wired interconnection. From small scale integrated circuits technology developed to medium scale integrated circuit. This increases speed of CPU which carry out 1 million instruction per second. The size of main memory reached to 4 MB. Magnetic disk technology improved rapidly and storage capacity become feasible. Many important online system storage capacity become feasible. Many important online system



become feasible. High level languages become improved e.g. Fortran IV, COBOL 68, PL/1.

3) 4th Generation :-

Medium scale integration circuits developed to large scale integration and very large scale integration. Magnetic core memories are replaced by semiconductor memories. Floppy disk provide a low cost, high capacity backup. Network of computer and distributed computer system have been developed. A significant development in software is development of concurrent programming language. There is development of time shared interactive system. The effective cost of computing has become down. e.g. Intel 8080, Intel 8088, Intel 80286, Pentium I, II, III.

4) 5th Generation :-

It is estimated from 1990. It is now possible to go specialized VLSI chips at low cost. Thus an architecture in technology and allows an easier and more natural algorithm. Functional languages are developed . In this generation there is development of artificial intelligence. Cost of computer become very less . Speed , Storage , Capacity become very high.

Types of Computer :-

Computer are classified on the base of CPU speed work length directly addressable memory capacity. Computer are classified in following four types.

1) Micro Computer :-

Consist of microprocessor chip as CPU. It uses RAM, ROM for storing program, data, floppy disk, and hard disk for permanent storage. Early microprocessor has word length of 8 bit . But now it is 16,32,64 bits. Only one person can use it. It has limited capacity of input and output. They have wide range of application. They are used as parts of instrument, controller of plant and robots and as general purpose computer. They are used as personal computer and as home computer e.g. Desktop, Notebook, Personal Digital Assistant.

2) Mini Computers :-

Minicomputers are faster than microcomputer. The speed of CPU is more than 1 million instruction per second. They are emerged in 1960. They are also called as



midrange computer. e.g. IBM system / 36 IBM system / 38 IBM AS400. They are generally used at medium scale industries.

3) Mainframe Computers :-

They are also called as Host Computers. They have more processing speed than micro and mini computers. They are also called as Midi computers. They are also called as Midi computers. The minimum processing speed is 10 million instruction per second. They support large compilation intensive scientific and engineering problem and large scale commercial problem. They are capable of greed data storage. They are used in company like LIC, Banks etc. e.g. IBM 4300, IBM 4340, NEC ACOS mainframe. It is designed to support hundred and thousand of user. They have wide range of software and peripherals.

4) Super Computers :-

It is most powerful type of computer. They are used by very large scale industries such as NASA.e.g. It performs numeric calculator for weather prediction, compiled molecular structural calculation. They need additional mainframe computer to prepare jobs and present them in right order. The above are types of computer according to processing speed and capacity of computer .

According to purpose of computer they are of three types.

1) Analog Computer :-

These computers are used for measuring purpose. e.g. Voltmeter used to measure voltage. Thermometer used to measure temperature. They do not perform any calculation but gives number result.

2) Digital Computer :-

Theses are used for counting or accounting purpose. It always convey all input in machine language or i.e. in 0 and 1. There fore these computers are called as Digital Computer.e.g. Microcomputers, Personal Computers etc.

3) Hybrid Computer :-

Hybrid computer are the computer which perform bot task i.e. measuring and counting or computing. They are mixture of analog and digital computers.



FUNCTIONAL PARTS OF COMPUTER

Organization of Computer :- Typical computer is basically made up of four main units

1) Input Unit

2) Output Unit.

3) Process Unit. 4) Storage.

1) Input Unit :-

To accept information /data from user Input unit . The device used to accept data from used are called as input device. The main function of input device is to represent user understandable data in machine understandable format. e.g. Keyboard, mouse, scanner.

2) Output Unit : -

This unit is used to produce information or result. The main function of output device is to represent result in machine understandable form into user understandable form. e.g. Monitor


INPUT

MEMORY

CONTROL UNIT ALU

OUTPUT


.3) CPU :-

CPU stands for Central Processing Unit. It is heart of Computer. Each and Every process is performed in CPU.

a) It performs Arithmetic Operation i.e. Addition ,Subtraction, Multiply and Divide.b) It also performs Logical Operation i.e. Comparison where result is either true false.c) It controls Input output operation.d) It controls internal data movements.e) Data manipulation.

There are three main parts of CPU



I. Arithmetic and Logic Unit :-

This unit performs actual arithmetic and logical operation. It perform all addition, subtraction , multiplication, division and comparison operation like <,>,=,<=>,=,<> etc.

II. Control Unit :-

It coordinates operation of hardware. It also coordinate the flow and execution of data and instruction that are fed into memory. It fetches reads instruction and data from memory unit decode them and sent them to ALU. The output from ALU is fetched by control unit and send to various output devices and memory.

III. Memory Unit :-

Memory unit store data, instruction and result. Data and instruction are passed to ALU. The Control Unit and internal storage are linked together by a set of parallel electrical conduction lines a called as Buses. They carries data and address. The frequency with which the pro9cessor execute instruction is called as clock speed. The frequency or speed of computer is measured in Hz. or megahertz i.e.(MHz).

Application of Computer :-

1) To store large data. 2) For entertainment purpose.3) For communication purpose.4) To generate graphics and images e.g. cartoons.5) In any field like Banking , LIC, Railway reservation or in any business.

Limitation of Computer :-

1) Can not think their own.2) Do not learn from experience.3) It has not ability to understand.4) It can not handle combinatorial explosion.

Anatomy of Computer System :-

A computer system is made up of three major components.

1) Computer Hardware :-

It includes all physical parts of computer which can be seen or touch. e.g. Keyboard, Mouse, CPU.



2) Computer Software :-

Computer programs that instruct computer how to process data and generate required information is called as computer software.

3) Computer Personnel :-

They are also called as user . They are the people who prepare data for computerized input and write computer programs or handles computer programs.

COMPUTER PERIPHERALS

Computer peripheral means input output devices that form essential link between user and computer system.

Input Devices :-

Input devices are used to get raw data into the computer.

1) Keyboard :-

This input resembles typewriters. It is used to enter text data into the computer. There are three type of keys on general keyboard.

a) Alphanumeric keys.b) Special Keys. c) Functional Keys.

The alphanumeric keys comprises of alpha bates i.e. (A-Z or a-z) and (0-9) and also contain some special keys i.e. <,>,?,*,#,:,”,| etc.



The special keys perform specific task e.g. Enter Key, Backspace Key, Delete key, Caps lock etc.

The shift key alter the meaning of character key which is depressed at same time. The Ctrl and Alt key generate some function with some other key. The Esc key is used to escape the function . The function keys are used to perform a set of operations by a key stroke .i.e. F1 is used to display window help.

2 Mouse :-

One of the most popular type or specialized input device is mouse. It is used as pointing device. It enables the user to manipulate a pointer or arrow on a terminal or microprocessor. It help in pointing icon or tiny picture. It can place cursor or point an item.

It draw line picture on screen. Since the cursor follows the way the user hand movers the mouse, the cursor has a sense of pointing something on screen. The mouse can be of three type.

1) Mechanical Mouse :-

It has rotating ball on the bottom and is attached with a Corel to the system. As we move the mouse the roller rotates and control the pointer on screen.

2) Optical Mouse :-

It has no moving parts. It emits and senses light to detect mouse movement. It can be used on any surface. It does not require periodic cleaning.

3) Cordless or Wire less Mouse :-



It is a battery powered device. It typically uses radio waves or infrared light waves to communicate with system unit.

Like Mouse Roller Ball, Track Ball and touch surface are the pointing devices like mouse. Touch Screen is with laptops.

4) Joystick :-

It is a most popular device for computer games. They are designed in shape of handles.

5) Barcode Reader :-

They are generally used in superstore. Data is coded in form of light and dark bars. With coded spacing and thickness. These are called as barcodes which are commonly used to identify Items.

6) Character and mark recognitions devices :-

These are devices which recognizes special character and marks.

a) MICR :-

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition. They read character printed with magnetic ink i.e. it reads unusual nos. on bottom of the check.

b) OMR :-

Optical Mark Recognition. It detect presence or absence of mark on a paper. It uses light rays to detect character.

c) OCR :-

Optical Character Recognition. It detect special preprinted character

.

6) Scanning Device :-

It reads data from source like text document , images pictures, graphs. After image is scanned it comes in memory of the computer then it gets stored permently or printed on paper. The Scanner can be flatbed or Optical Scanner.Now a days there are so many input devices are sued like image capturing devices like camera or web cam. One important input device is microphone which is used to record sound..

Output Devices :-



Output devices are the devices which are used to obtain output from computer. Printer and monitor are two output devices which are used to obtain output from computer

.

1) Monitor :-

It is also called VDU ( Visual Display Unit ) It is a device used for interactive processing i.e. data i.e. being keyed in is displayed on screed and monitor message and processed information is also displayed on screen. The combination of keyboard and VDU which is an input ,output (I/O). Monitor can be of two type.

a) CRT Monitor :-

They uses Cathode Ray Tube that looks like a television picture tube. The advantages of these monitor are low cost and excellent resolution. The disadvantages are that they are large in size.

b) Flat panel Monitor :-

These are portable monitors. They are also known as LCD i.e. Liquid Crystal Display Monitors. Their advantages are that they are not bulky. the disadvantages are that they are expensive and require more power. The monitors clarify is indicated by its resolution. It is measured in pixel. To indicate monitor resolution capability several standards have evolved. The four most common are

Standard Pixel

SVGA 800 x 600 XGA 1024 x 768 SXGA 1280 x 1024 UXGA 1600 x 1200

Using monitor we can obtain softcopy of output.

2) Printers :-

Printers are used to produce hard copy of the output. Printers are classified by how they point.

a) Ink Jet Printers :-

Droplets of Ink are electrically charged after leaving a nozzle. They are high color quality and expensive.



b) Thermal Printer: -

These printer uses heat element to produce image on heat sensitive paper. They are used in scientific lab and costly.

b) Laser Printer: -

Laser Printer can print one page at a time . It uses a laser beam for printing. The printing quality of this printer is very high. They are more expensive than all other printers. There are so many printers are available in market.

c) Dot Matrix Printer: -

It is a versatile and low cost printer. In general they are used where height quantity of paper printing is required

.d) Chain Printers.:-

They are expensive than DMP. They can be used in networks. Also There are many types of other output devices like head phone or speaker for audio output, plotter which is special type of printer. They can produce high quality multicolor printing.

MEMORY

Storage in one of the important characteristics of computer. Computer can store large amount of data in its memory temporary permanently. There are two types of memory as shown below.


MEMORY

PRIMARYY

RAM ROM

SECONDARY


HARD DISK FLOPPY DISK COMPACT DISK (CD)

PROMEPROMEEPROM

Primary Memory:-

It is also called as internal memory. When we always work in primary memory. There are two types of internal memory.

a) RAM:-

RAM stands for Random Access Memory. It is temporary memory. It is also called as Volatile Memory. When we switch off our PC all information in this memory get vanished. It is read / writes memory i.e. we can read information RAM and also write data in RAM. It is fastest memory. Now a days RAM of 128 MB, 256 MB, 512MB, etc are available in market. There are different types of RAM Cache Memory. Virtual Memory available in market which are used for different purpose i.e. . to increase the speed of computer.

b) ROM:-

ROM stands for Read only memory. It stores of data instruction permanently in it which is used Booting Process. If we switch off our computer then data in this memory remain unchanged. It is developed by manufacturer. We can read data from this memory . We can not write any data in this memory. We can not delete data from this memory. Following are type of ROM.

I) PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory) :-

It used programmable memory. That is it is supplied in blank form by the manufacturers. The user writes the desired program into it once, by a special process and then the content can not unchanged.

ii) EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) :-



The PROM has one defect that we can not change the content PROM if there is any mistake in programming .Then the solution EPROM Where we can erase the content in it. To erase the content EPROM ultraviolet rays are used.

iii) EEPROM: - (Electronically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)

In this memory we can change the content of memory using electronic field.

Secondary Memory: -

When we want to store data permanently on computers memory then secondary memory is used . It uses some device or disk to store data. It we switch off our PC then also content in this memory remain unchanged. Following are the disks which are used for secondary storage.a) Floppy Disk :- This is portable disk which is used to store data. It is made up of thin magnetic material enclosed in protection bracket. It is accessed as drive a or b In market there are two types of floppy disk available i.e.

a) FLOPPY DISK:-



Size Storage Capacity3 ½” 1.44MB5 ¼” 1.2MB

From Read Write Notch we can read content of Floppy. There is Write Protect Notch present on floppy which protects writing on floppy but we can read data from floppy. Internal magnetic disk is deiced into logical circles called as track and these tracks are divided into sectors.



b) Hard Disk: -

Hard Disk can store large amount of data compare to floppy. It is fixed in CPU. It can store 20GB, 40GB, and 80GB etc. data in it.

It is faster than floppy. It is made up of aluminum material. Hard Disk consist of one or more metallic platters sealed inside a container. It contains motor for rotating disk. It also contains an access arm and read write heads for writing data to and reading data from the disks.

c) Compact Disk: -

CD uses laser technology. They can store large amount of data compared to Hard disk and Floppy disk. They are silver coated so that light gets reflected from the surface of the disk. In market different CDs with Different storage capacity are available. There are three types of CD.



I) CD-ROM :-

Stands for Compact Disk Read Only Memory. We can read data from this disk but can not write.

II) CD-R:-

On this CD we can write data only once. But we cannot modify or rewrite another data on this disk.

III) CD-RW: -

On this CD we can write and read data many times.

Another type of Optical disk available in market is DVD.



NUMBER SYSTEM

In daily work we use Decimal No. system. This uses 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9. Here we are using 10 nos. Therefore basic of this system is 10. Computer is an electronic device. It works on light so knows only two states on/off. So computer can understand only language of 0/1. 0 and 1 are called as binary digits and this number system is called as Binary No. system which uses only two digit i.e. 0 and 1 . The base of this no. system is 2 (Bi means 2) 0 and 1 are called as binary digits i.e. bits.

Working with Binary nos :-

1) Converting Decimal No, into Binary:-

To convert a no. from decimal to binary follows stepsa) Divide decimal number by 2.b) Find out remainder and quotient.c) Divide this quotient by 2 and again find reminder and quotient.d) Report step 3 till we get quotient as 0.e) Write down all remainders in reverse order. We get equivalent binary now. e.g. (245)10 = (?)2

2 245 1

2 122 0

2 61 1

2 30 0

2 15 1

2 7 1

2 3 1

2 1 1

0

Convert Binary No. into Decimal :-

Multiply unit place by 2. Multiply 10th place by 2 and so on increasing power of 2 on left side of binary no. Then all these trained multiplications as shown below.



e.g. (110110)2 = (?) 10

= 0 x 2 + 1x2 +1x2 + 0x2 + 1x2 +1x2= 0+2+4+0+16+32=54

Octal No. System :-

In Octal No. System 8 digits are used 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7. They are 8. Base of octal No. system is 8. As in decimal to binary conversion we divide decimal no 2.

a) Decimal to Octal conversion :-

To convert decimal no. into octal no divide decimal no, by 8 and repeat the same procedure same as given in decimal to binary conversion.

e.g. (108)10= (?)8

8 108 4

8 13 5

8 1 1

0

(108)10 = (154)8

b) Octal to Decimal Conversions:-

(154)8 = (?)10

=4x8+5x8+1x8=0+40+64=108

c) Octal to Binary Conversion:-

Octal Decimal Binary 0 0 000 1 1 001 2 2 010



3 3 011 4 4 100 5 5 101 6 6 102 7 7 103

To convert octal no. into Binary above given table and write equivalent binary no. for each digit.

e.g. (175)8= (?)2

1 7 5001 111 101

= (1111101)2

d) Binary to Octal Conversion :-

Make group of three digit from unit place.

Add 0 to left side if required to complete group of three digits.

Write equivalent octal no.

e.g. (11100101011001)2= (?)8

011 100 101 011 001

3 4 5 3 1

= (34531)8

Hexadecimal No. system:-

This number system uses no from 0 to F i.e. 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F.i.e. 10 is by represented by A, 11 by B etc.

a) Decimal no. to Hexadecimal conversion:-

To convert decimal no. by into Hexadecimal divide decimal 40 by 16 and find out reminder.



(110)10= (?)16

16 110 E (14)

16 6 6

0

(110)10= (6E) 16

b) Hexadecimal to decimal Conversion:-

e.g. (6E) 16= (?)10

=Ex16+6x16 =14+96 = (110)16

Consider following table.

Decimal Hexadecimal Binary 0 0 0000 1 1 0001 2 2 0010 3 3 0011 4 4 0100 5 5 0101 6 6 0110 7 7 0111 8 8 1000 9 9 1001 10 A 1010 11 B 1011 12 C 1100 13 D 1101 14 E 1110 15 F 1111

c) Conversion of Binary No. into Hexadecimal:-



To convert a Binary No. into Hexadecimal no. make group of digits from unit place of binary no. Add 0 to right side of no, if required. Write down equivalent Hexadecimal No, as shown below.

(111010101111110001010)2= (?)16

0001 1101 0101 1111 1000 1010

1 D 5 F 8 A

= (1D5F8A) 16

d) Conversion of Hexadecimal no. into Binary:-

To convert a Hexadecimal no. into binary write down equivalent binary no for each digit in Hexadecimal no.

e.g. (D5F8EC) 16= (?)2

D 5 F 8 E C

1101 1010 1111 1000 1110 1100

= (1100101011111100011101100)2

BCD numbers:-

BCD stands for Binary Coded Decimal. Here each decimal digit is represented by equivalent 4 digits binary no.

e.g. (123)10 = (000100100011) BCD

Addition of two Binary nos:-

To binary numbers can be added by addition of each corresponding digit from unit place. To do addition refers following table.



no1 no2 addition carry 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 - 0 1 1 - 0 0 0 -

e.g. 111101010

+ 100100

111 Carry

1000001110

Subtraction of two Binary nos. :-

For subtraction of binary now refer following no.

no1 no2 Subtraction Borrow 1 1 0 -- 1 0 1 -- 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 --

e.g. 1110101001

- 11010001

11 1 Borrow

1000001000



HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

Hardware :-All physical parts of computer system which we see and touch are called as Hardware .e.g. keyboard , mouse , monitor etc.

Software :-We know that computer works on instruction given by user . A set of instruction is called as program is called as Software. There are four types of software.

1) Operating System..2) Languages3) Translators4) Utilities

1) Operating System :-

An operating System is essential part of any computer. It is a program which coordinates and controls the operation of computer hardware and software resources such as processors, memory input output devices. It works as interface between compute hardware and user. Operating system can be of following type.

a) Single user Operating System.

b) e.g. DOS, win98

b) Multi-user Operating System.

UNIX, Windows NT

Single user operating system allows only one user to work at a time. Multi-user operating system allows more than one user at a time. It is used in networking. Following are some important functions of operating system.

I) works as interface between user and computerII) It keeps coordination between input and output devices.III) File management.



IV) Memory management.V) I/O Management.

2) Languages :-

Using languages we can give instructions to the computer. These languages can be of three type.

I) Machine Language :-

This is machine understandable language. Program can be written in o’s and 1’s. It is machine dependent languages. i.e. Program written for one machine can not work on other machines.

II) Assembly Language :-

This language uses mnemonics i.e. symbol to represent a instruction. e.g. ADD instruction is used to add content of memory or registers. This is also a machine dependent language.

To convert Assembly language into machine language. Assemblers are used.

III) High level language :-

Programming in Assembly language and Machine language is very difficult. There fore High level languages are developed. They are English like languages e.g.

BASIC – Beginner All purpose Symbolic Instruction code.FORTRAN – Formula TranslationCOBOL – Common Business Oriented Language.C, Java , Pascal

3) Translators :- Translators are the programs used for

conversion of High Level Language into machine level language. Computer can understand only machine language therefore translators are used. Translators can be of two type. Interpreter convert program written in High level language into machine language one line at a time. Complier convert program written in High level language into machine language whole programs at a time. Therefore speed to complier is faster than speed of interpreter.

3) Utilities :-



Utilities are the program which increases the processing speed of computer. They are special programs which makes computing easier. The most essential utilities are

a) Antivirus Programs :-

These programs are used to take backup of the important data for security purpose.

b) Backup Programs :-

These programs are used to take backup of the important data for security purpose.

c) Uninstall Programs :-

These programs are used to uninstall installed software. It removes all files installed with corresponding software. ]

d) File Compression Programs :-

These programs are used to compress file make more memory available on disk.

DOS OPERATING SYSTEM

We have seen that Operating System is very important part of any computer system because it works as interface between Computer and user. Without any operating system we can not work on computer or we can not run any application software.



Booting Process :-

When we switch on the computer a process starts till we get desktop screen of operating system is called as booting process In this booting process operating system gets loaded into RAM it checks for all system file, memory and input output devices attached to our computer. Following are three main system files which gets loaded into RAM during booting process.

a) Command.com

b) MSDOS.SYS

c) IO.SYS

There are two types of booting process.

1) Cold booting

2) Warm booting

When we switch on our computer by switching power button is called as cold booting Memory is checked in cold booting When we switch on our computer by pressing restart button or ctrl A+Del then the booting process as warm booting.

DOS :-

Dos stands for Disk Operating System , Dos is also called is command lineOperating system. i.e. it uses command for interfacing . It is a single user single tasking operating system. i.e. only one user can work on these operating system at a time and can do only one task at a time . When we are working is DOS we are diving all commands on C :\> called as DOS prompt or Command prompt. To work with DOS we have to use commands. There are two types of DOS commands

1) Internal DOS commands

2) External DOS commands

There are come basic commands loaded during booting process which are in command . com file are called as internal commands. They do not require support of hard disk based file for execution.



The commands which are not loaded during booting process and require support of some disk based file for execution are called as External commands.

1) Internal DOS commands

2)External DOS commands

1) Internal DOS commands :-

a) Time :-

This command is used to display and change time of system. The time is displayed in hh;mm;ss.format

Syntax :- C:\> Time

o/p Current time is 4:21:20.09a

Enter new time:

c) Date:-

This command is used to display and change date of system. The date is given is (mm-dd-yy.) format.

Syntax :- C:\> Date O\p Current date is Fri 09-30-2005

Enter new date (mm-dd-yy):

c) Cls :

This command is used to clear the content of screen

Syntax :- C:\> cls



v) Ver :-

This command is used to display the version of operating system loaded on your computer.

Syntax :- C:\>ver Enter

O\p Microsoft Windows Xp ( Version 5.1.2600)

e) Vol :-

This command is used to display volume label your disk .

Syntax :- C:\>Vol

o\p volume in drive C has no label volume serial Number is 1618-10D5

f) Dir :-

This command used to see the list of all the contents on the drive or any director

Syntax: - C:\>Dir

O\p This command will display list of files and directories in five column . i.e. file name file extension , file size, date created and one created We can use following switches with Dir command switch

Switch Meaning :-

/p :- Displays list of files and directories page wise i.e. take pause after page break. /w :- Displays only name of files and directories in five column /d : - Displays all files with attribute.



/o : - Displays list in alphabetical order

File handling Internal commands:-

what is a file?

File is a collection of data stored on disk . Each file on disk is its unique name. Any file name has two pars a) primary name. Extension. e.g. if file name is myself. txt then myself is primary file name and txt is extension primary name and extension is separated by dots (.)

Naming rules for file :-

a) A primary file name have maximum of 8 characters. b) In primary name spaces are not allowed.c) No special character is allowed in primary name d) Fit may be alphanumeric i.e. combination of (a-z) and (0-9)e) Extension is of maximum 3 character long.

f) It optional part in file name

following are some valid file name :-

try 1.txt

hellow.dat

rudrani

hrd . rpt etc

g)Copy con: -

This command is used to create new file

Syntax :- C:\> Copy Con<file name>

Crtl+z or F6 is used to to save file

e.g. type copy con try 1 .txt on dos prompt and press enter key types the contents of file where cursor is appeared.



save the file by processing Ctrl+z

You find the a file name try1 txt is get created on disk.

h) Type :-

This command is used to display the contents of existing file Syntax : C\> type< file name > enter

e.g.:\< Type try 1 txt this will display contents of file

i) Copy:- This command is used to copy the contents of source file

to destination file . Syntax : Coy <source file> <destination file> enter

e.g. .copy try1 ctry 1 tct this copies the contents of try 1 txt to ctry1.txt

j) Rename :-

This command is used to change the name of existing file

Syntax ;C:\> Rename try 1 txt exp txt this command change these name of file try 1 txt to exp txt.

k) Delete:-

This command remove the existing given file from disk

Syntax : C:\>Delete <file name>

Delete try 1 txt enter delete the file try 1 txt

Directory handling commands

Directory is collection of files .

1) MD (Make Directory ) :-

This command is used to create directory or sub directory

Syntax: C:\> MD<Directory Name>



e.g. C:\>MD MBCT

2)CD (Change Directory) :-

This command is used to changes from one directory to another directory.

Syntax:-C:\> CD< Directory name>

e.g. .C:\> CD MBCT

CD ..is used to go to parent directory of current directory. and CD\ is used to go to root directory

3)RD( Remove Directory):-

This command is used to remove blank directory. if we want to remove any directory the we must that directory blank by deleting files and subtracted in it

Syntax :C\>RD<Directory Name>

e.g. C:\>RD MBCT

Use of wild chard character Dos command :-

Wild chard character are the character which are used replace on two multiple character in dos command three to wild chard characters used in dos . they are ? and *? is used substitute single character and * used to substitute multiple characters .e.g.

a) c:\>dir A*.* :-

Will display all files on c; whose name is starting with alphabet

b) C:\>copy*.*d: \mydir :-

This command will copy all files on c:to \ mydir.



c)c:\.dir c??.* :-

This command will display list of files whose name is starting with character c and there are only two character after c and having any extension.

d) Del*.* :- This command will delete all files in current director

Word processing in DOS :-

In Dos it is not possible to modify the contents of file after saving it. To modify the contents of existing file we have to used editor DOS contents a file Edit. Com. Using this file we can create new text files and modify existing file in DOS . To open this editor give Edit command on DOS prompt as given below

In this editor by default file name is untitled 1. There are six different menus. Each menu name contain a single white color character. That means we can open that menu we can open that menu by pressing ALT key with highlighted character in menu name . e.g to open file menu press Alt+F

1) File menu :-

Creating a new file: -

a)Click on file menub)click on option newc)type the contents of file

2)saving the file :-

a) click on file menub) click on option save as to give new name to file to save modifications click on savec) A Save as dialog box will appear given file name d) Click on save button

3)Close the file:-



a) click on file menub) click on close option4) close the filea) click on file menub)click on print option

2) Edit menu :-

To cut and paste texta) select the text which you want to cutb) click on edit menuc) click on cut option Place the cursor where you want to

paste d) click on paste option from edit menu

2. To copy and paste text :-

a) Select the text which you want to copy b) click on edit menu c) click on copy option e) place the cursor where you want to paste f) click on paste option from edit menu

3) To delete the text :-

a) select the text which you want to delete. b) click on edit menu c)Click on delete option

4) Search menu :-

1. To find a particular text a) click on edit menu b)click on find option c) Give the word which we want to find .Match whole word matches the words and Match case matches for the upper the small letters d) click on ok to find the word

To find and replace: a) click on edit menub) click on replace option



c) give the word which we want to find . Also specify the word with which you want replace the words and match case matches for the upper and small letters d) click on replace to find and replace one word at time and click on replace all to find and replace all words time

4 )View menu :-

1. Split Window :- Spilt the current window into two windows 2. Size window :- Change the size of window3. close window : - Closes the current window

5) Tools Menu :-

Setting :- We can make settings for printer ports and tab stop

1. Color : -

We can change the color of active window, text selected text etc. in editor.

6. Help Menu : -

This menu proved help for edit command and about editor

External DOS commands :-

a) More :-

This command is used to display list of files and directories or contents of files one screen at time . It will display more at bottom to display next screen of file

Syntax: C:\> command | More

e.g. C:\>dir| c:\>types<file name>| more This displays content of file page wise

b) Tree:-



This commands-displays directories and subdirectories a tree structure as shown below

Syntax : c:\> tree

C)Deltree :-

This command is used to delete particular directory and its subdirectories

Syntax : C:\> Deltree < directory name >

d)Chkdsk :-

This command check for the disk and displays disk status. It display file system , check for all files and folders free memory space on disk, storage capacity of disk, if there is problem in any file then / F option used with chkdsk which fixes the errors on disk. It also find out memory occupied by hidden files, directories

e) Format :-

This command deletes all files and directories on disk. It will create new tracks and sectors on disk. Some sectors are not accessible to user that are reserved for FAT i.e. File Allocation.



WINDOWS(GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE)

We have seen DOS operating system which provides command Line interface. We have to remember all command to do any job in DOS. Windows provide a very easy interface which shows you all files and command on screen you have to select one of them . Windows also support multitasking. That means we can here songs while working on computer. We can open to or more files at a time. Windows 98, Windows 2003, Windows NT etc are the operating system developed by Microsoft and supports GUI.

Terminologies in Windows

1) Desktop :- When we switch on computer, after completion of booting process first screen appeared is called as ‘Desktop’. It contains so many things like icons shortcuts etc.as shown below

2) Icons :-



Icon is graphical or pictorial representation of any file.

3) Shortcuts :-

These are icons with small arrows. They are shortcut to pencils software.

4) Start Menu:-

This menu contains all software available in your computer. We can start any application from this menu .

5) Task bar :- Shows are opened task or windows.

6) Folder :- Folder is collection of files and subfolders is same name for directory in DOS.

7) Window :- Window is a very basic feature of any Graphic Operating System. It works as a container for different controls. Following are the main part of window.

a) Title bar :-

This shows the name of window or software.

b) Menu bar :-

This shows all menu or commands available in that software.

c) Minimize Button :-

This button closes the active window.

d) Close Button :-

This button close the active window

.



e) Maximize Button :-

This button maximize the active window.

Start Menu :-

When we click on start menu . It will display all programs or application in our computer as shown below.



shown below. Stand by means your computer remain in low power state . Turn off Closes all applications and shut down the computer and Restart closes all applications and restart computer again.

1) Log off Administrator :-

This exists from current login and switch to new login.

2) Run :-

This allows to run any file or program. e.g. When we run command. com DOS will get start.

3) Help and Supports :-

This allows to search for particular topic operating system or displays all topics about which information is available on computer F1 is shortcut key to help. We can take help in windows using index key or by searching topic or by selecting topic in display list.

4) Search :-

Search allows searching of particular files or group of files on different drives on disk.

5) Settings :-

Allows to change system setting for different peripheral devices like printer, internet, network, fonts etc.

6) Documents :-

Shows list of all recently opened documents.

7) Program :-



This shows list of all application software available on our PC. We can start any application by click on the name of that application.

Display Properties of desktop :-

1) Wallpaper :-

It is background pattern given to desk top called as wallpaper. To change wallpaper.

a) Press right button of mouse on desktop. A shortcut menu will get appeared.

b) Click on properties option in it.c) Click on Desktop tab and change the Background setting and

click on apply to make changes permanent.

2) Screensaver :-

A moving pattern appeared on screen when here is no movement of mouse or keyboard is called as screen

saver. To Change screen saver.



a) Press right button of mouse on desktop. A shortcut menu with get appeared.

b) Click on properties option in it.c) Click on Screen Saver tab and change the screen saver

setting and click on apply to make changes permanent

Task Bar Properties :-

To change taskbar properties

1) Place mouse pointer on taskbar

2) Press right button of mouse

3) Click on Properties option.

We can set following properties of task bar

a) Lock the taskbar : -

This will not allow movement of task bar.

b) Auto hide taskbar : -

This will automatically hide the taskbar when it is not in use

c) Keep the taskbar always on top :-

This keeps task bar on top even if any other application window is opened.

d) Group similar taskbar button :-

This will group similar taskbar windows in one window.

e) Show quick launch :- This shows Quick Launch toolbar.



f) Show the clock :-

Shows clock on right side on the task

g) Hide inactive icons :-

This hides inactive icons on task.

Explorer :-

To open windows explore Press right button of mouse on start button. A Shortcut menu will appeared Click on explore option. A start menu window will get appeared which explores each folder and subfolder on given path.

a) In this explorer window click on file menu.b) Click on new option.c) Click on folder option.d) This will create new folder. Give new name to folder.



If folder is already created then we can change the name of folder by pressing right button on folder and select option rename and change the name of folder. To delete folder click on delete option from same shortcut menu.

To create folder on desktop press right mouse button. A shortcut menu appeared. Click on new -> folder.

Creating a shortcut :-

To create short cut Click on file menu in explorer. Then click on NEW-> Shortcut. " Create Shortcut" Dialog will get appeared on screen. This will ask ask for the file or program to which you want to create shortcut. Give that filename with path or select that file suing . Brows button. Then click on next button and give name to the shortcut and click on finish button.

To create Shortcut on desktop press right mouse button. A shortcut menu appeared . Click on New-> Shortcut. "Create Shortcut" . Dialog will get appeared on screen and then select file or give path of file and then click on next button give name to shortcut and click on finish button.

My Computer :-

The icon shown is always present on desktop. To open that right click on it and select open option form shortcut menu or double click on the icon to open my computer. It will displays system configuration and all drives available out computer

Recycle Bin :-

When we delete any file in windows operating system in come in recycle Bin . We can restore all deleted files from Recycle Bin. To restore files from recycle bin click on file menu and click on "Restore" option. To delete files permanently from recycle bin click on file menu and click on "Empty Recycle Bin" Option.

Calculator :-

To open Calculator Click Start-> Program -> Accessories-> Calculator Following calculator window will appear.



Calculator is used for numeric calculation. Calculator has two view i.e. Standard and scientific and we can operate in hexadecimal or octal or binary or decimal no. system .

Notepad :-

Notepad is a simplest word processing software. Its window



contains. Title bar, Menu bar, Status Bar. By default file name in notepad is "Untitled . txt" where .txt is extension indicates that it creates text file. Follow following window.

To open Notepad Click on Start->Program->Accessories->Notepad

File Menu :-

1) Creating a new file:-

a) Click on file menu .b) Click on option new.c) Type the contents of file.

2) Saving the file :-

a) Click on file menu.b) Click on option Save as to vive new name to file and to save modifications click on savec) A ' Save as' dialog box will appear, give file name.d) Click on save button.



3) Open existing file :-

a) Click on file menu.b) Click on open option.c) Select file name from appropriate path.d) Click on open button.

4) To Change the page setup :-

a) Click on file menu .b) Click on page setup .c) Set paper size, orientation, margins and header footer and click ok button to apply the settings.

5)Print the file :-

a) Click on file menu .b) Click on print option .c) Give the number of copies and select printer and click on print button .

To exit from notepad click on "Exit" option in File menu.

Edit menu:-

1) Undo :- This option cancels unsaved action.

2) To cut and paste text :-

a) Select the text which you want to cut .b) Click on edit menu .c) Click on cut option .d) Place the cursor where you want to paste.e) Place the cursor where you want to paste .f) Click on paste option from edit menu .

3) To copy and paste text :-

a) Select the text which you want to copy .b) Click on edit menu .c) Click on copy again .d) Place the cursor where you want to paste .e) Click on paste option form edit menu .

4) To delete the text :-



a) Select the text which you want to delete .b) Click on edit menu .c) Click on delete option .

5) To find a particular text :-

a) Click on Edit menu .b) Click on find option

c) Give the word which we want to fine . Match case matches the upper and small letters.d) Click on Find next to find the word.



6) To find and replace :-

a) Click on Edit menub) Click on replace option

c) Give the word which we want to find . Also specify the word with which you want replace current word. Match whole word matches the words and match case matches for the upper and small letters.

d) Click on replace to find and replace one word at a time and click on replace all to find and replace one word at a time and click on replace all to find and replace all words at a time.

To select whole file Click on select All option or press "Ctrl+A".To insert date and time Press F5 or click on "Time/Date".

Format Menu :-

1) Word wrap :-

This enables to display text in multiple line or cursor comes automatically to next line end of first line is there. When it is inactive all text get typed on one line only.

2) Font :-

We can change font , font size , and font style.



Help Menu :-

We can help about note pad from help menu.



PAINT BRUSH

Paint brush is a drawing Software used to create simple drawings. That drawings can be black & white or color & can be saved as bitmap files (.bmp is extension) Paint Brush is also used to work with perches such as jpg or.bmp files."Untitled.bmp " is by default filename in paint brush.

Following task are performed when you are using paint.

1) Draw straight line

2) Fill area with color

3) Work with images from digital camera or scanner.

How to start paint



1) Click on 'start button'.

2) Click on 'programs' a menu will appear.

3) Click on 'accessories' menu.

4) Click on 'paint'.

Following paint screen get appear.:-

There are 16 tools are available on tool box for painting. Status bar gives status of file.

Tools in Paint Brush :-

1) Jig Jag cut tool :-

This tools is used to select random area in picture.

2) Selection tool :-

This tools is used to select rectangle area in file.

3) Eraser tool :-

This tools is use to select rectangle area in file.

4) Fill with colour :-

This tool is used to fill color in given object

5) Pick up a colour :-

This tool is use to copy color bitmap File.

6) Zoom Tool :-

To Magnify the Picture this tool is used.



7) Rectangle tool :-

This tool is used to draw a rectangle drag & method. To draw exact square this tool is used with shift key & drag rectangle tool to get exact square.

8) Rounded Rectangle Tool :-

This tool is use to draw rectangle with rounded corners. To draw exact square press shift key and then drag and draw rounded rectangle.

9) Circle / Ellips :-

This tool is used to draw ellips. To draw exact ellips press shift key and then drag and draw circle. In all rectangle and ellips tool we can change the format of tools from the format given below tool box.

10) Straight line :-

This tool is used to draw straight line in any direction. If this tool is used with Shift key then straight line can drawn only in perpendicular direction. We can also change the thickness of line from the thickness give below tool box.

11) Air Brush :-

This tool is used to spray color. We can change the size of air brush.

12) Brush tool :-

This tool is used to fill color . We can change the shape of brush.

13) Curve line :-

This tool is used to draw curve line. To draw a curve line first draw a straight line using this tool and then curve effect on both side of line.



14) Text :-

This tool is used to type text in picture

15) Polygone tool :-

This tool is used to draw polygone.

16) Pencil :-

This tool is used for free hand drawing.

File Menu :-

Creating a new file :-

a) Click on file menu.

b) Click on option new.

Saving the file :-

a) Click on file menu.

b) Click on option Save as to give new name to file and to save modifications click on save

c) a 'Save as ' dialog box will appear, give file menu.d) Click on save button.

Open existing file :-

a) Click on file menub) Click on open optionc) Select file name from appropriate pathd) Click on open button.

Print Preview :-

Print preview means view of picture before printing it.



a) Click on file menu.b) Click on 'Print Preview' Option following dialog will appear

Where Print is used to print the file 'One page'/ 'Two Page' are used to display one or two pages at time 'Zoom In' and 'Zoom Out' is used to view picture in magnified form. 'Next Page' and 'Previous Page' is used to switch between various pages. To close this view click on close button.

To change the page setup :-

a) Click on file menub) Click on page setupc) Set paper size, orientation, margins and header footer and click ok button to apply the settings in Page Setup Dialog Box.

Print the file :-

a) Click on file menu



b) Click on print optionc)Give the number of copies and select printer and click on print button.

To exit from notepad click on "Exit" option in File menu.

Set as Background (Tile/Center) : - This will set the current opened

There is a list of recently opened files in file menu. and exit is used to exit form paint brushes.

Edit Menu :-

1) Undo :-

This option cancels recent unsaved action.

2) Repeat :-

This repeat the action which is recently canceled.

To cut and paste text :-

a) Select the Picture which you want to cut.b) Click on edit menuc) Click on cut optiond) Click on paste option form edit menue) Cut Past is smae4 as moving a picture.(Ctrl+x is shortcut key for copy and Ctrl+v is shortcut key for paste)

To copy and paste text :- (Ctrl+C is shortcut key for copy)

a) Select the picture or part of picture which you want to copy.b) Click on edit menu.c) Click on copy optiond) Click on paste option form edit menu.

To delete the text (Del) :-

a) Select the picture which you want to delete.b) Click on edit menu.c) Click on delete option

Select All :-



Selects Whole Picture Ctrl+A is shortcut key for Select All.

Copy to:-

To copy selected drawing or whole drawing to another new file this option is used.

a) Select a part of drawingb) Click on Edit-> Copy toc) Give new file name in copy to dialog box.d) Click on ok.

Paste From :-

To bring a drawing from another file to current file this option is used.

a) Click on Edit-> Paste From.

b) Select existing file name in paste from dialog box

c) Click on open.

View Menu :-

This menu is related with display of tool box, color box, status bar, text tool bar on screen. We can active or inactive them from view menu by clicking on corresponding option.e.g. if color box is inactive to active it click on View-> Color box. A check mark indicates that it is active. To inactive it do same View-> color box. Text tool bar is active if Text tool is selected from tool box. It is used to change font , font size text. Ctrl+T is shortcut key to activate tool box and Ctrl+L active color box.

1) Zoom in : -

This option is used to display picture in magnified form or large size and normal size.

2) Show grid :-



This option shows grid line so we can draw picture by taking measurement. This option is active only in magnified form. It is inactive in normal form.

3) Show Thumbnail is also active in magnified form which shows picture in normal form when we are working in zoom in or magnified view.

4) View Bitmap Shows picture on full screen. Ctrl+F is shortcut key.

Image menu :-

Flip Rotate :-

This option allows to rotate picture by 90,180,270 degrees. Flip Horizontal rotate take horizontal image and Flip vertical.



gives Vertical image. Click on ok to apply Ctrl+R is short cut key for flip and rotate effects.

Stretch and skew ( Ctrl+W) :-

Select a part of picture. Stretch horizontal changes width of picture and Stretch vertical changes height

of picture according to given percentage. Skew horizontal and Skew vertical apply skew effect according to given degrees.

Invert Color ( Ctrl+A) :-

This invert the existing color. Convet black into whit, red into green etc.

Attributes :-



This changes the picture size Give width and height select unit for measurement i.e. inches or cm or pixels. Black and white shows black and white picture.

Clear Image clear the whole image (Ctrl+Shift+N) is shortcut key for clear image.

Draw opaque: -

When this is active or having check mark picture is selected with White paper background and when it is inactive background is transparent.

Color Menu :-

We can edit different colors in color box used Color-> Edit colors option .

Help menu provides help about paint brush.



WORD PAD

Word Pad is advance software than Notepad. To open word pad click on Start -> Program -> Accessories -> Word pad. A WordPad window appears on screen as shown below.

Word Pad contains tool bars and Menu bar and ruler and status bar as shown above. In word pad by default file name is documet.doc. We can also create rich text document and Unicode documents in WordPad.

File menu :-

To create New file (Ctrl+N) :-

1) Click File-> New2) New Dialog will appear3) Select Text Document and click on ok



To Save New file (Ctrl+S) :-

1) Click file -> Save as to give new name to file.2) In save as dialog box give file name and click on save button.3) Select Text Document and click on ok.

To open existing file (Ctrl+O) :-

a) Click on file->Openb) Selected file name from appropriate path and Click on open

button. To save modification in already saved file use save option in file menu.

Print Preview :-

Print preview means view of document before printing it.

a) Click on file menub) Click on 'Print Preview' option following dialog will appear

Where Print is used to print the file 'One Page'/'Two Page' are used to display one or two pages at a time 'Zoom In' and 'Zoom Out' is used to view picture in magnified form. 'Next Page' and 'Previous Page' is used to switch between various pages. To close this view click on close button.

To change the page setup :-

a) Click on file->page setupb) Set paper size , orientation, margins and header footer and click ok button to apply the settings in Page Setup Dialog Box.

Print the file :-

a) Click on file-> print optionb) Give the number of copies and select printer and click on print button.

To exit form WordPad click "Exit" option in File menu. File menu in word pad also contains list of four recently opened files.

Edit Menu :-



1) Undo :-

The option cancels recent unsaved action.

2) Repeat :-

This repeat the action which is recently canceled.

To cut and paste text :- (Ctrl+X, Crtl+V)

a) Select the text which you want to cutb) Click on Edit->Cut option and place the where you want to paste the textc) Click on paste option from edit menu.

To copy and paste text :- ( Ctrl+c is shortcut key for copy)

a) Select the textb) Click on Edit-> Copy and place the cursor where you want to paste the

textc) Click on paste option form edit menu.

Paste Special :-

This option is used to paste cut or copied text in special format.i.e. in unformatted text or in picture format.

To delete the text (Del) :-

a) Select the text which you want to delete.b) Click on Edit-> Clear option.

Select All :-

Selects Whole text. Ctrl+A is shortcut key for Select All.



To find particular text (Ctrl+F) :-

a) Click on Edit-> find option Find dialog box same as in Note pad will get appear.b) Give the word which we want to find. Match case matches for the upper and small letters.c) Click on Find next to find the word . F3 is shortcut key for find next.

To find and replace (Ctrl+H) :-

a) Click on Edit-> Replace option. Replace dialog same as in notepad will appear.b) Give the word which we want to find. Also specify the word with which word you want replace current word. Match whole word matches matches the words and match case matches for the upper and small letters.c) Click on replace to find and replace one word at a time and click on replace all to find and replace all words at a time.

View Menu:-

This menu is related with display of Tool bar, Format bar, Status bar and Ruler. We can active or inactive them form view menu by clicking on corresponding option. e.g. if Tool bar is inactive then to active it click on View-> Tool bar. A check mark indicates that it is active. To inactive it do same view-> Tool bar.

Tool Bar :-

This bar also contains shortcut tools to create new file, open existing file, save existing file, Print file to display previews also for cut, copy, paste, undo and date/time tools .

Formatting bar :-

Using this bar we can one age formatting of text using font, font size, bold, italic etc tools.

Status bar gives of Num lock, Caps lock etc and status of file.

Ruler is used to change indents of paragraph.

Options :-



This is also used to activate or inactivate format bar, toolbar, status bar and ruler. also we make wrap setting and set measurement unit form options tab. Wrap to window means new line stat at end of window .

and wrap to ruler means new line start at end of ruler i.e. right indent of paragraph.

Insert Menu :-

1) Date and time :-

using this option we can insert date and time in required format where the cursor is placed.

2) Object :-

Using this option we can insert new object file from different software like Corel draw or paint brush etc.a) Click Insert -> Object



b) Select software from which you want to insert object and click on ok button.

Format Menu :-

Font :-

To change font, font style , font size and color of selected text font is used.

a) Click Format ->Font

b) Set font font , font style , font size and color in font dialog box.

Bullet Style :-

This will apply bullets to each paragraph in selected text.

Paragraph :-



This is used to left , right , first line margin and alignment of selected paragraph.

a) Click Format -> Paragraph following dialog appear

b) set left , right line margin and set alignment and click on ok apply settings.



a) Click Format -> Tab following Tab dialog will appear.

b) Give tab stop position 1 and click on set.

c) To apply tab settings click on ok button and to cancel tab settings click on Clear all.

In following dialog if you set tab and 1 position then if cursor will move to 1 tab position when tab key pressed on new line

Help in Word pad is used to display help about WordPad.



INTRODUCTION TO WORD

INTRODUCTION :-

We have seen Notepad and Word pad in windows. We know that they are word processor software. But there are some limitations. We can not create table, we can not create different windows. We can not insert page breaks very easily or user friendly. MS Word is a software developed by Microsoft. It is a part of MS-Office. It is specially designed for word processing purpose. MS word is a word processing software which is used to create documents or process on the text by applying different effects available in it. It is part of on the text by applying different effects available in it. It is part of MS-Office which is more advanced than Notepad and WordPad. There are different versions of MS-Office i.e. Office 2000 or office 2003 etc. There is a slight difference between them. Here we are referring Office 2000.

Starting MS-Word :-

To start MS-Word click on Start->Programs->MS-Word. The following window will appear.

This window contains Title Bar, Menu Bar , Standard Toolbar. Formatting Toolbar, Drawing Toolbar and Status Bar. By default file name in MS-Word is ' Document1.doc' where doc is extension specifies that this is document file.



Title Bar :-

This bar contains title of document , Minimize , Maximize and close button.

Menu Bar :-

There are 9 different menus on menu bar contains submenus and options to complete the job. We will see application of different menus later in this book .

Standard Toolbar :-

Standard tool bar contains tools for creation, opening, printing and editing text documents as shown below .



1) New :- Opens new file.

2) Open :- Open existing file.

3) Save :- Save file.

4) Print :- Print current file.

5) Print Preview :- To Display preview of current document.

6) Spelling and Grammar :- Used to check spelling and grammatical.

7) Cut :- To cut selected text

8) Copy :- To copy selected text.

9) Paste :- To paste cut or copied text.

10) Format Painter :- This tool copies formatting of selected text and apply it to another text selection.

11) Undo :- This cancels recent action.

12) Redo :- This repeat recent cancelled action.

13) Insert table :- Insert table with specifies no columns and rows.

14) Inset Excel Sheet :- Insert Part of excel worksheet.

15) Zoom :- Displays text in specified zoom percentage.

16) Help :- Used to display windows help.

Formatting Tool Bar :-

Formatting tool bar contains different tool for formatting text like font, font size, font style, alignment, bulleting, numbering, color etc. These tools are as shown below.

1) Style :-



We can apply predefined styles to selected text.e..g . Heading1 , Heading2 , Normal etc.

2) Font :-

We can apply different fonts to selected text.

3) Font size :-

We can apply different font size.

4) Bold , Italics , Underline :-

Applies Bold , Italics and Underline effect to selected text.

5) Alignments :-

We can align text in paragraph to left, right, center or justify.

6) Indents :-

We can increase or decrease indent of selected paragraph.

7) Border :-

We can apply borders to table.

8) Highlight :-

Select color to highlight the text.

9) Font color :-

Apply selected color to selected text.

Drawing Tool Bar :-

Drawing tool bar contains different tools for drawing purpose like Auto shapes, line , arrow , rectangle , ellipse, textbox , and word art, clipart etc. We will see this tool bar later in this book.

Status Bar :-



This bar displays status of the document. Where is cursor

is placed i.e. line no. section no. total no. of pages, current page no.

WORKING WITH FILE MENU :-

1) Creating New Document :-

a) Click on File->New or press Ctrl+N keys from keyboard.

Following New dialog will get displayed.

b) We can create different new files in word like template, letter or web file. In all these option click on 'New Blank Document' in General tab and click on OK button.

This will create new file in MS-Word.

2) Saving New File :-



a) Click on File->Save As or press Ctrl+S keys from keyboard. Following 'Save as' dialog will get displayed.

b) Select the path where you want to store the document and then give file name and click on button 'Save'. The name given by you will appear on Title bar.

If we to save modifications in file then click on Save option from File menu. To save document as web page then click on 'Save as Web Page' from File Menu.

3) Version :-

We can save different versions of document using Versions option if File Menu.

4) Open Existing Document :-

a) Click on File->Open or Ctrl+O keys from keyboard.

Following dialog will get displayed.



b) Select file name which you want to open from appropriate path and click on Open.

5) Page Setup :-

To change page setup click on 'File->Page Setup'

There are four tabs in Page setup Margins, Paper Size , Paper Source and Layout.

In Margin Tab we can set Top, Bottom, Left, Right and Gutter(Margin for binding purpose) margins of paper. We can also set Header and Footer margin and mirror margin.



In Paper size tab we can set paper size, we can also set paper size according to our requirement. Orientation may be portrait or landscape . In Layout tab we can set header footer and we can set border and line numbers.

6) Print Preview :-

This is used to display view of page before printing it. By viewing the preview of document we can change the page setup according to our requirement. Web page preview will display the document that how it will get displayed on web page.

7) Send To :-

Using send to we can send the document to destination using fax, using mail etc.

8) Properties :-

This option displays general properties of file and we can set properties like read only, archive, hidden or system file.



General properties displays where it is stored. When it is created, when it is modified and when it is accessed. It also displays how many paragraphs are there, how many words are there and how many lines are there etc. in current file.

File menu also display recently opened file also display recently opened files and also Exit is used to close MS-Word.

WORING WITH EDIT MENU :-

As we have studied earlier Edit menu is related with modifications and editing in document. Following are the submenus in edit menu.

1) Undo (Ctrl+Z) :-

This is used to cancel recently done action in current document.

2) Redo (Ctrl+Y) :-



This is used to repeat the actions those are cancelled. If we have not cancel or undo any action then Redo is inactive.

3) Moving text :-

To move text form one place to another use CUT (Cut+X) and Paste (Ctrl+V ) in edit menu.

a) Select the text which you want to move.b) Click on Edit->Cut.c) Place the cursor where you want to paste it.d) Click on Edit-> Paste.

You found that the test is moved from source to destination.

4) Copying Text :-

To copy text from one place to another place use Copy (Ctrl+C) and Paste (Ctrl+V) from Edit menu.

a) Select the text which you want to copy.b) Click on Edit->Copy.c) Place the cursor where you want to copy it.d) Click on Edit->Pate.

You will get two copies of selection. One is at Source and on is at destination.

5) Paste Special :-

We can paste cut or copied text in some special format.i.e.rich text, picture, unformatted text, or formatted text using paste special.



6) Clear (Del) :-

This option is used to delete selected text.

7) Select All (Ctrl+A) :-

This option is also used to Select whole document.



8) Finding Text :-

We can find a word or text in current document using Edit->Find.

a) Click Edit->Find Following dialog will appear. If search options are not visible then click on More button.b) Type the text which you want to find in 'Find What' text box..

Specify where you want to find i.e. in whole document to up side of cursor or down to cursor. There are Five options.

1) Match Case :-

This matches small and capital letter.

2) Find Whole Words :-

Matches for whole word not the characters.



3) Use Wild Cards :-

This is used to match part of word i.e. done by using wild card character*and ?

4) Sounds Like :-

This matches pronunciation of word. Know and No are considered as same match if sounds like is checked.

We can also specify the format of text which we want to lines then click on 'Find Next' Button. The cursor will get placed at the place where the match is found.

9) Finding and Replacing the Text :-

If we want to find a particular word and replace it with another word then.

a) Click Edit-> Replace. The same dialog like fine will appear. All search options and format are same as they are in find dialog. Only the difference is that here we can replace the text found, with another word.

b) Type text that you want to find in 'Find What' box and type the word by which you want to replace in 'Replace with' Text box..

c) To make replacement at a time click on 'Replace' and to make all replacement at a time click on 'Replace All' Button.



10) Go to:-

This option is used to go to particular Page, Book mark, Section, line Footnote, or Endnote, . Enter the page no.



in 'Enter page number' box and click on 'Next' button the cursor will move to the specified page no. If+5 is given then cursor will move in forward direction and if sign is given then cursor will move in backward direction.



WORKING WITH VIEW MENU

This menu is related with display of the screen. We can change the display of screen or document form 'View menu'.

1) Changing View of Document :-

There are four different view available in word.

a) Normal View:-

In this view document gets displayed in normal view. It will not display margins of page. No separate page gets displayed like in Print Layout. Background given to document is not visible in Normal view. A single line gets displayed where page is braked.



b) Web Layout :-

This view displays the document, How it will appear when it gets published on Web. Background is visible in this view. It is also called as "On line View".

c) Print Layout :-

This view displays document with margins, indents of paragraph. Vertical Ruler is visible in this view. Background is not visible in this view. This view is help full in changing document setup or page setup. This view gives idea about how .It will appear on page after printing. Generally we always work in Print Layout.

d) Outline View:-

This view is used to display outline of document. When we click on View->Outline, 'Outline' toolbar gets activated.

If there are different style are applied to different heading in document then to display heading with particular style outline view is used.

2) Tool Bars :-

To activate or deactivate various tool bars this option is use. There are different tool bars available in MS-Word as listed below.

1) Standard2) Formatting3) Auto text4) Control tool box5) Data base6) Drawing7) Forms8) Outline9) Picture10) Reviewing11) Table and Borders12) Visual Basic13) Web14) Word Art15) Custom & Customize etc.



A check mark will appear in front of name of tool bar which are active. In MS - Word by default Standard, Formatting and Drawing toolbars are active.

3) Ruler :-

This option is used to activate or deactivate vertical and Horizontal Ruler in MS-Word.

4) Document Map :-

The Document Map is a separate pane or area that displays a list of headings in the document. Document Map is used to navigate thought the document . When we click on a heading in the Document Map, Word jumps to the corresponding heading in the document, displays it at the top of the window, and highlights the heading in the Document Map.

5) Header and Footer :-

Header is the common part that appear above the top margin on every page in document. Footer is common part that appear below the bottom margin on every page of document. In Header and footer we can give page now, file name, Author name etc. To activate Header area.

a) Click on View-> Header and Footer.

A Header area gets activated and Header and Footer toolbar gets activated as shown below. There are different tools available on this toolbar. We can insert Page no, change format of page no Date, Time using these tools as shown above. Also we can type an other text in header or footer are, which will appear on every pave of document. There is a switch tool on tool bar use for navigation or switching between header and footer area.

b) Click on Close tool to deactivate header and footer area.



6) Foot Note and End Note :-

These option are used to display Footnote and Endnote which are inserted in document.

7) Full Screen :-

This inactivate all too bars and display document on Full Screen.

8) Zoom :-

This is used to display document in different magnified form.i.e.200%,300% etc. as shown.



WORKING WITH INSERT MENU

This menu is used to insert different Objects. Shapes , Clip arts , Word arts, Date and Time and Page Break etc. as shown below.



1) Break :-

Break option is used to insert page break, section break etc.

a) Click Insert-> Break. Following window will get appear.

There are three break types.



Page break insert a page break where the cursor is placed. Column Break, break the column where cursor is placed.

Text wrapping break end the current line where the cursor is placed and move cursor to next line.

Also there are four types of section break Next page, Continuous , Even page, Odd page.

b) Click on Ok button to apply the settings.

2) Page Numbers :-

This is used to insert page numbers in document with different format and at different locations.

a) Click Insert-> Page Numbers. Following Window will appear.

We can specify the position of Page Number i.e. in Footer area or Header Area. Page Numbers can be aligned to Left, Right, Center, Inside or Outside. Preview shows the exact location of page number on page.



3) Date and Time :-

This is used to insert Date and Time where the cursor is placed.

a) Click Insert-> Date and Time Following window will appear. We can select date and time format form window.

b) Click on Ok Button to apply the setting. When Update automatically is checked then date will get automatically updated when document is printed or accessed.

4) Symbols :-

This option is used to insert different symbols in document.



a) Click Insert-> Symbols. Following window will appear. Change the font to change different symbols. Select the symbol which you want to insert in document.

b) Click on Insert Button.

5) Fields :-

This option is used to insert different fields in document like date, time or different formulas. There are different categories of fields like date and time formulas. We can select fields in specific category and click on Ok button to insert that field. i.e. select category



'Date and Time' and field 'Date' as shown in following window and click on Ok it will insert current date in document.

6) Auto text:-

This option is used to insert Auto text. Auto text is text which you are using frequently in document. e.g. yours faithfully, respected sir etc.Auto Text offers a way to store and quickly insert text, graphics, fields, tables, bookmarks, and other items that you use frequently.

a) Select table, text or object for which you want to create Auto text.



b) Click Insert->Auto text->New.c) Give simple name for Auto text.

This will create auto text with given name which appears in Normal auto text. When you want to insert this auto text in document. Then Click on Insert->Auto text->Normal->Auto text name. Then the corresponding table or text gets automatically inserted in document.

7) Comment :-

Used to insert comments in your document where the cursor is placed. the inserted comments gets displayed at bottom of screen if 'Command' option from view menu is checked or activated. A comment number with yellow color will appear where the comment is placed.

8) Footnote :-

This is used to insert foot note or end note in document. Footnote is the note which is inserted at the end of page in document. End note is the note which is inserted at end of document.

a) Click Insert->Footnote. Following dialog will appear.b) Select Endnote to insert endnote and select Footnote to insert footnote.c) We can also change format of number given to note using ' Format Number'.



9) Caption :-

This is used to give numbers to diagrams, tables inserted in document.

a) Click Insert->Caption Following dialog will appear.

Select Label from options. Click on New Label to insert new Label. To automatically start the numbering for particular object like bitmap image, clip art Auto Caption is used. We can change format of number using Numbering button. to apply settings click on Ok Button.



10) Picture:-

There are six sub options in picture from Insert Menu. We can also Insert Clip Art from Drawing Tool Bar using tool Clip art .

a) Clip Art :-

We can Insert different Clip arts from Microsoft Clip Gallery .

i) Click Insert->Picture->ClipArt. This will display following Clip Art dialog box. Click on the category of the Clip on the category of the Clip Art and then insert button to insert Clip Art.



b) From File :-

To insert a Picture from another file like paint brush file, Corel draw file etc.

i) Click Insert->Picture-> From File . Following Dialog will appear. Then select the file which you want to insert and then click on Insert Button.



c) Auto shapes:-

When we click on Insert->Picture->Auto shape. This will activate Auto shape toolbar. We can insert different Auto shape from this toolbar. We can also insert auto shape from Drawing Tool bar.



d) Word Art:-

We can insert different word art in document. Word Art can also inserted form Drawing Tool bar using tool.

a) Click Insert->Picture->Word Art. Following dialog will appear. Select the word art style and click on Ok Button the types the text in edit word art text dialog box. Select Font, Size . We can also apply Bole and Italic effect to text. Click on Ok button to insert word art.



11) File :-

We can inset a document in another document.

a) Click Insert-> File.b) Insert file dialog will appear, select filename which you want to insert and click on Insert button.

12) Object:-

To insert object like pait object, calendar, clip art.

a) Click Insert->Object. Following dialog will appear. If you want to creat new object then click on 'Create New ' tab. If you want to insert existing file click on 'Create from file' tab. Select Object type. If 'Display as Icon' is active then object is inserted as icon.b) Click on Ok button to insert object.



13) Bookmark :-

Bookmark is the mark inserted in document. To insert bookmark in document.

a) Click insert->Bookmark. Following dialog will appear. Give name to bookmark.b) Click on Add button to insert in document.c) To delete inserted book mark, select the bookmark and click on Delete button.d) If you want to go to selected bookmark the click on Go to Button.

You can also go to selected bookmark using Edit->Go to->Bookmark.



14) Hyperlink :-

Hyperlink is the link between to document. Hypertext is the text on which link is created. We can link two document in word using Insert->Hyperlink.

a) Click Insert->Hyperlink. Following dialog will appear.b) Type web site address or file name with path that you want to link.c) Click on Ok button. The text in format like Text will appear called as hypertext. Mouse pointer will appear as when you point to hypertext.



15) Text Box:-

When you want to insert text in document which you can move any where in document that can insert be insert in text box. We can insert text box from drawing tool bar using text box tool. or

a) Click Insert->Text Box. Type the text in text box.

16) Cross Reference:-

If you want to give some details about the table or diagrams inserted in your document then cross reference is used.

17) Index and Table:-

This is used to create index in your document.

WORKING WITH FORMAT MENU

Format menu is related with Formatting of text. We can change fort, font size, effects, colors, bullet style, number style and paragraph formatting form format menu. Format contains following options.

1) Font:-

To change font, font size etc of text.

a) Select text and click on Format->Font. Following dialog will appear. There are three tabs available. Font tab is sued to change font, font style, font size, font color, underline style, color of underline style and different effects like superscript, subscript, emboss, shadow etc. We can also make these changes from format tool bar.

Character spacing tab is used to change spacing between tow character i.e. expanded or condensed. We can change scale and position of character on line i.e. raised or lowered.



Text effect tab is used to apply different text effect like linking background, shimmer. We can see preview in preview window.



2) Paragraph:-

To change paragraph formatting

a) Select the paragraph which you want to format.

b) Click Insert->Paragraph. Following dialog will appear. There are two tables in this dialog. Indents and spacing is used to align paragraph as left, center, justify. We can set left indent, right indent, first line indent of paragraph. That can also be set from Horizontal Ruler. Spacing before and after paragraph can be set. Second tab is 'Line and Page break' is used to keep paragraph continue on one page. To keep all lines together in a paragraph.



3) Bullets and Numbering :-

This tool is used to give bullet or numbers to selected paragraph in document. We can also apply Bullets and Numbers from Formatting tool bar.

a) Click Format-> Bullets and numbering. Following dialog will appear. We can apply different bullet styles from Bulleted tab. We can also change bulleted style by customizing bulleted. Number tab is used to apply number in various formats like 1, 2, 3 or a, b, c, etc.



4) Borders and Shading:-

This is used to apply borders to paragraph and page.

a) Click Insert-> Borders and shading. Following dialog will appear. There are three tabs. Border tab is used to apply border to the selected paragraph. Set the border type, style of line, width or line, color of line and then click on OK button to apply the settings. Page border tab is used to apply border to the page. All settings in page border are same as border tab. Only one addition type of border we can apply to the page i.e. art type border. Click on Ok button to apply the settings. Shading tab is used to apply shading to the paragraph. We can fill different colors or patterns to background or paragraph.



5) Columns:-

This option is used to divide the page in columns like News paper.

a) Click on Format->Columns .Following dialog will appear. We can divide page different no. of columns. We can adjust no. of columns and width of column, the spacing between to column will get set automatically. Line between option is used to apply line between to columns. Click on OK to apply the settings.



6) Change Case :-

This option is used to change the case or selected paragraph or text.

a) Click Format->Change case. Following dialog will appear. There are five cases we can apply to the text.

1) Sentence Case :-

In this case first character of each sentence become capital and all other in small letters.

2) Lower Case :-

In this case all characters appear in small case.

3) Upper Case :-

In this case all characters appear in capital letters.

4) Title Case:-

In this case first character of each word become Capital.

5) Toggle Case:-

In this case all character in Capital form appears in Small letters and vise versa.



7) Tabs :-

This option is used to give space using tab key. It help in creation of structure like table without border.

a) Click Format-> Tab following Tab dialog will appear.b) Give tab stop position 1 and click on set.c) To apply tab settings click on ok button and to cancel tab settings click on Clear all.

In following dialog of you set tab at 1" position then if cursor will move to 1" tab position when tab key pressed on new line, again tab key is pressed then cursor will move to next tab position. In Ms-Word there are five types of tabs. Left tab align left, Tight tab align text to right, Center tab align text to center, Bar tab align text to bar And decimal tab align decimal point.



8) Drop Cap :-

This option is used to make first character of sentence to big size.

a) Click Format-> Drop cap. Following dialog will appear. There are two types of drop cap position i.e. Dropped or In margin. Select on of them. Then set font, no. of lines to drop and distance from text and click on Ok button to apply settings.



9) Background:-

To apply background to the document .

a) Click on Format->Background. A color box will appear select color for background. To view more click on more color option in background.

b) We can also fill more patterns using fill pattern option. From following dialog box select the pattern and color of pattern you want to fill. There are four tabs. Pattern tab is used to fill pattern. gradient tab is used to fill different color with different shading style. Texture tab is used to fill different available texture to page. Texture are some predefined patterns that we can apply to background of document. Picture tab is used to apply picture from different software like paint brush etc.to background of the page.



10) Theme:-

Theme is collection of styles applied to hypertext, bullets, heading1, heading 2, etc. To apply these theme.

a) Click on Format->Theme . Following dialog will appear.b) Select the theme from given list. Preview is shown there.c) Click on Ok button to apply the settings.



11) Auto format:-

This is used to Auto format the document.

a) Click on Format->Auto format . Following dialog will appear.b) Select the format which you want to apply to document and click on Ok button to apply the settings.



12) Style:-

This option is used to apply different styles to the document. Styles have predefined formatting e.g. font, font size, color, margin , styles and tabs etc. To apply these styles.

a) Click Format-> Styles. Following dialog will appear. Select the style Preview of style is shown in preview window.b) If you want to create new style click on New button. Again a new dialog will appear. Give new name to style and to set formatting click on format button.c) Click on Ok button to apply the setting You will found that the new style gets added in list of style.



WORKING WITH TOOLS MENU

1) Spelling and Grammar:-

This tool is used to find spelling and grammatical corrections in document and correct it. Spelling and Grammatical tool is also available on Standard toolbar. When we click on. This tool following dialog will appear. It shows spelling mistake in red color and grammatical mistake in green color. There are suggestions given to correct the mistake. Select the correct one form suggestions and click on change button to make changes where the mistake found. Change all makes changes in Whole document where the mistake found. Click on Add button to add that word in dictionary e.g. name of person or institution. Ignore button will ignore the mistake and continue. If check grammar is checked then only computer will search for grammatical mistake otherwise not . F7 is shortcut key for spelling and grammar.



2) Word Count:-

This displays the total characters with or without spaces, Total no. of lines in document, Total no. of paragraphs and word in document. If include Footnote and Endnote check box is checked then it include text in footnote and endnote in counting.



3) Auto Summary:-

This option is used to summaries the document. It automatically takes the sentences relevant to subject in summary. When we click on Tool->Autosummary.Following dialog will appear. We can take summary in font types.

1) Highlight Key point highlight key points in yellow color in the document itself. We can increase or decrease the percentage of summary.2) Executive summary is shown at the top to document.3) New document can be created which contains summary of original.4) Hide everything in document except summary.



4) Auto Correct:-

Auto correct makes some correction as you type the document as listed below.

a) Correct two initial capitals corrects if two characters are typed in capital format.b) If Capitalize first character of the sentence is checked there. It capitalizes first character of each new sentence automatically.c) It also capitalize name of days.d) If accidentally caps lock get on then it off caps lock automatically.e) Also corrects mistake in typing automatically e.g. about gets replaced by about etc.



5) Language:-

There are three sub options in language.

1) Language:-

Sets the language which helps in spelling and grammar checking .

2) Thesaurus:-

We can find synonyms for particular word in document.

3) Hyphenation:-

This option hyphenates the document.

6) Track Changes:-

a) This option is used to track the changes in document. Once you saved the document. Click on Tools->Track Changes->Highlight track changes. Activate the option to track the changes while editing. When you edit the document the changes are highlighted in specific form or style and comment is shown about the changes.b) To accept the changes Click on Tools->Track Changes->Accept or Reject the changes. c) Compare document compares the original document with edited document. To compare document.

1) Create document and save it.2) Make some modifications it it.3) Highlight track changes from Tools->Track Changes->Highlight track changes.4) To compare click Tools->Track Changes->Compare documents and sleect the original file from list.5) This automatically highlights the track changes or modification done in original document after saving it.



7) Protect Document:-

This option is used to protect document from making changes. To protect the document click Tools->Protect document following dialog will appear. Select the option for which you want to protect the document .One can protect the document from inserting new text, deleting existing text and inserting password. Password always appears in form of *. Click on ok button and retype the password in next window. Click on Ok button . This makes track changes active. This highlight all changes made in document. One can not accept or reject these changes without unprotect the document.



8) Unprotect Document:-

To unprotect the document click on tool->Unprotect and give the same password which is given to protect the document. After unprotect the document one can accept or reject all track changes.

9) Mail-Merge:-

Some time we want to send same letter to different person. Suppose we want to sent a letter to parents of students informing about parents teacher meeting. Instead of creating multiple documents. Type a common to letter and merge the database containing name and address of parent in it. This will create a separate for each parent.

a) Type the letter and save it.

b) Click Tools->Mail merge. Following mail merge helper dialog will appear. There are three steps

c) Click on Create->Form letters button. It will ask for window. Click on active window button.

d) Click on Get data->Create data source window will appear. Remove the fields which you don't want from list and add the fields which you want to add. We can also change the order of field using arrows. Click on Ok button and give name to data source to save it. Then edit the data source to insert data into it. Enter records in database.

e) Click on Ok button. Then Mail merge tool bar gets activate.



Insert Merge field contains all fields in data source. Insert the data fields at appropriate place. View merged data tool shows current merged record. We can change record using Next, Previous, First or Last tool. to merge all records or selected records click on Mail merge helper tool. This will again display mail merge helper window. Click on Merge button and give range of records which you want to merge and click on Merge button. You will found a separate letter corresponding to each record.

In same way, using Mail merge we can create labels and envelops using data source.

10) Envelops and Labels:-



This is used to create envelops and labels. Click on Tools->Envelops and Labels. This will display following window. To create envelop click on Envelop tab. To create Label tab. We can add delivery address and return address from address book. We can Omit return address. Using options we can change envelop size and position of address of on envelop . Click on Print button to print the envelop and click on 'Add to document' to add envelop in current document.

We can print same label on whole page or we can print a single label. Using option in Label tab we can change label size, distance between two labels and no, of labels on a single page.

11) Letter Wizard:-

Wizard is a step by step procedure. Letter wizard helps in creating a letter.



a) Click Tools->Letter wizard. Following letter wizard dialog will appear. There are four tabs. Letter format sets the design of letter i.e. whether using letter head for printing or not. Date. Line. Recipient Info tab sets information of the recipient. I.e. Recipient address, Name and type of letter that whether the letter is formal, informal or business.

Other element tab sets the attention line mailing instruction, reference line and subject. Sender tab contains the information about the sender. I.e. senders information, job title etc.

Click on Ok button to apply the settings. This will create a letter with specified format. Now only type the matter in the letter.



12) Macro:-

Macro is a collection of instruction. To create a new macro click Tools->macro->Record new macro. Now the recording gets started. Execute all the instruction which you want to copy in macro. Then stop the recording of macro and save macro.

With some name. When you want to execute same instruction the instead of going to all instructions Run only the macro from Tool->Macro->Macros. Following dialog will appear. Select the macro name from list and Run the macro to execute all instruction recorded in macro.



WORKING WITH TABLE MENU

1) Draw Table:-

This is used to draw table in document. When we click on Table->Draw table. Table and Borders toolbar gets activated. As shown below.

We can select the line style, width, color and draw the table.

2) Insert:-

This is used to insert tables, rows, columns etc. There are five sub menus.

a) Table: -

This option is used to insert table with required no, of columns and rows. When we click Table->Insert->Table. Following dialog will appear. Give No. of columns, no. of rows and behavior of the table and click on Ok button to insert the table.



b) Columns to left insert columns to left side of column where the cursor is placed.

c) Columns to right insert columns to right side of the columns where the cursor is placed.

d) Similarly we can insert rows to above and blow of the row where the cursor is placed.

e) Cells:-

We can insert cells in table. for that we have to insert whole row or column or we have to shift current cell to below or right of the current cell. Click Table->Insert->Cells shows following dialog. Specify where to shift current cell and click on Ok button to insert the cell.



3) Delete:-

This option is used to delete specified no. or selected rows or columns or cell. We can also delete the whole tables.

When we delete the cell it will ask for where to shift cell either on up or left as shown below. Specify where to shift cells and click on Ok button to delete the cell.

4) Select:-

This is used to select table, row, columns or cells.

5) Split Cell:-

To convert single cell into multiple cells split cell is used. Click Table -> Split cell following dialog will appear. Give no. of columns and rows to split the cell and click on ok button.

6) Merge Cells:-



To convert multiple cells into single cell Merge cells option is used. To merge cell Select multiple cell and click Table->Merge cell. All cells get merged and you found only single cell.

7) Spilt Cell:-

To convert single cell into multiple cells spilt cell is used. Click Table->Spilt cell following dialog will appear. Give no. of columns and rows to split the cell and click on ok button.



8) Auto Format:-

There are some predefined formats which we can apply to the table using Auto format. To apply formatting to table.

a) Select the table.b) Click->Table->Auto formatc) Select format. Specify formatting which you want to apply and where you want to apply.d) Click on Ok button to apply formatting.

9) Auto fit:-

This option is used to adjust width of column and table.

a) Auto fit to content:-

Adjust width of column according to contents of column.

b) Auto fit to window:-

Adjust width of table according to size of window.

c) Fixed column width:-

Fixes width of column.

d) Distribute rows evenly:-

Make height of each row to same size.

e) Distribute column evenly:-

Makes width of each column to same size.



10) Convert: -

We can convert text to table and table and table to text.

a) To convert table to text Click Table->Convert->Table to text. Following dialog will appear. Specify the how to separate the text in each column. Click on Ok button you found that the table gets converted in text separated by given character or specification.



b) To convert text to column click. Table->Convert->Text to table following dialog will appear. Specify no. of columns and how the text is separated and how to adjust column width in table. Click on Ok button to convert text in to table.



11) Sort:-

Sorting means arrangement records on a particular order i.e. ascending or descending order. We can sort table according to order to primary key or any field in table. To sort the table. Select the table. Click Table ->Sort. Following dialog will appear. Select the field according to which you want to sort the table e.g.sr.no.or name and specify the order.

Give second field for sorting. If some contents are same in sort by field then it will get sort by then by field specified next. Specify the order of sorting. This sort the table.

12) Formula:-



This is used to insert formula in table. We can perform some numeric or logical operation on contents of table. We can find sum, maximum or minimum between cells to left, right, above or down of the current cell. To insert formula in cell Click Table->Formula following dialog will appear. Select the function from Paste function. Number format and specify from which side you want sum or value of formula. Click on Ok button to insert formula.

13) Hide Gridline:-

We can apply border to the table. When border is not applied to table then the lines in gray color appear on screen but not appear on appear while printing are called as gridlines. To display these gridlines click Table->Show Gridlines. To hide gridlines Click Table->Hide Gridlines.

14) Table Properties:-



To specify position of text in cell, height of row, width of column we have to set table properties. Click Table->Table properties. Following dialog will appear. There are four tabs. Table tabs sets alignment and wrapping effect of table. Row tab sets height of row. Column tab specify width of column and cell tab specify position of text in cell.

INTRODUCTION TO MS-EXCEL

Ms-Excel is spread sheet software. This is used to create sheets where numeric calculations are required e.g. salary sheet, mark sheet etc. It is a part of MS-Office.

Starting MS-Excel:-

To start excel Click on Start->Programs->Ms-Excel. Following excel window will appear. This window contains 'Title Bar'



which contains name of file. In excel by default file name is 'Book1.xls' where book1 is file name and .xls is extension. Menu bar contains different menus. All menus are almost same as we have seen in MS-Word. Only some changes are there that we will see. Standard tool bar is used to work with file like create, open, save undo etc. Formatting tool bar is related with formatting text i.e. font, font style etc.

One new bar i.e. Formula bar is displayed on this screen as shown above. This contains address of cell and displays contains of cell.



1) Sheets:-

There are three sheets in a book. We can insert 256 sheets in a file. A sheet contains rows and columns. There are 65536 rows and 256 columns on on sheet. A, B, C ... IV are the name given to column. 1, 2, 3, ... 655536 are name given to row Intersection of one row and one column is called as cell. Each cell has address shown on formula bar. A cell address is combination of name of row Intersection of one row and one column is called as cell. Each cell has address shown on formula bar. A cell address is combination of name of row and column. A1 is address of first cell. Group of more than one cell is called as range. Address of range is given by address of first cell and address of last cell. A1: C5 is range include cell from A1 to A5, B1 to B5 and C1 to C5. A cell may contain numeric or string value of formula.



2) Auto Complete:-

Suppose a list is present in column. If you want to fill same value as a next item in list then type the initial value in cell it show and complete the same data present in list automatically as shown.

3) Auto Fill:-

In excel type Sunday or any day name in a cell. Place mouse pointer on fill handle and drag it. It will automatically fill name of days in sequence as shown below. In same way we can also fill series of Jan , Feb , Mar etc.

4) Giving Values in a Cell:-

A cell may contain numeric, alphabetic value or formula. Numeric value is always right aligned and Alphabetic value is always left aligned. A formula can be given in cell. This formula always start with = sign.+ is used for addition , * is used for multiplication , - is used for subtraction and / is used for division. We can also copy the formula from above cell to below cell by dragging fill handle as shown above. When we put mouse point on this fill handle it appear as +.

Working With File Menu:-

As we know file menu always related with opening, closing ,saving file etc.

Creating New File:-

To create new book in excel click File->New . Select workbook and click on 'Ok'button to open new workbook. Each file in excel is called as workbook. Ctrl+N is shortcut key to create new workbook.

1) Saving New Workbook:-

We know that to save work book with new name click on File->Save as. To save modifications in work book click File->Save. Ctrl+S is shortcut key to save work book. We can save workbook. We can save workbook from save tool on standard toolbar. To save the workbook as webpage click File->Save as webpage.

2) Open Existing Workbook:-



To open existing work book click File->Open. Select the name of workbook from appropriate path and click on 'Open' button to open it. Ctrl+O is shortcut key to open Workbook.

3) Close:-

Click File->Close to close workbook.

4) Save as Workspace:-

Some times we want to open number of workspaces at a time. Then we save that workbooks as workspace.

a) Open multiple workbooks.

b) Click File->Save as workspace and give name to workspace.

When you open this work space from File->open all the workbooks in the workspace get open.

5) Setting Page:-

To set paper size, margin header and footer click File->Page setup. Following dialog will appear. There are font tabs. Page tab is used to set orientation of page, paper size, zooming percentage and printing quality. Margin tab is used to set Top, Left, and Right, Bottom and Header and Footer margin of the page. Header and Footer tab is used to set header and footer or the page. We will see this in next chapter.

Sheet tab is used to set print area page order and printing options.



6) Setting Print Area:-

To print a particular range of cells or area on sheet set it as print area . Select multiple cell or range click File->Print area. To clear print area. Click File -> Clear print area.

7) Print Preview:-

We can see the page before printing called as print preview.

8) Printing Sheet:-

To print the pages or sheet click File->Print. Ctrl+P is shortcut key for print. Following dialog will appear. Set the printer, ranges and specify what you want to print i.e. selection, sheet or entire workbook. Specify no, of copies to print and click on 'Pint ' button to print the page.



WORKING WITH EDIT AND VIEW MENU IN EXCEL

Edit Menu:-

As we have seen in word edit menu is related with editing modifying workbook, undo, cut, copy, paste are same as we have seen in word.

1) Undo (Ctrl+Z):-

This is used to cancel the action.

2) Redo (Ctrl+Y):-

This is used to repeat the action.



3) Cut (Ctrl+X) Paste (Ctrl+V):-

When we want to move cells select the cells. Click Edit->Cut and place the cursor where you want to move the text. Click File->Paste.

4) Copy Cells:-

When we want to copy cells the select the cells click edit->Copy and select the cell where you want to paste. Click Edit->Paste.

If the cell contains formula then formula get copied.

5) Filling Contents:-

We can fill the contents of cell in row or column. To fill the contents to down side then select the cell containing the value and select the column in down or up direction and click Edit->Fill->Down or UP. To fill the contents to left or right side then select the cell containing the value and select the row toward left or right side and click Edit->Fill->Left or Right.



6) Filling Series:-

To fill series select the cell containing starting value and then click Edit->Fill->Series. Following dialog will appear.

Select rows or column where you want to fill the series. There are four types of series.



a) Linear Series:-

In this series step value gets added in starting value or previous values. e.g. if starting values is 2, setup value is 2 and stop value is 14 then series gets filled is 2,4,6,8,10,12,14.

b) Growth Series:-

In this series starting or previous value gets multiplied by step values. e.g. if starting values is 3, step value is 2 and stop value is 14 then series gets filled is 3,6,12.

c) Date Series:-

In date series step value gets added in day , year or month of date as per your selection . e.g. if starting date is 2/2/04, step value is 2 date unit is month then series gets filled is 2/2/04,4/2/04,6/2/04,.... etc. Stop value specifies the ending value. Click on Ok button fill the series.

7) Clear:-

There are four options.

a) All:-

This clears all i.e.formating, contents and comments.

b) Formats:-

This clears formatting of cell but content and comments remains as it is.

c) Contents:-

This clears content of cell but formatting and comments remains remains it is.

d) Comments:-

This clears comments but content and formatting remain as it is.

8) Delete:-



To delete cell or range of cell click Edit->Delete. Following dialog will appear. Shift cells left means shift the contents from right side cells to left. Shift cells to up means shift the contents of cells to Up means shift the contents of cells from down to up. Delete entire row or column. Select one of the option and click on Ok button to apply.

9) Delete Sheet:-

To delete current sheet Click Edit->Delete sheet.



10) Move or Copy Sheet:-

To move or copy current sheet Click Edit->Move or Copy sheet. Following dialog will appear. Specify the location i.e. file, and before sheet where you want to move the current sheet. Click on Create a copy to create copy of current sheet. And Click on Ok button to apply the settings.



11) Finding and Replacing Text:-

To find particular text click Edit->Find and specify the word which you want to find as we have seen in MS-Word. To replace the text with another Click Edit->Replace and specify old and new word and Click 'Replace' button to replace old text with new.

12) Go to:-

To locate the particular cell Click Edit->Goto.Following dialog will appear. Specify the reference or cell address that you want to locate and click on 'Ok' button.



View Menu :-

This menu is related with view or display of screen. Let us see options in View menu.

1) Views in Excel:-

There are two different views available in excel. In Normal view no different pages are shown on sheet. In Page break preview different pages are shown on sheet.

2) Tool bar, Formula bar, Status bar:-

To show or hide toolbars use View->Toolbar. To show or hide Formula bar Click View->Formula bar. To show or hide status bar Click View->Status bar.

3) Header and Footer:-

To set header and footer Click View->Header and Footer. Following page setup dialog will appear. In that Click Header and footer tab. To customize header Click on 'Customize header' button again following dialog will appear. Make the settings for header in left right and center section. Insert text, total no. of pages, page no. , Date and time, sheet name and book name. Click on 'Ok' button to apply the settings. Do same for customize Footer of page.

4) Comments:-

To display comments on screen Click View->Comments.

5) Full screen:-

To display book on full screen Click View->Full screen.



6) Custom views:-

To create different views in excel Click View->Custom views. Following dialog will appear. Click on 'Add' button to create new view. Give name to view. Click on 'Show' button to display book in customized view.



WORKING WITH INSERT MENU

Insert menu is related with inserting cells, columns, rows, charts and functions in book.

1) Inserting Cells:-

Click Insert->Cells to insert new cell where the cursor is placed. Specify whether to insert new row or column or to shift current cell to right or down side. Click on Ok button this will insert new blank cell instead of current cell.



2) Inserting Rows:-

To insert multiple rows or single row, Select multiple or single row and Click Insert->row.

3) Inserting Columns:-

To insert multiple columns or single column select multiple or single column and click Insert->Column.

4) Inserting Sheet:-

To insert sheet in book Click Insert->Worksheet. You found that the new sheet get inserted into book before the current sheet.

5) Inserting Chart:-

We can insert chart or represent table in graphical format. To insert chart follow give steps.

a) Create following table in excel.

Sr.No. Name Sub1 Sub2 Total 1 Pradhyana 78 77 155 2 Vasanti 56 55 111 3 Madhuri 34 44 78 4 Rasika 25 35 60 5 Gavari 65 65 130



b) Click Next button. Following window will appear. give data range i.e. select table or specific column. Select name column and press Ctrl button and select Total Column Click on Next button. Following window will appear. Give Title to chart, information about axe, Position of legend, table and label. Click on Finish button to



Complete and finish the chart. Following chart will get inserted in table.



6) Inserting Fountain in Cell:-

Using Insert->Function we can insert different functions in formula in a cell. We can directly type the function in a cell. Following are some common functions used.

Each function must start with = sign

a) Sum ( ):-

This function is used to add contents of given cell address of given values.

e.g. = sum (A1:E5) : Adds contents of cells from A1 to E5

= sum (45, 45, 10) gives result 100

b) Average ( ):-

This function is used find out average of given values or cell contents.

=Average (90,10) gives 50

c) Max ( ):-

This function returns maximum value in give range or values .

= Max (A1:A5)

d) Min ( ):-

This function returns minimum value in given range or values.

= Min (78, 34, 23) returns 23

e) Count ( ):-

This function returns no. of cells containing number values in given range.

f)Counta ( ):-



This function return no, of cells containing any values except blank cells in given range.

g) Char ( ):-

This function returns character represented by given number.

= Char (36) returns $

h) Len ( ):-

This function returns length of given string.

= Len ("Rudrani") returns 7

i) Upper ( ):-

This function returns length of given string.

e.g. = Upper ( "Pallavi") will return "PALLAVI"

j) Lower ( ):-

This functions returns given string in lower letters.

e.g. = Lower ("Pallavi") will return "pallavi".

k) If (Condition, True, False):-

This function is used to check given condition and display result according to value of condition. This condition should be logical condition returns True or False.

e.g. = If (E5>35,"Pass","Fail") Here if contents of E5 is greater than 35 then Pass will appear else Fail will appear. we can also using nested if as given below.

=If (E5<35,"Fail", If (E5<50,"C",If



E5<65,"B".If (E5<75,"A","Dist")))) If within another if is called a nested if. Above given function satisfies all following conditions.

If Per<35 then Grade is Fail

If Per>=35 and Per<50 then Grade is C

If Per>=50 and Per<65 then Grade is B

If Per>=65 and Per<75 then Grade is A

If Per>=75 Grade is Dist

Logical conditions:-

We want to check multiple conditions at a time then this logical function are used.

1) And ( ):-

This function returns value "True' When all given conditions are true. All conditions are separated by Comma (,).

=And (A1<35, B1<35, C1<35)

2) Or ( ):-

This function returns value "False' When all given conditions are false.

=Or (A1>35, B1>35, C1>35)

3) Not ( ):-

This function returns value 'True" if given condition is false and vice versa.

=Not (A1=35)

Condition 1 Condition 2 AndOr



T T TT

T F FT

F T FT

F F F

7) Working with Names:-

We can give name to specific range or spefic formula.

Name a cell or range. Select the cell where the formula is given Click Insert->Name and give name to formula. To paste the formula in another cell give = sing and name given to formula.

Name given to range always appear at name box when same range get selected. We can use cell name in formula instead of cell address.



WORKING WITH FORMAT MENU

Format menu is related with formatting of cells, column, rows, sheets etc.

1) Formatting Cell:-

To format cell or cells select range or cell. Click Format->Cells. Following dialog will appear. There are total six tabs. Number tab specifies alignment of text in a cell. Font tab is used to specify font, font size, font style color of text. Border tab is used to set border of cell or selected range. Pattern tab is used to fill different patterns in cells.



2) Formatting Rows:-

We can change height of row using Format->Row->Height. We can hide or unhide rows.

3) Formatting Columns:-

We can change width of column using Format->Column->Width. We can hide or unhide columns.

4) Formatting Sheet:-

We can change name of sheet using Format->Sheet->Rename. We can hide or unhide sheet in a book. We can apply background to sheet using Format->sheet->Background.

5) Auto Format:-

Select table. We can apply different predefined formats to table using Format->Auto format. Following window will be appear. Select any format according to your choice and click on Ok button and apply it to selected table.



6) Conditional Formatting:-

We can change formatting of cell or contents in cell according to condition. To do this click Format->Conditional formatting. Following dialog will appear. Give the condition that what should be the value of cell. or what should be the formula in cell. Click on Format button and Set the formatting to apply when condition gets satisfied and click on Ok button to apply conditional formatting. To add another condition click on Add button and to delete the condition click on Delete button.

7) Applying Styles to Cell:-

To apply new styles to cell select cell or range of cell. Click Format->Style. Following dialog will appear. To apply existing style select style name from given list and click on Ok button. To create new style give new style name and click on Add button and click on Modify button to make changes in new style.



WORKING WITH TOOLS AND DATA MENU

Tools Menu:-

1) Protecting Workbook and Sheet:-

To protect sheet click Tools->Protect->Sheet. Following dialog will appear. Specify protect worksheet for contents objects and scenarios. Give password. Click on Ok button. Retype password and click on Ok button to protect the worksheet.



To protect workbook click Tools->Protect->Protect Workbook. Following dialog will appear. Specify protect workbook for structure and window. Give password. Click on Ok button and retype the password and click on Ok button to protect the workbook.. To unprotect the workbook and sheet again click Tools->Protect->Unprotect sheet and workbook and type the correct password previously given.



2) Goal Seek:-

This option is used to set value of cell to particular value by changing the value of another cell whose reference is given in formula. Select the cell containing formula. Click Tools->Goal seek. Following dialog will appear. give the reference of cell containing formula in Set Cell. Give the value in To value box (i.e. Target value) Give reference of cell that contains the value that you want to adjust. Click on Ok button.



3) Creating Scenarios:-

Click Tools->Scenario. Following dialog will appear. Click on Add button. Again Edit Scenario dialog will appear Give name to scenario and reference of cell that you want to change. Click on Ok button. Enter values for changing cell. Click on Ok button. Click on show button in Scenario Manager Dialog to show the scenario.



4) Auditing in Excel:-

Auditing means locating cells that proved values to formula.



1) Select the cell containing formula. Click Tools->Auditing->Trace precedents. It will shows the cells on which current cell is depend.

2) Select the cell click Tools->Auditing->Trace Dependents. It will shows the cells that depends on current cell.

3) Select the cell containing error value. Click Tools->Auditing->Error. It will shows possible cells responsible for error.

4) Click Tool->Auditing->Show Auditing Toolbar. Following toolbar will appear.

5) Remove all arrows hides all auditing arrows.

6) Circle invalid data:-

This option is used to circle invalid data in given range.



Data Menu:-



1) Sort:-

This option is used to sort table in ascending or descending order. Click Data->Sort. Following dialog will appear. Click on Header row to display heading of row in sort by. Specify the column name and order. This will arrange contents of column or table according to specified column in ascending or descending order. A-Z is ascending and Z-A is descending. To sort table according to two columns specify second column name in .Then by box and order and click on Ok button.



2) Filter:-

Filter means way to find data quickly and easily. Filtered list contains the data that matches given criteria. Select the list. Click Data->Filter->Auto filter. A filter gets attached to each column in table.i.e. Click on this down arrow or filter and specify the criteria. List data satisfying criteria gets displayed.



3) Form:-

Select the table click Data->Form. A form containing all fields in table gets displayed as shown below. We can add, deleted, find records using this form in table.



4) Subtotal:-

Subtotal is used to find sum according to another value.i.e.in following example we want to find total sale of each COM. separately. Then sort the table according to comp name then Click Data->Subtotal. Following dialog will appear. Specify column name to find subtotal. Select the field that you want to sum and click on Ok button to find subtotal. You will get total of sale according to company name.

Name to find subtotal. Select the field that you want to sum and click on Ok button to find subtotal. You will get total of sale according to company name.



5) Validation:-

This is used to apply some condition to check entered data is valid or invalid. Select the range where you want to

Apply validation criteria. Click Data->Validation. Following dialog will appear. There are three tabs. In setting. Give the condition that you want to check while validating criteria. In Input Message give input massage and Give error message in Error Alert box. Click on Ok button to apply. Input message get always appeared on cell where validation is applied. If invalid data is entered then error message get displayed.



6) Text to Column:-

Suppose Field name are given in cell and you want to make it separate as shown below. Click Data->Text to column. Following dialog will appear. Click on



Delimited and click on Next button. Again next screen appear. Specify delimiter click on next button and then on Finish button you find the text get separated in different column.



7) Consolidate:-

Consolidate is used to add values in corresponding cell from different references on different sheet. Click Data->Consolidate. Following dialog will appear. Select range of cell as

First reference and add it. Then select second reference and add it and click on ok button to find sum of corresponding cell values in references at destination.



8) Pivot table:-

Pivot table is gives all summary reports or reports according to our choice. Consider following table.

Sr.No. Name of Company District Location Sale1 Bajaj Pune Chakan 20002 Bajaj Pune Chakan 30003 Dial A'bad Waluj 40004 Dial Pune Kothrud 10005 Bajaj A'bad Waluj 20006 Rucha A'bad Cthana 45007 Rucha Pune Chakan 65008 Dial A'bad Waluj 34009 Bajaj A'bad Waluj 290010 Bajaj A'bad Waluj 3000



Click Data->Pivot table Click Microsoft Excel list and Pivot table. Click on next button. Again step 2 dialogs will appear. Select Data range and click on Next button. Step 3 dialog will appear. Click on Layout button and set layout of table as shown below Drag and drop; Name of comp button at page. Location at Row, District at column and sum of sale at data and click on Ok Button. You found a pivot table as shown below on sheet. We can see reports according to company name area, location and sale and total sale.



Freeze Pane:-

Freeze Pane freeze left and up area of selected cell.

Help menu is excel provides help about excel.



INTRODUCTION TO MS-POWERPOINT

Ms-PowerPoint is presentation software. It is very important software in Ms-Office. We can create presentation for seminars, meetings etc in Ms-PowerPoint. There are so many facilities give which are used to make your presentation very powerful and attractive.

How to Start Power Point:-

To start PowerPoint click Start->Ms-PowerPoint. Following window will appear. There are three options give to create presentation.



1) Auto Content Wizard:-

When we select Auto Content Wizard to; create presentation. Following window will appear. There are five steps in auto content wizard. Click on Next button and select the presentation type that you want to create. Again click on Next button and select how you want output. Again click on next button. and give presentation title and footer of style. Again click on next button and the to create presentation click on Finish button. The wizard can

Also be activated by click File->New->Auto content wizard. When we create presentation using auto content wizard a presentation gets created. This presentation give s clue points which we can add in presentation. Or explain the points which are given on slide.



2) Design Template:-

If we want to apply a template to blank presentation the select design Template option from above window or click on File->New->Select Design template tab from new window.

3) Open Existing Presentation:-

This option is used to open existing or already created presentation. Select the path of file which you want to open and then click on open button to open existing presentation.

This can be also done from File->Open and select the presentation that you want to open.

4) Blank Presentation:-

This option is used to create presentation according to your own. A Following dialog will appear which ask for slide layout. Select the slide layout. There are 24 layouts available. Click on Ok button to insert the slide and presentation. A presentation is collection of no. of slides.



Saving Presentation:-

a) Save as:-

As we have seen in Ms-Word to save a new presentation with new name Click on File->Save As. Give name to presentation. By default in PowerPoint presentation name is 'Presentation1.ppt' where .ppt is extension.

b) Save:-

To save modification in PowerPoint Click File->Save.

c) Save as Web Page:-

To save the presentation as web page Click File->Save as web page.

Setting and Printing presentation:-

a) To see the preview of presentation Click on File->Webpage preview. This will show preview of slide in Internet Explore.

b) To set width and orientation of slide click on File->Page Setup. Following dialog will appear. Set the slide size, orientation and orientation in Notes and hand out.



c) To print the presentation Click File->Print. Following dialog will appear.

Select the printer, Print range, No. of copies, What you want to print i.e. handouts or notes pages, No. of slide on one handout, Gray scale, Pure black and white etc. and click on Ok to print.

PowerPoint window also contains Standard toolbars, formatting toolbar drawing toolbar same as we have seen in Ms-Word.



EDITING AND VIEWING PRESENTATION

Editing Presentation:-

To edit or modify Edit Menu is used. There are some option like undo, redo some as in Ms Word.

1) Cancel and Repeat the Action:-

a) To cancel the current action in presentation Click Edit->Undo or use shortcut key Ctrl+Z

b) To repeat the canceled action in presentation Click Edit->Redo or use shortcut key Ctrl+Y

2) Move or Copy Object or Slide:-

a) To Move this slide or object on slide select the object or slide, Click Edit->Cut and place the cursor where you want to paste or move the slide or object and click Edit->Paste.

b) To copy the object or slide select the object or slide Click Edit->Copy and place the cursor where you want to paste or copy the slide or object and click Edit->Paste.

3) Deleting and Selecting Slide:-

To select all slides click on Edit->Select all.

To delete the slide select the slide and then click Edit->Delete or press Del key from keyboard.

4) Duplicate Slide:-

To make duplicate slide of current slide Click Edit->Duplicate.



5) Find and Replace:-

To find particular word Click Edit->Find. Following dialog will appear. Give the word which you want to find in 'Find What' and click on 'Find Next' button. If you want to replace that word with another then type that word in 'Replace with' and click on 'Replace' button. 'Match case ' matches lower and upper case.' Find whole words only' Check for whole word.



Viewing Presentation:-

View menu contains all the options which allows to display presentation in different formats.

1) Views in PowerPoint:-

There are font views available in PowerPoint

a) Normal:-

In Normal View three areas gets appeared on screen. They are called as pane i.e. Outline pane, Slide pane and Notes pane. Outline pane shows outline view of slides or all text on slide. Slide pane shows how the contents of slide appear in slide show and Notes pane contains the notes of r speaker. By default any view Click View->Normal or press Normal view tool given at down left corner of screen .

b) Slide Sorter View:-

In this view all slides in presentation gets appeared at a time on screen as shown below. So that you can change the order so Slide in presentation. We can see transition effects on screen. Click View->Slide Sorter View to display presentation in slide sorter view.

c) Notes Page View:-

In this view slide gets appear on screen with notes page. We can add notes for speaker on this notes page. Click on View->Notes page to ,display presentation in Notes page view.

d) Slide Show:-

This is used to show slides on full screen.



Setting Master Slides:-

If we want to apply some effects to all slides then set that effect to master slides. The settings of Master slides get automatically applied to all slides in presentation.

a) Slide Master:-

Click View->Master->Slide Master. Following master slide appear on the screen. Here we can set Date, Footer and Slide Number on slide. Also we can set format of title on style and objects on slide. the object or background given to slide master will get automatically applied to all slides in presentation.

b) Handout Master :-

To set settings for handout (no. of slides on one page) Click View->Master->Handout. Following Master handout will appear on screen. Also Handout Master toolbar will on screen. Set header area, date Area, Footer area and Numbers area. Also set numbers of slides on handout from handout master tool bar.

c) Notes Page Master :-

To set setting on master notes page click view->Master->Note page. Following Master notes page gets appear on screen. Set Header area, Date Area Footer and Number area. All settings will applied to all notes pages in presentation.



Other Options in View Menu:-

1) Black and White:-

To display presentation in black and white format Click View->Black and White.

2) Slide Miniature:-

This displays slide miniature window as shown below on screen. Click->View ->Slide Miniature. This option is active only in Notes page view.]

3) Toolbars, Guides, and Rulers:-

To activate and deactivate different toolbars click View->Toolbars. To display guidelines on screen click View->Guides. To display horizontal and vertical ruler click View->Ruler.

4) Header and Footer:-

To set header and footer to slide. Notes page an Hand out Click View->Header and Footer. Date and time include date and time footer area. Update automatically means update date according to current date. Slide number include slide in footer area. First tab 'Slide' is used to set header and footer to slide and second tab 'Notes and Handout's used to set header and footer to notes page and handout.



5) Comment:-

This is used to show comments on screen.

6) Zoom:-

This is used to show presentation in maximize or minimize view.



INSERT AND FORMAT IN POWERPOINT

Insert Menu:-

Insert menu is related with insertion of different objects in PowerPoint. Many options in this menu are same as we have seen in Ms-Word i.e. inserting cliparts, word art, auto shape, comments, symbols, text box, object etc.

1) Inserting New Slide:-

To insert new slide in presentation.a) Click Insert-> New slide.b) A dialog asking for slide layout gets appeared. Select slide layout and click on Ok button to insert slide.

2) Insert Duplicate Slide:-

Select the slide whose duplicate you want, click Insert->Duplicate slide.

3) Comment:-

To insert comment on slide click Insert->Comment.

4) Slide from Files:-

We can insert slide form other presentation in current presentation. click Insert->Slide from files. Following 'Slide Finder' dialog will appear on screen. Click on 'Browse' button to select the file from which you want to insert slides. Slides from that file will get appeared. Select the slide and click on 'Insert' button. To insert all slides click on 'Insert All' button.

5) Inserting Organization Chart:-

Organization chart shows structure of organization. To insert this chart click Insert->Picture->Organization chart. Following window will appear. Another way to insert organization chart on slide in insert slide having layout 'Organization chart' from Insert->New slide and double click on organization chart to insert organization chart.

6) Insert Table:-



To insert table on slide click Insert->Table. Following dialog will appear. Give no. of columns and rows and click on 'Ok' button to insert table. Another method to insert table in Insert->New slide and select slide layout 'Table'. Double click on table to insert table on slide.



Formatting objects and slide:-

1) Font:-

As we have seen in Ms-Word we can change font, font style of text on slide. We can apply effect like shadow, underline, superscript, emboss, subscript and color.

a) Select the text; click Format->Font Font dialog will appear. Make the settings and click on Ok to apply the settings.

2) Bullets and Numbering:-



To apply bullets or number to paragraph on slide click Format->Bullets and number following dialog will appear. Select 'Bulleted' tab to apply bullets or 'Numbered' to apply numbers.

3) Alignment:-



We can align the text to center, left, right using Format->align.

4) Line Spacing:-

To change spacing between two lines of paragraph, spacing before paragraph and after paragraph Click Format->Line Spacing Following dialog will appear. 'Click on Ok' button to apply the settings.



5) Change Case:-

We can convert selected text in Title, Sentence, and Upper, Lower or Toggal case using Format -> Change.

6) Replace Font:-

This is used to replace selected font with another font. Click Format->Replace Font. Following dialog will appear. Select with which font you want to replace existing font. Click 'Replace' button to apply changes.



7) Slide Layout:-

To change layout of exiting slide select the slide Click Format->Slide Layout. Following dialog will appear. Select layout and click 'Reply' button to apply new slide layout.



8) Slide Color Scheme:-

There are some predefined color schemes. To apply these color scheme click Format->Slide color scheme. Following dialog will appear. Select the color scheme. To change color click on custom and make changes to predefined color for background, bullets etc. click on 'Apply' to apply settings to current slide and 'Apply All' to apply settings to all slides.

9) Background:-

To change background of slide click Format->Background. Following dialog will appear. To change color of back ground click on combo box and select color from 'More color' and to fill different pattern Click 'Fill pattern' Following dialog will appear. There are four tabs. 'Gradient' tab is used to apply shading of two or more colors. 'Texture' tab is used to apply different textures. 'Pattern' tab is used to apply different pattern and 'Picture' tab is used to apply picture to background of slide. Click on 'Ok' button to apply the settings.



10) Design Template:-

To apply different design template to slide click Format->Design Template. Following dialog will appear.

Select the template from design available and click on 'Apply' button to apply the settings.



11) Colors and Lines:-

To format clip art or word art or any object inserted in power point Format->Colors and Lines is used. When we select clip art the dialog with name 'Format Object' will appear. If word art is selected the dialog with 'Format Word art ' dialog will appear on screen as shown below. 'Colors and Lines' tab is used to fill different colors in object. To change format of line and arrows e.g. line style, color etc. 'Size' tab is used to change width, height and rotation of object. 'Position' tab is used to change horizontal and vertical position of object.



12) Picture Tool Bar:-

To activate this tool bar click View->Toolbar->Picture. This tool bar is used to format picture. This tool bar is also available in Ms-Word. Insert picture is used to insert picture on slide. Using image control we can display picture in gray scale, Black and white and water mark.. We can increase or decrease contrast and brightness. To cut part of object crop is used. Line style can be apply. We can change the color and format object using this toolbar.

WORKING WITH SLIDE SHOW MENU

PowerPoint is presentation software. To make our presentation attractive and more effective we can apply animation effects in power point. That effect can be given using 'Slide Show' menu.

Giving Animation Effect to Objects:-

Any moving effects are called as animation effects. To apply these animation effects select the object on slide and click Slide Show->Custom animation. Following dialog will appear Select the object. Form 'Effect' tab select animation effect i.e. fly from left etc and apply sound effect. Specify how to introduce text. From order and timing specify time settings for object and order of object.

These animation effects can also be given using 'Slide Show'->Preset animation.

To display the preview animation click 'Slide Show'->Animation Preview. Following window gets appear on screen. Click on this window to display preview of animation.



Giving Slide Transition Effect:-

Moving effects given to slide are called as transition effect. To apply these effect click Slide Show->slide transition. Following dialog will appear.

Select effect and speed of animation. Set timings for occurrence of each slide and click on 'Apply' button to apply changes to current slide 'Apply to All' to apply changes to all slides.



Other Option in Slide Show Menu:-

1) Hide Slide:-

To hide a particular slide in presentation select the slide and click Slide Show->Hide slide.

2) View Show:-

To display presentation on full screen Click Slide show->View show. F5 is shortcut key to display presentation on full screen.

3) Rehearsal Timings:-

Click slide show->Rehearsal Timings following tool bar will appear while presentation. It shows time required by current slide in presentation and total time required by presentation.



4) Set up Shows:-

Click Slide Show->Setup show. Following dialog will appear on screen. We can change show type pen color and range of slide to show in presentation.



5) Custom Shows:-

We can select slides from presentation can create different shows in power point Click Slide show->Custom shows. Following dialog will appear. Click on 'New' button to create new show.



Following dialog will appear. Give to show and add the slide from original presentation that you want in show. Click 'Ok' button to apply the settings.

Click on Show button to display presentation according customize show.



7) Action Button:-

To navigate through the presentation action buttons are used. There are nine actions button given to go to next slide back slide, first slide, and last slide. We can introduce new presentation in existing presentation using this action button. Click Slide Show->Action buttons. Drag and drop action button on slide as shown below.

Following action settings dialog will appear. Select the hyper link to which slide and click on Ok button to apply the settings. Click on this button to go to last slide slide during presentation show.

Window and Help Menu:-

Window menu is related with creation of new windows and arrange it. Help menu provide assistant and help about selected topic as we have seen in Ms-Word.



INTRODUCTION

Language:-

The language is the way of communication between two persons.

C-Language:-

It gives the bas for communication between user and computer or the user and programmer.

There are three types of Languages of follows.

1) High Level Language:-

It is the language which gives better programming efficiency i.e. faster program development. The code is written in English, Hernce it will convert the code from English to binary language and then it will process the code. Hence the output will be in Binary form, and then this output will be again converted into English. In this way it has to covert the code from English to Binary and again from Binary to English.

Advantage: - It is very easy to learn and easy to implement.

Disadvantage: - The execution speed of High level Language is slow due to the conversion factor from English to Binary and again Binary to English.e.g.:- BASIC, COBOL, PASCLE, FORTRAN etc.

2) Low Level Language:-

It is the language which gives better machine efficiency i.e. faster program execution. The code is written in Binary i.e. in the form of 0 and 1. Hence it is directly understood by computer. Therefore the execution speed is very fast in low level language.

Advantage: - The execution speed is fast.



Disadvantage: - It is very difficult to learn and to implement.

e.g.:- 1) Machine language 2) Assembly language.

3) Middle Level Language:-

It is the language which gives better programming efficiency i.e. faster program development and also it gives better machine efficiency i.e. faster program execution. In this way it shows the qualities of High Level and Low Level and hence it is known as Middle Level Language.

Advantage:-

1) It is very easy to learn and easy to implement.

2) The execution speed is fast.

e.g.:- C Language.



History of 'C':-

By 1960 a crowd of computer has come into existence, almost each for a specific purpose e.g. COBOL has being used for commercial application, FORTAN for engineering application. At this stage, people started thinking the instead of suing different language which can program all possible application. Therefore an international committee was set to develop such a language Table. Shorts the various stages in evolution of language.

Year Language Developed by Remarks1960 ALGOL International

committeeToo general andabstract

1963 CPL CambridgeUniversity

Hard to learnand implement

1967 BCPL M.Richards For specificproblem only

1970 B Ken Thompson For specificproblem only

1972 C Dennis Ritchie Lost generality of BCPL and B, restored.

Introduction to 'C':-

C is programming language developed at AT & T's Bell Laboratories of USA in 1972. It was designed and written by Dennis Ritchie. C is often called a middle level language.

Importance of C:-

The increasing popularity of C is probable due to its many desirable qualities. It is a robust language whose rich set of built in functions & operations can be used to write any complex program. The C compiler combines the capabilities of an assembly language with the features of a high level language & therefore it is well suited for writing both system software & business package and so it is called as a middle level language. Programs written in C are efficient & fast . C is highly portable. Another important feature of C is its ability to extend itself. A C program is basically collection of functions that are supported by the C library. We can continuously add out functions to C.



Features of 'C' language:-

It is highly portable. This means that C programs written for one computer can be run on another with little or no modification. 'C' is a well suited for structured programming. 'C' program is basically a collection of function supported by the 'C' library. Variety of data types and powerful operators. There are 32 keywords and its strength lies in its built in function. C is well suited for structured programming. This modular structure makes program testing & debugging very easy.

Constants, Variable and Keywords:-

The alphabets, numbers and special when properly combined from constants, variables and keywords.

A constant is a quantity that does not change. This quantity can be considered, stored at locations in the memory of the computer. A variable can be considered as a name given to the location in memory where this constant is stored. A keyword is a special word, which has some meaning in C.

Types of Constants:-

C Constants can be divided into two major categories.1) Primary Constants.2) Secondary Constants.



Constants

Primary ConstantSecondary Constant

Array, Pointer

Structure, Uninon,Integer Real Character enum, etc.Constant constant constant

Rules for constructing Integer constants:-

1) An integer constant must have at least one digit.2) It must not have a decimal point.3) It could either positive or negative.4) It no sign precedes an integer constant it is assumed to be positive.5) No commas or blanks are allowed within an integer constant.6) The allowable range for Integer constants is- 32768 to + 032767.

Rules for constructing Real constants or Floating Point constants:-

Real constants are often called Floating point constants. The real constants could be written in two forms. Fractional form and Exponential form.

1) A real constant must have at least one digit. 2) It must have a decimal point.3) It could be either positive or negative.4) Default sign is positive.5) No commas or blanks are allowed within a real constant.



Rules for constructing Character constants:-

1) A character constant is a single alphabet, a single digit or a single special symbol enclosed within single inverted commas.2) Maximize length of a character constant is 1 character.

Define Symbolic Constants (Macro):-

We often use certain unique constants in program. These constants may appear repeatedly in a number of places in a program .Ex. PI (3.14) . For that we define this constant. A constant is defined as follows # defines symbolic name value of constant / expression.

Example: - # define PI 3.14 # define MARKS 50

They are also called as macro. Here PI and MARKS are macros.

Types of C variables:-

In 'C' a quantity which may vary during program execution is called a variable. Variables are names given to the location in the memory of computer where different constants are stored. The location can contain Integer, real or character constants.

Rules for constructing variable Names:-

1) A variable name should be a combination of alphabets, digit or underscores. Some compilers allow variable names whose length could be up to 40 characters. Still it would be safer to stick to the rule of 8 characters. 2) The first character in the variable name must be an alphabet.3) No commas or blanks are allowed within a variable name.4) No special symbol other than underscore (as in gross _Sal) can be used in a variable name.

Example: - Si_intM_hraPor_e_sg.

5) Variables defined in upper and lower case are considered as different.6) C Keywords can not be used as a variable name.



Following are the examples of variable declaration statements.Int si, m_hra;Float b, c;Char code; where Int, float and char are the data types.

C Keywords:-

Keywords are the words whose coning has already beer explained to the C complier (or in a broad sense to the computer). The keyword cannot be used as variable names because if we do so we are trying to assign a new meaning to the keyword, which is not allowed by the computer. The keywords are also as "Reserved Words". There are 32 keywords available in 'C'.

auto double if staticbreak else int structcase enum long switchchar extern near typedefconst float register unioncontinue far return unsigneddefault for short voiddo go to signed while

C Instructions:-

There are basically four types of Instructions in 'C'.

1) Type Declarations Instructions.2) Input / Output Instructions.3) Arithmetic Instructions.4) Control instructions.

Type Declaration Instructions:-

To declare the type of variable used in a 'C' program.



Input / Output Instructions:-

To perform the function of supplying data to a program and obtaining the result from it.

Arithmetic Instructions:-

To perform arithmetic operations between constants and variables.

Control Instructions:-

To control the sequence of execution of various statements in a 'C' program.

Structure of 'C' programming:-

A 'C' program should be written in a specific sequence which includes following steps.

Linking. Constant declaration. Global variable declaration. Main ( ) function. Local variable declaration. Input statement. Calculation or processing. Output statement. User defined functions.

Linking:-

C uses various built in functions to perform the operations. They are also known as standard library function which are defined in different header files. To use a particular function, the respective header file should be included in the program. When the program is executed, the file gets linked to the program.

Header files: - [Extension. H]

1) Stdio.h:-



In stdio.h header file, all the standard input/output functions are

defined Example: - printf ( ), scanf ( )

2) Conio .h:-

Consol input output Functions. Example: - clrscr ( ), getch ( )

3) Math.h:-

Mathematical functions. Example: - sqrt ( ), abs ( )

4) String.h:-

String functions. Example: - strcpy ( ), strlen ( )

To include the header file in the program # include statement is used as:-

Syntax: - # include <header filename>

Example: - # include <stdio.h> # include <math.h>

Constant Declaration:-

If require constant can be declared in the program above the main ( ) function. It is defined using # define statement. E.g. PI (3.14) can be declared as a constant to calculate the area of circle as its value does not change. They are also called as preprocessor directives.

Global Variable Declaration:-

Sometimes it is required to use some variables anywhere in the program i.e. by any function in the program. For this the variable must be made accessible to all the functions by declaring it as global i.e. outside all the functions. Global variables are declared same as the local variables. their scope is global.

Main ( ) function:-

After linking and declaration statements you can start your program with main ( ) function.



Local Variable Declaration:-

Local variables are the one that are declared inside a function. They are accessible to the function in which they are defined.

Input Statement:-

After local variable declaration, input statement can be given to input or accept the data from user, for this C provides standard input function: scanf ( ).

Calculation / Processing Statements:-

It includes the general data processing statements like mathematical calculations or string manipulation statements, data conversion statements etc.

Output Statements:-

Finally result will be displayed on screen using the output statement (function): printf ( ).

User Defined Functions:-

Unlike the built functions, we can define our own functions in the program whenever required. They are called as user defined functions. They must be defined outside any function and can be called anywhere in the program.

All the above steps are not compulsory in every program. They can be included as per the program requirement. Every program must contain a main ( ) function.

Data types:-

While declaring the variable we must have to specify the data type of the variable. The data type determines the type of value the variable is going to hold like numeric, character etc. One of the features of C is that C has variety of data types. There are two types of data types:



a) Built in data types.c) User defines data types / Derived data types.

The standard built in data types User Defined Data types

* Integer/Int (Numeric) * Arrays

* Float(Real) *Structures

* Char (Character) *Unions

Built in data types are given divided into following subtypes; Integer Character Float Integer Single Character Float Short integer String (Sequence of Char.) Double Long integer -- --

These data types varies according to their storage size and the range of value they can hold . The range and bit size of each data types is given below;

Data types bit size Rang for Signed UnsignedCharacter 8bit -128 to +127 0 to 255Short-int 8bit -128 to +127 0 to 255Int 16bit -32768 to +32767 0to 65535Long Int 32bit -214748367to+214748367 0to429496729Float 32bit -38 to 34+E38 ---Double 64bit 1.7 +E 308 ---

PROGRAMMING IN C

Instruction In a Program is written as a separate statement Therefore a complete C program will emprise of a series of statements , These statements must appear in the same order in which we wish them be executedHowever big programs, following rules are applicable to all statements; 1. Blank spaces may be inserted between two words to improve the readability of the statements. However, no blank spaces are allowed within a variable, constant or keyword



2. Usually all statements are entered in small case letters.3. Chas no specific rules for position at which statements are to be written. That is why it is often called a free-form language.4. Every individual statement is program always ends with a semicolon ('; ')Any program has three parts: 1. Algorithm 2. Flowchart 3. Program

Algorithm:-

Thinking in our own language and writing it in simple English language is called as algorithm. There are no special symbols and commands used in it.

Flowchart: - The graphical representation of the program is known as flowchart. It can be represented using various flowchart symbol

Oval:-To Start or End the program.

Rectangle: - For Variable Declaration and Processing

Statement

Parallelogram: - For Input and Output operations

Diamond:-To give decision making (conditional) Statements.

Flow Lines:-To specify the flow of the program.

Connector:-To continue the flowchart on next page.

Using these symbols we can draw a flowchart for the program. Algorithm and Flowchart simplifies the program logic. First write the algorithm and flowchart and from it write a program.



The first 'C' program:-

Example: - Addition of two numbers.

Algorithm:-

1) Include the required header files in the program.2) Declare the variables to store two numbers and the addition of the numbers.3) Accept two numbers.4) Perform the addition.5) Display the result.

Flowchart:-


Start

int a, b,c

Accept two numbers a & b

c = a+b

Display the addition

End


Program:-

/* Addition of two numbers */

# include<stdio.h>main ( ) {

int a,b,c;clrscr ( ); /* To clear the screen

*/printf ("Enter two numbers"); Scanf ("%d%d", & a , & b ); /* accept 2

numbers */c = a+b; /* performs addition of

a and b */printf ("\n Addition = %d", c); /* Displays

the result */}

Comment about the program should be enclosed within /* */ . Any C program is nothing but a combination of functions. Main ( ) is one such function. Empty parentheses after main is necessary. The set of statements belonging to a function are enclosed with in a pair of braces i.e.main ( )

{ Statement 1; Statement 2;}

The above program performs the addition of any provided two numbers. The first step of the program is linking i.e. including the header file. The program does not require any constant declaration or any global variable declaration so these steps are skipped. The program starts with main ( ) function followed by a '{'. The main requirement in above program is providing two numbers for addition. To store these numbers a variable is required int a,b,c statement declares three integer variables. a, b and c. a,b will hold the two numbers and will hold their addition. Any variable used in the program must be declared before using.

Next step is accepting two numbers: - printf ( ) function will print the message as "enter two numbers:" and scanf ( ) function will accept the data from user into a and b . '%d' is a conversion operator used for integer data type. In scanf ( )function '&' operator is used to get the address ( location number ) of the variable. The numbers will be stored into the memory at a and b locations.



Next step is the calculation:- addition will be performed and it will be stored into third variable c. Finally it will print the result on screen using printf ( ) function.

Clrscr ( ) function is used to clear the screen before executing the program. The program is ending with '}'. Save this program with valid filename and extension as c by pressing F2 key or select File - Save option.To run a c program following key combination is used :

Compile :- Alt+F9 Execute :- Ctrl+F9 Output :- Alt+F5

Every time to display output we have to press Alt+F5 key. To avoid this getch () function can be included at the end of the program.

With every c program i.e. c file two more files gets created:

1) .obj file gets created at the time of compilation.2) .exe file gets created at execution time. The program can be executed from DOS prompt.

Predefined Functions (Stdio.h):-

Main ( ):-

This function is used as a starting point of the program. It tells the compiler that the programs is started from the point or statement. It is void function i.e. it does not have any parameter and it does not return any value. All the executable statements must be given in the main ( ) function because execution starts with main ( ).

Printf ( ) :-

Printf ( ) is one of the most versatile function in C. In fact it is a standard library function used to display the output on the screen. We can format the output using various formatting options like '\n','\t', %3d etc.

Syntax:-

Printf (" Format string ", list of variable);



Example: - To display any message on screen:

printf ("Welcome to MCED") ;

OR

To print the value of a variable ; int a=10 ;printf ("\n%d",a);"%d" is a format specifies used to print the value of the variable on screen .For each data type a format specifies is provided

% f : For printing real (float) values. %d : For printing integer values.%c : For printing single character %Id : For Long integer.%u : For unsigned integer.%If : For Double values

Examples:-

Printf (" % 2f", si);Printf (" % 3d % 3d ", p, n);Printf ("Simple interest = %f", sp);Printf (" Principle amount = %d \n Rate = %f ", p, r);

"\n":- It is called new line and it takes the cursor to the next line

Scanf ( ) :-

Scanf ( ) is used to accept data through keyboard (from user)

Syntax: -

Scan (" format specifier ", & variable name);Operator'&' is used before the variable to get the address of the variable. It takes the location number where variable is defined '&' is not required when we are using '%s' operator for string values.

Example:-

Scan ( "%d %d", &p,&n, name ): We can accept multiple values with a single scanf ( ) statement.

Examples 1:- Calculation of simple interest



# include < stdio.h > Main ( ) { Int p, n; Float r. si: Printf (" Enter value of p, p, r "); Scant (" %d%d%f', &p, &n. &r); Si= p*n* r/100; Printf (" simple interest is = %. 2f", si); }

Example 2:- Program to accept student's information and display student

Mark list.

# include<stdio.h>main ( ){

int rno, sub1, sub2 , total;float per;printf ("\n Enter rollno:");scanf("%d",& rno);total = sub1+ sub2per = total / 2;printf ( "\n\t\t STUDENTS MARKLIST");printf ( "\n\t\t -------------------------------");printf ( "\n\n\n\t Roll No. = %d", rno);printf ("\n\t -----------------------------");printf ( "n\t\t English \t\t Math");printf ("\n\t\t %d \t\t %d", sub1 , sub2);printf ("\n\t -----------------------------------");printf ("\n\t Total = %d", total);printf ("\n\t Percentage = %2f", per);getch ( );

}



Output is :-

STUDENTS MARKLIST

Roll No. = 1

English Math 70 70

Total = 140Percentage = 70.00

The program contains formatting character like '\n' , '\t' etc. they are known as escape sequences. Escape sequences always begins with '\' followed by a character. Following are the escape sequences :

Escape Sequence Character Format'\n' New Line character.'\t' Horizontal Tab.'\b' Back Space.'\' Quotation mark.'\\' Backslash character.'\O' Null Character.



DECISION MAKING

The Decision Control Structure :-

Sometimes it is required that some statements in the program should be executed depending on some condition. This is known as conditional programming. The decision control structure allows us to do this. It can be used to provide the condition in the program. The condition can be given using operators.

Operator in C :-

Operators are use to perform various operations like addition, comparison etc. C supports following operators.

Mathematical Operators :-

'+','-','*','\','%' ( modulus operator) etc.

Relational Operator :-

>,< , >=, <=, = = , = , != etc.

The expression is true ifx = = y x is equal to yx ! = y x is not equal to yx < y x is less than yx > y x is greater than yx <= y x is less than or equal to yx >= y x is greater than or equal to y

Note :-

= is used for assignment operator. = = is used for comparison of two quantities.

Logical Operators :-

&& (and) , | | (or) , ! (not)



Hierarchy of Operators :-

The operators are evaluated in order of their priority. The hierarchy (priority) of commonly used operators is shown in fig

Highest ( ), | | , -> !, ~, ++, --, -, *, & *, / , 5 < , <=, >, >= = = , ! = & & , | | ? :

Lowest = , + = , -= , *= , /=

Chas two major decision making structures :-

If statement. Switch statement.

The If statement :-

C uses keyword 'if' to implement the decision control instruction. The general form of 'if' statement likes :

Syntax :-

If (condition) {

execute statements; }

Example :- demonstration of if statement# include <stdio.h>main ( ) {

int num;printf ( "\n Enter a number less than 10");scanf ( "%d", & num );if (num <= 10)printf ( "\n What an obedient servant you are:");

}



On execution of this program. If you type a number less than or equal to 10, you get a message on the screen through print ( ) as "What an obedient servant you are :". If you type some other number no output will printed. Here the if statement will not have a ';' as the scope of the statement continues further.

The if statement has three forms :

Simple If Multiple If Nested If

The Simple if (If - else statement ) :-

Simple if statement can be used when there is only one condition.

Syntax :-

If (condition) {

group of statement 1; }else {

group of statement 2; }

If the condition given with if statement is true then statement 1 will be executed otherwise else part will executed. Else part is optional. If there are multiple statements given in if block then if block then enclose it in { }.

Example :- In a company an employee is paid as under :

If his basic salary is less than Rs.1500/- then HRA-10% of basic salary and DA =90% of basic salary. If his salary is either equal to or above Rs.1500/- then HRA = 500 and DA=98% .write a program to calculate HRA , DA and Gross Salary.



# include <stdio.h>main ( ) {int basic;float gross, hra, da;printf ("Enter the basic salary");scanf ("%d", & basic);if (basic <1500) {

hra = (float) basic*10/100; // Typecasting basic to floatda = (folat) basic*90/100;

}else {

hra = 500da = basic*98/100;

}gross = basic + hra + da ;printf ('\n HRA = %2f\t\t DA = %2f ", hra,da);printf ("\n\n\t Gross Salary = %2f ", gross ); }

Example :- Program to find greater number between two

numbers entered.

# include <stdio.h>main ( ) {

int a,b;clrscr ( );printf ("\n Enter two numbers :");scanf ("%d %d ", & a , & b);if (a>b)

printf ("\n A is greater ");else

printf ("\n B is greater ");getch ( );

}



Nested If :-

Nested if is perfectly all right if we write an entire 'if-else' construct within another if block or else block. This is called Nesting' of ifs.

if (condition 1) /* Outer if */ {

Group of statements 1;if (condition 2) /* Inner If */

Group of statements 2 ;else{

Group of statements 3; }}else{

Group of statement 4;}In this case the second if statement is known as inner if and main if statement is known as outer if. The if condition will be checked only when the outer if condition is satisfying.

Example :- To find greater number between three numbers entered.


int a, b,c;printf ("Enter three numbers");scanf ("%d %d %d", & a , & b , & c );if (a>b)

if (a>c)printf ("\n A is greater ");

elseprintf ("\n C is greater ");

elseif (b>c)

printf ("\n B is greater ");else

printf ("\n C is greater ");getch ( );

}

Multiple if (if - else if) :-



Multiple if statement can be sued when we want to perform multiple operation depending on different conditional .

Syntax :-

if (condition)statement 1;

else if (condition 2)statement 2;

else if (condition 3) statement 3;

::else if (condition N)

statement N;else

statement X;

Like this we can give N number of conditions and we can execute different statements. Conditions will be checked one by one. If conditional 1 is satisfying statement 1 will be executed and control will be transferred to the end of if statement., if it is false then only condition 2 will be checked. Among all the given condition any one will be satisfied at a time. If all of the given conditions are false then final else bock will be executed.

Example :- Program to display the grade of the student based on following

Criteria:

Per GradeBetween 50-59 'C'Between 60-75 'B'Above 75 'A'Below 50 ' Fail'




int rno;float per;printf ("Enter rno and percentage for a student");scanf ("%d %f ", &rno, &per);if (per>=50 && per<60)

printf ("\n Grade = C");else if (per>= 60 && per<75)

printf ("\n Grade = B");else if ( per>=75)

printf ("\n Grade = A");else

printf ("\n student is Fail");getch ( );

}

In above example it will accept the percentage and grade will be displayed by checking the condition. e.g. per =65 then grade = 'B', if per = 45 then 'student is Fail' message will be displayed.

Conditional operator :-

Another conditional construct used as an alternative for simple if statement is conditional operator. The conditional operator ? and : are sometimes called ternary operators since it takes three arguments.

Syntax :-

expression 1 ? expression 2 : expression 3if expression 1 is true, then the value returned will be expression 2 otherwise the value returned will be expression.

Example :-




int x, y ;printf ("\n Enter number:");scanf ("%d", &x);y = (x > 5 ? 3:4);printf ("%d", y );

}

This statement will store 3 in y if x is greater than 5 otherwise it will store 4 in y.

Example :-


char a;int y ;printf ("\n Enter any character:");scanf ("%c", &a);y = (a>=65 && a<=90 ? 1:0);printf ("%d",y);

}

Here if character a is between 65 to 90 i.e. A-Z then if will return 1 otherwise it will return 0.



ITERATION CONSTRUCT

The loop control structure :-

The computer's ability is to perform a set of instruction repeatedly. This involves repeating some portion of the program either a specified number of times or until a particular condition is being satisfied.This respective operation is done using loop control structure.There are three methods by way of which we can repeat a part of a program.They are :

using While loop using For loop using Do-While loop

The While loop :-

The operation of While loop is given below

True

While Loop


START

Testcondition

initialise

Body of loop

Increment

STOP


Syntax :-

Initialize loop counter while (condition) {

group of statements;Increment loop counter;

}

Note the following points about while.

The statement within the while loops would keen on getting executed till the condition being remains true. We the condition become false, the control passes to the first statement follows the body of the while loop. The condition being tested may use relational or logical operators. The statements within the loop may be a single line or a block of statements. Statements should enclose within pair of braces ( { } ).

Operators :-

i = i+1i++ : It is a increment operation which increments the value of i by one.i + = 1 : is a compound assignment operator. It is increment the value by 1.

The above three statements are same, they will give the same result i.e. i will be incremented by 1 use any of them.

Example :- Program to display first 10 numbers (1 to 10) in ascending order.


int i=1; / / initialization.while (i<=10) / / condition {

printf ( "\n %d ", i);i++; / / increment.

}getch ( );

}



The above program will print. 1 to 10 numbers. Variable i is initialized to 1.,condition will be checked , true and value of i will be printed as 1. I will be incremented by 1 and again control will be transfer condition. Same procedure will be performed till the condition is satisfying. Once condition is false loop be terminated.

The For loop :-

The operation of For loop is given in Fig.1. The For Loop allows us to specify three things in a single line . Initializing a loop counter. Testing the loop counter to determine whether its value has reached the number of repetition desired. Increasing the value of loop counter each time the program segment within the loop has been executed.

Syntax :-

for (initialization :condition: increment/decrement){

Group of statements; }

Initialization part will be executed only once i.e. at the starting of loop. Then condition will check. If it is true then statements will be executed and then increment/decrement part will be executed. Again condition will be checked and same procedure will performed. All the three parts must be separated by a ';'.For loop can be used when there is fixed number of iterations.



False

True

For Loop

The Do.... While loop :-

Do..... while loop is same as while loop.

Syntax :-

do {

group of statements;loop counter variable;

} while (condition)


Testcondition

initialise

Body of loop

Increment

STOP

START


The difference is that in while loop condition will be checked first and then statements will be executed. But in do...while loop statements will be executed first and condition will be checked at the end of loop as it is condition is false. Here while statement should end with a ';'.

True

False

Do.... While loop


START

STOP

Initialise

Body of Loop

Increment

TestCondition


Example1 :- Program to display 1 to 10 numbers in ascending order using do...while loop.


int n=1; / / initialization.do {

printf ("\n %d", n);n++; / /

increment. } while (n<=10); / / conditiongetch ( );

}

Example 2:- To display 1 to 10 numbers in ascending order.


int i;for ( i=1 ; i<=10 ; i++)

{printf ("\n %d", i);

}getch ( );

}

In for loop we can initialize more than one variable also.



Example 3 :- Program that demonstrates for loop with multiple variable initialization.

# include <stdio.h>main ( )

{int b,c;for ( i = 1 , j =10 ; i <= j ; i++, j--) {

printf ("\n %d", i ); }getch ( );

}

The above program will print 1 to 5 numbers only . Both i & j is initialized. I will be incremented and j will be decremented.

Example 4 :- Calculation of simple interest for 3 set of p,n and r using For loop.


int p , n , count;float r , si;for (count = 1; count <=3; count = count+1) {

printf ("\n Enter values of p, n & r");

scanf ("%d %d %f ", & p , & n , & r);

si = p*n*r/100;printf ("\n Simple interest = Rs.

%2f", si); }getch ( ); }



The infinite Loop :-

The loop that we have used so far executed the statement within them a finite number of times. However in real life programming one may come across a situation that it is not known beforehand how many times the statement in the loop are to be executed. In such case we can use infinite loop.

Example1 :- Program to display square of given number.


char another = 'y'int num;while ( another = = 'y' or another = = 'Y') { printf ("\n Enter a number"); scanf ("%d", & num); printf ( "square of %d is %d", num ,

num*num ); printf ("Another number (y/n) ? ");

flush (stdin); scanf ("%c", & another );

} }

In this program the while loop would keep getting executed till the user continues to answer Y. The moment he answers n , the loop terminates, since the condition (another = = 'y') fails. flush (stdin) is used to remove any data remained in the buffer. The argument stdin means buffer related with standard input device.



The Infinite for loop :-

Infinite for loop can be used to perform certain operation infinitely like displaying a time , changing color or rectangle etc. The loop should be given without any condition.

Example1 :- Program that demonstrates infinite for loop.

# include <stdio.h># include <dos.h># include <process.h>main ( ) {

int i = 1;for ( ; -;) {

printf ("\n %d", i);delay (1000);if (kbhit ( )) { exit (0); }i++;

}}

The above program will be executed until user hits a key. Number will be printed one by one with some time duration delay ( ), kbhit ( ), exit (0) are the built in functions.

delay (int milliseconds) :-

Delay ( ) function is used to set time limit to perform the operation. It takes the argument (time) in milliseconds. Defined in dos.h.

Kbhit ( ):-

kbhit ( ) function checks whether a key is hit or not. It returns true if any key is hit from keyboard otherwise returns false. Defined in conio.h.



Exit (int) :-

It is used to terminate the program execution. It takes integer argument as 0 or 1.

Nested loop :-

A loop within a loop is known as Nested loop.

Example :- To print a character in following format.

** ** * ** * * ** * * * *

# include <stdio.h.main ( ) {

int i , j ;for ( i=1 ; j<=1 ; j++)

{printf ("*");

}printf ("\n");

} getch ( );

}

Here inner loop will be executed for 5 times till outer if condition is satisfying. First a single '*' will be printed and inner loop will be closed then cursor will be set to next line using "\n". i will be incremented and again inner loop will be executed, now it will print two stars. Outer loop value remains constant for complete inner loop.



The Break Statement :-

We often come across situation where we want to jump out of a loop instantly without waiting to get back to the conditional test. The keyword 'break' allow us to do this. When 'break' is encountered inside any c loop, control automatically passes to the first statement after the loop. A break is usually associated with an 'if' statement . If it is used in a nested loop, break will terminate only that loop in which it is given.

Example :- Write a program to determine whether a number is prime or not.

# include <stdio.h> main ( ) {

int num , i , prime =1;printf ("\n Enter a number");scanf ("%d", & num);i = 2;while (i < num) {

if (num %1 = = 0){

prime = 0;break;

} else

{prime =1;

}i++;

} if ( prime = =1)

printf ("Number is Prime "); else

printf ("\n Number is not prime");

getch ( );}

In above example prime is used as flag variable, if remainder of the division (num%i) is 0 then prime will set to 0. If condition is false then prime will set to 1 and loop will be terminated with the break statement as there is no need to check further. After the loop message will be printed as per the value of prime.



The Continue Statement :-

In some cases we want to take the control to the beginning of the loop, by ignoring the statement inside the loop which has not yet been executed. The 'continue' statement allows us to do this. When continue is encountered inside any loop, control automatically passes to the beginning of the loop.

A 'continue' is usually associated with an 'if '. Following program illustrates the use of continue statement.

Example :- To print the values of i and j.


int i , j ;for (i =1; i<=2; i++) { for ( j =1; j<=2; j++)

{ if (i = = j) continue; printf ("\n %d %d \n ", i , j);}

}}

The output of above program would be 1 2 2 1

Note that when the value of i equals that of j , the continue statement takes control to the starting of inner for loop by ignoring rest of the statements pending for execution in the inner for loop.



Decision making using Switch :-

In real life we are often face with situation where we require to make a choice form a number of alternatives rather than one or two. The control statement, which allows us to make a decision form the number of choices, is called 'switch' or more correctly a switch-case-default, since these three keywords go together to make up the control statement.

Syntax :-

Switch (integer expression) {

case constant 1; group of statement 1;

break;case constant 2;

group of statement 2; break;

: default :

default statement ; }

The expression following switch keyword is any 'c' expression that yields an integer value. (a) It could be an integer constant like 1,2,3---------------- (b) A variable that evaluates to an integer or char. An integer or a character constant follows the keyword case in the condition. Each constant in each case must be different from all the others. The group of statements in the above form of switch represents any valid 'c' statements. The integer expression. following the keyword switch is evaluated. The value is gives is then checked one by one against the constant value that follows the case statement. When a match is found the program executes the statement following that case condition. The break statement used in a switch takes the control outside the switch once the condition is satisfied. If no match is found with any of the case statements, then only the default statement will be executed.

There are multiple statement to be executed in each "case" there is no need to enclose them within a pair of braces. Unlike if and else. The switch statement is very while menu derive programs.

The operation of switch :-



Yes

No

Yes

No

Yes

No

Yes

No

Switch


START

STOP

Case1

Case2

Case4

Case3

Statement 1

Statement 2

Statement 3

Statement 4


Example 1 :- Program to display message using Switch .. Case structure.


int i = 2;switch (i) {case 1 : printf ("\n I am in case 1");

break;case 2 : printf ("\n I am in case 2");

break;case 3 : printf ("\n I am in case 3");

break;default : printf (" I am default ");

}getch ( );

}

In above program value of i is 2. i is passed to the switch block. Case conditions will be checked one by one . Case 1 is false so it will check next case. Case 2 is true and it will print message as : 'I am in case 2'. the immediate Break statement will terminate the switch block.

Example 2 :- Program to illustrate Switch Structure with character value.

# include <stdio.h>main ( ) { char c = 'x ' ;

switch (c) {

case ' v ' : printf ("\n I am in case v");

break;case ' a ' : printf ("\n I am case a ");

break;default : printf ("\n I am in case

default"); }

getch ( );}

The output of this program is : ' I am in case default '.



Example 3 :- To display menu as below and perform the operation as per given choice using switch structure.

MENU -----------------------

1. Circle .2. Square .3. Exit .

------------------------

# include <stdio.h># include <process.h># define PI 3.14main ( ) { int r , ch ;

float a;clrscr ( );printf ("\n\t MENU");printf ("\n\t ------------------");printf ( "\n\t 1. Circle.");printf ("\n\t 2. Square. ");printf ("\n\t 3. Exit . " );printf ("\n\t -----------------------")'printf (\n\t Enter your choice :");scanf ("%d", & ch);switch (ch) {

case 1 : printf ("\n Enter radius :"); scanf ("%d", & r); a = PI*r*r; printf ("\n Area or Circle = %.2f",

a); break;

case 2 : printf ("\n Enter side:"); scanf ("%d", & r); a = r*r ; printf ("\n Area or Square =

%.2f", a); break;

case 3 : exit (0);default : printf ("\n you have entered

wrong choice!");}getch ( );

}



ARRAYS

It is the set of homogeneous data items which can be referred by the common name. Array is a finite ordered set of similar data elements. It is the list of items which are bound together in common relationship. Arrays are called as subscripted variable because array uses the subscript i.e. [ ] and the arrays are called as indexed variable because the array elements can be accessed by using index number. Arrays are divided into following types.

There are two types of arrays:

1) One dimensional.2) Two or multi dimensional.

For one dimensional array we have to specify only one dimension i.e. number of elements. For two or multi dimensional array we have to specify more than one dimension. Two dimensional arrays are also known as matrix.

int a [5];char str [10];int num [3] [3];char name [5] [10];

In above example a and str are one dimensional arrays while num and name are two dimensional array, a is integer array with five elements, num is a two dimensional array having 3*3 - 9 elements. It is also known as a 3 by 3 matrix with 3 rows and 3 columns. Character Array have some differences, str is one dimensional character array which can hold 10 characters i.e. one word. While name is a two dimensional character array in which first dimension is the number c elements and second dimension is the width of each element i.e. name array can hold five names each of having 10 characters length. We can not store multiple strings in a single dimensional array.

When an Array is declared it gets defined in a consecutive memory locations and each location is considered as an element of the array.

If we have array like int num [6];Then the computer reserves five continuous storage location i.e.



Memory location Number

Element number

Array Name

Storage Locations in Array.

Memory location are given as 6002, 6004,...because integer value takes two bytes.

Initialization of Array:-

An array can be initialized in different ways. Following are the different ways for initializing numeric array.

int num [5]; Declaring an array. Array will hold garbage value.Orint num [5];num [0]= 35; Element can be initialized separately.num [1]= 40;Orint num [5] = {35,40,45,50,55}; Numbers will be stored one by one .OrInt num[ ] = {10,20,30,40}; The size or array will be taken as per numbers

given.OrInt num[5]=[10]; All the elements are initialized to zero.OrInt num[5]= {1,2,3}; Remaining elements will be initialized to zero.


6002 6004 6006 6008 6010 6012

0 1 2 3 4 5

Num


Now the array will look like :-

Initialization of Array

The subscript of an array can be integer constants, integer variables like p , or expression that yield integers, or all characters etc. usually the array of characters is called a "string", where as a array of integers & floats is called simply array.

Note :-

All the elements of any array must be of the same type i.e. we cannot have an array of 10 numbers of which 5 are integers and 5 are floats.

* Initialization of character array :-

Character array can be initialized in following ways :-

char name[10]; Declares a character array Or char name[5]= {'A','R','R','A','Y'}; Initializes the elements with five character Orchar name[5]={'A','B','C'}; Stores three character to the array elements and

remaining elements contains blanks. Or Char name[ ] = {'M','C','E','D'}; Takes the size of array according to the

the characters stored.

Example :- char name [8] = {'W','E','L','C','O','M','E'};

Declares name as character array (string) that hold maximum of 7 character string "WELCOME". Each character of the string is treated as an element of array name and stored in the memory as follows.


35 40 45 50 55

0 1 2 3 4

num

W E L C O M E \O

Name


Character Array

Each character in the array occupies one byte of memory and the last character is always '\O' (null character). It tells that where the string ends. The string without '\O' is not a string but just a collection of characters. Using this we do not have to rely upon the length of the string. When the compiler sees a character string it terminates it with an additional null character. Thus the element name[8] holds the null character. When declaring character. arrays we must always allow one extra elements space for the null terminator.

Example :- while (name[i] !='\O') {

--------------------------

}

Following program illustrates how array are declared and manipulated :-

Example 1 :- Write a program to store five numbers in the array and display it on screen.


int a[5] = {35,40,50,20,60};int i;clrscr ( );for (i = 0 ; i<5; i++) {

printf("\n %d", a[i]); }getch ( );

}

The program will print five numbers stored in the array. Arrays can be manipulated using a loop. Elements can be varied using a variable i i.e. a[i] will refer to each element. To repeat the same procedure a loop is



used. But here every time it will print the same five numbers, to print the numbers entered through keyboard scan ( ) function should be used.



Example 2 :- Program to accept 5 numbers in the array using scan ( ) function


int a[5];int i;clrscr ( );printf ("\n Enter five numbers:");for (i = 0; i<5; i++) {

scanf ("%d", & a [i] ); }printf ("\n Five numbers entered");for ( i = 0 ; i<5 ; i++) {

printf ("\n %d", a[i]); }getch ( );

}Here every time it will accept new numbers and print it. Character arrays are manipulated in the same way as integer array.

Example 3 :- Program to print 5 characters stored in array.

# include <stdio.h.main ( )

{char str[5] = { 'A','R','R','Y'}; int i ; clrscr ( ); printf ("\n the array is"); for ( i = 0; i<5; i++) {

printf ("\n %c", a[i]); }

getch ( );}

Though str is a character array, its elements are referred by integer value so i should be of integer type. 'c' operator takes a single character. The complete string (array) can be printed using '%s' operator. It also be used with scan ( ) to accept a string. %s considers the whole string at a time as:



Example 4 :- Program to accept a string in array with %s operator using scanf ( ) function.


char str[25];clrscr ( );printf ("\n Enter a string :");scanf ("%s", str);printf ("\n the array is : %s", str);getch ( );

}

Here for loop is not required and we have to specify the array name only in the printf ( ) and scanf ( ) statement. Another way to access the array elements is using pointer, which we will see later.

The gets ( ) and puts ( ) functions :-

In above example scanf ( ) is used to accept a string. If the string is entered as "Happy Diwali" then only the word "Happy" will gets stored in the array and it will not terminate the string by \O.i.e. scanf ( ) is not capable of receiving multi-word strings, sentences or space between characters. To overcome this limitation gets ( ) function can be used, gets ( ) function can accept blank spaces and it into the array. To this function we have to pass the array name. It also automatically stores '\O' to end the string.

Syntax : - gets (array name);

Example :- gets (name); where name is a character array.

Similarly puts ( ) function works. It prints the whole string at a time screen.

Syntax : - puts (array name);

Example :- puts (name);

Following program illustrates the use of gets ( ) and puts ( ) functions.



Example 5 :- Program to accept a string and convert it into upper case.


char str [25];int i = 0;printf ( "\n Enter a string:");gets (str);while (str[i] != ' \ O' ) {

if (str[i] >=97 && str[i] <123) { str[i] = str[i] - 32 ; }i++;

}printf ("\n String in upper case :");puts (str);getch ( );

}

Two Dimensional Arrays :-

The arrays can have more than one dimension also. In mathematics, we represent a particular value in a matrix by using two subscripts such as Vij. Here V denotes the entire matrix and Vij refers to the value in the ith row and j th column. C allows us to define such a table of items by using two dimensional arrays. A two dimensional array requires two dimensions. It is also called as matrix.



Two dimensional Array Declaration :-

Declaration of two dimensional arrays is same as one dimensional array only we have to specify two dimensions.

Syntax :-

Data type array name [row size][column size]

Example :-

int V [4][3]; Creates a 4 by 3 matrix.int n [2][2]; Creates a 2 by 2 matrix.char name [5][10]; Declares a character array with 5 elements and 10

characters width for each element.

Character array can be initialized as :-

char name [3][10];Orchar name [3][10] = {"Parag","Ram","Akshay"};Orchar name [3][10] = {

"Parag","Ram","Akshay"};

Name array can hole 3 names with maximum of 10 characters length.



The array will be stored in memory as :-

Array stored in memory

The character array will look like :-

Character Array


n [0][0] n [0][1] n[1][10] n[1][1]

10 20 30 40

name [0] name [1]

name [2]

P a r a g \0

A k s h y \0

R a m \0


Example :- Program to display the number stored in two dimensional arrays in a matrix form.

# include <stdio.h>main ( ) {int n[3][3];int i , j;printf ( "\n Enter the numbers for a 3 by 3

array :");for (i = O ; i<3; i++) {

for (j = O ; j<3; j++) {

scanf ("%d", & n [ i ] [ j ]); }

}printf ("\n the numbers are : \n");for (i = O; i<3 ; j++) {

for ( j = O ; j<3; j++) {

printf ("%3d", n [i ] [ j ]); }printf ("\n);

}getch ( );

}It the numbers entered as 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 then they are printed in following format

1 2 34 5 67 8 9

The program contains a two dimensional array of 3 rows and 3 columns. A nested for loop is used to accept and display numbers in each element. To vary the elements i and j counter variables are used. %3d is a formatted operator which will set the width as 3 for each element. Character '\n' is given outside the inner loop as the line changes for each row only. Individual element can be referred as n [ i ] [ j ].



This mechanism can be used for matrix operations like matrix addition, matrix, multiplication etc.

Example :- Program to perform matrix multiplication.# include <stdio.h>main ( ) {

int m1[2][2], m2[2][2], m3[2][2];int i , j , k;printf ("\n Enter matrix 1 :");for (i = O; i<2; i++){ for ( j = O; j<2; j++) {

scanf ("%d", & m1[ i ] [ j ] );

} }

printf ("\n Enter matrix 2 :");for (i = O; i<2; i++) { for ( j = O; j<2; j++)

{scanf ("%d", & m2 [ i ] [ j ] );

} }for (i = O; i<2; i++) { for ( j = O; j<2; j++)

{m3 [ i ] [ j ] = O;for (k = O; k<2; k++) {

m3 [ i ] [ j ] + = ( m1 [ i ] [ k ] * m2 [ k ] [ j ] );

} printf ("%3d", m3 [ i ] [ j ] );

}printf ("\n");

} getch ( ); }In above example three for loops are used. Third for loop is for k . In matrix multiplication one row of first matrix is multiplied with each column value of second matrix and final addition will be stored in the resultant matrix. To repeat the multiplication and to perform their addition k loop is used. The current multiplication will be added to the previous multiplication and it will be stored in the resultant matrix i.e. m3 [ i ] [ j ].



STORAGE CLASSES

Variable declaration is the important step of any program. To store different values we need a variable. While declaring the variable we have to specify its 'data type' as well as its 'storage class' i.e. all the variables always have some default storage class. When a variable is defined it gets stored at particular location in computer. There are mainly two types of locations where values can be stored : 1) Memory 2) CPU registers. the storage class determines these locations.

These Storage classes tells us

i) Where the variable would be stored.ii) What will be the default initial value of the variable if not specified.iii) Scope of the variable i.e. in which function the variable is available.iv) Life of a variable.

There are four storage classes in C :-

a) Automatic Storage Class.b) Register Storage Class.c) Static Storage Class.d) External Storage Class.

Automatic Storage class :-

It is the default storage class for any variable if not specified.

Its characteristics are :-

Storage :- MemoryDefault Initial Value :- A garbage value or unpredictable value.Scope :- Is accessible to the block only in which it is defined.Life :- Remain in existence till the control is within the block.

The variable should be declared using Auto keyword. It gets stored in memory.



Example: - Program to illustrate Auto storage class.

# include <stdio.h.main ( ) {

auto int i , j;printf ("\n %d %d", i , j);

}

The above program will print any two values as 2765 1211

Where 2765, 1211 are the garbage values of i and j. These variables are not accessible by any other function in the program. Its scope and life is restricted for the procedure in which it is defined.

Register Storage Class:-

Register storage class is having following features:-

Storage :- CPU Register.Default initial value :- Garbage value.Scope :- Local to the block in which it is defined.Life :- Till the control remains within the block.

Values stored in the CPU register can be accessed faster than the values stored in memory. When any variable is occurring multiple times in the program, its storage class should be register.e.g. Loop counter variables can be stored in the register as its values changes many times in the program. Only the thing to remember is that CPU registers are limited. .If the variable doesn't get stored into register because of unavailability of space then the variable will be considered as auto. We can not use register storage class for all types of variables.

Example: - Program that demonstrates register storage class.




register int i ;for (i = 1; i<=20; i++) {

printf ("\n %d", i); }}

Here variable i is stored in register so it gets accessed faster in the loop.

Static Storage Class :-

Following are features of static storage class :-Storage :- MemoryDefault initial Value :- ZeroScope :- Local to the block in which it is defined.Life :- Value of the variable remains static between

different function calls.

The value of static variable remains alive through the whole program. That is the variable gets initialized only once.

Example :- Program that illustrates static storage class.

# include <stdio.h>void increment ( );main ( ) {

increment ( );increment ( );increment ( );

}void increment ( ) {

static int i = 1;printf ("\n %d", i);i = i + 1 ;

}

Here the variable i is defined as static in the function increment ( ) and the function is called three times in the main ( ) function. The value of i will be printed as : 1 2 3

Here variable gets initialized only once. For other function calls, the value remains as it is. So the output is in incremented form. Static variables are also local to the block in which it is defined. If the variable is defined auto every time the value of i will be printed as



1 1 1

External Storage Class :-

The feature of External storage class is :-

Storage :- MemoryDefault initial value :- Zero

Example: - Program for extern storage class.

# include <stdio.h>void increment ( );void decrement ( );extern int i =1;main ( ) {

printf ("\n %d", i );increment ( );decrement ( );i = i-1;printf ("\n %d ", i);

}void increment ( )

{ i = i + 1;printf ("\n %d", i);

}void decrement ( ) { i = i - 1;

printf ("\n %d ", i ); }

The output of the program is

1 / / initial value of i2 / / changed by increment ( ) function.1 / / changed by decrement ( ) function.0 / / again changed in main ( ) function.

This shows that the variable is accessible by all the functions in the program and its values also remain as it is. Initial value of i is 1 it gets incremented by the increment ( ) function i.e.2. Then it will be decremented by decrement ( ) function i.e. again 1 and finally it gets decremented by the main ( ) function, so the final value of i is 0.



Example: - Program to illustration extern storage class.

void show ( );# include <stdio.h>int i = 10;main ( ) {

int i = 20;clrscr ( );print ("\n %d", i);show ( );

}void show ( ) { print ("\n %d ", i );

The output is :- 20 10

The i variable is defined two times. The variable defined inside main ( ) is local variable and variable above main ( ) is global which is accessible by any function in the program. So print ( ) statement in main ( ) will print the value of i as 20 . Then it is calling show ( ) function which will print the value of i as 10 it access the global i variable . The states that "in any function the local variable gets preference over the global variable".

STRUCTURES

In real world application we have to deal with different type of data like numbers, character or fractional values. e.g. a system, which maintains employee information, may have the information like empno, name, salary, join_date, job etc. Where empno is integer type, name is character type. To handle all these values with different variable name is difficult task. To avoid this C provides the new data type 'Structure'.

"A structure contains a number of data types grouped together. These data types may or may not be of the same types". It can collect different type of data items that comprise a given entity. e.g. employee information, student information, book information etc. Structure is also known as derived data type or user defined data type. All the values of structure can be handled using a single variable name known as structure variable.



Declaring a Structure:-

The general form of a structure declaration is:-

Struct <structure name / tag name > { structure member 1; structure member 2; structure member 3; .......... .......... .......... };

Example:-

struct book { char name [15]; float price; int pages ; };

This statement defines a new data types called struct book. Each variable of this data type will consist of character variable name a float variable called price and integer variable pages.Once the new structure data type is defined one or more variables can be declared to be that type. For example the variables b1, b2, b3; can be declared to be of type struct book as struct book { char name [15]; float price; int pages; } b1,b2 , b3;

OR it can be defined in the main function like:

main ( ) {

struct book {

char name[15];float price;int pages;

}; struct book b1, b2, b3;}



Generally structure should be declared outside any function and still structure variable can be declared in main ( ) or any other function. Like primary variables and arrays, structure variables can also be initialized when they are declared.

Example :-

struct book { char name[10];

float price;int pages ;

}; struct book b1 = {"Basic", 130.00, 500}; struct book b2 = {"Physics", 80, 900};

Note the following points while declaring a structure type :-

i) The structure declaration statement must end with a semicolon ( ';' ).ii) The structure declaration statement does not tell the compiler to reserve any space in memory, it just defines a form of a structure.iii) Usually the structure should be declared above the main ( ) function. It can also be declared in a separate header file.iv) To access the structure members a structure variable is required.

Accessing Structure member :-

In arrays we can access individual elements of an array using a subscript. Structure uses a different scheme. They use a dot ( '.') operator with the structure variable. e.g. to refer to individual member of the structure we have to give b1.pages, b2.price etc.

The general form for this is :-

structure variable . structure member

Note that before the dot there must always be a structure variable and after the doe there must always be a structure element (member).

Unlike arrays structures are also defined in consecutive memory locations.


b1.name b1.price b1.pages Basic 130.00 550

1001 1002 1006


Memory Map of Structure



Example 1:- To accept student's information like rno, name, marks of subjects etc, and store it in the structure defined.

# include <stdio.h>struct student {

int rno;char name [20];int m1, m2, tot;float per;

}; main ( ) { struct student s1 = { 1, "Ram", 70, 70, 140, 70}; clrscr ( ); printf ("\n \t The student information"); printf ("\n \t ------------------------------------------------"); printf ("\n \t Roll No. Name Sub1 Sub 2 Total Percentage"); printf ("\n \t %d %s %d %d %d %d %.2f", s1.rno, s1.name , s1.m1, s1.m2, s1.tot, s1.per "); getch ( ); }

In above example the information is directly given in the program and it is printed one by one. The members are referred as s1.rno, s1.m1 etc. Following example illustrates how data can be accepted in multiple structure variables.

Example 2 :- To store information for three books in the structure.


{ struct book { char name [15]; int price, pages;

};struct book b1, b2, b3;printf ("\n Enter name, prices & no of pages for

3 books");scanf ("%s %d %d ", b1.name, & b1.price, &

b1.pages ");scanf ("%s %d %d", b2.name, & b2.price, &

b2.pages");



printf ("\n The data you entered is ");printf ("\n %s %d %d ", b1.name, b1.price,

b1.pages);printf ("\n %s %d %d", b2.name, b2.price,

b2.pages);printf ("\n %s %d %d", b3name,b3.price,

b3.pages); }

Array of structure :-

In above program to store data for 100 books we have to define different structure variables from b1 to b100, which is not very convenient. Similarly printf ( ) and scanf ( ) statements are given three times which increases the length of program. A better approach would be to use an array of structures. The structure variable can be declared as array to store data for multiple books. It is manipulated in the same way as the normal array is.

Example :- Program to store multiple records in the array of structures.


{struct book { char name[15];

int price;int pages;

};struct book b[100];

for (i = O; i < = 99; i++){

printf ("\n Enter the name, price & pages "); scanf ("%s %d %d", b[i].name, & b[i].price, & b[i].pages); } for ( i = O; i< = 99; i++) {

printf ("%s %d %d", b[i].name, b[i].price, b[i].pages"); } }



Nested Structure :-

One structure can be defined within another structure. This is known as nesting of structures. Using this facility complex data types can be created.

Example :- Program that demonstrates nested structure.


struct address {

char phone [15];char city [25];int pin;

};struct emp {

char name [20];struct address a;

};struct emp e = {"Bharti","358649","A'bad",

431005};printf ("\n Name = %s \t Phone = %s",

e.name,e.a.phone);printf ("\n City = %s \t Pin = %d",

e.a.city,e.a.pin); }

In the same way the whole structure can be declared within another. the value of a structure variable can be assigned to another structure variable of the same type using the assignment operator.

Example :- Program that copies one structure variable to another.


struct employee



{ char name [10];int age;float salary: };

struct employee e1 = {"Shrishti", 29,80000};struct employee e2,e3;strepy (e2.name,e1.name);e2.age = e1.age;e2.salary = e1.salary;

OR

all elements at one go as e3 = e2;printf ("\n %s %d %.2f", e1.name, e1.age,

e1.salary");printf ("\n %s %d %.2f", e2.name, e2.age,

e2.salary");printf ("\n %s %d %.2f", e3.name, e3.age,

e3.salary"); }

The above program will set and print same data for the entire three variables.

FUNCTIONS

Sometimes it is required to execute a group of statement in a program multiple times at different situation.E.g. if we need to perform the addition of two numbers multiple times in the program, for this we have to write the same code for numbers of times in the program. This increases the program length and reduces the program efficiency. To overcome this function concept is used.

" A function is set of instructions used to do a specific task". Every C program is a collection of such functions. One feature of c is that "C is a collection of functions".

C functions can be classified into two categories, namely Library Function (Built In functions). User Defined Function.

Library functions:-

Library Functions are the commonly required functions grouped together and stored in a library. They are predefined functions and can be called anywhere. E.g. printf ( ), scanf ( ), sqrt ( ), strlen ( ) etc.Following are some Library Functions given category wise



Mathematical Functions Header File : math.h

i) int abs (number) :- Returns the Absolute Value of given number.ii) int sqrt (number) :- Returns the Square Root of a given number.iii) int pow (m,n) :- Returns the nth power of number m.iv) int random (num) :- Generates random number between 1 to ( num - 1),

defined in stdlib.h



Example: - Program to implement the above functions.

# include<stdio.h># include<math.h># include<stdlib.h>main ( ) {int n=5, a, m=3, b;float x;printf ("\n Enter number for Absolute Value:");scanf ("%d", &a);printf("\n Absolute value of %d = %d", a, abs (a));printf ("\n Enter number for square root :");scanf ("%f", &x);printf ("\n Square Root of %.2f = %.2f", x , sqrt (x));printf ("\n The %dth power of %d = %d", m, n , pow (n,

m));printf ("\n Random number = %d %d %d ", random (50), random 950), random (50);

}

String Functions :- Header file : string.h

i) strlen (string exp ) :- Returns the length of the given string.ii) strcpy (string1, string 2) :- Copies the string 2 into string 1.iii) stcvmp (string 1, string 2) :- Compares two strings & returns the integer

difference.iv) strrev (string1) :- Reverse the given string provided as

argument.v) strcat (string 1, string 2) :- Concatenate (appends string 2 with string 1.



Example 1 :- Program to implement the above functions.

# include<stdio.h># include<string.h>main ( ) {

char str1[30], str2[25], str[25];int a, b;printf ("\n Enter String1:");gets (str1);printf ("\n Enter String 2:");gets (str2);printf ("\n Length of String1 = %d", strlen

(str1));strcpy (str3, str2);printf ("\n String3 -- %s", str3);strrev (str3);printf ("\n String3 after reversing = %s",

str3);strcat (str1, str2);printf ("\n String1 after concatenation =

%s", str1); }

Example 2:- Program that demonstrates strcmp ( ) function.


char str1[25], str2[25];int a;printf ("\n Enter String1:");gets (str1);printf ("\n Enter String2:");gets (str2);a = strcmp (str1, str2);if ( a>0)

printf ("\n Strings are in reverse alphabetical order");

else if (a<0)printf ("\n Strings are in alphabetical

order");else

printf ("\n Strings are equal"); }



Character functions :- Header file : ctype.h

i) toupper (char exp.) :- Converts a single character into uppercase.ii) tolower (char exp.) :- Converts a single character into lowercase.iii ) isupper (char exp.) :- Checks whether the given character is in uppercase

or not.iv) islower (char exp.) :- Checks whether the given character is in lowercase or not.

Example 3 :- Program that demonstrates toupper ( ) and tolower ( ) functions.

# include<stdio.h># include<ctype.h># include<string.h>main ( ) {

char str[20];int i;printf ("\n Enter a string:");gets (str);for (i = 0; i<strlen (str); i++) {

if (str[i] > =97 && str[i] < 123)printf ("%c", toupper

(str[i]) );else

printf ("%c", tolower (str[i]) );

} }

User Defined Functions :-

User defined functions are the functions defined by the user to do a specific task. E.g. addnum ( ), show ( ) print line ( ) etc. The main difference between these two categories is that library function are not required to be written by user where as a user defined function has to be developed by the in the program itself.



Need for user defined function :-

Every program must have a main function to indicate where the program has to begin its execution. While it is possible to code any program utilizing only main function, it leads to a number of problems. The program may become too large and complex and as a result the task of debugging, testing and maintaining becomes difficult. If a program is divided into functional parts ( subprograms), then each part may be independently coded and later combined into a single unit. These subprograms are called as 'Function' and they are much easier to understand, debut and test.

Advantage of User Defined Function :-

Using functions at appropriate places we can reduce the length of source program. This factor is particularly critical with microcomputers where memory space is limited. It is east to locate and isolate a faulty function for further investigations. Many other programs may use the same function. Using function it becomes easier to write the programs and to keep the track of what they are doing.

A Multi - Function Program :-

A function is a self contained block of code that performs a particular task. Once a function has been designed and packed, it can be treated as "BLACK BOX" that takes some data from the main program and returns a value. All that the program knows about a function is : What goes in and what comes out . Every C program can be designed as collection of these black boxes.

Example :- printline ( )

{int i;for (i = 1; i< 30; i++)printf ("-");

}

The above set of statements defines a function called printline ( ) which could print a line of 30-character length. This function can be used in a program as follows:-

main ( )



{printline ( );printf ("\n This program says c function \n");printline ( );

}printline ( ) {

int i;for (i=1; i<40; i++) {

printf ("-"); }printf ("\n");

}

Output: - A line of 30 characters will be printed. This Program says c function.

The above program contains one user-defined function: printline ( )

As you know, the program execution always begins with the main function. During execution of the main, the first statement encountered is printline ( ); which indicates that the function is to be executed. A function gets called when the function name is followed by a semicolon. As this point, the program control gets transferred to the function printline ( ). After executing the function a line of 30 characters length will gets printed. The control is transferred back to the main, now the execution continues with the statement next to printline. After executing the printf ( ) function the control is again transferred to the printline ( ) and the line gets printed once more. Here printline ( ) is a called function and main ( ) is a calling function.

* The Form of C Functions:-

All function has the form:

return type function name (argument list) {

group of statements;return (expression);

}

All parts are not essential. For example, the argument list and its associated argument declaration part is optional. The declaration of local variable is required only when any local variable are used in the function.



In the example discussed in the previous section, the main does not required any local variables, while the printline ( ) function used one local variables i.e. A function can have any number of executable statements. A function that does nothing may not include any executed statement at all. The return statement is the mechanism for returning a value of the calling function. This is also an optional statement. It is not given; it indicates tat no value is being returned by the function.Writing a function in the program includes three steps.

1) Function Prototype.2) Function Call.3) Function Definition.

Function Prototype:-

It is the declaration statement of the function. It tells the compiler what type of function it is i.e. return type, parameter type of the function etc. It should be given above the main ( ) function and it should have a semicolon. The general form of the prototype statement is :

Return type function name (parameter type):

Example: - void printline ( ) void states that function is not returning any value.Or int add (int, int) int states that the function is taking two int

values and it is returning int value.Or char find ( ) char states that fine ( ) function is returning

character value.

* Function call:-

It is a statement using which the function gets executed. When a function call gets encountered control jumps from main program to the function definition block. After executing the function statements it returns to the main program and execute the statement next to the function call. We can call the function anywhere in any function or program. A function can also be called into itself; this is known as 'Recursion'.

Function Definition:-

In the function definition we have to write the code for that function. The function definition must be outside any function or it can be in the other program also. We can call the same function for number of times in the program. We can call or define more than one function in a single program in a random sequence. The function definition statement should match with the function prototype statement.

Category of functions:-



A function depending on whether arguments are present or not and whether a value is returned or not, may belong to one of the following categories.

1. Function with no argument and no returning values [void function]

2. Function with argument and no returning values.3. Function with arguments and with returning values.

Void function:-

When a function has no arguments and it doesn't return anything then is called as void function. It does not receive any data from the calling function. Similarly when it does not return a value, the calling function does not receive any data from the called function. In fact there is no data transfer between the calling and the called function. The complete procedure is performed by the function itself.

No Input

No Output

Void Function

No data communication between functions.

Example 1:-

# include <stdio.h>void add ( ); > Function

Prototypemain ( ) { clrscr ( ); > Function Call add ( ); getch ( ); }


Function 1 ( ){-------------Function 2 ( )--------------------------}

Function 2 ( ){------------------------------------------------}


Void add ( ) > Function Definition

{int a, b, c;printf ("\n Enter two numbers:");scanf ("%d %d", & a, & b);c = a + b;printf ("\n Addition = %d", c);

}

Here add ( ) is a user defined function that will perform the addition of two numbers. It is a void function, which does not take or return any value. Void add ( ): is the prototype statement of the function. It is called in the main ( ) function and it is defined below the main function It can be called anywhere in the program.

Example 2:- Program to accept a string and to convert it into uppercase using upper ( ) UDF.

# include<stdio.h>void upper ( );main ( ) {

clrscr ( );upper ( );getch ( );

}void upper ( ) {

char str[50];int i;printf ("\n Enter a string :");gets (str);for (i=O; i<strlen (str); i++) { if (str[i] >=97 && str[i] < 123)

{ str[i] = str[i] - 32; } }print ("\n String in upper case : %s", str);getch ( );

}



Function with Arguments but no return values:-

We could make the calling function to read data from the user and pass it on to the called function .This approach seems to be because the calling functions can check for the validity of data if necessary before it is handed over to the called function.

arguments

One way dataCommunication

Values

Function with arguments but no return values

There are actual and format arguments. Actual arguments are the one that are passed to the called function e.g. a in above example and format arguments are the one that are given in the called function to store the value passed from function. They should match in their data type and order.

Arguments matching between calling function and the called function:-

We should ensure that the function call has matching arguments. Incase the actual arguments are amore than the formal arguments (m >n), the extra actual arguments are discarded on the other hand, if the actual argument are less than the formal argument the unmatched formal arguments are initialized to some garbage values. Any mismatch in data types will give error.

While the formal arguments may be variables names, the actual arguments may be variable names, expression or constants. The variable used in actual arguments must be assigned values before the Function call is made. When a function call is made only a copy of the values of actual arguments is passed into the called function. What occurs inside the function will have no effect on the variables used in the actual arguments list.


Function1 ( ){----------------Function 2 (a)-----------------}

Function 2 (b){------------------------------------------------------}


Parameter Passing:-

We can pass the value of parameter to the function using two methods.1) Call by value.2) Call by reference.

Call by value:-

In this method we have to pass the value to the function by directly specifying the variable name with the function call. In this method a copy of the original arguments gets created in the function and value in the actual variable will remain same.

Call by reference:-

In this method the value should be passed by passing the address (reference) of variable. In this method the original value will gets changed by the function. The variable inside the function should be of pointer type.

Examples based on first method are discussed here. The second method will be used with pointer concept further.

Example: - Program to create a UDF add ( ) by passing parameter to the function.

# include<stdio.h>void add (int, int);main ( ) {

int a, b;printf ("Enter two numbers:");scanf ("%d %d", & a, & b);add (a, b);getch ( );

}void add ( int x , int y ) {

int c;c = x+y;printf ("Addition of %d and %d is = %d", x , y ,

c); }



Here a , b are the actual arguments and x , y are the formal arguments. Two numbers are accepted into a and b and they will be passed to the function when it is called. The value a will be passed into x and value of b will be passed to y. Similarly we can pass float or character values to the function. The name of the actual arguments and formal arguments can be same as they are considered as local variables.The result will be printed if a = 10 and b = 20 as

Addition of 10 and 20 is = 30.

Function with Return Values :-

Unlike passing values to a function, function can return a value also. A function that receive a predefined form of input and again returns desired values. Such function will have two way data communication. Function can return a single value at a time.

Fig: - Two way data communication between functions.

Value of Arguments.

Result

Functions with Return Values.


Function ( ){Var;--------------Var = Function 2 (a)-----------------}

Function 2 (b){----------------------------------return (value);}


Example: - The above add ( ) function with returning values.

# include <stdio.h>int add (int , int);main ( ) {

int a,b,c;scanf ("%d %d", &a , &b);c = add (a , b);printf ("Addition = %d",c); ORprintf ("Addition = %d", add (a,b);getch ( );

}int add (int x , int y) {

int c;c = a+b;return c; OR return (a + b);

}

Here the add ( ) function is returning an integer value i.e. the addition of number passed which gets stored into c in main ( ) function and then it is printed.

Function with Arrays :-

Like the values of simple variable it is also possible to pass the value of an array to a function. Entire array can not be passed directly to the function. It can be passed element by element.



Following example illustrates this

# include<stdio.h># include<conio.h>void show (int);main ( )

{int n[5] = { 10 , 20, 30, 40, 50};int i;for (i = O; i<5; i++) {

show (n [i]); }getch ( );

}void show (int k) {

printf ("\n %d", k); }

Here the array is passed element by element to the function so the function should be called multiple times in the loop.

We can pass an entire array to a called function at a time. It is sufficient to list the name of the array, without any subscript, and the size of the array as arguments. This avoids multiple function calls. For example, the call largest (a, n) will pass all the elements contained in the array 'a' of size 'n' the called function expecting this call must be appropriately defined. The largest ( ) function header might look like:

float largest (float array [ ], int size)

{ }

The function largest is defined with two arguments, the array name and the size of the array to specify the number of element in the array. The declaration of the normal argument array is made as follows:

float array [ ];

The pair of brackets informs the compiler that the argument array is an array of number . It is not necessary to specify the size of the array here. Another way to pass an entire array to the called function at a time is using pointer.



Example :- Program to find largest stored in the array by defining a function.

# include<stdio.h>float largest (float [ ], int);main ( ) {

float num [4] = {2, 5, - 4.75, 13.67, 4.20 };printf ("\n Largest number is = %.2f", largest

(num,4)); }float largest (float a[ ], int n) {

int i;float max = 0; for (i=0; i< n; i++) { if (a[i] > max )

max = a[i]; }return (max);

}

In above example largest ( ) function finds the largest number present in the array passed as an argument. The function takes two arguments, the entire array is passed by specifying the array name (i.e. num) and second argument is the size of the array (i.e. 4) . Function returns the largest value to main ( ) function. In the largest function the size (dimension) of the array is not specified.

Passing structure data to function :-

Unlike arrays structure data can also be passed to the function. Structure contains different type of data. We can entire structure at a time to the function or individual members can also be passed. To pass the whole structure to the function specify the structure variable in the function call i.e. function can take argument of structure type.



Example :- Program to display structure data through function.

# include<stdio.h>struct stud { int rno, m1, m2, tot;

char name [15];float per;

};void display ( struct stud);main ( ) { struct stud s1;

printf ("\n Enter rno, name and marks of two subjects:");scanf (" %d %s %d %d ", %d", &s1.rno, s1.name, &s1.m1,

&s1.m2);s1.tot = s1.m1 + s1.m2;s1.per = s1.tot / 2;display (s1);getch ( );

}void display (struct stud s2){printf ("\n Roll no. Name Sub1 Sub2 Total Percentage ");printf ("\n -------------------------------------------------------------------");printf ("\n %d %s %d %d %d %.2f", s2.rno,

s2.name, s2.m1, s2.m2, s2.tot, s2.per);}

Here the complete structure variable s1 is passed to the function to access all the members. We can also pass individual members to the function as per the requirement.



Example :- Program to pass individual members to the function.

# include<stdio.h>struct stud {

int rno, m1,m2, tot;char name [15];float per;

}; void calc (int, int) main ( ) {

struct stud s1;printf ("\n Enter rno, name and marks of two subjects for one

student :"); scanf ("%d %d %d %d", &s1.rno, s1.name, &s1.m1, &s1.m2);

printf ("\n \n STUDENTS INFORMATION ");printf ("\n ---------------------------------------------");printf ("\n\n Roll no. Name Sub1 Sub2 Total Percentage");printf ("\n ------------------------------------------------------------------");printf ("\n %d %s %d %d", s1.rno, s1.name,

s1.m1, s1.m2);calc (s1.m1, s1.m2);getch ( );

}void calc ( int a, int b) {

int t;float p;t = a + b ;p = t / 2;printf (" %d %.2f", t , p);

In above example the structure members m1 and m2 are passed to the function to calculate total and percentage.



POINTERS

Consider the declaration

int i = 3;

When a variable is defined , three attributes gets associated with it : 1) Location number (Address). 2) value at location (variable). 3) Location name. We may represent location in memory by the following memory.

Location Number

Value at Location

Location Name

Memory Map of a variable

See that computer has selected memory location 6485 as the place to store the value 3 & it is i's address in a memory. In general programs whenever a variable is used in any statement, to access its value we have to search the memory by the variable name. This requires lot of time when there is large amount of data to be accessed like structure, arrays etc. Every time the variable is encountered it has to be searched in the memory. To reduce this time Pointers can be used.

" A pointer is a kind of variable that holds the address of another - variable".


6485

I3


Declaration of pointers :-

To declare a pointer '*' operator is used. The pointer name statement must precede with '*' operator.Pointer name can be any valid name.

Syntax :-Datatype *pointername;

Example :-int *p;char *str;

Here 'p' is an integer pointer and 'str' is a character pointer. The datatype of the pointer should be same as the datatype of that variable whose address is stored in the pointer.

Using Pointers the value can be accessed by its address i.e. 6485 in above example. We can print this address through the following program.

Example 1 :- Program that demonstrates pointer concept.


int i = 3;printf ("\n Address of i = %u", & i);printf ("\n Value of i = %d", i);

}The output of program :-

Address of i = 6485Value of i = 3

Here "&" used in this statement is 'address of operator' which takes the address (location number) of the variable i i.e. 6485. We have seen the use of '&' operator in scanf ( ) function to get address of variable. %u is used as unsigned integer to print this address. The location number is a long type of value and it may exceed the integer range 32767 and the address may get printed negative using '%d' operator. To print the correct address '%u' is used.



Pointers are manipulated using two operators.

'&' :- 'Address of' operator'*' :- 'Value at address' operator.

'&' is used to take the address of variable and '*' is used to get the value stored at a particular address. The value at address operator is also called "indirection" operator.

Following program illustrates the use of pointers to access the value.

Example: - Program to print the value of a variable using pointer.


int i =3;int *p;printf ("\n Address of i = %u", & i);printf ("\n Address of i = %u", p);printf ("\n Value of i = %d", i);printf ("\n Value of i = %d", * (& i));printf ("\n Value of i = %d", *p);getch ( );

}

Output:-

Address of i = 6485.Address of i = 6485.Value of i = 3Value of i = 3Value of i = 3

Note that printing the values of "*(&i)" is same as printing the value of "i" as '*' refers to the value at the address given using '&i'.

Here we have declared a pointer as *p. The address of the variable must be assigned to the pointer before accessing.



Example:-p = & i;

Now the memory map is

Memory map

As you can see,

i's value is 3 andp's value is address of i.

Example: - Program for addition of two numbers using pointers.


int a= 10, b=20, c;int *p,*q,*r;p = & a;q = & b;r = & c;*r = *p +*q;printf ("Addition of two no. is = %d", *r);

}


6485 6530

I P

3

6485


Pointer to function:-

Arguments can be passed to the function using two methods.1) Call by value. / / As discussed in Function

concept.2) Call by reference.

In the call by value method the value of each argument in the calling function is copied to the corresponding formal arguments of the called function. With this method the changes made to the format arguments in the called function will not affect to the values of actual arguments in the calling function. That is in this method original values will not be updated by the function.

In call by reference method the address of the actual arguments in the calling function are copied to the format arguments of the called function. That is using these address the actual arguments (values) are accessible by the called function. Whatever the changes made by the function will be affected to the actual arguments (values).

Example: - To interchange the value of two variables using call by reference method.


int a = 10, b =20;printf ("\n A = %d B = %d", a,b);swap (&a,&b);printf ("\n A = %d B = %d", a,b);

} swap (int *p, int*q) { int t;

t = *p;*p = *q;*q = t;printf ("\n A = %d B = %d", *p, *q);

}

The output of above program is A = 20 B = 10The swap ( ) function interchanges the values of a and b using their addresses stored in p and q. & a and & b will copy the address of a and b into the p and q in the called function.



Pointer to structures:-

Unlike a simple variable we can access the structure members using pointer. The pointer pointing to a structure is known as 'Structure Pointer'. Structure members are accessed through the structure variable using '.' operator. In pointer mechanism it is substituted by '-->' (arrow) operator to access those members using pointers.

Syntax:-Structure pointer -> structure member

Pointer to function:-

Arguments can be passed to the function using two1) Call by value. / / As discussed.2) Call by reference.

Example: - Displaying the numbers stored in array using function and pointer.

# include<stdio.h>void display (int *. int);main ( ) {

int n[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};display (& n[0], 5);

} display (int *p, int k) { int i;

for (i=0; i<k; i++) { printf ("\n %d", *p);

p++; /* Pointer pointing to next memory location*/

} }

Here the address of 0th element is passed to the display ( ) function. Thus passing the base address of an array to a function is same as passing in entire array. It is also necessary to pass the total number of elements in the array.



On specifying the name of the array we can get its base address i.e. address of 0th element. An array name itself refers to its base address. Thus following &n[0] and n will refer to the same element i.e. 0th element. Thus by saying *n we would be able to access the 0th element of the array. That means an array name itself acts as a pointer and it can also be used to access the array elements using pointer. Similarly by saying *(n+1) we can refer to the first element of the array and so on. That is n[i] is same as *(n+i). This concept can be used to handle strings (character arrays or two dimensional arrays easily.

Example :- To display the characters stored in the array using pointer.


char str[25];int i;printf ("\n Enter a string:");gets(str);for (i=0; i<strlen (str); i++) {

printf ("%c", * (str +i)); }}

Example :- Program to convert given string into uppercase using pointers.


char str[30];int i;printf ("\n Enter any string :");gets (str);for (i=0; i<strlen(str); i++) {

if (*(str +i) >= 97 && *(str + i) <123) printf ("%c", *(str +i) - 32);else printf ("%c", *(str + i));

} }

FILE MANAGEMENT



The function such as scanf ( ) and printf ( ) are used to read and write data. These are the console input / output functions used to perform input / output operations, which always use the terminal keyboard and screen as the target place. This works line by line as the data is small. However many real-life problems involve large volumes of data and in such situations, the console oriented I/O operations cause two major problems.

(1) It becomes cumbersome and time consuming to handle large volumes of data through terminals.(2) The entire data is lost when either the program is terminated or the computer is turned off.

The data provided to the program is stored temporarily in the memory. It is therefore necessary to have a more flexible approach where data can be stored on the disks and read whenever necessary. This method implies the concept of files to store data. The Disk input/output operations are performed on entities called file.

"A file is a place on the disk where group of related data is stored".

"C" supports a number of functions that have the ability to perform basic file operation. They are divided into two categories :

High level files I/O functions.Low level files I/O functions.

High level I/O functions are more commonly used in C programs for file operations because they do their own buffer management. Following is a list of operations that can be performed on a file.

Naming a file. Opening a file. Reading data from a file. Writing data to a file. Closing a file.



Following are the High Level File I/O functions :-

fopen ( ) : creates a new file or open an existing file for use. fclose ( ) : closes a file which has been opened for use. getc ( ) : reads a character from a file. putc ( ) : writes a character from a file. fprintf ( ) : writes a set of data values to file. fscanf ( ): reads of data values from file. getw ( ) : reads an integer from a file. putw ( ) : writes an integer from a file. fseek ( ) : sets the pointer to a desired position in the file. ftell ( ) : gives the current position in the file (in

terms of bytes from the start). rewind ( ) : sets the position to the beginning of the file.

File handling can be done in two ways

(1) Sequential file handling.(2) Random file handling.

In Sequential File Handling data gets accessed in sequential manner i.e. from 0 positions to the end of file position.

In Random File Handling data can be accessed randomly from any position in the file.

The first step of file manipulation is declaring a pointer to access a file This pointer should of FILE type and known as 'File pointer'.

Declaring a File Pointer:-

Before reading or writing the information to the file, it must be opened. Opening a file establishes a link between the program and the operating system about the file. This link is a structure called FILE that is defined in the header file stdio.h. When operating system opens the file, a pointer to this FILE structure is returned. So a pointer is used to access any file.

Syntax:-FILE pointer name;

Example:-FILE *fp;



Each file will have its own FILE structure. The FILE structure contains information about the file being used like its current size, its location in memory. It contains a character pointer which points to a location in file. Further this pointer is used to open access or close the file.

Opening a File:-

To open a file fopen ( ) function is used.

Syntax:-Fopen ("filename"," mode of opening");

Example:-FILE *fp;fp = fopen ("data", "r");

In above example fp is a file pointer which contains the address of the file data.

fopen ( ) will open the file "data" in read mode. The function takes two arguments.1) name of the file to be opened. 2) mode of opening.It tells the compiler in which mode the file should be opened. File can be opened in following different modes:-

"w" :- Write Mode."r" :- Read Mode."a" :- Append Mode.

Write mode allows to write the data to the file, the specification used is "w".Read mode is used to read the data from the file specification used is "r". Append mode allows to append new data to the end of file i.e. previous data will not be lost. Specification is "a".e.g.

fp = fopen ("student", "r");

The fopen ( ) function searches the file in the current hard disk location. If it is present, it loads it into the memory otherwise it returns NULL. For "w" mode, if the file exists, its contents get overwritten. If file doesn't exist, a new file is created. If a file is opened in "w' mode, it doesn't allow to read the data.

Note: - Here both the filename and mode are specified as string. They should be enclosed in double quotation marks.



Closing a file:-

A file must be closed as soon as all operation on it has been completed. This ensures that all outstanding information associated with the file is flushed out from the buffers and all links to the file are broken. It takes the following form.

Syntax:- fclose (file pointer);

e.g.:-fclose (fp);

Reading and writing data to a file:-

Once the file is opened, its contents are stored into the memory and a pointer is set to the first character of the file. The first two simple functions to read or write data to the file are :-

getc ( ) and putc ( ).

These functions are used to read or write character information to the file.

putc ( ) function writes a single character to the file specified by the file pointer.

Syntax:-putc (char expression., file pointer);

It takes two arguments: 1) a character expression that has to be written to the file. It can be a variable or a constant character. 2) A file pointer which refers to the required file.

e.g.:-char ch = 'A';putc(ch,fp); where fp is filepointer.



Example: - The program to write a string stored in an array to the new file.


FILE *fp;char str[30];int i=0; strepy (str, "Happy Diwali"); fp = fopen ( "text", "w"); while (i< strlen (str) ) { pute (str[i], fp);

i++;}

fclose (fp); getch ( ); }

Here fopen ( ) will open the file "text" in write mode and set the file pointer fp to its zero position. putc ( ) function writes the array characters element by element to the file. Finally the file will be closed. The file gets stored permanently on the hard disk. To check whether the characters are stored in the file, you can display the contents of file from DOS prompt using the DOS :- type command or you can write another program to read the contents of file.

getc ( ) function reads a single character from the file. It returns the character from the current file pointers.

Syntax :- getc (file pointer);

Example :-char ch;ch = getc (fp);

getc ( ) will read one character from the file specified by the pointer i.e. fp and returns it to the variable ch.



Example1: - To read the contents of file character by character.


FILE *fp;char ch;fp = fopen ("text", "r");while ( (ch = getc (fp)) ! = EOF) {

printf ("%c", ch); OR putchar(ch); }fclose (fp);getch ( );

}

getc (fp) reads a single character at a time from the file. The program contains one new statement i.e. EOF keyword. The last position in the file is known as end of file (EOF) position. The characters will be taken up to end of file. The file will be closed using fclose ( ). Similarly C provides two more functions fgetc ( ) and fputc ( ) to read and write character data to the file.

Note :-

when getc ( ) reads the character from the file, the pointer will be automatically advanced (incremented to next position. So there is no need to increment the pointer as i++ is given in the previous example.



Example 2 :- Write a program to read data from the keyboard, write it to a file called INPUT, again read the same data from INPUT file, and display it on the screen.


FILE *f1;char c;printf ("Enter some characters:");f1 = fopen ("Input", "w");while ((c = getchar ( ) ) ! = EOF) { putc (c, f1); }fclsose (f1);printf ("\n Data stored in the file : \n");f1 = fopen ("Input", "r");while ( (c = getc(f1)) ! = EOF) { printf ("%c",c); }fclose (f1);getch ( );

}

Output :-

Data stored in the file : Happy Diwali

Multiple file handling :-

Consider the following statement

FILE *p1, *p2;p1 = fopen ("student", "r");p2 = fopen ("decimal", "w");

Here p1 and p2 are the file pointers used to handle two files at a time. Student file will be opened in read mode with p1 and decimal file will be opened in write mode with p2.



getw ( ) and putw ( ) function :-

The getw ( ) & putw ( ) are number oriented functions. They are similar to the getc ( ) and putc ( ) functions and are used to read & write numeric data. The general forms of getw ( ) & putw ( ) are :

putw (numeric exp., fp);getw (fp);

Example :- The program that writes 1 to 10 numbers to the file and read it from file.

# include<stdio.h># include<conio.h>main ( ) {

FILE *fp;int n;fp = fopen ("num","w");for (n=1; n<=10; n++) {

putw (n, fp); }fclose (fp);getch ( );

}

A file named 'Data' contains a series of integer numbers, code a program to read these numbers and then write all odd no to a file called ODD and all even numbers to a file to be called EVEN.

fprintf ( ) and fscanf ( ) functions :-

In previous programs we have seen how to read or write character or numeric information from the file using different functions. To handle different type of values like character, number, float using these function is a time consuming task. To avoid this C provides another set of functions which reads or writes multiple values at a time to the file: fprintf ( ) and fscanf ( ).



fprintf ( ) functions writes multiple data items to the specified stream.

Syntax:-fprintf (output stream, "format string", variable list);

It takes three arguments:-

i) output streams to which data should be written. There are two output streams that can be provided.a) Standard Output stream i.e. stdout that refers to the standard output device -screen.b) File stream i.e. filepointer (fp) that refers to the file.If filepointer is given, data will be written to the file. If stdout is given data will be written to screen.ii) format strings like %d %f etc.iii) Variable list through which data will be provided to the file.

Example: - To write student data to file or screen.

fprintf ( fp, " %d %s %d %f", rno, name, tot, per); -- Writes data to file.Or

fprintf (stdout, " %d %s %d %f", rno, name, tot,per); -- Writes data to screen.

Syntax:- fscanf (input stream,"format strings", & variable list);

It takes three arguments :-i) input streams from which data should be taken. There are two input streams that can be provided.a) Standard input stream i.e. stdin that refers to the standard input device - keyboard.b) File stream i.e. filepointer (fp) that refers to the file.ii) format strings like %d %f etc.iii) Variable list in which data will be stored from the file. Here we have to give '&' operator with the variable name to get is address.

Example :- To read data from file into variables.fscanf (fp, " %d %s %d %f", &rno, name, &tot, &per);

Orfscanf (stdin, "%d %s %d %f", &rno, name, &tot,

&per);



Example :- Program to write employee data to the file.


int eno, salary;char name[20];FILE *fp;fp = fopen ("emp", "a");fprintf (stdout, "Enter empno, name and salary for one

employee :");fprintf (fp, "%d %s %d", eno, name, salary);fclose (fp);fp = fopen ("emp","r");printf ("\n The employee information:");fscanf (fp,"%d %s %d", &eno, name , & salary);printf ("\n %d %s %d", rno, name , salary);fclose (fp);getch ( );

}

In above program the first fprintf ( ) function will write the data to screen as "Enter eno, name, & salary for the employee". fscanf ( ) will read the data through keyboard and then it will be written to the file using next fprintf ( ) function. Then file will be opened into read mode and fscanf ( ) function will read the data from file.

Random File Accessing :-

In random file handling data can be accessed randomly from the file. We can move file pointer to any position in the file to access the data. C provides various functions to manipulate the file pointer. Following are some pointer manipulation functions :-

i) fseek ( )ii) ftell ( )iii) feof ( )iv) rewind ( )



Fseek ( ) :-

fseek ( ) function moves the file pointer to the specified position in the file. It takes three arguments :-

Syntax :-fseek (file pointer, offset, position)

i) filepointer: -Specifies the file that is to be accessed.ii) offset :- It is the number by which the pointer should be movediii) position :- It is the position from which the pointer should be moved.

Position in the file is a long type of value so we have to specify the T as long specification with the offset value. The offset value can be negative also to move the pointer in back direction.

Example:-21 - moves the pointer two positions ahead.-51- moves the pointer five positions ahead.

There are three fixed positions in the file which can be specified as a third argument for fseek ( ) function.These positions are:-

0 :- Beginning of file.1 :- Current position in file.2 :- End of file.

Example:-

fseek (fp, 31, 0) :- Moves pointer three positions ahead from beginning of file.fseek (fp, 31, 1) :- Moves pointer three positions ahead from current position.fseek (fp, -21, 2) :- Moves pointer two positions back from current position.fseek (fp, -41, 2) :- Moves the pointer four positions back from end of file.



feof ( ):-

To check whether the end of file is encountered or not feof ( ) function is used. It takes one argument i.e. the file pointer. It returns true if pointer is at end of file position otherwise it returns false.

Syntax:-

feof (filepointer);

Example:-

feof (fp);

rewind ( ):-

rewind ( ) sets the file pointer back to the beginning of file from any position. It takes one argument - file pointer

Syntax:-

rewind (filepointer);

e.g.:-

rewind (fp);



Example: - Program for random file accessing using fseek ( ) function.

# include<stdio.h># include<conio.h>main ( ) {

FILE *fp;char ch;long n;clrscr ( );n = 01; / / Sets the value is 0,'1' is the long datatype specification.fp = fopen ("text","w");while ( (ch = getchar ( )) ! = EOF) {

putc (ch, fp); }fclose (fp);fp = fopen ("text","r");while (!feof (fp)) {printf ("\n %c is at %d position ", getc(fp), fell(fp) );n--- n | 2|; / / Incrementing the value of n by 2.fseek (fp, n, 0); / / moves the file pointer two positions

ahead. }

fclose (fp);getch ( );

}

The above program will accept data from user using getchar ( )function. To stop accepting data press F6 key this is recognized by EOF keyword. Then it will print the characters from the alternate positions as 0,2,4 etc. fseek ( ) function moves the file pointer two positions ahead for every iteration. Once it reaches to the EOF, the loop will be terminated. Position the file is a long type of value so 'I' for long specification is used.



Command line arguments :-

To execute any application in C first we have to write a program, compile it and then execute it through the C editor.To improve this procedure following steps can be taken:

1) There should be no need to compile the program every time. The program should be executable form command prompt.

2)We can provide data to the program through command prompt.i.e. the program can be executed as a command.

The program will be executed based on the arguments passed from command prompt known as command line arguments. As the program execution starts from main ( ) function, the arguments has to be passed to the main ( ) function. These arguments are argc and argv.

Syntax :-main (int arge, char *argv [ ] )

The name of the arguments can be changed. First argument is the integer argc which holds the count of the arguments i.e. total no. of arguments passed. Second argument is an array of pointer to strings which holds the actual arguments one by one in the element. The strings at the command line are stored in the memory and their address will be stored in each element of argv [ ]. These arguments will be used in the program. The program name will be the first argument which goes in argv[0]. It is the exe file or command file that is run on command prompt. Using this we can create commands like dos copy con command or dos copy command etc.



Example :- The program to write a "create" command that operates like a dos

"copy con" command.

# include<stdio.h># include<stdlib.h>main (int argc, char *argv [ ]) {

FILE *fp;char ch;fp = fopen (argv[1],"w");if (argc ! =2) {

printf ("\n Invalid number of arguments !");exit (0);

}while ( (ch = getchar ( ) ) ! = EOF) { putc (ch , fp);fclose (fp);printf ("\n One file is copied !");getch ( );

}

Save above program by the name 'create' , compile and execute it ones to generate its .exe file and give following command at the command prompt to create a new file which will be stored on the hard disk..

c:\tc> create mced <press enter>



Example 2 :- To create a "copy" command which will copy contents of one file to another.

# include<stdio.h># include <stdlib.h>main (int argc, char *argv [ ]) {

FILE *fp, *fp1;char ch;fp = fopen (argv[1],"r");fp1 = fopen (argv[2],"w");if (argc ! =3) {

printf ("\n Invalid no. of arguments!");exist (0);

}while (ch = getc (fp)) ! = EOF) {

putc (ch, fp1); } fclose all ( ); printf ("\n One file is copied !"); getch ( );}



GRAPHICS

Computer Graphics is one of the most powerful and interesting feature of computer. It allows you to draw something. All video games, animation, multimedia works using computer graphics. This chapter describes how these things are achieved in C.

C provides various in built standard library graphics functions that can be used to perform different operations. These functions are defined in the header file Graphics. It contains the definitions of all the graphics functions. Before starting the graphics application first let's learn something about the graphics mode. There are two modes in computer.

i) CUI :- Character User Interface andii) GUI : - Graphical User Interface.

Windows is a good example of GUI in which everything is performed in graphical form. We can see images, colors, shapes etc. The image resolution depends upon the adapter and monitor installed on the computer. The screen coordinates are measured in pixels for graphics mode. The number of dots or picture elements (pixels) available to us on the screen in the graphics mode is known as resolution. Greater number of dots, higher is the resolution.

Consider the following program that draws a circle on screen.

# include<stdio.h># include<graphich.h>main ( ) {

int gdriver = DETECT, gmode;initgraph (&gdriver, &gmode," ");setcolor (RED);circle (100,150, 50);closegraph ( );

}

The above program contains circle ( ) function that draws a circle of radius 50 at 100, 150 position.

Syntax:-Circle (x position, y position, radius)



First two arguments are the x , y coordinates from where the circle will be drawn on screen. Third argument is the radius fro the circle. You can use a variable as a argument.

Example:-

a = 20circle (200, 300, a);

setcolor ( ) function will set the background color as RED.

To run any graphics program first the graphics (mode) should be initialized. To set the graphics mode that provides high resolution. Initgraph ( ) function is used. It takes three arguments i) graphics driver ii) graphics mode and iii) Path for the file. First two arguments passed are gd and gm. gd. gm is two integer variables. The initgraph ( ) function figures out the best resolution and stores the number corresponding to that mode in the variable gm. The gm number tells us which monitor we are using. The variable gd refers to the graphics driver. Device drivers are the small programs which directly communicate with the hardware. Graphics drivers are set of device drivers and are applicable only in the graphics mode. They execute the task assigned to them. Turbo C provides certain graphics drivers. They are the files with extension .bgi. Depending on what adapter is used, one of these drivers gets selected by the DETECT statement. DETECT is macro that selects the driver installed on the computer. Third argument is the path for the driver file.

Ones the graphics is initialized, the cursor disappears and the screen coordinates changes to pixels and we can draw any shape on screen using the graphic functions.



Following are some graphics functions and their use:-

Initgraph (&gd, &gm, "path") :- Initializes the graphics mode from

graphics operations.

Line (x1, y1, x2, y2) :- Draws a line from (x1, y2) to (x2, y2) where x1. y1, x2, y2 are

integer variable that represents the screen Coordinates.

Circle (xc, yc, rad) :- Draws a circle with center xc, yc and radius rad.

Rectangle (x1, y1, x2, y2) :- Draws a rectangle with (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) as corners. Setcolor (color) :- Set the color for the graphics

drawn.

Get color ( ) :- Gets the current drawing color.

Getbkcolor ( ) :- Gets the current background color.

Setbkcolor (color) :- Sets the background color.

Out text (string) :- Displays a string in the

view port(screen)

Outtextxy (x, y, string) :- Displays a string at specified

position.

Setline style (type, pattern, thickness):- Sets different styles for the line.

Getmaxx ( ) and getmax ( ) :- Gets the maximum x, y

screen coordinates.



Clearviewport ( ) :- Clears the current view port

i.e. screen.

Closegraph ( ) :- Close the graphics system and

deallocates the memory allocated by the graphics system.



Some examples using above graphics functions:-

Example 1:- Program which will print a face on screen.

# include<stdio.h># include<graphics.h>main ( ) {

int gdriver = DETECT, gmode;initgraph (&gdriver, &gmode." "); / / Initialises graphics.clearviewport ( ); / / Clears the

graphics screen.setbkcolor (CYAN);setcolor (BLUE);circle (300, 260, 60);ellipse (275, 240, 10, 360, 8, 13);ellipse (325, 240, 10, 360, 8, 13);line (300, 240, 295, 270);line (295, 270, 303, 269);arc (300, 280, 182, 1, 20);fillellipse (275, 245, 5, 9);fillellipse (325, 245, 5, 9);getch ( );closegraph ( ); / / Closes(deinitialises)

graphics screen. }



Example 2 :- Program to Draw a clock screen.

# include<graphics.h># include<conio.h>main ( )

{int gdriver = DETECT, gmode;initgraph (&gdriver, &gmode," ");clearviewport ( );fillellipse (280, 240, 104, 130);setcolor (1);ellipse (280, 240, 1, 360, 95, 120);setfillstyle (SOLIE_FILL, 9);fillellipse (279, 240,5, 5);line (279, 135, 279, 240);line (240, 178, 280, 240);line (279, 239, 355, 270);outtextxy (275, 125, "12");outtextxy (365, 235, "3");outtextxy( 190, 236, "9");outtextxy (270, 350, "6");fillellipse (199, 190, 2, 2);fillellipse (223, 151, 2, 2);fillellipse (360, 199, 2, 2);fillellipse (338, 151, 2, 2);fillellipse (199, 291, 2, 2);fillellipse (225, 332, 2, 2);fillellipse (360, 291, 2, 2);fillellipse (337, 330, 2, 2);getch ( );closegraph ( );

}

PROGRAMMING IN C++ LANGUAGE

Looping Structure in C++:-

In C++ language is a object oriented language it is developed in bell laboratories by Bjarne startup. The C++ language consist of same



special feature rather than C programming in C++ language is the next version of C programming language due to some disadvantages of C language there is development of C++ language. The C++ language removes. The limitations of programming languages are as follows :-

1) The main thing is it is difficult to read the keyboard, invert the vector. For display of data or a function that checks or correct input is important but it cannot be check.

2) The data makes up the inventory is probebbaly read from a list into memory it treated as global variable.

Object oriented programming (OOPS):-

The fundamental ideas define the object oriented language is to combine into a single a program in to birth data and functions. Such a single program is called as object.

An object P is called member function in C++ difficulty it provide the main the access it's data if we want to read data item of and object. We can call a member function in the object. It will read the item and return the value to gives you can not access the data directly the data is hidden, so it is safe from accidental alteration. The data and its function are enclosed input a single entity known as Encapsulation.

We can't access data directly


Data

Membership

Member fan


If we want to modify the data in an object we know exactly that function interface with a no other function can we access the data this simplifies. Writing debugging and maintain the program.

A C++ program consists of a number of object that communicates with each other by calling one another's member functions. The member functions in C++ are called as methods.

Features of Object Oriented Programming Language:-

The C++ programming language is an object programming language it is more useful and easy for programming. We can handle data of C++ programming language due to it's characteristics of programming there are some major features of object oriented programming language are as follows:-

1) Class2) Object 3) Inheritance4) Reusability5) Facility of creating new data type6) Polymorphism and overloading.

1) Class:-

A class is that block of Object Oriented Program where data and functions are placed together, one below the other. In other words, a class resembles the structure of C. In structure only data is placed whereas in a class data and functions both are placed together. Therefore a class of C++ is considered as an extension of structure of C. The data and functions together from a capsule and the capsule so formed is called as a "class". In other words, a class is a template of data and function.



2) Object:-

In c, after defining the template of structure, the structure variables are declared. As soon as a structure variable is declared, memory gets allocated to all the members of structure, depending upon their memory requirements. In a similar manner, an object is nothing but a variable of class type. Consider the following segment of Object Oriented Program.

::

class vivek{

private:int fees;

public:void accept_fees (void){

cout<<"Enter fees";cin>> fees;

}void show_fees (void){

cout<<"college fees is"; <<fees<<endl;

}};

The above segment of Object Oriented Program shows the definition of a class named "vivek" that has encapsulated the data member "fees" and the functions named "accept_fees ( )" and "show_fees ( )". Now recall the declaration of a structure variable in C. As a variable of structure type can be declared, a variable of class type can also be declared. Consider the following declarative statement.


class vivek nis;


In the above example "vivek" is the template name of a class. Using "vivek" a variable "nis" is declared in the above declarative statement. This variable "nis" of class "vivek" type is called an object of "vivek" (i.e. a variable of vivek).

The object "nis" gets its own private memory to place its data member "fees" and member functions"accept_fees ( )".As we have declared one object "nis" of class "vivek". We can declare as many objects as we want. All these objects enjoy their own private memories to place their own data members and member functions. Consider the following declarative statement.

Here all the objects ob1 to ob7 belongs to the same class "vivek" and so we can also say that all these objects together are making a class named "vivek". Thus a group of objects can also be considered as a class.

3) Inheritance:-

A newly born baby usually inherits some features of father and some features of mother, say intelligence of father and beauty of mother. In addition to this inheritance, the baby has her own features too. In the same manner a class of OOP can inherit the features of another existing class. Consider the following diagram that illustrates the concept of inheritance in OOP.

4) Reusability:-

The concept of inheritance leads to the concept of reusability of existing codes. By virtue of inheritance, the member functions that are defined in one class can be called for execution by the objects of derived classes. Consider a class that creates a menu, this class works fine and we do not want to change it but want to add the capability to make same menu entries flash on and off. To do this, we can simply create a new class that inherits all the capabilities of the existing one but adds flashing menu entries. This is nothing but the reusability of the existing software.


Class vivek ob1, ob2, ob3, ob4, ob5, ob6, ob7


5) Facility of Creating New Data Types:-

The facility of creating new data types is not a new concept in OOP. C has the concept of "structure" and "union" that lets the programmer create a new user defined data type using the built in data types of the language. C++ has implemented the same but in an advanced and sophisticated manner. In C++ the class name is used as an abstract data type for defining objects. One of the benefits of objects is that they give the programmer a convenient way to construct new data types.

6) Polymorphism and Overloading:-

Polymorphism / overloading is a new concept that is given by Object Oriented Programming. This new concept can be implemented either on the functions or on the operators. More than one functions, if are given the same name, then such functions are called as overloaded function. Similarly the operators can also be overloaded. A+ (plus) operator can add two isolated values together. But if we make the + operator to add two objects together when the operator is called an overloaded operator.



C++ IDE (Integrated development environment) structure of C++ program.

The program is stared with # include files the file form the library can be used with help off # include structure .

The c out & c in is used in the C++ program. Consider once statement of program.

# include <iostream.h>void main ( ){char str[40]int M1, M2, M3, avg;cout << “Enter your name.”;cin >> std;cout << “Enter marks of three subjects”;cin >> M1+M2+ M3;avg = M1+M2+ M3/3;cout << “Your name is”<<std;cout << “ You Average marks are”<<avg;}

The identifier c out:-

The c out is actually then object it is predefined to the standard out put stream a stream is on abstraction that refers to a flow of data it is used for screen display.

The operator << is called us insertion or to operator it is used for display of statement. The syntax of c out is a s follows.

Syntax:-cout << “Enter your name”;

The identifier C is it is also as object predefined in C++ it is

related with standard input stream. It represents data coming from the keyboard the >> is extraction or get operated.

The syntax of cin is as follows.

Syntax:-cin >> M1>>M2>>M3;

It is word as like scanf function in C programming language.

Void Pointer:-

The word void can be used to define a pointer. The C++ handles the assignment of void pointer with main keyword.



1) Comment :- as like C C++ supports two types comment the comment like with in the /*--*/ structure is ignored by the compiler.

2) C++ supports the // notation.avg = M1+M2+M3/3; /* calculate avg*/

avg = M1+M2+M3/3; // calculate avg

Looping Structure of C++ :-

Loops :-

The loop is a program which checks how many types to cycle around the programming for true & false results.

Loops make decision on values that can be either true or false. There are three type of looping structure C & C++ which helps programmer to execute the program and expected type of circulation or cycles the looping structure help us or repetitive work & save our time & length of program.

The loops are as follows.1) While loop.2) For loop.3) Do loop.

1) While Loop:-

A while loop help us to show the conditional statement.For e.g. A while loop ask to user to enter a character. It continues the cycle until the user enters the characters .

Syntax :-While (Char !=x)

{Body of loop cout << “Enter any character”;

cin >> ch;}



The while consists of the keyword while following by a condition enclosed in parenthesis ( ). The body of loop is enclosed by curley bracket { }.

(braces)

FalseGo back to Exit while looprevaluate

True

while looping Statement.

2) Do Loop :-

The do loop is also called as do while loop. This loop is used when we always want to do one time the syntax for do while loop is as follows.

do{

cout << “Enter any character”;cin >> ch;cout << L-nd/n;}while (ch !=x)

LoopFalse

Exist while

loopGo back to revaluate


Condition

Execute statement

Execute Statement

Condition


Do-While looping Statement.

The Do loop is only loop that is end with semicolon the semicolon is necessary because of the condition follows the loop a body so the closing brace of the loop can not act end line for the entire loop.

3) For Loop :-

In while & do loops we don't know how many time the loop will be executed. the condition that terminate the loop arises continuously inside the loop if can't be happened in case of for loop.

The for loop will be executed usually started at the beginning of loop. The parenthesis followed by the keyword . For contains three different parts of for loop separated by a semicolon. The variable inside the loop is known as loop variable expressions of for loop are

1) The instillation which usually to initialize value of loop variable.

2) The text expression, which usually checks the value of loop variable to see whether the cycle again or exit from the loop.

3) The increment or decrement expression which usually, increment & decrement the value of loop variable for

e.g. for (i=0; i<20; i++)

1) Initialization expression.2) Test expression.3) Increment / Decrement expression .for e.g.

for (i=1; i<=20; ++i)cout << "*";int k , total = 0;

for (i=0; i<10; ++i){total = total + i ;cout = total ;}

Decision Loop :-



i) If Statement :-

The simple way make a decision in C & C++ is the if statement. The if Statement helps us to execute out desired statement automatically the syntax of if Statement is as follows .

{If (Door = "open")cout << "Enter in class";}

ii) If------else statement :-

The If----- else statement helps us to show the statement when it is true & simultaneously it also shows false statement the syntax. For if else statement is as follows.

If (marks>35){cout << "Result = Pass";elsecout << "Result = Fail";}

iii) Nested if -----else statement :-

We can use if else statement more than one time as per our requirement

If (Marathi>35){cout << "Result = Pass";else If (Hindi>35)cout << "Pass";else{If (Phy>35)cout << "Pass";else{cout << "Result = Fail ";

} }}



UNIX

UNIX COMMAND:-

UNIX is operating system software used for oxidation of application software the UNIX operating system, is easy to use, due to its features the UNIX operating system is developed at 'A & T bell' laborites. In 1971 by Stive Barned. The UNIX operating system is a multi-user operating system it can be access or Run by the new user also system.

Components of Unix Operating System:-

UNIX operating system is classified into following components depending on its function of consist of1) Kernal2) Shell3) Unix tools & application.

1) Kernal:-

The Kernal is a care or operating system program it performs all the low level jobs which is necessary to control al the task & hardware devices all operating system have a kernal which is carried by kernal for flash operating of the system. The kernal is used for operating of Utility or application on software tools. The kernal interface with the help of system call is call to an operating system operating this cell can be made in C or assembly language program. The system calls are the basic building blocks upon which UNIX commands are based.

2) Shell:-

It is the command interpreter it is the command operating system it accepts command from user the $ prompt any lise these commands the shell short exciting the exactable feel & ten request to kernal to carry out the data transfer which finally gives output hence the shell. Act as middle man between kernal & User operating system.

3) Unix tools & application:-



The outer most layer of Unix operating system is it's tools & applications some versions of UNIX are having more than four hundred tools these tools can be involved from the command line & helps to perform complex task of te system tools consist many applications programs which may be purses speciously such as electronic spread sheet sophisticated word processing package.

General Commands used in UNIX:-

The appearance of a $ prompt display command in UNIX command. Type of C prompt. Result in command to get their are some general commands used in UNIX.

1) $ Date:-

This command tells Unix system to print system date & time every Unix command must be ended with Return the inform system that user has finish typing $who.

2) $ Who:-

This command gives information about. The all users who are currently logged on the system.

System: - $ Who

3) $ Who am I:-

This command used to get inforation about the user who is setting or currently logged on the system

Syntax: - $ who am Ie.g. :- $ who am I

4) Echo:-

This is very simple & straight forward command it displays on the screen. What ever the type after the command echo.

Syntax:- $ echo I am student of COPA I am student of COPA



5) $ ps (prace ss status) :-

The ps command makes process status Report the process. Status Report is as line this.Report is as line this

P/D TTY Time Command2345 12 2:15 SW2378 12 6:01 DS

The first column process identification number each time kernal assign a unique p1 the sh is shell oph is processed status or other input device which we are using & time command displays time which is used for processing.

Syntax:- $ ps.

6) $ Clear:-

This command will clear the screen & view make true of command press of word & tress new known name trace of the command directory commands. PWD :- (Print working directory):-

The command PWD tells us what directory we are $ PWD.

This command returns the path of currents directly within the root directory their is a sub directory known as USR , within which there is another directory it is known as user.

7) MKDIR :- (Create directory name)

To create a directory UNIX provides a mkdir command.

Syntax: - $ MKDIR DIR name $ MKDIR ABC

8) RMDIR :- (Remove directory name)

The command is used to remove the directory at the shell prompt type the command.

Syntax: - $ Rmdire.g.:- $ Rmdir ABC

9) CD :- (Change directory name)



When a users create a directory we would like to change the directory .

Syntax: - $ CD Dir namee.g.:- $ CD ABC

Basic File Command:-

1) LS :- ( list the file)

The command is list the file in the directory. The command LS with no argument list the contents of ever current directory.

Syntax: - $ LSExample: - $ LS

The LS command is used with same parameters.

LS - I: - Optional first line.LS - D: - Directory.LS --:- Ordinary

2) Cat :- (Create File):-

This command creates file on the system. The syntax or this is

Syntax: - $ Cat > First file nameI am student Comp.sci

Ctrl + D

In this Ctrl + D is used to store the file.

3) Rm (Remove file):-

This command is used to delete or remove the file on system.

Syntax: - $ Rm file namee.g.:- $ Rm ABC

4) CP (Copy):-

The command is used to make a copy the file in this first argument file copied into second argument.

Syntax: - $ CP (Source-target)e.g.:- CP ABC XYZ



5) MV :- (Method Vehicle)

The command is used to change the name of file the first name is ole name & second name is new name after the command prompt.

Syntax : - $ my first file name (second file)e.g.:- $ my XYZ CBZ

6) Chmod :- (Change mode of access)

This command changes made of indicated file & directory. The file made is read write & executed permission separately for the each class of user tat is user

Syntax: - $ chmod 777 ABC



UNIX EDITOR:-

The UNIX editor is an important part of the system it helps to create & modify to user files & data there are two text editors available under the UNIX operating system. Te two text editor are vied.

VI - it is stand for visual & cEd - it is stands for simple editor.

The VI editor can be access in three ways this are shown below.i) Vi - it edits & empty editing buffer.ii) Viname - it edits & file with specified file nameiii) Vi+3 name: - it opens file with a specified name and goes third line idefineiv) vi+/bye name: - it searches for the first occurrence of bye in the file commands used with other users.

1) Write:-

The easy way to communicate with other user who are logged in the syntax of write command is as following type.

Syntax: - $ Write used (TTV)

2) Mesg Command:-

It is used to sent receive massage from other user te syntax of mesg command is

Syntax: - $ mesg x

3) News:-

It permits the user to read massages published by the system administrator the important new is saved as a file in the news directory so that file in the news directory so that file in the news directory so that it may be available to all user.

Syntax: - $ news



4) WX:-

This commands counts line words & character the syntax is

Syntax: - WX - (option) (filename)

Option

I - Count line.W- Count word.C- Count Char.

5) Pq ( paiqinator) :-

These command arrows to view on screen full of a time. The pq command display a prompt that pauses for the user to strike the dental key to continue scrolling at the end of file it displays.

6) Sort:-

The sort command sorts the more mud file.

Syntax: - $ sort file / file 2 > file3

The contains of file / & file 2 are merge, stored & redirected to file 3

7) Cut:-

This command is used to cut out selected fields from a file & display. The syntax of cut command is below.

Syntax: - $ Cut - [option] [file name]

Paste:-

The paste merges the contains of multiple file & display them and screen this fielder is used to generate output in column format the syntax is

Syntax: - $ paste [option] [file name]



Tar Command:-

The Tar stand for take achieved the Tar command is used for making a back up copy of entired directory it takes as its argument a command a directory to be achived on a tape or other tape

Syntax: - $ Tar ABC

Wall: - [Write to all]

This command is used to display a message to all user on the system # wall

Tar Hello friends I have joined now

Ctrl + D

Path:-

This command is used to display path of your directory when we logging our path variable is set to some difficult value.

Syntax: - $ Echo $path

GREP :- (global regular expression printer)

This command is used to search & print to specified pattern from a file or standard input

Syntax :- $ GREP [patton] [file name]e.g. :- $ Cut data$ GRED in data.



Characteristics of Shell:-

The shell is important & useful path of UNIX operating system due to this characteristic it is more useful some of these characteristic are as follows

1) It acts as interface to UNIX operating.2) System it acts as command interpreter.3) It provides a programming language with powerful syntax.4) The Standard input output can be redirected to files.5) Process on communicate through pipe.

Characteristics of Unix Operating System :-Or

Features of UNIX Operating System:-

1) The Unix Operating system is mainly silence feature some of this importantFeature is as follows:-

1) Multi tasking.2) Multi-user.3) System Portability.4) Communication:-5) System security:-

1) Multitasking:-

This capability permits the operating system to perform several takes at a time, UNIX & print one document, edit mother & sort list of file at the same time the multiple task can be carry down by placing other task in the back ground.

2) Multi user:-

The multi-user operating system permits several users to use te same computer to carryout there job the serval terminals are connected to server computer other computer can access files & print document at the same time te multi-user environment gives complete coordination & competitive & saves amount of time.



3) System portability:-

The UNIX operating system can install software without any major changes this ability of UNIX operating systems makes UNIX popular UNIX run on more brands of computer

4) Communication:-

The UNIX supports two major type of communication.a) Communication between different terminals connected to the same computer.b) Communication between users of is computer as specific location to the users or another type or size of computer.

5) System Security:-

The user data is highly secure in there are several level of security in UNIX the first level is

i) System security. The standard log in procedure secured user data. The next level of security is the permission to access the files are read, write, execute is unsigned by the owner of the file this is level of security allows the users to in script data files on this so that the data remains secure.



DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Database Environment:-

Information is very important in any business or organization it is required to manage this information it is required to manage this information as per our requirement the information is useful when it is accurate & available as on when required by the user. This can be occur only if an organization organizes & manages it's data properly data base is shared collection of logically related data & designed to fulfill the information needs of an organization data is the Row material from which useful information is required.

Data:-

Data is the Row material from which use full information is received data is commonly used in both similar & plural form it is defined as row facts of organization on fact or observation typical phenomenal.

Information:-

The data which is converted into useful & meaningful form is known as information. The data & information are used i9nterchange the data are Row material resources that are processed into information products information product can be defined as data has been converted into meaningful & useful form for the end user information is processed data placed in a way that gives value for specific and user.

The software of data base management systems are as follows which is used by people

1) FoxPro2) Oracle3) Ms-Access



FOXPRO

INTROEDUCTION TO FOXPRO:-

PROGRAM:-

The set of instructions provided to computer to accomplish a particular task is called as program.

SOFTWARE:-

The collection of program which are used between the user and the computer is called as software.

There are two main classes of software.

1) Application software.

2) System software.



DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PACKAGE AND LANGAUAGE:-

PACKAGE LANGUAGEIt is application software It is a system softwareHere a limited set of instruction used It is used for communication purposeIt is slower compared to language It is fastere.g. Word-star, Lotus, account package, FoxPro , D.T.P. package

e.g. Basic , Cobol , C , Fortran , Pascal

DATA BASE:-

The collection of information which is arranged in structured and table manner is called as data base.

e.g. 1) A telephone directory. 2) Library system.

DATA FIELD:-

Individual entity in the database is called as data field.E.g. Serial No., Name, Salary etc.

DATA RECORD:-

The collection of related fields is called as data record.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FIELDS AND RECORDS:-

RECORD FIELDRecord is a collection of related fields Individual entity in the database is called as

fieldsCollection of records constitute Collection of fields constitutes a recorde.g. Roll-no, Name, Course, fees is a record of single student

Name, Roll-no, Course, fees are the separate fields.



STRUCTURE OF DATABASE FILE:-

The structure of a database is like a table which contains the no.of records of different information related subject.

A database could be a address book database because each rows or records contains information about a different person or entity. In the following table, record no.1 for SUNIL contains in the column or fields identified as name, address, and city.

DATA BASE

RECORDNUMBER

FIELD1(NAME)

FIELD2(ADDRESS)

FIELD3(CITY)

1 SUMIL GULMANDI A'BAD2 ANIL M.G.ROAD PUNE3 VIJAY CAMP PUNE

TYPES OF FILES:-

The most commonly used files in FoxPro are as follows. Each file type has a unique extension to indicate its type.

1) .DBF DATA BASE FILE2). DBT MEMO file3) .PRG PROGRAM file4). IDX INDEX file5). FRX REPORT file6). LBX LABEL file7). SCX &. SPR SCREEN file

FIELDS & DATA TYPES:-

There are 6 types of fields available in FoxPro.



1) Character Field:-

Here you can use alphabets and also numbers. Maximum allow able range is 255 characters.

2) Numeric Field:-

It is used for numerical operation. The numeric type data is stored in this field. Maximum range is 20 digits.

3) Date Field:-

When you use data in your file, use this field to store data type information.

4) Memo Field:-

It is also same type as character. But there is no limitation of alphabets. No limitation of character. One database can have only one memo field.

5) Logical field:-

When there is a condition e.g. true or False, Yes or no then logical field is used. Maximum range is 1.

6) Float Field:-

Here you can include decimal Points, Maximum range 20 digit.



RULES FOR NAMING DATA FIELDS:-

1) Field name can be up to 10 characters.

2) Field name must have to begin with alphabets. Remaining 9 characters may be alphabets or digits.

3) There should not have blank space, in the field name.

4) Special characters are not allowed in field name except underscore i.e. "-"

WHAT IS FOXPRO?

FoxPro is database management system. This is the faster DBMS. It is developed by fox software incorporation.

ADVANTAGES OF FOXPRO:-

1) We can add, correct or delete records in database file.

2) We can generate mailing labels.

3) Programming facility is available with FoxPro.

4) Screen generation facility is available which is more powerful compared to other DBMS.

5) The editor of FoxPro is more powerful which provide cut, paste and copy etc.

6) The report facility is available which is very useful.

7) Memo field has unlimited capacity which depends on memory space.

8) The records can be arranged order i.e. the record can be sorted, or indexed.s



ELEMENTS OF FOXPRO SCREEN

MODES OF OPERATION:-

You can operate the FoxPro in 3 different modes.

1) Command line mode2) Programming mode3) Assist mode

1) Command Line mode:-

After starting FoxPro we get a window through which we can give the commands. This is command line window.

2) Programming Mode:-

We can write the program in this made. These programs can be used repeatedly.

3) Assist Mode:-

It is a menu driven mode from which you can select the options.

INSTRUCTION SET:-

The instruction set consists of command, function and statement.

1) Command:-

Commands are used to have some specific work.

2) Functions:-

This is a ready-made program and can do the specific work.

3) Statement:-

It is a set of commands and can be used in programs.



FOXPRO SCREEN:-

Fox Pro screen consist of 3 parts.

1) Command Window2) Menu mode3) Status line

1) Command Window:-

By default the cursor is in command window and you can give the command directly. You can change the size of the command window by pressing ^F8 and move the window by pressing ^F7 from one place to another. The command mode is faster than menu mode.

2) Menu Mode:-

All the menus are displayed at the top of the screen and a single character is high lighted to switch over to menu mode, use Alt and highlighted character.

Then it displays the commands available in the menu. To execute any command from the menu, move the cursor to that option and then press enter.

3) Status Line:-

At the bottom of the screen, there is a white strip which is called as status line. The status line gives as following information.

a) The current drive e.g. C:

b) The DBF name which is in use.

c) The total no. of records in the DBF and the position of record pointer.

d) Status of special keys like insert, num lock, caps lock etc.



OPERATORS IN FOXPRO:-

In FoxPro mainly there are three types of operators.

1) Mathematical Operators:-

These are +, -, *, /

2) Relational Operators:-

These show the relation between the two quantities.These are =, >, <, < =, > =, #

3) Logical Operators:-

There are AND, OR, NOT. The logical operators must be enclosed in dots.

e.g.:- .And . . . . Or. .Not.



COMMANDS IN FOXPRO

CREATE:-

This command is used to create a new database (DBF).

Syntax: - CREATE <File name >

After this command, we will get the screen where you have to provide information about the field of DBF.

Structure of Database File (DBF). In structure we have to provide field name, field type, field width and decimal places. (Only for numeric fields)

The DBF created by CREATE command will have the extension .DBF

E.g. CREATE STUDENTE.g. CREATE EM PLOYEE

After pressing enter key, you have to create database structure by specifying the required fields & their types.

After creating the structure it will ask you a question

Input data record now?

< Yes > < no >

Type "y" or select yes to input the data records in a file. Then enter the record in the file and use 'Ctrl +W' key to save the file.



LIST:-

This command is used to see the contents of DBF.

Syntax: - LIST

We can also we the list command with condition. In this case for clause is used.

Syntax: - with condition

List for < condition >E.g. List for name = "A"

This will display the list which contains the name starting from A.

List for salary = 1000 ORList for salary > 1000 .AND. name = "A"

This will display the list which contain the record having salary >1000 .AND.

Name = "A"

List for salary > 1000. OR. Name = "A"

This will display the list which contains the record having salary, 1000 or name starting with "A".

USE:-

This command is used to close the opened DBF or to open the DBF, which is already created.

Syntax: - USE <File name >e.g.:- USE ACTIVE

This will open a file ACTIVE

Syntax: - USE

This will close the opened DBF.



QUIT:-

This command is used to exit from the FoxPro & returns to the operating system.

Syntax: - QUIT

CLEAR:-

This command is used to close the entire file, which are opened. We can close any type of FoxPro file using this command.

Syntax: - CLOSE ALL.

APPEND:-

This command is used to add records at the end of the currently opened file.

Syntax: - APPENED.

APPENED BALNK:-

This command is used to add one blank record at the ened of the currently opened file.

Syntax: - APPEND BLANDK.

RECORD POINTER:-

This is a pointer which indicates record no.in a DBF which is in operation currently.

GO TO:-

This command is used to move the record pointer at the specific record.

Syntax: - GOTO < NUMBER>e.g.:- Go To 5

GO TO TOP:-

This command is used to move the record pointer to the first record of the DBF in use.

Syntax: - GO TO TOP



GO TO BOTTOM:-

This command is used to move the record pointer to the last record of DBF in use.

Syntax: - GO TO BOTTOM.

SKIP:-

This command is used to skip the record that is to move the record pointer to the next record.

Syntax: - SKIP < RECORD NUMBER >

E.g. :- First of all record pointer is in third position, that is give command as skip 2, after skip the record pointer is on the 5th position.

This is called as forward skipping. If record pointer is on rec 5 & if we issue command skip-2, then it will shift that printer 2 records back, i.e. on rec.no3.

This is called as backward skipping.

EDIT:-

This command is used to modify the record in a database.

Syntax: - EDIT

Syntax: - EDIT < RECORD NUMBER>

E .g. EDIT 5



BROWSE:-

This command is used to edit the records in a database file. This command opens a browse window & display records in a table format you can move from record to record. In browse window records can be edited, added or marked for deletion. Using different options.

Syntax: - Browsee.g.:- Use Student

Browse.

To add records in a browse windows press Ctrl+N key. It will add one blank record at the end of records.

To mark the records for deletion in brose windows press Ctrl+T.To save the changes made in brose windows press Ctrl+W, & to

discard changes press Ctrl+Q.

DISPLAY:-

This command is used to display the single record at a time. The record on which the record pointer is present that will be displayed.

Syntax: - DISPLAY.

Syntax: - DISPLAY RECORD <RECORD NO>E.g.:- DISPLAY RECORDS.

To display set of record use command as bellow.Suppose record printer at first record i.e I and you want to display only 4 records from current position i.e. from 1 to 4. Then give command a bellow.

e.g.:- DISPLAY NEXT4



DISPLAY STRUCTURE:-

This command is used to display the structure of currently opend DBF. This will show the field names, their types and field widths along with the total width.

Syntax: - DISPLAY STRUCTURE.

MODIFY STRUCTURE:-

This command is used to modify structure of existing file. Using this command; we can add new field, we can delete old field, we can delete old field, we can change width of field etc.

To add new field use Alt+ITo delete old field use Alt+D.



DELETION & RECALLING OF RECORDS

DELETION:-

In FoxPro deletion of record is of two types.

Logical deletion:-

In this deletion record is temporarily deleted and it is mark with (star). You can undelete the logically deleted records.

In the structure of a file the total width of a field is greater by 1.This one additional column is used for the star.

Physical deletion:-

In this deletion the record is permanently deleted from the DBF. For this purpose the PACK Command is used.

DELETE:-

This command is used to delete a record logically or temporally from the DBF.

Syntax: - DELETE.

The record on which the record pointer is present is deleted logically using this command.

Syntax: - DELETE RECORD <NO >

The specified record is deleted logically from the DBF.

E.g. delete record 4

PACK:-

This command is used to delete the logically deleted record permanently. Syntax: - PACK



ZAP:-

This Command is used to delete all the record permanently from DBF.

Syntax: - ZAP

The structure of the fill will remain same only the record will deleted.

RECALL OF LOGICALLY DELETED RECORDS:-

This command is used to undelete a logically deleted record.

Syntax: - RECALL: OR:

Syntax: - Recall RECORD <NO> :OR: RECALL ALL

This command is used to undelete the all logically deleted record at one time.



COMMAND USED FOR CALCULATIONS

SUM:-

This command is used to find total of numeric fields.

Syntax: - SUM <FIELD NAME>

The result of this command can be store into some variable by giving command as sum <field name> to memvar

e.g.:- Sum Salary to S1.

Sum Salary for CITY = "A'bad". to S2.

It will select all records whose address are "A'bad" & add their salaries. The result is stored into memory variable S2.

AVERAGE:-

To find average value of numeric field

Syntax: - AVERAGE <Field name > To < Memvar>e.g.:- To find the average salary belonging to same city.

Average salary for CITY = "A'bad" to S3.

COUNT:-

To count the no. of records satisfying certain condition & result is stored in memvar.

Syntax: - Count for (Condition) to memvar.e.g.:- Count for Upper (Address) = "A'BAD" To S2

It will count all the records whose address is "A'BAD" & result is stored in S2.

CALCULATE:-

This command is used with some other fun?



SEARCHING TECHNIQUES

Following techniques are used to search particular record satisfying certain condition from the DBF.

1) Locate2) Seek3) Filter

LOCATE FOR CITY = "A'BAD"

It returns you the rec.no. having city "A'BAD" i.e. it will search for that field. This command is used to search and unindexed single record.

LOCATE must have FOR - Clause.

The basic way of using the LOCATE dialogue box is by checking the FOR check box & then in the expression builder, enter the logical expectation you will be using as the criterion for the search LOCATE FOR will begin it's search with the first rec. & read it sequentially until it finds the matching record. It moves the record pointer to that record.

If you want to search the next rec. that matches the criterion then give CONTINUE command after LOCATE command.

CONTINUE:-

The search for locate command can be continue using continue command. If there are more than one record that matches with the condition mentioned in locate command then this command will move the pointer to next matching command.

Syntax: - CONTINUE



SEEK:-

To search for a single record based on controlling index, use the seek command.INDEX ON City to CCSEEK "A'bad"

DISPLAY

INDEX ON Salary to SSEEK 5000

DISPLAY

FILTER:-

It extracts the records satisfying condition fro the DBF.

Syntax: - SET FILTER to <exp>E.g.:- Set Filter to City = "PUNE"

REPLACE:-

This command is used for change the contents of one field or more fields. We can change data of one record or all records.

Expression may be any name i.e. "ACCOUNT", value i.e. 100 or formulai.e. SUB1+SUB2+SUB3 etc.

e.g.:- 1) Replace City with "Bombay"2) Replace Salary with 15003) Replace Salary with (400+800)

REPLACE ALL:-

It will replace all the record in the specified feld with the new expression in a entire DBF.

Syntax: - REPLACE ALL <Field Name> WITH <new expressions>e.g.:- Replace All Salary With 1500e.g.:- Replace All Netsal with (Basic + Da + Hra - Lic -Pf)



FILE HANDLING COMMANDS

DELETE FILE:-

This command is used to delete a file from the disk.

Syntax: - DELETE FILE <File Name>e.g.:- Delete File ABC.DBF

The file to be deleted must be closed.

COPY TO:-

This command is used to copy the contents of currently opened dbf in a new file.

Syntax: - COPY TO <New File Name>e.g.:- Copy To ABC

This command is used only with DBF the new file will have the extension DBF.

COPY STRUCTURE:-

This command is used to copy the structure only of currently opened DBF file to new file.

Syntax: - COPY STRUCTURE TO <New File Name>e.g.:- Copy Structure to PRAKASH

The new file will have the extension .DBF

COPY FILE:-

This command is used to copy the contents of any file into a new file.This is similar with copy command in DOS.

Syntax: - COPY FILE <File Name with Extension > To <Target File Name with Extension>

e.g.:- Copy File ABC.Prg To XYZ.Prg

RENAME:-

This command is used to change the name of any file.



Syntax: - RENAME <Old File Name with Extension>To <New File Name with Extension>

e.g.:- Rename ABC.DBF to ACTIVE.DBF

This is similar command to ren command in the DOS.

SORT:-

To arrange the data in proper physical order is called as Sorting. We can sort the data in ascending or descending order in case of numeric field and alphabetically ascending or descending in case of character field.

Syntax: - SORT ON <FIELD NAME> to <NEW FILE NAME>e.g.:- SORT ON NAME TO STUDENT

New file created is a database file. Here the sorted record will be in file student. To see those records, you will have to use that file i.e. student and then give LIST command. The sort command will sort the data which was randomly entered.

You can sort the file on multiple fields also.

Syntax 2:- SORT ON <Field Name 1, Field Name 2>To <New File Name>

e.g.:- Sort on salary, name to emp12

In this case the first field is primary field.

You can open the sorted field files using "Use" command.



SORTING & INDEXING

SORTING:-

This command allows you to sort entered data in alphanumeric order. It gives the ability of copy records & structure of a database to another database file arranged in alphabetical, numerical or alphanumerical orders. The SORT is done on one or more fields within the active database. You can specify also whether the SORT should be in ascending or descending order.

You can sort the file on multiple fields also. When entries in the first KEY field are same then second key field determines the order.

To sort the dbf that database file should be opened first.

USE Trial

Sort on name to sortum - Single filed sortingSort on name, city to city - Multiple field sorting

Here name is primary & city is secondary KEY Field for sorting the database file TRIAL, CITY.DBF gets created. To see the Sorted records. We should open sorted file.

USE CITY.

BROWSE. : OR: LIST

INTRODUCTION TO INDEX

One of the main advantages of having computerized database is that the data can be retrieved & processed very quickly. Database can be organized efficiently. An INDEX is one way of organizing a database in order to retrieve relevant information.

Indexing means arranging the records into ascending or descending order. This is a logical arrangement of data. Original dbf is not affected after indexing.

Database file can be INDEXED on particular key fields to organize the data.

For example, if you want names of employess in alphabetical order, the file can be indexed on the field which contains the employee name. Here



the field containing the name of the employee would be called the KEY field.

FoxPro supports two types of Index.

1) Simple Index.2) Compound Index.

In simple index file, the FoxPro creates a separate index file for each KEY Field.This index file will have the extension .IDX. The index file will contain information about the KEY fields & the location of data in the database. When the database file is opened using the USE command, the corresponding index file will also have to be opened.

Any addition or modification to the data in DBF would also be updated in the index file However, if the index file is not explicitly opened, the updation will not take place in the index file.

To open a dbf along with index file command is

USE EMPDATA INDEX EMP <Enter>



STEPS IN CREATING SIMPLE INDEX FILE:-

1) Before creating an index file, the database file has to be in USE. For Ex. Let us use the file EMPDATA & we want to index that file using EMPNAME AS key field, then give command.

USE EMPDATA <enter>

2) To index EMPDATA.DBFWe select file menu & select NEW from the sub-options. The new dialog box will displayed.

3) Select index file radio button. The INDEX dialog box appears. This dialog box allows you to create the index file.

4) You can select field (s) to be used as the key field from the FIEED list box. As the fields are selected they appear in the INDEX KEY list on the right.

The file can be indexed in ASCENDING or DESCENDING order of the key fields.

Indexes can also be UNIQUE, which means no two records in the database file will have the same value.

5) Choose the type of index file a compound or a single index file.

6) Now select [ok] push-button to create the index file.

Another way of indexing a file is to use the INDEX command. The INDEX command can be entered through the COMMAND WINDOW

Syntax: - INDEX ON <Field exp> To <COMPACT file name>

[FOR <exp>] [ASCENDING/ DESCENDING] [UNIQUE]

The Options for the INDEX ON Command are as follows:-

The for clause make the index include only records for which the logical expression is true.

The COMPACT option creates a COMPACT file which requires less memory space. The ASCENDING & DECENDING options allow you to tell FoxPro whether the file has to be indexed in ascending or descending order of the KEY. By default the file is indexed in ASCENDINNG order.



The UNIQUE option makes the index include only records with unique values of the key field, i.e. if a file contains more than one record having the same KEY values then only the first record will be indexed.

E.g. INDEX ON EMPNAME TO EMP <enter>

Note the EMP in the to clause will have extension.IDX & whenever the database is opened, then the index file must also be opened, otherwise the index file will not be updated.

To open index file along with the database file, the following command can be entered from command window.

USE EMPDATA INDEX EMP <enter>

Now display the data using BROWSE Command.

BROWSE

It will show an indexed record list on to the screen.

EXPRESSIONS IN INDEXES:-

An expression can also be used in the index command. For example, if we index the file on the KEY field EMPNAME, it may be possible that the index is not always in alphabetical order, especially if the data within the field is in both upper & lower cases. To make sure that the index takes place in the correct order, we can use the function UPPER () to force the INDEX command to convert the data in the key field into upper case before indexing. The command for which is as follows: INDEX ON UPPER (EMPNAME) TO EMP<enter>This command will force the index command to convert all the employee names into upper case before indexing the file.



REINDEX A FILE:-

We have seen that s single index file must always be opened along with the data file, if the changes made in the data file have to be updated in the index file. However, sometimes this may not get done. This would result in a mismatch between the data in the index file& the data file. However this can be corrected by using the REINDEX command. The REINDEX command reindeers the file on the same key as specified during the creation of the INDEX file . Note that both the data file as well as the index file has to be opened

USE EMPDATA INDEX EMP<enter>REINDEX<ENTER>

The file is now reindeer & the index file is updated. This command is not necessary if the index file is already updated

COMPOUND INDEXING:-

Simple indexing is used for indexing on the single field. But for multiple indexes in compound indexing is used. You can create multiple index files (.IDX) using simple indexing. Which are crated on different fields?

In compound indexing, all indexes of different fields are stored in the same index file with extension (.CDX) under different tag names. FoxPro itself gives same name as that of database file with extension. CDX to the indexed file. Means single index file with same name as database file gets created which store multiple indexes. Under different tag name

INDEX ON<field name> TAG<Tag name> or <File Name>e.g. INDEX ON EMPNAME TAG NAME<enter> .INDEX ON EMPNAME TAG CITY <enter>

Compound index on field EMPNAME which is stored under tag name NAME. & using second command, we made compound index on field EMPCITY which is stored under a tag name CITY. Both indexes are stored in a single file EMPDATA.CDX.To activate particular index save under certain tag name. Command is

Set Order to<tag name>E.g. Set Order to NAME <ENTER>This will activate index tag NAME



DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SIMPLE INDEX & COMPO0UND INDENX:-

SIMPLE INDEX COMPOUND INDEX

This is used for indexing on the single field

The file is created with extension .IDX One index is stored in single index file User should give the new file name for

index file. Index file should be opened by the

user for further use

This is used for multiple field indexing. The file is created with extension. CDX All indexes on different fields are stored in

the same file under different tags. FoxPro itself gives the same name with the

extension. CDX. as that of dbf to name the index file

In this case. CDX File gets likened with DBF when dbf is opened

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INDEXING & SORTING:-

INDEXING SORING Organize records logically Remain record no. unchanged. Create index file. IDX or .CDX Allow random search also. Require less time to retrieve any

record. Allow to open index file with dbf file Any changes in dbf will be

automatically updated in index file Index file requires less memory

Organize records physically. Changes original record no. Created file for sorted records. Allow sequential search only. Required more time to retrieve any

recode. Cannot open sorted file with db file Have to resort if any changes made in

dbf file. Sorted file requires same memory

DISADVANTAGES OF SORT:-

1. The added data in a DBF will not be sorted automatically2. Each time it will create a new sorted file which will have extension DBF and so their is a wastage of space in the memory.3. This is slow compared to index command.

ADVANTAGES OF INDEX :-

1. This saves memory space2. If you will add the record in the original DBF then it will get sorted automatically



3. Index command is fast compared to sort you can use the index file along with DBF using following syntax Syntax Use<DDF File Name > Index<Index File Name> exg. USE STUDENT INDEX STD 1Here STUDEND is name of database file and STD1 is name of index file. The database file and index file name may be same.

FIND:-

This command is used to search a record in indexed DBF.

Syntax: - FIND<Character String>E.g. Find PRAKASH

This command is used to search only character types of data so it is not necessary to enclose the charter type of data is quotation mark is command.

SEEK:-

This command is used to search a record in an index DBF.

Syntax: - SEEK< Expression>E.g. Seek 3000

This command is used with both Numeric and character type of data. Here the character types of data must be enclosed in quotes.

E.g. Seek "PRAKASH"



SET COMMANDS

These Commands are used to change the environment settings of FoxPro.

SET STATUS ON/OFF:-

This command is used to set the status line on/off .By default status line is on.

SET CONFIRMATION ON/OFF:-

This command is used to set the confirmation ON /OFF.

When you are entering the data using APPEND command and other commands then after the selected field width is complete the cursor will lcome to next field automatcially if it is off

When you will set the confirm ON the cursor will not come to next line until you press ENTER. Other wise the last character in the Field will be upgraded by default it is OFF.

Set date

This command is used to set the Date Format1. Set date American : MM/DD/YY2. Set date British : DD/MM/YY3. Set date French : DD/MM/YY4. Set date Italian : DD-MMY-YY5. Set date Japan : YY/MM/DD6. Set date ANSI : YY.MM.DD

SET DELETED ON/OFF:-

This command is used to set the deleted On/Off. When it is ON it will not show the logically deleted records in the list.

When it is OFF then only it will show the logically deleted records in the list . By default it is OFF.



SET EXACT ON/OFF:-

It you are using the commands like list, display etc. It will show the records depending on the tentative character.E.g. List For Name= "G ".

This command will show the name like Geeta, Gresham etc.If you will set the exact ON then you will have to provide the Exact name in the commande.g. List for name=" Geeta ". By default the exact is OFF.

SET CLOCK ON/OFF :-

By default is it OFF. When it is on you will see clock on right top corner of screen

SET CLOCK TO <ROW,COLUMN>:-

This command is used to set the clock at particular row & columne.g.set c;pcl tp 15.7

SET DECIMAL TO<VALUE>:-

This command is used to control is used to control the no. of decimal place. Which are displayed on the screen? E.g. set decimal to 5. O/P will be 125.00000

SET BELL TO FRERQUENCY, DURATION:-

E.g. set bell to 1000.10

To adjust the frequency 7 duration of hipping sound when set bell is ON.The frequency is in between 19 to 10,000 Hz,Default value is 512 Hz duration in is 2 sec

SET CENTURY ON/OFF:-

To see the date with century, set century ON. By default it is OFFSET DEFULT TO (DRIVA/DIRECTORY)E.g. set default toC:/FoxproTo change logged drive or directory set default to command is used.

SET FILTER TO <CONDITION>:-

This command is used to filter records from.dbf which satisfies certain condition .e.g. Set filter to city = A, bad.Brow- >By this command all records with city is "A' bad" are displayed



Set filter toBy this command all records in the dbf will be displayed

SET HEADING ON/OFF :-

To set field heading ON or off in list, browse command this command is used by default, it is ON

SET INDEX TO:-

It is used with compound index .To open simple index file.

Syntax: - Set index to<File name>E.g. Set index to Name<enter>

SET MARGING TO<expn>:-

To set merging while executing the command .By default left margin is 0. The effect will be seen in printed output.

SET ORDER TO:-

To choose master index this command is used.

SET SAFETY ON/OFF:-

The warning messages are displayed if it is set to ON.



FUNCTIONS

Functions means the set of program which is designed for some specific purpose

In FOXPRO mainly there are 5 types of functions.1. Numeric Functions2. Database Functions.3. Environment Functions4. Date Functions5. String Functions

NUMERIC FUNCTIONS. :-

1) Abs ( ):-

This function gives the absolute value of number

Syntax: - Abs (<Numeric Value>)e.g. Abs (-78)O/P: 78

2) Int ( ):-

This function gives integer value of Numeric expression

Syntax: - Int (< Numeric Expression>)e.g.? Int :( 78.65)O/P 78

3) Log ( ):-

This function gives Logarithmic value of given numeric expression

Syntax: - Log (<Numeric Value>)e.g.? Log (7) O/P; 1.95This will give the log value for base e

4) Max ( ):-

This function gives maximum value from given list of values.

Syntax: - Max (<Numeric expl> <Numeric exp 2> ,----)e.g.? Max (25,45,78,56) O/P :78



5) Min ( ) :-

This function gives maximum value from given list of values

Syntax: - Min (<Numeric expl>, <Numer exp2. -----)e.g Min925,45,78.56)O/P:25

6) Sqrt ( ) :-

This function gives square root of the given no.

Syntax: - Sqrt (, Numeric Value>). E.g. Sqrt (9) O/P: 3

7) Mod ( ):-

This function gives remainder of division of two numbers.

Syntax:-Mod (< Numeric expl>, <exp2>e.g.> Mod (10, 3)O/P: 1

on whether logical condition is true or false.

Syntax: - IIf (< Logical exp>, <exp2>, <exp2>In this function, expression one end exp two should be of same type E.g. store 50 to marks? IIF (marks >35." pass"," fail")O/P: PassStpre 33 tp, arls?IIF (marks<35,"pass","fail")O/P: failIf condition is true then first value will be considered otherwise second value will be considered.

DATABASE FUNCTIONS:-

8) Round ( ):-

This function gives rounded value of given number to specified no.of decimal placesSyntax: - Round (< Numer exp>, <number of Decimal Places>)



O/P: 65.8? round (68.567.2)O/P :68.57

9) IIF ( ):-

This function is used to extract one out of two values depending

1) Deleted ( ):-

This function gives true value if record is logically deletedSyntax: - Deleted ( )E.g. suppose at present you are on record no.3 then give command asBelow/deleted ( )O/P: F. (false)It means that the third record is not logically deleted.

Now delete the record by DELETE command Then Give command as below? Deleted ( )O/P: T (true)

2) Field ( ) :-

This function gives name of the field in opened database fileUse Address Syntax: - ? Field (4)O/P: CityIt means in address dbf fourth field is city.

3) Recounts ( ):-

This function gives total number of record in opened database file

Syntax: - Recounts ( )e.g./ reccount ( )O/P: 6

4) Recno ( ):-

This function gives the current record number



Syntax: - ? Reccount ( )e.g.? Recno ( ) O/P:

5) Recsize ( ):-

This function gives total width of the record.

Syntax: - Recsize ( )e.g.? Recsize () O/P: 72

6) EOF ( ) (end of file):-

This function gives true value if record point is after the last record at the end of file i.e. it gives true or false states about the end of file.

DATE FUNCTIONS:-

1) DATE ( ):-

This function gives us current date Syntax: - Date ( )e.g.:- ? Date ( ) O/p: 25/10/98

2) DOW ( ):-

This function gives numeric day of the week

Syntax: - Dow (date exp.)?Dow (date ( )) O/P:7Note: Sunday is first day.

3) CDOW ( ):-

This function is used to give character day of week

Syntax: - Dow (Date exp)? Cdow (date ( ))O/P: Saturday

4) MONTH ( ):-



This function gives numeric month from given date

Syntax: - C Month (date exp.)? Months (date ( )) O/P: 1

5) CMONTH ( ):-

This function gives character months of date or name of month

Syntax: - Cmonts (date exp.))? Cmont (date ( ))O/P: January

6) Day ( ):-

This function gives day number of month

Syntax: - Day ((Day ex. ( )?day (Date ( ))O/P: 25

7) Year ( ):-

This function gives us the year is four digits.

Syntax: - Year ((date exp. ( )? Year (date ( ))O/P: 1998 8) CTOD ( ):-

This function is used to convert the character type date to date format.

Syntax: - CTOD (<character type date in quotation mark>)? Ctod ("01/01/98)O/P: - 01/01/98

9) DTOC ( ):-



This function is used to convert date type data to character format.

Syntax: - DTOC (<Date in date format>)? DTOC ((date ( ))O/P: - 01/01/97

ENVIRONMENT FUNCTIONS:-

1) DISKSPACE ( ):-

This function gives us the total number of bytes available on the disk.

Syntax: - Disk space ( )

2) FILE ( ):-

This function is used to check whether the specified file is present on the disk or not. It returns True OR False result.

Syntax: - ? File ("file name with extension")

3) OS ( ):-

This function gives name of operating system with version.

STRING FUNCTIONS:-

1) AT ( ):-

This function gives position of a character in given string.

Syntax: - AT (<character expression>), <character expression>)e.g. ? AT ("C", ACTIVE")Then output wills be2

2) LEFT ( ):-



This function gives specified number of characters from left side of character string.

Syntax: - ? LEFT (<Character expression>, <Numeric expression>)e.g.? LEFT ("ACTIVE")After giving this command, output will be ACT.

3) RIGHT ( ):-

This function gives specified no. of characters form the right side of given string.

Syntax: - RIGHT (<Character expression>,<Numeric expression>)e.g.? RIGHT ("COMPUTER", 4)

If such command is given then output will be UTER.

4) LTRIM ( ):-

This function removes blank spaces to the left of the character string.

Syntax: - Ltrim (<Character expression>)e.g. ? "ABC"+" XYZ"O/P: ABC XYZNow use Ltrim on XYZ to remove blank spaces.? "ABC" + LTRIM ("XYZ") The output is as below.O/P: - ABCXYZ.

5) RTRIM ( ):-

This function is used to remove blank spaces to the Right of the character string.

Syntax: - RTRIM (<Character string>)? ABC "+ XYZ"O/P: - ABC XYZ? RTRIM (" ABC ") + "XYZ"O/P: - ABCXYZ.

6) REPLACE ( ):-



The function is used to repeat the specified character for specifed number of times.

Syntax: - REPLACE (<Character exp.>,<Numeric exp.>)e.g. 7 REPLICATE ("*", 10)O/P: - *********

Here the star is printed 10 times.

7) SUBSTR ( ):-

This function extracts the specified no of characters from specific position to specified position from given string.

Syntax: - ? SUBSTR (< String>, no1, no2)

It will give character from no1 up to no2.

Ex: - SUBSTR ("PRAKASH", 3, 2)O/P: - AK

8) SPACE ( ):-

This function is used to store blank space to some character variable.E.g. Store space (20) to nameIt will store 20 blank spaces to name.


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