Computer Architecture Module Hand Book-Ca_ June 6th(Sent ToRam Sir on 6th)

8/6/2019 Computer Architecture Module Hand Book-Ca_ June 6th(Sent ToRam Sir on 6th)

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CALEDONIAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,

SULTANATE OF OMAN

Module Leader

(Geetha Achuthan)

Computer

Architecture

MODULE HANDBOOK

Department of Electronics and Computer

Engineering

(Session)

2010-11

(Semester A)

Module Code(M1G406242)



Department of Electronics and Computer Engineering

PREFACE

Department Name is only Electronic not Electronics

This module hand out is intended to provide you with a concise guide in respect of

M1G406242 Computer Architecture .This is intended to present the basics involved in this

module and it remains as a course guide to achieve the module objective. It is

recommended that the student to go through the text books and reference books thatreferred under each chapter in order to have full understanding of the module. In this

handout, you will find information and advice that should prove helpful as you progress

through the module.

Grateful acknowledgement is made to all the authors whose works has been cited as

examples from their books, journals and projects.

Geetha Achuthan

Module Leader

Module Handbook (Computer Architecture) 2010-11 Rev:00 Semester A

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART A

SL NOTITLEPAGE NOPreface (by Module Leader)21.Module

Details52.Introduction53.Aims and Objectives54.Syllabus 65.Learning

Outcomes66.Learning and Teaching Strategy

(Lectures and Tutorials, Laboratory work details, Assignments

etc)67.Module Delivery and Assessments7Weekly TeachingSchedule7Assessment Strategy 8Assessment Procedures88.Indicative

Marking Threshold for Course Work99. Appointment Slips





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TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART B- MODULE NOTESCHAPTER NOCHAPTER TITLEPAGE NO

1

Computer Systems111.1Introduction 111.2Computer Systems111.3Exercises

121.4Indicative Reading and References 122DataRepresentation132.1Introduction 142.2Data Representation142.3Exercises

152.4Indicative Reading and References 153Computer Operation163.1Introduction 163.2Computer operation163.3Exercises

173.4Indicative Reading and References 174Methods of executable

programs184.1Introduction 184.2Methods of executable programs184.3Exercises194.4Indicative Reading and References 195Fundamentals of Computer

Architecture205.1Introduction 205.2

Methods of Network architecture205.3

Exercises

215.4Indicative Reading and References 21 6 Assignment

22




1. Module Details

Module Code Module Title Credits Semester Pre Requisite Knowledge

M1G406242 Computer Architecture 10 A Standard Entry Requirements

2. Introduction

Chapter1 provides an idea about computer organization and architecture and also provides

a brief history of the development of computers from early systems to present-day systems.

The binary number system and digital codes are fundamental to digital electronics. Chapter2

shows how the different data types found in digital computers are represented in binary form

in computer registers, and on the binary coding of symbols used in data processing.

Chapter3 describes the organization and architecture CPU, a part of a computer thatperforms the bulk of data processing operations from the user’s view.

Chapter4 explains about the major techniques such as pipelining, parallel processing that

are used to increase the computational speed of a computer system and thus its

performance.

In the design of a computer network which is a backbone in today’s communication, different

systems comprising of hardware, software, protocol and devices are used to communicate

with one another. Chapter5 gives a brief about the fundamentals of network architecture.

3. Aims and Objectives

The main aim of this module is to introduce the concepts underlying computer systems

(hardware) and to provide a foundation for succeeding computer technology studies.

More specifically, the objectives are:

• Highlight and compare the various generation of computers.

• Understand the different Digital codes used in digital computers and their

relationship.

• Explain the various binary codes and Error detection codes used in data processing.

• Describe the basic structure of computer hardware and the functional operation of

each unit of a computer.

• Understand the concept of pipelining and the way how it speeds-up processing.

• Understand the basic hardware and software involved in making a network and

layered models used in computer network.

•To develop personal and interpersonal skills including development of self-awareness of ability aptitude and character and self-confidence.

• To develop learning skills, including time management and work discipline;


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• To understand team working, personal relationships and authority.

4. Syllabus

The teaching syllabus will cover the following area:

Computer Systems:Difference between Organization and Architecture, A brief history of Computers.

Data representationData Types, Complements, Fixed point representation, Floating point representation,Other binary codes and Error detection codes.

Computer Operation:General register organization, Stack Organization, Instruction formats, Addressingmodes, Program Control, RISC and CISC.

Methods of executable programs:

Parallel processing, Pipelining, Arithmetic pipelining, Instruction pipeline, Vector Processing, Array Processing.

Fundamentals of Network Architecture:

Network Hardware, Network Software, Reference Models (OSI and TCP/IP).

5. Learning Outcomes

On successful completion of this module the student will be able to:

1. Describe the range of computer systems.

2. Describe the operation of the components within computer systems.

3. Apply the different number systems used in computer arithmetic.

4. Describe the various methods of producing executable programs.

5. Describe fundamental Network architectures.

6. Identify and demonstrate transferable skills.

6. Learning And Teaching Strategy

(Lectures and Tutorials, Laboratory work details, Assignments etc)

Lectures will be used to introduce the theoretical concepts and introduce the key features of

the applications. A portion of laboratory time will be used to provide a forum for discussing

any problems with the theoretical material. Laboratory time will be used to provide

supervised practical exercises based on real examples from engineering applications to

reinforce the mechanisms described in theory, and, where possible, will be self-paced and

student centered. Directed learning will be used to prepare for and to consolidate lectures.


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7. Module Delivery and Assessments

Weekly Teaching Schedule

Assessment Strategy


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Week Date

commencing

fromLecture Programme

1 18 Sep 10

Difference between Organization and Architecture, A brief history of

Computers

2 19 Sep 10 Data Types

3 20 Sep 10 Complements(r’s and r-1’s compliments)

4 21 Sep 10 Fixed point representation, Floating point representation

5 22 Sep 10 Other binary codes and Error detection codes

6 23 Sep 10 General register organization, stack organization

7 24 Sep 10 Instruction formats, Addressing modes

8 25 Sep 10 Program Control, RISC and CISC

9 13 Nov 10 Parallel processing, Pipelining

10 27 Nov 10 Arithmetic pipelining, Instruction pipeline

11 28 Nov 10 Vector Processing, Array Processing

12 29 Nov 10 Network Hardware, Network Software

13 13 Nov 10 OSI Reference Model, TCP/IP Reference Model

14 01 Dec 10 Revision




(i)Mid –term test - 20%

(ii) Coursework1 - 60%

(iii) Coursework2 - 20%

Assessment Procedures

This module is assessed by Continuous Assessments (10 credit point module)

Sl.No Description Mode Marks

1 Mid–term TestWritten Test

20%

2 Coursework1 Case Study/Lab Work 60%

3 Coursework2 Theory Based Quiz 20%

Total 100%

Pass requirement : Minimum 40%

8.Indicative Marking Threshold for Course Work


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Indicative

Grade

Indicative

Mark

Commentary

A

70% and

above

(EXCELLENT

PASS)

Excellent Standard

• Exceptionally clear, well structured and theoreticallyinformed.

• Standard of English excellent,

• Exceptionally good powers of analysis and interpretation.• Adequate References

Solutions to problems

• all steps in a meticulously structured

• use of relevant units and interpretations,

• use of intelligent and innovative methods

B

60-69%

(VERY GOOD

PASS)

High Standard

• Displaying a thorough understanding of the topic.

• Focusing clearly on the question

• Demonstrate extensive reading to support analysis

• Soundness of judgment

• Coherently reasoned statement with empirical evidence.• Shows room for improvement

• Proper referencing to sourcesSolutions to problems

• all steps in a structured manner with relevant units.

• answers to show accurate results ( may miss simplesteps)

• some interpretations of Solution (may be incomplete)

C

50-59%

(GOOD

PASS)

Generally good standard

• solid pieces of work which answer the question,

• show evidence of familiarity with available texts;• a clear conclusion in a generally focused and well written

manner,

• use of citations, quotations and references.

• room for improvement in breadth of reading, depth of analysis

• References includedSolutions to problems

• Contain necessary/important steps with relevant units.

• more or less accurate results, (may miss some stepswhich are not very critical to problem solving)

•lack of proper interpretation of results.

D

40-49%

(PASS)

Adequate standard

• substantial room for improvement, (e.g. in terms of thestandard of written English, the sharpness of focus on thequestion)

• lack of sophistication of the analysis

• References included, but not adequateSolutions to problems

• steps for solving problem based on theory and principles(may lack some steps towards the final answers)

• no substantial interpretation of the final result

F 30-39%

(FAIL)

Standard below average degree standard• Display some potential of degree standard (falls down in

at least one of the categories indicated above)Solutions to problems


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• not containing important steps for solving the problem

• initial steps correct but mistakes towards final result

Below 30%

(BAD FAIL)

Weak and well short of degree standardfailure to

• focus on question set, identify the issues accurately,understand and use core concepts, distinguish betweenimportant and unimportant facts and theories, understand

or interpret the main arguments in the literature, citesources; provide proper references

• a poor standard of sentence construction, grammar &spelling.

• commit major mistakes in choosing the data/lacksimportant and critical steps towards obtaining final result


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CHAPTER 1

Computer Systems

1.1 Introduction

This chapter provides an idea about computer organization and architecture and also

provides a brief history of the development of computers from early systems to present-day

systems.

Aims and Objectives

By studying this chapter the student shall be able to

Differentiate between computer organization and architecture.

Highlight and compare the various generation of computers.

1.2 Computer Systems

1.2.1 Difference between Organization and Architecture

Computer Architecture: refers to those attributes of a system that have a direct

impact on the logical execution of a program.

Example: the number of bits used to represent various data types

Computer Organization: refers to the operational units and their interconnections that

realize the architectural specifications.

Example: things that is transparent to the programmer.

Computer Architecture comes before Computer Organization.

1.2.2 Brief History of Computers

The First Generation: Vacuum Tubes

(i) 1943-1946: ENIAC

• First general purpose computer

• 30 tons + 15000 sq. ft. + 18000 vacuum tubes + 140 KW = 5000

additions/sec

(ii) Von Neumann Machine (1945: EDVAC )• Data and instructions are stored in a single read-write memory.

• Execution occurs in a sequential fashion from one instruction to the next.

(iii) 1946: Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies (IAS) computer

• Prototype for all subsequent general-purpose computers.

• First commercial computers are UNIVAC, UNIVAC II.

The Second Generation: Transistors (1947)

• Introduction of more complex ALU and control units

• High-level programming languages

• Provision of system software with computers

The Third Generation: Integrated Circuits (1958)


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• Increasing Number of I/O Ports

• Increasing Memory Size, cost.

• Different models could all run the same software, but with different

price/performance

• Bus structure was introduced.

Fourth Generation: No clear characterization• Semiconductor memory

• Microprocessors and personal computers

• Distributed computing

• Larger and larger scales of integration

1.3 Exercises

1. Distinguish the terms Computer Architecture and Computer Organization.

2. What is meant by generation in computer terminology? How many computer generations

are there till now?

3. Explain the advantages of transistors over vacuum tubes.

4. List out the various generations of computers along with their basic characteristics.

5. List out some advantages of IC technology over transistor technology.

1.4 Reference book

William Stallings, Computer Organization and Architecture, Designing for Performance.

Fourth Edition. Prentice –Hall of India Private Limited, 1998.


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CHAPTER 2

Data Representation

2.1 IntroductionThe binary number system and digital codes are fundamental to digital electronics. This

chapter shows how the different data types found in digital computers are represented in

binary form in computer registers. Majorly deals about how representation of numbers

employed in arithmetic operations, and on the binary coding of symbols used in data

processing.

Aims and Objectives

By studying this chapter the student shall be able to:

Understand the different data types found in digital computers.

Solve the problems based on number systems and its conversions.

Represent and solve problems based on 1’s, 2’s, 9’s, 10’s complements.

Analyze and explain fixed-point representation and floating- point representation.

Explain the various binary codes and Error detection codes used in data processing.

2.2 Data Representation:

2.2.1 Data Types

The 3 main categories of data types used in registers of digital computers are:

1. Numbers

2. Alphabets

3. Discrete symbols

Number systems: A number system of base, r (for example 10) is one that uses distinct symbols for r digits (0

to 9).The four main number systems that are commonly used in programming are:

• Binary (Base 2) - Symbols used are 1, 0

• Decimal (Base 10) - Symbols used are 0 to 9

• Octal (Base 8) - Symbols used are 0 to 7

• Hexadecimal (Base 16) - Symbols used are 0 to 9, A to F

2.2 .2 Complements• Complements are used in computers for representing and manipulating negativenumbers.

• The two different types of Complements for a base r are


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o r’ s complement- Given a +ve number N with n digits, r’s complement is

defined as r n – N for N ≠ 0; zero otherwise.2’s complement, 10’s complement

o (r-1)’s complement - Given a +ve number N with n digits, r-1’s complement

is defined as ( r n – 1)-N for N ≠ 0; zero otherwise.1’s complement, 9’s complement.

•Subtraction of Unsigned Numbers: Direct method of subtraction to be used.

2.2.3 Fixed Point Representation

• Integer Representation: Signed –magnitude representation, Signed-1’s complement

representation and Signed 2’s complement representation are the 3 ways of

representing a number.

• Arithmetic Addition: Ordinary arithmetic addition, 2’s compliment addition.

•Arithmetic Subtraction: 2’s compliment subtraction.

• Overflow: Overflow occurs when 2 numbers of n digits are added and the sum is n+ 1

digit. Overflow can be detected by observing the carry.

• Decimal Fixed –Representation: The number of registers used to represent a decimal

digit depends on the binary code used.

2.2.4 Floating Point Representation

• Mantissa (m) and exponent (e) are the two parts of a number in floating point

representation.

• General form of representing a floating point number is m x r e.

• If the most significant digit of the mantissa is nonzero, then a floating –point number

is said to be normalized.

• A set of subroutines will be in computers that are not having hardware for floating

point computations.

2.2.5 Other Binary codes and Error Detection codes

• Gray Code: Is a binary numeral system where two successive values differ in onlyone bit.

• BCD (Binary- Coded Decimal): is an encoding for decimal numbers in which eachdigit is represented by its own binary sequence. In BCD, four bits are generally usedto represent a digits 0 through 9.

• Excess-3 code: used on some older computers. In XS-3, numbers are representedas decimal digits, and each digit is represented by four bits as the BCD value plus 3(the "excess" amount).

• Weighted code: 2421 code is an example.

• ASCII Code: American Standard Code for Information Interchange is commonly used

for the binary information transmission.• EBCDIC: Extended BCD Interchange uses 8 bits for each character.

• Parity bit is the most common error detection code which is generated at the sending

end by the parity generator. At the receiving end Parity checker will detects the error.


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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_numeral_system

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_digit

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit




http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_digit






2.3 Exercises

1. Problems 1 to 5 in chapter 3 of Morris Mano, S., Computer System Architecture, 3rdEdition ISBN 0-13-175563-3

2. Problems 11 to 15 in chapter 3 of Morris Mano, S., Computer System Architecture, 3rdEdition ISBN 0-13-175563-3

3. Problem 22 in chapter 3 of Morris Mano, S., Computer System Architecture, 3rd Edition

ISBN 0-13-175563-3

2.4Indicative reading, text books and reference book

Morris Mano, S., Computer System Architecture, 3rd Edition ISBN 0-13-175563-3


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CHAPTER 3

COMPUTER OPERATION

3.1 Introduction This chapter describes the organization and architecture CPU, a part of a computer that

performs the bulk of data processing operations from the user’s view.

Aims and Objectives

By studying this chapter the student will be able to:

Describe how registers communicate with the ALU through buses

Explain the operation of memory stack.

Understand the different types of instruction formats and the addressing modes used

to retrieve data from memory.

Understand the concept of reduced instruction set computer(RISC) and complex

instruction set computer(CISC)

3.2 Computer Operation

3.2.1 General register organization:

• Registers that are inside the CPU is used to store the intermediate results.

• For direct data transfers as well as for performing various micro operations

register organization is used.

• It comprises bus system, ALU, control unit, multiplexers, and decoder for its

operation

3.2.2 Stack Organization:

• Stack is a storage device that stores the last item of information in the top.

• It is otherwise known as LIFO (last in first out).

• Push (insertion of item) and pop ( deletion of an item) are the two operations of a

stack.

• Stack organization is very effective in evaluating arithmetic expressions.

3.2.3 Instruction Formats:

• An instruction is normally made up of a combination of an operation code (op

code) and some way of specifying an operand.

• A set of rules defining the way the operands, data and addresses are arranged in

an instruction is known as instruction format.


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• General Format of any instruction is op code operand .E.g.: ADD R1,A,B

• Zero-Address Instructions, One-Address Instructions, Two-Address Instructions

and Three -Address Instructions are the types of instructions based on the

address it is holding.

3.2.4 Addressing Modes:

• An addressing mode specifies how to calculate the effective memory

address of an operand in an instruction.

• The most common addressing modes are:

Immediate addressing mode

Direct addressing mode

Indirect addressing mode

Register addressing mode

Register indirect addressing mode.

3.2.5 RISC and CISC:

• CISC(Complex instruction set computer) characteristics are :

A large number of instructions.

A large variety of addressing modes(5 to 20)

Variable length instruction formats.

• RISC(Reduced instruction set computer) characteristics are :

Relatively few instructions. Hardwired.

Relatively few addressing modes.

Fixed –length, easily decoded instructions.

3.3 Exercises

Problems 3, 13, 14, 16 in Chapter 8 of Morris Mano, S., Computer System

Architecture, 3rd Edition ISBN 0-13-175563-3.

3.4 Indicative reading, text books and reference book



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CHAPTER 4

METHODS OF EXECUTABLE PROGRAMS

4.1 Introduction

This chapter explains about the major techniques such as pipelining, parallel processing

that are used to increase the computational speed of a computer system and thus its

performance.

Aims and Objectives

By studying this chapter the student shall be able to:

Understand the concept of pipelining and the way how it speeds-up processing.

Explain arithmetic pipelining and instruction pipelining concepts.

4.2 Methods of executable programs

4.2.1 Parallel Processing

• It is the processing of program instructions by dividing them among multiple

processors to run a program in less time.

• Two or more tasks can be performed by a computer simultaneously. For example,

parallel processing takes place when one instruction is being run while another

instruction is being read from memory.

4.2.2 Pipelining

• Pipelining is a technique of allowing more than one instruction to be in some stage of

execution at the same time.

• Pipeline processor can be used to implement any operation that can be decomposed

into a sequence of sub operations of the same complexity.

• Processing speed of a system gets increased if pipelining technique is used.

4.2.3 Arithmetic Pipelining

• An arithmetic operation is divided into sub-operations for executing in the pipeline

segments.

• Arithmetic pipeline concept is usually found in high speed computers.

• Used to implement floating-point operations, multiplication of fixed-point numbers andin scientific operations.

4.2.4 Instruction Pipelining


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• By using instruction pipelining consecutive instructions can be read from the memory

while the previous instructions are being executed in some other segment.

• It permits the overlapping of instruction fetch and execute phases.

• Three major conflicts of instruction pipelining are (i) Resource conflicts (ii) Data

dependency and (iii) Branch difficulties.

4.2.5 Vector Processing

• Vector processing is a procedure for speeding the processing of information by a

computer.

• Pipelined units are used to perform arithmetic operations on uniform, linear

arrays of data values.

• Used mainly in computers that is involved in specialized applications such as

Medical diagnosis, space flight simulations.

4.2.6 Array Processor

• It is a processor which is used to perform computations on large arrays of data.

• It refers to two types of processors (i) Attached array processor (ii) SIMD Processor.

• The performance of a computer in specific numerical computations can be improved

by using array processor in it.

4.3 Exercises1. Explain the terms (i) Parallel processing and (ii) Pipelining.

2. Explain in detail Arithmetic Pipelining.

3. Explain in detail Instruction Pipelining.

4. Explain the main features of (i) Vector Processing and (ii) Array Processing.



\


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CHAPTER 5

FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORK ARCHITECTURE

5.1 Introduction

In the design of a computer network which is a backbone in today’s communication, different

systems comprising of hardware, software, protocol and devices are used to communicate

with one another. This chapter gives a brief about the fundamentals of network architecture.

Aims and Objectives

By studying this chapter the student can be able to:

Understand the basic hardware and software involved in making a network.

Explain the seven layered and four layered models used in computer network.

5.2 Methods of Network Architecture:

5.2.1 Network hardware

• Networking hardware includes the set of equipment needed to perform data-

processing and communications within the network.

• Computers, Routers, switches, hubs, gateways, access points, network interfacecards, Networking cables, network bridges, modems, ISDN adapters, firewalls

and other related hardware are the major equipment used in networking.

• The most common kind of networking hardware today is Copper-based Ethernet

adapters.

5.2.2 Network Software

• Network software is highly structured by using techniques such as Protocol

Hierarchies, Interfaces and Services like connection oriented and connectionless

networks.

5.2.3 Reference Models (OSI and TCP/IP)

5.2.3.1 OSI Reference Model

• The OSI (Open System Interconnection) model is the International Standards

Organization’s model.

• It is a seven layered architecture that defines a networking framework for

implementing protocols in seven layers.


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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_switch


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet_hub

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gateway_(telecommunications)


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_access_point

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_interface_card


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Networking_cables

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_bridge

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modem

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_Services_Digital_Network

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firewall_(computing)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet_hub


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_access_point



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Networking_cables

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_bridge

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modem

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_Services_Digital_Network

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firewall_(computing)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet




• Control will be passed from one layer to the next starting at the application layer (top

layer) in one station, and proceeding to the (bottom layer) physical layer over the

channel to the next station and back up the hierarchy.

5.2.3.2 TCP/IP Model

• The TCP/IP model, Internet Protocol Suite, is a four layered architecture that

describes a set of general design guidelines and implementations of specific

networking protocols to enable computers to communicate over a network.

• TCP/IP provides end-to-end connectivity specifying how data should be formatted,

addressed, transmitted, routed and received at the destination.

5.3 Exercises

1. Define computer network.

2. Explain (i) Hardware and (ii) Software.

3. Explain the various applications of the computer network.

4. Explain the different layers of ISO OSI reference model used for computer

network with a diagram.

5. Explain the different layers of TCP/IP reference model used for computer network

with a diagram.

6. Write short notes on the following

(i)Internet

(ii)Firewall

(iii)Intranet


1. Andrew S.Tanenbaum. Computer Networks, 3rd edition, Prentice-Hall of India Private

Limited.isbn-81-203-1165-5.

2. Networking Fundamentals, CCNA Exploration Companion Guide. Dye, Mark, McDonald,

Rick Rufi, Antoon. 1st Edition Published Oct 29th 2007 ISBN 978- 1-58713-208-7

3. McQuerry, Steven. Interconnecting Cisco Network Devices, Part 1 (ICND1): CCNA Exam

640-802 and ICND1 Exam 640-822, 2nd Edition, Published December 2007. ISBN-13: 978-

1-58705-462-4


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Assignment

Aim of the assignment: To enable the student to study the different generation of

computers, computer operation.

Objective:

The Computer Architecture Assignment has been developed to allow the student to:

To identify the computer operations

To learn the revolution of computers

To know about network categories and protocols

Task expected:

1. Explain the operation steps involved in the fetch-execute cycle of a computer.

2. Explain the advantages of direct memory access data transfer as compared to

program controlled data transfer.

3. Briefly explain the characteristics of the following computer systems. Give two

examples for each category.

(i) Microcomputers

(ii) Mainframe computers

(iii) Supercomputers

4. Write in detail the following topics.

(i) Local area network

(ii) TCP/IP

5. With the help of a flow chart explain the process of program execution.

Module Code & Title: M1G406242 Computer Architecture

Lecturer / Date: Geetha Achuthan


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Computer Architecture Module Hand Book-Ca_ June 6th(Sent ToRam Sir on 6th)

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Transcript of Computer Architecture Module Hand Book-Ca_ June 6th(Sent ToRam Sir on 6th)