Computer Aided Design - CIM 1111.pdf

7/23/2019 Computer Aided Design - CIM 1111.pdf

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/computer-aided-design-cim-1111pdf 1/36

MHG\V_FS IKOFO OF]KJ@/(I\]/MKG-9999)

G._FMA/MHG\V_FS K@_FJSI_FO GI@VBIM_VSK@J/K ]FG

]IGISI_ I]AHD _FMA@HEHJKMIE K@]_K_V_F, RKOK]AI (G.\)

]fsskh` ” 3<9?-96



V@K_ 9 CI]KM] HB MHG\V_FS IKOFO OF]KJ@

Ofskj` ks i` imtkvkty wakma `ffos th cf wfee hrji`kzfo iò tidfs k`th immhu`t iee k`beuf`mfs tait

irf ekdfey th cf rfsph`skcef bhr taf summfss hb taf prhoumt uòfr ofvfehpgf`t. _af mhgpefxkty hbofskj` prhmfss mfrtikèy k`mrfisfs wkta taf ùgcfr iò okvfrskty hb mhgph`f`ts prfsf`t k` taf

bkìe pirt.

_af virkhus bimuetkfs tait irf rfsph`skcef bhr i summfssbue prhoumt mi` cf meisskbkfo uòfr twh

afiok`js is k` cfehw ticef 9.9.\rhoumt F`jk`ffrk`j Giùbimturk`j F`jk`ffrk`j

\rhoumt bu`mtkh`s \rhmfss pei``k`j

\rhoumt spfmkbkmitkh`s \rhmfss saffts

Mh`mfptuie ofskj` Shutf saffts

Frjh`hgkms iò Ifstaftkms _hhek`j

]tiòiros Muttk`j thhes

Oftikefo ofskj` Nkjs iò bkxturfs

\rhthtypf ofvfehpgf`t Okfs iò Ghueos

_fstk`j Giùbimturk`j k`bhrgitkh` jf`fritkh`

]kgueitkh` M@M pirt prhjriggfs

Iìeysks Shcht prhjriggfs

]trf`jta K`spfmtkh` (MGG) prhjriggfs

Dk`fgitkms \rhoumtkh` hrji`kzitkh`

Oyìgkms Ckee hb gitfrkies

Afit Gitfrkie rfqukrfgf`t pei``k`j

Behw \rhoumtkh` pei``k`j

Ofskj` bhr Giùbimturf ]ahp behhr mh`trhe

Ofskj` bhr Issfgcey \ei`t skgueitkh`

Oribtk`j Girdftk`j iò Okstrkcutkh`

\imdijk`j

_icef 9.9

Kt ks kgphsskcef bhr i sk`jef kòkvkouie th mirry hut iee tafsf bu`mtkh`s, fxmfpt k` taf misf hb

skgpef pirts. Hr bhr mhgpefx systfgs taf prhoumt ofskj` bu`mtkh` wkee cf mirrkfo hut cy i tfig hb

spfmkieksts wah aivf spfmkbkfo d`hwefojf iò fxpfrkf`mf k` taf kòkvkouie irfis is gf`tkh`foichvf.

_h isskst taf f`jk`ffrs k` taf ichvf irfis tafrf irf pef`ty hb mhgputfr issksti`mfs irf ivikeicef.

Mhgputfrs irf usfo vfry guma k` taf irfi hb ofskj`.

Mhgputfr-ikofo Ofskj` (MIO) mi` cf ofbk`fo is taf usf hb mhgputfr systfgs th isskst k` tafmrfitkh`, ghokbkmitkh`, iìeysks hr hptkgkzitkh` hb i ofskj`. _af mhgputfr systfgs mh`skst hb



airowirf iò shbtwirf th pfrbhrg taf spfmkiekzfo ofskj` bu`mtkh`s rfqukrfo cy taf pirtkmueir usfrbkrg.

MIO/MIG Airowirf> _af mhgputk`j systfg k` hpfritkh` mi` cf mhgpirfo th i augi`

cfk`j k` tfrgs hb kts hpfritk`j mairimtfrkstkms. _af ciskm mh`bkjuritkh` hb i typkmie mhgputk`j

systfg ks is sahw` cfehw k` bkj. 9.94

_af afirt hb i`y mhgputk`j systfg ks taf mf`trie prhmfssk`j u`kt (M\V). Kt ks k` taf M\V tait ieetaf `fmfssiry bu`mtkh`s hb i mhgputfr irf mirrkfo hut. _af gik` bu`mtkh`s pfrbhrgfo k` taf M\V

irf irktagftkm iò ehjkm hpfritkh`s. _af M\V mhggu`kmitfs wkta taf fxtfrìe whreo tarhuja

k`put/hutput ofvkmfs.I`htafr kgphrti`t u`kt hb i mhgputfr systfg ks taf gfghry u`kt. _afsf irf taf irfis wafrf taf

`fmfssiry oiti hr prhjrig ks sthrfo. _af typf hb gfghry iò kts ighu`t oftfrgk`fs taf

mipickektkfs hb i mhgputk`j systfg._af prfsf`t oiy mhgputfrs whrd h` taf prk`mkpef mieefo sthrfo prhjriggf mh`mfpt. Kt gfi`s tait

taf sfquf`mf hb hpfritkh`s ks th cf mirrkfo hut cy taf M\V ks sthrfo k` taf gfghry hb taf

mhgputfr. _af M\V tafrfbhrf rfios i` k`strumtkh` iò fxfmutfs kt iò mh`tkùfs ohk`j sh u`tke kt

rfimafs taf fò hb taf prhjrig.

Bkj. 9.9> Hrji`kzitkh` hb i typkmie mhgputk`j systfg

Mf`trie \rhmfssk`j V`kt> _af mf`trie prhmfssk`j u`kt ks taf `frvf mf`trf bhr i`y mhgputk`j

systfg. Cisfo h` taf shbtwirf kt hrji`kzfs taf k`bhrgitkh` prhmfssk`j bhr i`y jkvf` ippekmitkh`.

_af prhjrig mh`tik`k`j taf `fmfssiry sfquf`mf hb k`strumtkh`s th taf M\V rfskofs k` taf gik`

gfghry hb taf mhgputfr, taf ehmitkh` hb wakma ks spfmkbkfo th taf M\V k` taf bhrg hb i prhjrigmhu`tfr. I M\V bicrkmitfo is i sk`jef k`tfjritfo mkrmukt ks tfrgfo is i gkmrhprhmfsshr.

Ibtfr cfk`j bftmafo brhg taf gik` gfghry, taf k`strumtkh`s irf th cf ofmhofo bhr taf imtuieimtkh` th cf tidf`. _aks bu`mtkh` ks pfrbhrgfo k` taf mh`trheefr, wakma imtuieey okrfmts taf

hpfritkh`s th cf oh`f tarhuja irktagftkm iò ehjkm u`kt.

_af `fmfssiry vieufs hb taf hpfriòs iò tafkr rfsuets irf sthrfo k` mfrtik` ehmitkh`s mehsf th taf

IEV mieefo rfjkstfrs. Ofpfòk`j uph` taf typf hb M\V, tafsf rfjkstfrs mhueo cf 1 ckt eh`j, 92 ckteh`j hr =3 ckt eh`j. Zait ohfs i ? ckt hr =3 ckt gfi`s8 Kt rfbfrs th taf ef`jta hb taf whro is usfo

cy taf gkmrhprhmfsshr, tait ks, taf gixkgug ef`jta k` wakma taf k`bhrgitkh` mi` cf prhmfssfo

k`skof taf M\V. _af jrfitfr taf ef`jta hb taf whro, taf bistfr whueo cf taf fxfmutkh` hb i jkvf`

prhjrig cy taf gkmrhprhmfsshr.

Murrf`tey (k` 3<<?), =3 ckt iò 2? ckt gkmrhprhmfsshrs irf jf`frieey k` usf bhr mhgputk`jippekmitkh`s wkta iee taf htafrs cfmhgk`j hcsheftf. Ahwfvfr, taf sgieefr ckt skzfs irf usfo bhr

fgcfoofo mh`trhe ippekmitkh`s.



Bkj. 9.3> Hrji`kzitkh` hb M\V

Gfghry> Gfghry ks i` k`tfjrie pirt hb i mhgputfr sthrk`j oiti iò prhjrigs hbtf` mieefo is

gik` gfghry. K` sfgkmhòumthr gfghry, taf gfghry ehmitkh`s irf hrji`kzfo is i sfrkfs hb

sgiee h`/hbb swktmafs. Ofvfehpgf`ts k` taf sfgkmhòumthr kòustry aivf ofmrfisfo taf mhst hb

taf gfghry u`kts, ipirt brhg riksk`j tafkr mipimkty bhr sthrijf._af virkhus typfs hb sfgkmhòumthr gfghry u`kts ivikeicef irf4

SHG ” Sfio hèy gfghry \SHG ” \rhjriggicef SHG

SIG ” Siòhg immfss gfghry

F\SHG ” Frisicef prhjriggicef SHG

FF\SHG ” Fefmtrkmieey frisicef iò prhjriggicef SHG

Beisa Gfghry

K`put Ofvkmfs> _afsf irf taf ofvkmfs tarhuja wakma taf usfr/hpfrithr mhggu`kmitfs wkta taf

mhgputfr bhr bffok`j kt wkta taf `fmfssiry k`bhrgitkh`, chta jripakmie iò iepaiùgfrkmie is

rfqukrfo. _af virkhus ofvkmfs usfo irf>

Dfychiro

Ghusf

Ekjat \f`

Nhystkmd

Okjktkzfr

_iceft

Okspeiy Ofvkmfs> _af ghst hb taf ofskj` whrd iò skgueitkh` hb giùbimturk`j mi` cf

jripakmieey okspeiyfo cy gfi`s hb shgf okspeiy ofvkmfs. _af okspeiy gfoki tait irf usfo irf>

Mitahof riy tucf (MS_) okspeiy

\eisgi pi`fe okspeiy

Ekquko mrystie okspeiyHb tafsf tarff gftahos, kt ks taf MS_ okspeiys tait irf taf ghst iovi`mfo iò fxtf`skvf k` usf, k`

spktf hb tafkr cuedkfr skzf.MS_ Okspeiy> K` i MS_ okspeiy, taf afitfo mitahof fgkts fefmtrh`s, wakma irf bhrgfo k`th i

strfig, immfefritfo iò bhmusfo h`th i phk`t h` taf okspeiy smrff`. _af okspeiy smrff` mh`tik`s i

pahspahr-mhitfo surbimf wakma jfts keeugkìtfo waf` taf spffok`j fefmtrh`s akt taf surbimf,okspeiyk`j taf phk`t. _af fefmtrh` cfig ks mh`trheefo cy gfi`s hb ofbefmtkh` peitfs bhr immfssk`j

i`y phk`t h` taf surbimf hb taf smrff`. Mai`jk`j taf cfig murrf`t mai`jfs taf k`tf`skty hb taf

spht mrfitfo h` taf smrff`.



Bkj. 9.=> Mitahof riy tucf prk`mkpef

_afrf irf ciskmieey twh typfs hb kgijf oriwk`j tfma`kqufs tait irf usfo k` jripakm okspeiys.

_afy irf>

]trhdf-wrktk`j

Sistfr smi`K` i strhdf wrktk`j okspeiy, taf fefmtrh` ju` okrfmtey oriws taf vfmthrs h` taf smrff` th jf`fritftaf kgijf, wafrfis k` taf ristfr smi`, taf wahef okspeiy surbimf ks okvkofo k` th i gitrkx hb sgiee

ohts mieefo pkxfes iò taf fefmtrh` cfig smi`s taf wahef surbimf irfi ek`f cy ek`f, is k` tait hb i

ahgf tfefvkskh`.

].@h. \irigftfr ]trhdf wrktk`j Sistfr smi`

9 Kgijf jf`fritkh` ]trhdf wrktk`j Sistfr smi`

3 Sfsheutkh` ?<;2 Ú ?<;2 3<?1 Ú 3<?1

= \kmturf quiekty Fxmfeef`t Jhho

? Mh`trist - Akja

6 ]fefmtkvf frisf [fs [fs

2 K`tfrimtkvf [fs [fs

: Mhehr mipickekty [fs [fs

1 Sfbrfsa gfghry Gfokug Akja

; I`kgitkh` [fs [fs

9< \rkmf Akja Ehw

_icef 9.3> Mhgpirksh` hb jripakm tfrgkìes

\eisgi \i`fe Okspeiy> _ahuja taf MS_ okspeiy ks akjaey rfbk`fo, kt ks shgftkgfs `ht sukticef

pirtkmueirey bhr phrticef ippekmitkh`s cfmiusf hb taf ofpta tait ks `fmfssiry bhr taf mitahof riy

tucf. K` suma sktuitkh`s, taf peisgi pi`fe ais cff` bhuò th cf usfbue tahuja k` i ekgktfo sf`sf.

\eisgi usfs i `fh` jis k` i jeiss f`vfehpf wkta fefmtrhofs bhrf iò ibt th okspeiy taf kgijf._ahuja tafy irf sgiee iò beit, tafy mh`sugf i eirjf ighu`t hb phwfr iò iesh taf rfsheutkh` ks

`ht vfry jhho.

Ekquko Mrystie Okspeiy> Ekquko mrysties fxkst k` i stitf cftwff` taf ekquko iò sheko. _af

ghefmuefs hb ekquko mrystie irf iee iekj`fo k` taf sigf okrfmtkh`, is k` i sheko, cut irf brff th ghvf

irhuò sekjatey k` rfeitkh` th h`f i`htafr, is k` i ekquko. Ekquko mrystie ks imtuieey mehsfr th i

ekquko stitf tai` i sheko stitf, wakma ks h`f rfish` way kt ks ritafr sf`sktkvf th tfgpfriturf _af



irriy hb ekquko mrysties cfmhgf hpiquf waf` taf fefmtrkm bkfeo ks ippekfo, bhr okspeiyk`j tafkgijf.

Airo Mhpy Ofvkmfs> H`mf taf hutput ks bkìekzfo h` taf okspeiy ofvkmf, kt mi` cf tri`sbhrgfo

k`th airo mhpy usk`j4

9. Jripakmie prk`tfrs

k. Kgpimt Oht Gitrkx \rk`tfrkk. _afrgie _ri`sbfr

kkk. K`d Nft \rk`tfr

kv.

Eisfr \rk`tfrv. Mhehur Mhpkfrs3. \ehttfrs

k. \f` \ehttfrs

kk. Fefmtrhstitkm \ehttfrs=. \ahthjripakm ofvkmfs

]thrijf Ofvkmfs> \frgi`f`t sthrijf hb prhjrigs iò hb oiti jf`fritfo ourk`j virkhus sfsskh`s

hb MIO/MIG rfqukrfs i eirjf ighu`t hb sthrijf spimf. _aks ks `hrgieey of`htfo is iuxkekirysthrijf iò taf virkhus ofvkmfs usfo irf>

9. Behppy oksds

3. Zk`mafstfr oksds

=.

Gij`ftkm tipfs

?. Gij`ftkm tipf mirtrkojfs

6. Mhgpimt oksm SHGs

2.

OROMhgputfr Jripakms> Vsf hb mhgputfr jripakms k` ofskj` ais hpf`fo up trfgfòhus

phsskckektkfs bhr taf ofskj`fr is bheehws4

9. _af hcnfmt ks rfprfsf`tfo cy kts jfhgftrkm ghofe k` tarff okgf`skh`s (Q, [ iò ^).

3. _af gitafgitkmie rfprfsf`titkh` rfoumfs mrfitkh` hb vkfws ekdf hrtahjripakm, kshgftrkm,ixh`hgftrkm hr pfrspfmtkvf prhnfmtkh`s k`th skgpef vkfwk`j tri`sbhrgitkh`s.

=. _ahuja taf skzf hb smrff` ks ekgktfo, tafrf ks `h `ffo th smief taf oriwk`js.

?. _af jfhgftrkm ghofes mi` cf rfprfsf`tfo k` mhehrs iò mi` cf vkfwfo brhg i`y i`jef.

6. ]fmtkh`s mi` cf iuthgitkmieey mrfitfo.2. _af isshmkitkvkty f`surfs tait i`y mai`jf giof k` h`f hb taf rfeitfo vkfws wkee iuthgitkmieey

rfbefmt k` htafr vkfws.

:.

Sfvkskh` iò rfvkskh` mh`trhe irf fisy.1. Oriwk`js mi` cf rfusfo mh`vf`kf`tey.

;. ]thrijf iò rftrkfvie hb oriwk`js irf fisy.

Ghst mhgputfr jripakms okspeiys irf skgpef k` mh`strumtkh`. _afy mh`skst hb ciskmieey tarffmhgph`f`ts.

9. Gh`kthr 3. Okjktie Gfghry hr Brigf cubbfr

=. Okspeiy mh`trheefr

Ghst hb taf mhgputfr jripakms okspeiys usf ristfr MS_ wakma ks i gitrkx hb oksmrftf mfees fima hbwakma mi` cf giof crkjat. I jripakm f`tkty ekdf Ek`f hr Mkrmef ks rfprfsf`tfo cy i sfrkfs hb phk`ts

hr ohts h` taf smrff`. _afrfbhrf kt ks mieefo is i phk`t pehttk`j ofvkmf.

_af vkofh okspeiy smrff` ks okvkofo k`th vfry sgiee rfmti`jueir fefgf`ts mieefo i pkmturf fefgf`t

hr pkxfe. Jripakm kgijfs irf bhrgfo cy sfttk`j sukticef k`tf`skty iò mhehr th taf pkxfes wakmamhgphsf taf kgijf. Ofpfòk`j uph` taf rfsheutkh` smrff`s giy aivf viryk`j ùgcfr hb pkxfes.

Bhr fxigpef, i` ]RJI gh`kthr wkta i rfsheutkh` hb 9<3?Ú:21 wkee aivf 9<3? pkxfes k` fvfry

rhw (Q-okrfmtkh`) iò :21 pkxfes k` fvfry mheug` ([-okrfmtkh`)._af rfbrfsa ritf ks taf ùgcfr hb mhgpeftfo kgijfs hr brigfs smi``fo pfr sfmhò. K` taf misf hb

k`tfreimfo rfbrfsa mymef hoo ùgcfrfo ristfr ek`fs rfbrfsafo ourk`j 9/2<ta

hb i sfmhò. Fvf`

ùgcfrfo ristfr ek`fs irf rfbrfsafo ourk`j taf `fxt 9/2<ta

hb i sfmhò. K` `h`-k`tfreimfo okspeiysiee ek`fs irf rfbrfsafo k` 9/2<

ta hb i sfmhò. _af quiekty hb `h`-k`tfreimfo okspeiy ks af`mf,



supfrkhr. _afsf systfgs, ahwfvfr, rfqukrf fxpf`skvf brigf cubbfr gfghry iò okspeiymh`trheefr.

Jripakm \rkgktkvfs> _af oriwk`j f`tktkfs tait i usfr giy bkò k` i typkmie MIO pimdijf k`meuof

” phk`t, ek`f, mh`strumtkh` ek`f, guetk-ek`f, phey-ek`f, mkrmef, spek`f, irm, feekpsf, pheyjh`,

rfmti`jef.

\hk`t pehttk`j> _af brigf cubbfr okspeiy ks i` fxigpef hb i phk`t pehttk`j ofvkmf. _af sgieefst

u`kt immfptfo cy suma okspeiys ks i sk`jef pkxfe. _h mh`strumt i usfbue pkmturf h` i phk`t pehttk`j

ofvkmf, i pkmturf gust cf cuket hut hb sfvfrie auòrfos hb pkxfes.

Oriwk`j hb Ek`fs> ]trikjat ek`f sfjgf`ts irf usfo i jrfit ofie k` mhgputfr jf`fritfo pkmturfs._af bheehwk`j mrktfrki aivf cff` stkpueitfo bhr ek`f oriwk`j okspeiys.9. Ek`fs sahueo ippfir strikjat.

3. Ek`fs sahueo tfrgkìtf immuritfey.

=. Ek`fs sahueo aivf mh`sti`t of`skty.

?. Ek`f of`skty sahueo cf kòfpfòf`t hb ef`jta iò i`jef.6. Ek`fs sahueo cf oriw` ripkoey.

_af prhmfss hb tur`k`j h` taf pkxfes bhr i ek`f sfjgf`t ks mieefo vfmthr jf`fritkh`. Kb taf fò

phk`ts hb taf ek`f sfjgf`t irf d`hw`, tafrf irf sfvfrie smafgfs bhr sfefmtk`j taf pkxfes cftwff`

taf fò pkxfes. H`f gftaho hb jf`fritk`j i ek`f sfjgf`t ks i syggftrkmie okjktie okbbfrf`tkieiìeyzfr (OOI).

OOI Iejhrktag> OOI hr Okjktie Okbbfrf`tkie Iìeyzfr ks h`f hb taf bkrst iejhrktags ofvfehpfo

bhr ristfrkzk`j taf vfmthrkie k`bhrgitkh`. _af fquitkh` hb i strikjat ek`f ks jkvf` cy4

[ 7 gQ + MVsk`j taks fquitkh` bhr okrfmt mhgputk`j hb pkxfe phsktkh`s k`vhevfs i eirjf ighu`t hb

mhgputitkhìe fbbhrt. Af`mf kt ks `fmfssiry th skgpekby taf prhmfourf hb miemueitk`j taf kòkvkouie

pkxfe phsktkh`s cy i skgpef iejhrktag.

Bhr taks purphsf mh`skofr oriwk`j i ek`f h` taf smrff` is sahw` k` bkj. 9.?, brhg (x9, y9) th (x3,y3), taf`4

g 7

iò

m 7 y9 ” gQ9

_af ek`f oriwk`j gftaho whueo aivf th gidf usf

hb ichvf tarff fquitkh`s k` hrofr th ofvfehp i

sukticef iejhrktag.

Bhr sgiee k`mrfgf`ts taf fquitkh` bhr strikjat ek`fmi` cf wrkttf` is4

Ο[ 7 gΟQ

Cy tidk`j i sgiee stfp bhr ΟQ, Ο[ mi` cf mhgputfo

wkta taf afep hb ichvf fquitkh`. Ahwfvfr tafmhgputitkh`s cfmhgf u``fmfssirkey eh`j bhr

ircktriry vieufs hb ΟQ. Eft us `hw whrdhut i

prhmfourf th skgpekby taf miemueitkh` gftaho.Eft us mh`skofr i misf hb ek`f oriwk`j wafrf g 0 9. Mahhsf i` k`mrfgf`t bhr ΟQ is u`kt pkxfe.

Af`mf ΟQ 7 9

_af`,yk + 9 7 yk + g

_af sucsmrkpt k tidfs taf vieufs stirtk`j brhg 9 bhr taf stirtk`j phk`t tkee taf fò phk`t ks rfimafo.

Af`mf kt ks phsskcef th miemueitf taf thtie pkxfe phsktkh`s bhr mhgpeftfey oriwk`j taf ek`f h` taf

okspeiy smrff`. _aks ks mieefo OOI iejhrktag.



Kb g 57 9, taf` taf rhefs hb x i`o y whueo aivf th cf rfvfrsfo.Mahhsf, Ο[ 7 9

_af`,

xk + 9 7 xk +

_af bheehwk`j ks taf behw mairt sahwk`j taf mhgpeftf prhmfss bhr taf kgpefgf`titkh` hb taf

ichvf prhmfourf4

Bkj. 9.6> Behw mairt bhr Ek`f Oriwk`j Miemueitkh` \rhmfourf



Crfsfàig‛s Iejhrktag> _af ichvf OOI iejhrktag ks mfrtikèy i` kgprhvfgf`t hvfr taf

okrfmt usf hb taf ek`f fquitkh` sk`mf kt fekgkìtfs gi`y hb taf mhgpekmitfo miemueitkh`s. Ahwfvfr,stkee kt rfqukrfs shgf ighu`t hb behitk`j phk`t irktagftkm bhr fima hb taf pkxfe phsktkh`s.

_aks iejhrktag ks i` kgprhvfgf`t hvfr OOI sk`mf kt mhgpeftfey fekgkìtfs taf behitk`j phk`t

irktagftkm fxmfpt bhr taf k`ktkie mhgputitkh`s. Iee htafr mhgputitkh`s irf bueey k`tfjfr irktagftkmiò af`mf ks ghrf fbbkmkf`t bhr ristfr mh`vfrskh`.

_af ciskm irjugf`t bhr phsktkh`k`j taf pkxfe afrf ks taf ighu`t hb ofvkitkh` cy wakma taf

miemueitfo phsktkh` ks brhg taf imtuie phsktkh` hctik`fo cy taf ek`f fquitkh` k` tfrgs hb o9 iò o3

is sahw` k` bkj. 9.2.Eft taf murrf`t phsktkh` cf (Qk, [k) it taf kta phsktkh` is sahw` k` bkj. 9.2. Fima hb taf mkrmefs k`

bkj. 9.2 rfprfsf`t taf pkxfes k` taf summfsskvf phsktkh`s.

_af`,Qk + 9 7 Qk + 9

Iesh

[k 7 gQk + m

iò[ 7 g (Qk + 9) + m

Eft o9 iò o3 cf taf twh pirigftfrs, wakma kòkmitf wafrf taf `fxt pkxfe ks th cf ehmitfo. Kb o9 ks

jrfitfr tai` o3, taf` taf y pkxfe ks th cfehmitfo it taf +9 phsktkh` fesf, kt rfgik`s

it taf sigf phsktkh` is prfvkhus ehmitkh`.

o9 7 [ ” [k 7 g (Qk + 9) + m - [k

o3 7 [k + 9 ” [ 7 [k + 9 - g (Qk + 9) ” m

o9 ” o3 7 3g (Qk + 9) ” 3[k + 3m ” 9

_af ichvf fquitkh` stkee mh`tik`s ghrf

mhgputitkh`s iò af`mf wf whueo `hwofbk`f i`htafr pirigftfr \ wakma whueo

ofbk`f taf rfeitkvf phsktkh` k` tfrgs hb o9

” o3.

\k 7 (o9 ” o3) ΟQ \k 7 3 Ο[ Qk - 3 ΟQ [k + c

wafrf, c 7 3 Ο[ + 3m ΟQ ” ΟQ

]kgkeirey wf mi` wrktf \k + 9 7 3 Ο[ (Qk + 9) ” 3 ΟQ [k + 9 + c

_idk`j taf okbbfrf`mf hb twh summfsskvf pirigftfrs, wf mi` fekgkìtf taf mh`sti`t tfrgs brhg

taf ichvf fquitkh` th jft taf cfehw fquitkh`.

\k + 9 ” \k 7 3 Ο[ - 3 ΟQ ([k + 9 - [k)_af sigf mi` iesh cf wrkttf` is4

\k + 9 7 \k + 3 Ο[ - 3 ΟQ ([k + 9 - [k)

_af sigf mi` iesh cf wrkttf` is4\k + 9 7 \k + 3 Ο[ waf`, [k + 9 7 [k

\k + 9 7 \k + 3 Ο[ - 3 ΟQ waf`, [k + 9 7 [k + 9

Brhg taf stirt phk`t (xk, yk),yk 7 gxk + m

m 7 y9 -

Vsk`j tafsf fquitkh`s kt ks `hw phsskcef th ofvfehp taf iejhrktag bhr oriwk`j taf ek`f h` tafsmrff` is sahw` k` bheehwk`j behw mairt (Bkj. 9.:).



Bkj. 9.:> Behw mairt bhr ek`f oriwk`j miemueitkh` usk`j Crfsfàig‛s prhmfourf

_ri`sbhrgitkh`s hb Jfhgftry (3O)> K` aiòek`j hb jfhgftrkmie k`bhrgitkh`, gi`y i tkgfs kt

cfmhgfs `fmfssiry th tri`sbhrg taf jfhgftry. _af tri`sbhrgitkh`s imtuieey mh`vfrt tafjfhgftry brhg h`f mhhrokìtf systfg th htafr.

_af gik` typfs hb tri`sbhrgitkh`s irf is bheehws4

_ri`seitkh`

]miek`j

Sfbefmtkh` hr Gkrrhr

Shtitkh`



9. _ri`seitkh`> _aks ghvfs i jfhgftrkm f`tkty k` spimf k` suma i wiy tait taf `fw f`tkty ks

pirieefe it iee phk`ts th taf heo f`tkty. Eft us mh`skofr i phk`t h` taf hcnfmt, rfprfsf`tfo cy \wakma ks tri`seitfo ieh`j Q iò [ ixks cy oQ iò o[ th i `fw phsktkh` \

*. _af `fw mhhrokìtfs

ibtfr tri`sbhrgitkh` irf jkvf` cy bheehwk`j fquitkh`s4

\* 7 Tx

*, y

*W

x* 7 x + oQ

y* 7 y + o[

_aus,

T\*W 7 7

3. ]miek`j> ]miek`j ks taf tri`sbhrgitkh` ippekfo th mai`jf taf smief hb i` f`tkty. _h imakfvf

smiek`j, taf hrkjkìe mhhrokìtfs whueo cf guetkpekfo u`kbhrgey cy taf smiek`j bimthr.

\* 7 Tx

*, y

*W 7 T]x Ú x, ]y Ú yW

_af ichvf fquitkh` mi` iesh cf rfprfsf`tfo k` i gitrkx bhrg is bheehws4

T\*W 7

*

+

T\*

W 7 T_sW T\WZafrf,

T_sW 7

]k`mf taf smiek`j bimthrs mi` cf kòkvkouieey ippekfo, tafrf ks i phsskckekty th aivf okbbfrf`tkie

smiek`j waf` ]x 7 ]y.

K` misf hb zhhg bimkekty k` jripakm systfgs, u`kbhrg smiek`j ks ippekfo. ^hhgk`j ks hèy i okspeiy

ittrkcutf iò ks ippekfo hèy th taf okspeiy iò `ht th taf imtuie jfhgftrkm oiticisf.

=. Sfbefmtkh` hr Gkrrhr> Kt ks i tri`sbhrgitkh`, wakma ieehws i mhpy hb taf hcnfmt th cf okspeiyfo

wakef taf hcnfmt ks rfbefmtfo ichut i ek`f hr pei`f.

_ri`sbhrgitkh` rfqukrfo k` taks misf ks tait taf ixks mhhrokìtfs wkee jft `fjitkvf ofpfòk`j uph`

taf rfbefmtkh` rfqukrfo. Bhr fxigpef brhg bkj. 9.994

\* 7 TQ

*, [

*W 7 TQ, -[W

_aks mi` cf wrkttf` k` i gitrkx bhrg is4

T\*W 7 * + * + T\

*W 7 T_gW T\W

Bkj. 9.1> _ri`seitkh` hb taf phk`t Bkj. 9.; ]miek`j hb i pei`f bkjurf



Zafrf,

T_gW 7 * + _aus taf jf`frie tri`sbhrgitkh` gitrkx wkee cf4

T_gW 7 * +

Bkj. 9.9<> \hsskcef rfbefmtkh` tri`sbhrgitkh`s Bkj. 9.99> Fxigpef hb rfbefmtkh` tri`sbhrgitkh`

?. Shtitkh`> K` taks tri`sbhrgitkh` taf bkìe phsktkh` iò hrkf`titkh` hb i jfhgftrkm f`tkty ks

ofmkofo cy taf i`jef hb rhtitkh` (α) iò taf cisf phk`t ichut wakma taf rhtitkh` ks th cf oh`f.

Bkj. 9.93> Shtitkh` tri`sbhrgitkh`

Eft i phk`t \ ehmitfo k` Q[ pei`f, cfk`j rhtitfo k` taf mhu`tfr mehmdwksf okrfmtkh` th taf `fw

phsktkh`, \* cy i` i`jef α. _af `fw phsktkh` \

* ks jkvf` cy4

\* 7 Tx

*, y

*W

Brhg bkj. 9.93 taf hrkjkìe phsktkh` ks spfmkbkfo cy,

x 7 r mhsι y 7 r sk`ι

_af `fw phsktkh` \* ks spfmkbkfo cy4x

* 7 r mhs(ι + α) 7 r mhsα mhsι ” r sk`α sk`ι

7 x mhsα ” y sk`α

y* 7 r sk`(ι + α)

7 r sk`α mhsι + r mhsα sk`ι 7 x sk`α + y mhsα

_aks mi` cf wrkttf` k` i gitrkx bhrg is4



T\*W 7 * + *+

T\*W 7 T_S W T\W

Zafrf,

T_S W 7 * +

_ri`sbhrgitkh`s hb Jfhgftry (=O)> _af tarff okgf`skhìe rfprfsf`titkh` hb i twh

okgf`skhìe pei`f ks mieefo ahghjf`fhus mhhrokìtfs iò taf tri`sbhrgitkh` usk`j taf

ahghjf`fhus mh-hrokìtfs ks mieefo ahghjf`fhus tri`sbhrgitkh`.

_ri`seitkh`>

]miek`j>

Sfbefmtkh`>

Shtitkh` ichut ^-ixks (Q[ \ei`f)>

Shtitkh` ichut Q-ixks ([^ \ei`f)>

Shtitkh` ichut [-ixks (^Q \ei`f)>

Sfprfsf`titkh` hb murvfs> Sfprfsf`titkh` hb murvf jfhgftry mi` cf mirrkfo hut k` twh bhrgs ”

Kgpekmkt bhrg iò pirigftrkm bhrg_af kgpekmkt bhrg ks mh`vf`kf`t bhr 3-O murvfs hb bkrst iò sfmhò hrofr. _ypkmie murvfs tait mi`

cf mhvfrfo irf ek`fs, irms iò mkrmefs.

Ek`fs> _af kgpekmkt bhrg hb ek`f mi` cf wrkttf` k` bhrg hb i` fquitkh` is4

[ 7 gQ + m

Zafrf [ iò Q rfprfsf`t taf mhhrokìtfs hb Mirtfski` 3O systfg.



Ahwfvfr, bhr akjafr hrofr murvfs iò bhr usf k` MIO, pirigftrkm bhrg wkee cf ghrf sukticef. K` pirigftrkm bhrg, taf murvf ks rfprfsf`tfo is4

Q 7 x(u) [ 7 y(u) ^ 7 z(u)

Zafrf Q, [, ^ irf taf mhhrokìtf vieufs h` taf spimf murvf, wkta taf mhrrfsphòk`j bu`mtkh`s x,

y, z irf taf phey`hgkies k` i pirigftfr, u. _aks rfprfsf`titkh` pfrgkts th qukmdey mhgputf tafkòkvkouie Q, [, ^ mhhrokìtfs hb iee taf phk`ts h` taf murvf. _af pirigftrkm bhrg bhr taf ek`f mi`

cf jkvf` is4

Q 7 ixu + cx bhr <57u579[ 7 iyu + cy

^ 7 izu + cz

Mkrmef> _af pirigftrkm bhrg hb i mkrmef wahsf mf`tfr ekfs it taf hrkjk` hb taf mhhrokìtf systfg ks

jkvf` cy4

Q 7 r mhsα [ 7 r sk`α

Zafrf, <57α573ό

r ks taf riokus hb taf mkrmef.

Ietfrìtkvf bhrg hb pirigftrkm bhrg bhr taf mkrmef ks jkvf` cy4

Bkj. 9.9=> Mkrmef

Q 7 x(u) 7 r {(9-u3)/(9+u

3)}

[ 7 y(u) 7 r {3u/(9+u3)}

Bhr -957u579_af kgpekmkt bhrg hb taf mkrmef ks jkvf` cy4

x3 + y3 7 r 3 _af fquitkh` hb i mkrmef wahsf mf`tfr ekfs it (i, c) ks jkvf` cy4

(x - i)3 + (y - c)

3 7 r

3

Feekpsf> _af pirigftrkm bhrg hb i` feekpsf wahsf mf`tfr ekfs it taf hrkjk` hb taf mhhrokìtf

systfg ks jkvf` cy4

Q 7 i mhsα

[ 7 c sk`α

Zafrf i iò c irf taf sfgk-ginhr iò sfgk-gk`hr ixks hb taf feekpsf. _af kgpekmkt bhrg hb taffeekpsf ks jkvf` cy4

Bkj. 9.9?> Feekpsf



Murvfs> _af jf`frie pirigftrkm rfprfsf`titkh` hb i murvf ks jkvf` is4

p 7 p(u)

Zafrf u ks taf pirigftfr wkta wakma taf Mirtfski` mhhrokìtfs wkee cf rfprfsf`tfo is4

Q 7 x(u)4 [ 7 y(u)4 ^ 7 z(u)

Zf mi` iesh wrktf taf ichvf fquitkh` k` taf bhrg hb i vfmthr is4 p 7 p(u) 7 Tx(u) y(u) z(u)W

Zafrf u ks taf pirigftfr tait mi` aivf i`y vieuf brhg ” th +. Ahwfvfr, jf`frieey kt giy cfvirkfo cftwff` -9 th +9. _aks bhrg ks jf`frieey usfbue bhr taf wiy taf murvfs mi` cf criw` h` tafokspeiy smrff` hr pehttfr. _aus i murvf sfjgf`t mi` cf ofbk`fo is taf ehmus hb iee taf phk`ts

wahsf mhhrokìtfs irf jkvf` cy mh`tkùhus pirigftfr, sk`jef vieufo phey`hgkies hb taf bhrg4

Bkj. 9.96> \irigftrkm murvf rfprfsf`titkh` k` Mirtfski` spimf

Q 7 x(u) [ 7 y(u) ^ 7 z(u)Zafrf taf pirigftfr virkicef, u, ks mh`strik`fo th shgf mehsfo k`tfrvie suma is T<, 9W.

]pek`fs> ]pek`fs irf ghrf jf`frie bhrg hb murvfs tait mi` cf ofbk`fo tarhuja i sft hb vfrtkmfs. I

spek`f ks i pkfmf wksf pirigftrkm rfprfsf`titkh` hb taf jfhgftry hb i murvf wkta i spfmkbkfo efvfe

hb pirigftrkm mh`tkùkty. Muckm spek`fs usf i pirigftrkm fquitkh` hb =ro

hrofr wkta taf sfmhò

hrofr mh`tkùkty gik`tik`fo it taf k`tfrsfmtkh` phk`ts hb taf murvf.

Cfzkfr murvfs> Cfzkfr mahhsf Cfr`stfk` phey`hgkie is taf cisks bu`mtkh` bhr taf murvfs. _afy irfspfmkbkfo is4

Ck, ` (u) 7 uk (9 ” u)

`-k

Zafrf, ( ) Cisfo h` tafsf cisks bu`mtkh`s, taf fquitkh` bhr taf Cfzkfr murvf ks jkvf` cy4

Bkj. 9.92> _wh muckm Cfzkfr murvfs nhk`fo it p=



p (u) 7 ∙ (u) u ζ T<, 9W

Bhr ` 7 =, wf jft

C<, = 7 (9 - u)=

C9, = 7 = u (9 - u)3

C3, = 7 = u3 (9 - u)

C=, = 7 u=

p (u) 7 (9 - u)= p< + = u (9 - u)

3 p9 + = u

3 (9 - u) p3 + u

= p=

_aks mi` cf wrkttf` k` gitrkx bhrg is4

p (u) 7 Tu= u

3 u

9W

_af sigf mi` cf wrkttf` k` mhgpimt bhrg is bheehws4

p (u) 7 V GC \

Zafrf,

GC 7

V 7 Tu= u

3 u

9W

\ 7

Is fxpeik`fo ichvf, waf` taf ùgcfr hb mh`trhe phk`ts k` i Cfzkfr murvf k`mrfisf, taf ofjrff hb

taf phey`hgkie k`mrfisfs, iò taks prhvkofs bhr jehcie ghokbkmitkh` fbbfmt ritafr tai` ehmie. _aksgfi`s tait waf`fvfr i sk`jef vfrtfx ks ghokbkfo, taf f`tkrf murvf jfts ghokbkfo. Ahwfvfr kt ks

iesh phsskcef th crfid taf Cfzkfr murvf k`th sgieefr sfjgf`ts iò taf` ek`d iee hb tafg.

C-spek`fs> H`f hb taf prhcefgs isshmkitfo wkta taf Cfzkfr murvfs ks wkta i` k`mrfisf k` tafùgcfr hb mh`trhe phk`ts, taf hrofr hb taf phey`hgkie rfprfsf`tk`j taf murvf k`mrfisfs. _h rfoumf

taks mhgpefxkty, i` ietfrìtkvf ks th usf i C-spek`f th jf`fritf i sk`jef pkfmfwksf pirigftrkm phey`hgkie murvf tarhuja i`y ùgcfr hb mh`trhe phk`ts wkta taf ofjrff hb taf phey`hgkie

sfefmtfo cy taf ofskj`fr. C-spek`fs fxakckt i ehmie mh`trhe wafrfk` waf`fvfr i sk`jef vfrtfx ks

ghvfo, hèy tahsf vfrtkmfs irhuò tait wkee cf ibbfmtfo wakef taf rfst rfgik`s taf sigf.

]kgkeir th Cfzkfr murvf C-spek`f iesh usfs taf cisks bu`mtkh`s iò taf fquitkh` ks hb taf bhrg4

p (u) 7 ∙ (u)

Zafrf @k, d (u) irf taf cisks bu`mtkh`s bhr C-spek`fs.

@k, 9 (u) 7 9 kb tk57u57tk+9 7 < htafrwksf

iò @k, d (u) 7 ()() () ()

Zafrf d mh`trhes taf ofjrff (d-9) hb taf rfsuetk`j phey`hgkie k` u iò iesh taf mh`tkùkty hb tafmurvf. _af tk irf taf d`ht vieufs, wakma rfeitf taf pirigftrkm virkicef u th taf pk mh`trhe phk`ts.

Bhr d 7 ?, taf fquitkh` mi` cf wrkttf` k` mhgpimt bhrg is bheehws4

pk (u) 7 V Gs \k Zafrf,



Gs 7

V 7 Tu= u

3 u

9W

\k 7

k ζ T9> `-3W bhr hpf` murvfs

@urc> _af ghst mhggh` smafgf usfo k` iee MIO systfg ks taf `h`-u`kbhrg ritkhìe C-spek`f(Mhgghèy d`hw` i @VSC), wakma k`meuofs chta taf Cfzkfr iò C-spek`f murvfs. Is i rfsuet,

KJF] iò @VSC is taf stiòiro murvf ofbk`ktkh` bhr oiti fxmai`jfSitkhìe phey`hgkies irf taf bu`mtkh`s wafrf h`f phey`hgkie murvf ks okvkofo cy i`htafr. Bhr

fxigpef, ritkhìe bhrg hb Cfzkfr murf mi` cf wrkttf` is4

p (u) 7∙ ()∙ () u ζ T<, 9W

Zafrf wk ks taf wfkjak`j bimthr bhr fima hb taf vfrtfx. Zaf` iee w 7 9, taks fxprfsskh` cfmhgfstait hb taf mh`vf`tkhìe Cfzkfr bhrg, sk`mf4

()

]kgkeirey taf ritkhìe bhrg hb taf C-spek`fs mi` cf wrkttf` is4

p (u) 7∙ ()∙ ()

Sfprfsf`titkh` hb ]urbimfs> I surbimf mi` cf mh`skofrfo is i mh`tkùhus sft hb phk`ts

ipprhxkgitk`j i sgiee fefgf`tie surbimf k` taf `fkjachrahho hb fima hb taf phk`t. _afgitafgitkms k`vhevfo ks guma ghrf mhgpefx tai` taf murvfs tait wf aivf nust sff`. Fxtfòk`j

taf murvf rfprfsf`titkh`, wf giy wrktf taf surbimf rfprfsf`titkh` is4

Q 7 x (u, v)4 [ 7 y (u, v)4 ^ 7 z (u, v)Zafrf u iò v irf taf pirigftrkm virkicefs iò irf mh`strik`fo cftwff` < iò 9. _af skgpefst

gitafgitkmie fefgf`t bhr taf surbimf ks taf pitma chuòfo cy taf pirigftrkm murvfs k` chta

okrfmtkh`s. \itma ks taf cukeok`j cehmd bhr iee taf surbimfs. Isshmkitfo wkta fima pitma ks i sft hb chuòiry mhòktkh`s suma is taf bhur mhr`fr phk`ts iò taf bhur murvfs ofbk`k`j taf fojfs. K`

iooktkh` th tahsf tafrf mhueo cf htafr mhòktkh`s ofbk`k`j taf mh`tkùkty wkta taf ionimf`t

surbimfs/pitmafs, ftm.

Cfzkfr ]urbimf> _af Cfzkfr surbimf ks taf okrfmt fxtf`skh` hb taf Cfzkfr murvf. \hk`ts h` i Cfzkfr

surbimf mi` tafrfbhrf cf spfmkbkfo is i` fxtf`skh` hb taf Cfzkfr murvf.

p (u, v) 7 ∙ ∙ () () u, v ζ T<, 9W

Bkj. 9.9:> I Ck-muckm Cfzkfr surbimf pitma Bkj. 9.91> _ypkmie surbimf okspeiy wkta taf pirigftrkm virkicefs u iò v



Zafrf pkn rfprfsf`ts taf rfmti`jueir irriy hb mh`trhe phk`ts (g + 9) Ú (` + 9) ofbk`k`j taf vfrtkmfshb taf mairimtfrkstkm pheyaforh` hb taf Cfzkfr pitma bhr i ? Ú ? phk`ts. _af gitrkx bhrg hb taks

fquitkh` bhr i ? Ú ? mh`trhe phk`ts ks

p (u, v) 7 T (9 ” u)= =u(9 - u)

3 =u

3 (9 - u) u

=W \T

( ) ( ) ( )

W

_af gitrkx \ mh`tik`s taf phk`ts tait ofbk`f taf mairimtfrkstkm pheyaforh`.

\ 7

K` i skgkeir gi``fr, taf ritkh`ie Cfzkfr pitma mi` cf fxprfssfo is4

p (u, v) 7∙ ∙ () ()∙ ∙ () ()



V@K_ 3 K@_SHOVM_KH@ _H GHOFEK@J _FMA@KYVF]

Mhhrokìtf ]ystfgs> _af rkjat aiòfo Mirtfski` mhhrokìtf systfg ks usfo bhr ofbk`k`j taf

jfhgftry hb pirts. K` hrofr th ofbk`f taf jfhgftry hb i jkvf` sheko, kt ks `fmfssiry th usf i virkfty

hb mhhrokìtf systfgs. _afsf irf bheehwk`j4

Zhreo Mhhrokìtf ]ystfg> Kt rfbfrs th taf imtuie mhhrokìtf systfg usfo is gistfr bhr taf

mhgph`f`t. Kt ks iesh d`hw` is ghofe mhhrokìtf systfg. ZM] ks taf ofbiuet mhhrokìtf systfg,

waf` taf usfr stirts ghofek`j. _aks ks ciskmieey taf mhhrokìtf systfg k` wakma taf pirt oiticisfks sthrfo. Ahwfvfr, taf usfr wkee aivf taf befxkckekty hb k`puttk`j oiti k` htafr mhhrokìtf systfgs

is wfee suma is pheir mhhrokìtfs hr spafrkmie mhhrokìtfs. _af shbtwirf wkee imtuieey mh`vfrt taksk`bhrgitkh` k`th taf Mirtfski` systfg cfbhrf kt sthrfs taf oiti.

Vsfr Mhhrokìtf ]ystfg> ]hgftkgfs kt cfmhgfs okbbkmuet th ofbk`f mfrtik` jfhgftrkfs kb tafy irf

th cf ofbk`fo brhg taf ZM]. K` suma misfs ietfrìtf mhhrokìtf systfgs mi` cf ofbk`fo rfeitkvfth ZM]. _afsf mhhrokìtf systfgs irf tfrgfo is usfr mhhrokìtf systfgs (VM]) hr whrdk`j

mhhrokìtf systfg.

_aks rfoumfs taf ghofek`j mhgpefxkty. _af VM] mi` cf ofbk`fo cy sakbtk`j taf hrkjk` hèy hr cymhgck`k`j taf hrkjk` wkta taf hrkf`titkh` hb taf ixfs is wfee.

Okspeiy Mhhrokìtfs> _aks rfbfrs th taf imtuie mhhrokìtfs th cf usfo bhr okspeiyk`j taf kgijf h`taf smrff`. Kt giy iesh cf tfrgfo is smrff` mhhrokìtf systfg. _af imtuie smrff` mhhrokìtfs

rfeitf th taf pkxfes waftafr taf imtuie vieufs hb taf smrff` hr taf vkrtuie kgijf tait mi` cf

okspeiyfo th afep k` taf kgijf okspeiy. _af vkrtuie skzf wkee cf eirjfr tai` taf imtuie pkxfes hb tafsmrff` rfsheutkh`.

Rkfw Jf`fritkh`> ]hgftkgfs, kt ks `fmfssiry th hrji`kzf taf k`bhrgitkh` waf` prfsf`tfo h` taf

smrff` k` twh okgf`skh`s usk`j taf hrtahjhìe prhnfmtkh`. _af smrff` ks tafrfbhrf okvkofo k`th iùgcfr hb vkfw phrts wafrfk` taf virkhus hrtahjripakm vkfws irf prfsf`tfo.

Bkj. 3.9> I typkmie mhgph`f`t wkta kts Bkj. 3.3> Jf`frie hrtahjripakm vkfws hb taf mhgph`f`t

Isshmkitfo ZM] iò VM] sahw` k` bkj. 3.9

Jfhgftrkm Ghofek`j _fma`kqufs> Jfhgftrkm ghofek`j tfma`kqufs ekdf wkrf brigf, surbimf

iò sheko ghofek`j aivf thtieey mai`jfo `ht hèy taf oriwk`j hbbkmf primtkmfs cut iesh aivfafepfo th k`tfjritf ofskj` wkta iìeysks, skgueitkh` iò hptkgkzitkh` is wfee is th sfigefssey

k`tfjritf ofskj` wkta ohw`strfig giùbimturk`j ippekmitkh`s. Oiti mrfitfo k` jfhgftrkm ghofes



mi` taus cf okrfmtey pissfo h` th iee taf ippekmitkh` shbtwirf pimdijfs ekdf bk`ktf fefgf`tiìeysks, gfmai`ksg iìeysks, M@M prhjriggk`j, k`spfmtkh` ftm.

Mhgputfr rfprfsf`titkh` hb taf jfhgftry hb i mhgph`f`t usk`j shbtwirf ks mieefo i jfhgftrkm

ghofe. Jfhgftrkm ghofek`j ks oh`f k` tarff prk`mkpie wiys. _afy irf4

9. Zkrf brigf ghofek`j3. ]urbimf ghofek`j

=. ]heko ghofek`j

Zkrf Brigf Ghofek`j> K` wkrf brigf ghofek`j taf hcnfmt ks rfprfsf`tfo cy kts fojfs. K` taf

k`ktkie stijfs hb MIO, wkrf brigf ghofes wfrf k` 3-O. ]ucsfquf`tey =-O wkrf brigf ghofek`jshbtwirf wis k`trhoumfo. _af wkrf brigf ghofe hb i chx ks sahw` k` Bkj. 3.= (i). _af hcnfmtippfirs is kb kt ks giof hut hb tak` wkrfs. Bkj. 3.=(c), 3.=(m) iò 3.=(o) sahw tarff hcnfmts wakma

mi` aivf taf sigf wkrf brigf ghofe hb taf chx. _aus k` taf misf hb mhgpefx pirts wkrf brigf

ghofes mi` cf mh`busk`j. ]hgf meirkty mi` cf hctik`fo tarhuja akoof` ek`f fekgkìtkh`. _ahujataks typf hb ghofek`j giy `ht prhvkof uìgckjuhus uòfrstiòk`j hb taf hcnfmt, taks ais cff`

taf gftaho trioktkhìeey usfo k` taf 3-O rfprfsf`titkh` hb taf hcnfmt, wafrf hrtahjripakm vkfws

ekdf pei`, fefvitkh`, fò vkfw ftm. irf usfo th ofsmrkcf taf hcnfmt jripakmieey.

Bkj. 3.=> Igckjukty k` Zkrf Brigf Ghofek`j

].@h. 3-O Ghofes =-O Zkrf Brigf Ghofes

9 Fòs (vfrtkmfs) hb ek`fs irf rfprfsf`tfo cy tafkrQ iò [ mhhrokìtfs.

Fòs hb ek`fs irf rfprfsf`tfo cy tafkr Q,

[ iò ^ mhhrokìtfs.

3 Murvfo fojfs irf rfprfsf`tfo cy mkrmefs,feekpsfs, spek`fs ftm. Iooktkhìe vkfws iòsfmtkhìe vkfws irf `fmfssiry th rfprfsf`t imhgpefx hcnfmt wkta meirkty.

Murvfo surbimfs irf rfprfsf`tfo cy sukticey spimfojf`frithrs. Akoof` ek`f hr akoof` surbimf fekgkìtkh`ks i gust th k`tfrprft mhgpefx mhgph`f`ts mhrrfmtey.

= =-O kgijf rfmh`strumtkh` ks tfokhus. 3-O vkfws is wfee is virkhus pkmthrkie vkfws mi` cfjf`fritfo fiskey.

? Vsfs hèy h`f jehcie mhhrokìtf systfg. Giy rfqukrf taf usf hb sfvfrie usfr mhhrokìtfsystfgs th mrfitf bfiturfs h` okbbfrf`t bimfs hb taf

mhgph`f`t.

_icef 3.9> Mhgpirksh` cftwff` 3-O iò =-O ghofes



]urbimf Ghofek`j> K` taks ipprhima, i mhgph`f`t ks rfprfsf`tfo cy kts surbimfs wakma k` tur` irf

rfprfsf`tfo cy tafkr vfrtkmfs iò fojfs. Bhr fxigpef, fkjat surbimfs irf put thjftafr th mrfitf i chx, is sahw` k` Bkj. 3.?. ]urbimf ghofek`j ais cff` vfry phpueir k` ifrhspimf prhoumt ofskj`

iò iuthghtkvf ofskj`. ]urbimf ghofek`j ais cff` pirtkmueirey usfbue k` taf ofvfehpgf`t hb

giùbimturk`j mhofs bhr iuthghckef pi`fes iò taf mhgpefx ohucey murvfo saipfs hb ifrhspimf

strumturfs iò okfs iò ghueos.

Bkj. 3.?> ]urbimf Sfprfsf`titkh`

]urbimfs mi` cf mrfitfo tarhuja i` issfgcey hb pheyjhìe gfsafs hr usk`j iovi`mfo murvf iòsurbimf ghofek`j tfma`kqufs ekdf C-spek`fs hr @VSC] (@h`-V`kbhrg Sitkhìe C-spek`fs).

Bkj. 3.6> _ypkmie Ipprhimafs k` ]urbimf Ghofek`j

]heko Ghofek`j> _af rfprfsf`titkh` hb sheko ghofes usfs taf buòigf`tie kofi tait i payskmie

hcnfmt okvkofs taf =-O Fumekofi` spimf k`th twh rfjkh`s, h`f fxtfrkhr iò h`f k`tfrkhr, sfpiritfo

cy taf chuòiry hb taf sheko. ]heko ghofes irf4 Chuòfo

Ahghjf`fhusey tarff okgf`skhìe

Bk`ktf

_afrf irf skx mhggh` rfprfsf`titkh`s k` sheko ghofek`j49. ]pitkie Fùgfritkh`> K` taks skgpefst bhrg hb =O vheugftrkm ristfr ghofe, i sfmtkh` hb =O

spimf ks ofsmrkcfo cy i gitrkx hb fvfèy spimfo muckm vheugf fefgf`ts mieefo vhxfes.



3. Mfee Ofmhgphsktk h`> _aks ks i akfrirmakmie ioiptitkh` hb spitkie fùgfritkh`. =O spimf kssuc-okvkofo k`th mfees. Mfees mhueo cf hb okbbfrf`t skzfs. _afsf skgpef mfees irf jeufo thjftafr

th ofsmrkcf i sheko hcnfmt.

=. Chuòiry Sfprfsf`titk h`> _af sheko ks rfprfsf`tfo cy kts chuòiry wakma mh`sksts hb i sft hb

bimfs, i sft hb fojfs iò i sft hb vfrtkmfs is wfee is tafkr thphehjkmie rfeitkh`s.?. ]wffp Gftahos> K` taks tfma`kquf i peiìr saipf ks ghvfo ieh`j i murvf. _ri`seitkhìe

swffp mi` cf usfo th mrfitf prksgitkm hcnfmts iò rhtitkhìe swffp mhueo cf usfo bhr

ixksyggftrkm mhgph`f`ts.6. \rkgktkvf K `sti`mk`j> _aks ghofek`j smafgf prhvkofs i sft hb phsskcef hcnfmt saipfs wakma

irf ofsmrkcfo cy i sft hb pirigftfrs. K`sti`mfs hb hcnfmt saipf mi` cf mrfitfo cy viryk`j

tafsf pirigftfrs.2. Mh`strumtkvf ]heko Jfhgftry (M]J)> \rkgktkvf k`sti`mfs irf mhgck`fo usk`j Chhefi` sft

hpfritkh`s th mrfitf mhgpefx hcnfmts.

K` ghst hb taf ghofek`j pimdijfs, taf ipprhima usfo bhr ghofek`j usfs i`y h`f hb taf bheehwk`j

tarff tfma`kqufs49. Mh`strumtkvf sheko jfhgftry (M]J hr M-Sfp)

3. Chuòiry rfprfsf`titkh` (C-Sfp)

=. Aycrko gftaho wakma ks i mhgckìtkh` hb C-Sfp iò M]J.

Mh`strumtkvf ]heko Jfhgftry> K` i M]J ghofe, payskmie hcnfmts irf mrfitfo cy mhgck`k`j ciskm

fefgf`tiry saipfs d`hw` is prkgktkvfs ekdf cehmds, myekòfrs, mh`fs, pyrigkos iò spafrfs. _afChhefi` hpfritkh`s ekdf u`kh` (∮), okbbfrf`mf ( ”) iò k`tfrsfmtkh` ∫ irf usfo th mirry hut taks

tisd. Bhr fxigpef, eft us issugf tait wf irf usk`j twh prkgktkvfs, i cehmd iò i myekòfr wakma

irf ehmitfo k` spimf is sahw` k` Bkj. 3.2.

Bkj. 3.2> M]J Hpfritkh`

Chuòiry Sfprfsf`titkh`> Chuòiry rfprfsf`titkh` ks cuket h` taf mh`mfpt tait i payskmie hcnfmt

ks f`mehsfo cy i sft hb bimfs wakma tafgsfevfs irf mehsfo iò hrkf`ticef surbimfs. Bkj. 3.: sahwsi C-rfp ghofe hb i` hcnfmt. K` taks ghofe, bimf ks chuòfo cy fojfs iò fima fojf ks chuòfo cyvfrtkmfs. _af f`tktkfs wakma mh`stktutf i C-rfp ghofe irf4

Jfhgftrkm F`tktkfs _hphehjkmie F`tktkfs

\hk`t Rfrtfx

Murvf Ek`f Fojf

]urbimf Bimf



Bkj. 3.:> C-Sfp Ghofe

I sheko ghofe ks i =-O rfprfsf`titkh` hb i` hcnfmt.

]heko ghofes okbbfr brhg wkrf brigf iò surbimf ghofes k` taf dkò hb jfhgftrkm k`bhrgitkh`tafy prhvkof. Zkrf brigf ghofes hèy sahw taf fojf jfhgftry hb i` hcnfmt. _afy siy `htak`j

ichut wait ks k`skof i` hcnfmt. ]urbimf ghofes prhvkof surbimf k`bhrgitkh`, cut tafy thh eimd

k`bhrgitkh` ichut i` hcnfmt‛s k`tfrìe strumturf. ]heko ghofes prhvkof mhgpeftf jfhgftrkmofsmrkptkh`s hb hcnfmts.

]iekf`t Bfiturfs hb ]heko Ghofek`j>

Bfiturf-Cisfo Ofskj`> K` typkmie 3-O MIO ippekmitkh`s, i ofskj`fr oriws i pirt cy iook`j

ciskm jfhgftrkm fefgf`ts suma is ek`fs, irms, mkrmefs iò spek`fs. _af` okgf`skh`s irf ioofo. K`sheko ghofek`j i =-O ofskj` ks mrfitfo cy stirtk`j i cisf bfiturf iò taf` iook`j htafr bfiturfs,

h`f it i tkgf, u`tke taf immuritf iò mhgpeftf rfprfsf`titkh` hb taf pirt‛s jfhgftry ks imakfvfo.

I bfiturf ks i ciskm cukeok`j cehmd tait ofsmrkcfs taf ofskj`, ekdf i dfywiy h` i saibt. Fimabfiturf kòkmitfs ahw th ioo gitfrkie (ekdf i rkc) hr rfghvf i phrtkh` hb gitfrkie (ekdf i mut hr i

ahef). Bfiturfs ionust iuthgitkmieey th mai`jfs k` taf ofskj` tafrfcy ieehwk`j taf mipturf hbofskj` k`tf`t.

K` typkmie sheko ghofek`j shbtwirf taf ofskj`fr mi` mrfitf i bfiturf k` twh ciskm wiys. H`f ks thsdftma i sfmtkh` hb taf saipf th cf ioofo iò taf` fxtruof, rfvhevf, hr swffp kt th mrfitf taf

saipf. _afsf irf mieefo sdftmafo bfiturfs.

I`htafr typf hb bfiturf ks taf pkmd-iò-peimf bfiturf. Afrf taf ofskj`fr skgpey pfrbhrgs i`

f`jk`ffrk`j hpfritkh` suma is peimk`j i ahef, maigbfrk`j hr rhuòk`j i sft hb fojfs, hr safeek`jhut taf ghofe.

Bfiturfs/ivikeicef k` typkmie sheko ghofek`j shbtwirf irf4

Fxtruof Sfvhevf _ak`Cefò ]eht Mut

\rhtruskh` ]aibt ShuòAhef Bei`jf SkcMaigbfr \usa Ohgf

Oribt Fir ]afee

Hbbsft Ekp

\kpf ]wffp



Ghofek`j _hhes> Zaf` i =-O ghofe ks cuket taf ofskj`fr ofsmrkcfs taf bfiturfs tait gidf up i

pirt. \irts irf put thjftafr th gidf i` issfgcey, iò taf` ohmugf`titkh` ks giof.

]dftmak`j> _af bkrst stfp k` mrfitk`j gi`y =-O bfiturfs ks sdftmak`j i 3-O sfmtkh`. _af` cy usk`j

ipprhprkitf k`strumtkh`s taf ofskj` mh`vfys taf k`bhrgitkh` rfjirok`j ahw bir th fxtfò taks

sfmtkh` k` i spimf. _af takro okgf`skh` ks mrfitfo taks wiy.

Mrfitk`j \irts> Is gf`tkh`fo firekfr sheko ghofefr usfs bfiturfs suma is muts, prhtruskh`s, ahefs,

maigbfrs, iò htafr ciskm saipfs th cukeo pirt jfhgftry. Is taf bfiturfs irf ioofo taf jfhgftryhb taf pirt ks fài`mfo. Cy iook`j th jfhgftry h`f bfiturf it i tkgf, pirts wkta vfry mhgpefx

jfhgftry mi` cf mrfitfo.Cukeok`j Issfgcekfs> Ofskj`s usuieey mh`skst hb sfvfrie pirts. ]heko ghofefrs mi` put twh hr

ghrf pirts thjftafr k` i` issfgcey. Iee taf thhes i ofskj`fr `ffos th cukeo, ghokby, iò vfrkby

issfgcekfs irf ivikeicef k` sheko ghofek`j shbtwirf.

Ohmugf`tk`j Ofskj`s> _af bkìe stfp hb ofskj`k`j i pirt hr issfgcey ks mhggu`kmitk`j kt k` i

gfokug htafr tai` taf mhgputfr gh`kthr‛s okspeiy. Bhr shgf hpfritkh`s taks gfi`s pehttk`j hutofskj` oriwk`js. ]heko ghofefrs prhvkof thhes th prhoumf bk`ksafo oriwk`js mhgpeftf wkta

jfhgftrkm thefri`mk`j iò tfxt i``htitkh`.

Oriwk`js giy `ht cf taf bkìe stfp bhr fvfrychoy. Gi`y usfrs fxphrt ofskj`s th htafr

ippekmitkh`s bhr iìeysks, giùbimturk`j, iò htafr bhrgs hb phst-prhmfssk`j. Ghofek`j shbtwirfiesh wkee k`mhrphritf i virkfty hb thhes bhr fxphrtk`j ofskj`s th htafr shbtwirf.

Mairimtfrkstkms hb ]heko Ghofek`j \imdijfs>

\irigftrkm Ofskj`> Zaf` i bfiturf ks mrfitfo k` i sheko ghofefr okgf`skh`s irf mrfitfo. _afsf

okgf`skh`s oh ghrf tai` sahw taf skzf hb taf bfiturf. _afy ofbk`f pirigftfrs tait mh`trhe pirt

jfhgftry. ]k`mf pirigftfrs mh`trhe jfhgftry, taf jfhgftry ks siko th cf okgf`skh` orkvf`.

\irigftfrs mi` cf orkvf` cy okgf`skhìe vieufs, hr tafy mi` cf orkvf` cy htafr pirigftfrs usk`j

i rfeitkh`. Bhr k`sti`mf, taf ef`jta pirigftfr hb i bfiturf ks sft up sh tait kt ks iewiys twkmf tafwkota pirigftfr. Kb taf wkota mai`jfs, taf ef`jta wkee mai`jf thh.

_afrf irf htafr dkòs hb vieufs tait mi` cf usfo is pirigftfrs. I bhrguei tait rfeitfs spfmkbkm

bfiturf jfhgftry th vheugf, tfgpfriturf, strfss, wfkjat, iò htafr prhpfrtkfs mi` iesh cf usfo k` pirigftrkm ofskj`s.

Zaf` pirigftfrs mai`jf, htafr pirigftfrs orkvf` cy taf ghokbkmitkh` iesh mai`jf. _aks ks taffssf`mf hb pirigftrkm ofskj`.

Sfeitkh`s iò Sfeitkh`sakps> Zktak` i` issfgcey, taf ofskj`fr mi` ofbk`f i rfeitkh` suma tait

taf okigftfr hb i chrf k` h`f mhgph`f`t pirt iewiys fquies taf okigftfr hb i saibt, peus imefiri`mf vieuf, h` i`htafr pirt. _aks rfeitkh` f`surfs tait taf pirts iewiys bkt k` i` issfgcey,

fvf` kb taf okigftfr hb taf saibt mai`jfs. Kb taf ofskj` f`jk`ffr ghokbkfs taf okigftfr hb taf

saibt, taf okigftfr hb taf chrf iuthgitkmieey mai`jfs th immhgghoitf kt.

I`htafr wiy th rfeitf jfhgftry wktak` i ofskj` ks th mrfitf i pirf`t/makeo rfeitkh`sakp. _afrf irfgi`y wiys th oh taks. H`f ks th skgpey mrfitf i okgf`skh` pirigftfr cftwff` i `fw bfiturf iò

i` fxkstk`j h`f. _af `fw bfiturf cfmhgfs taf makeo hb taf fxkstk`j pirf`t bfiturf.

Bkj. 3.1> \irigftrkm Sfeitkh` cftwff` i ahef k` h`f mhgph`f`t iò i saibt k` i`htafr



Bkj. 3.;> \irf`t-Makeo Bfiturf

Kb taf jfhgftry hb i pirf`t mai`jfs, taf makeo bfiturfs irf upoitfo wkta kt.

Bfiturfs hb i Oribtk`j \imdijf> _ypkmie bfiturfs tait h`f fxpfmts k` i oribtk`j pimdijf irf

ekstfo cfehw4

9. Oriwk`j utkektkfs> _aks k`meuofs sfefmtkh` hb u`kts, smrff` ekgkts, smief, sìp, jrko, eiyfrs ftm.

3.

F`tkty Oriwk`j> ]fvfrie stiòiro f`tktkfs ekdf ek`f, mkrmef, irm, pheyek`f, pheyjh`, feekpsf ftm.irf ivikeicef th mrfitf taf ghofe rfqukrfo.

=. Fokt Mhggiòs> I ùgcfr hb mhggiòs irf ivikeicef th ghokby hr mhpy hr rfpekmitf taf

f`tktkfs hr jrhups hb f`tktkfs k` i ghofe.

?. ]tiòiro \irts> Bimkektkfs irf ivikeicef th mrfitf sygches, saipfs, iò htafr stiòiro pirts.

Brfquf`tey usfo pirts mi` cf sthrfo is cehmds wakma mi` cf k`sfrtfo k`th i oriwk`j is iò

waf` rfqukrfo.

6. Okspeiy> _af ghofe mi` cf fèirjfo, rfoumfo k` skzf, hr ghvfo imrhss taf smrff`, usk`j

okspeiy mhggiòs.

2. Mrhss aitmak`j> ]fmtkhìe pei`s mi` cf kòkmitfo tarhuja mrhss aitmak`j.

:.

Okgf`skh`k`j> \irts mi` cf okgf`skh`fo usk`j i ùgcfr hb stiòiro okgf`skh`k`j systfgs.1. \ehttk`j> Bimkektkfs th jft airo mhpkfs hb oriwk`js usk`j i pf` hr fefmtrhstitkm pehttfr iò

prk`tfr wkee cf ivikeicef.

;. Mh`bkjuritkh`> I shbtwirf ais th cf mh`bkjurfo th i jkvf` airowirf f`vkrh`gf`t.

9<. Musthgkzitkh`> Oribtk`j prhoumtkvkty mi` cf fài`mfo tarhuja musthgkzk`j shbtwirf

pimdijf.

99. Oriwk`j K`tfrmai`jf> Kt giy cf `fmfssiry th kgphrt hr fxphrt oriwk`j bkefs mrfitfo k` h`f

shbtwirf pimdijf th i`htafr. Bimkektkfs sahueo cf ivikeicef th mirry hut taks tisd. _aks ks

usuieey mirrkfo hut cy i phst prhmfsshr th mh`vfrt taf ghofe k`th i `futrie bkef ekdf ]_F\ iò prf-prhmfsshr th rfio taf ]_F\ bkef iò mh`vfrt taf oiti k`th taf ghofe.

F`tktkfs> I oriwk`j ks mrfitfo usk`j i ùgcfr hb f`tktkfs. I eirjf ùgcfr hb hptkh`s irf prhvkofo th oriw taf f`tktkfs ofpfòk`j uph` taf rfqukrfgf`ts. _af mhggh` f`tktkfs usfo bhr

oribtk`j irf ekstfo cfehw4

\hk`t IrmEk`f _rimf

Mkrmef \heyek`f (3O & =O)

\heyjh` OhujaùtFeekpsf ]heko



]hgf oribtk`j pimdijfs usf mh`strik`t cisfo mh`strumtkh` gftaho. Bkxk`j mh`strik`ts ieehwsk`tfrimtkvf mrfitkh`s hb virki`ts

Fokt Mhggiòs> Kt ks `fmfssiry th gidf ietfritkh`s th taf f`tktkfs hb i oriwk`j. FOK_

mhggiòs irf usfo bhr taks purphsf. I ekst hb FOK_ mhggiòs iò tafkr bu`mtkh`s irf jkvf`

cfehw4

Mhggiò @igf Bu`mtkh`

Frisf Frisf i sk`jef f`tkty hr i jrhup hb f`tktkfs.

Hhps _h rftrkfvf hcnfmts frisfo kìovfrtf`tey.Ghvf Ghvf hcnfmts th i `fw ehmitkh`.

Irriy Gidf guetkpef mhpkfs hb i` hcnfmt k` rfmti`jueir hr mkrmueir pittfr`.

Mai`jf Mai`jf prhpfrtkfs ekdf mhehr, eiyfr, takmd`fss, ek`f typf, ef`jta hr ehmitkh`

hb f`tktkfs.

Cridf Crfid i` fxkstk`j f`tkty k`th pkfmfs.

Gkrrhr Mrfitf gkrrhr kgijfs hb fxkstk`j hcnfmts.

Fxpehof Fxpehof i cehmd hr pheyek`f k`th kts mhgph`f`t pirts.

Shtitf Shtitf i` fxkstk`j hcnfmt tarhuja i spfmkbkfo i`jef.

Maigbfr Maigbfr mhr`frs hb hcnfmts.

Bkeeft \rhvkof riokus hb hcnfmts.

]trftma Ghokby i pirt hr oriwk`j cy strftmak`j taf hcnfmts mh``fmtfo th kt.

Hbbsft Oriw pirieefes th ek`fs hr fxkstk`j murvfs.

Vòh Vòh i spfmkbkfo ùgcfr hb mhggiòs.

_rkg _rkg phrtkh` hb f`tktkfs.

Fxtfò Fxtfò i` f`tkty th i`htafr f`tkty.

Mhpy Gidf sk`jef hr guetkpef mhpkfs hb i` fxkstk`j hcnfmt.

]mief Fèirjf hr sark`d i` hcnfmt.

_icef 3.3> Fokt Mhggiòs

Okgf`skh`k`j> Okgf`skh`k`j iò iook`j i``htitkh`s irf vfry kgphrti`t k` i`y oriwk`j.

Bkj. 3.9<> Oriwk`j i Jfir



Jf`frieey ek`fir okgf`skh`k`j k`vhevfs taf oriwk`j hb twh fxtf`skh` ek`fs, (i okgf`skh` ek`fwkta irrhw afios) sfpiritfo brhg taf hcnfmt. Iooktkhìeey thefri`mf vieufs giy iesh aivf th cf

sahw` k` shgf misfs.

_af okgf`skh`k`j bfiturfs iesh k`meuof i`jueir, riokie, okigftrkmie, iekj`fo iò efiofr hptkh`s.

_af isshmkitkvf okgf`skh`k`j bfiturf ivikeicef k` shgf shbtwirf fìcefs iuthgitkm mai`jf k` tafokgf`skh`k`j waf` taf f`tktkfs irf foktfo. Gi`y MIO shbtwirf pfrgkt jf`fritkh` hb okgf`skh`

styefs mhgpitkcef th K]H, I@]K, OK@ iò htafr stiòiros. Okgf`skh`k`j bfiturf mi` cf

musthgkzfo cy isskj`k`j ipprhprkitf vieufs bhr virkhus okgf`skh` virkicefs.

Bkj. 3.99> Oriwk`j i ]aibt

=-O Oriwk`js>

Fxtruskh` (Ek`fir ]wffp)> ]kgpef =-O hcnfmts mi` cf mrfitfo cy fxtruok`j 3-O kgijfs k` taf

takro okgf`skh`. _af fxtruskh` takmd`fss mi` cf spfmkbkfo cy i` ipprhprkitf mhggiò. _af

hcnfmts fxtruofo wkee aivf u`kbhrg takmd`fss k` taf ^ okrfmtkh`.

Bkj. 3.93> Fxtruskh` Fxigpef 9

Sfvheutkh`> Zkrf brigf kgijfs mi` cf mrfitfo cy rfvhevk`j i` f`tkty ichut i` ixks. K` Bkj. 3.9?

i sft hb f`tktkfs irf rfvhevfo ichut i` ixks tarhuja 3:<¼ th mrfitf i wkrf brigf hcnfmt. Shtitkh`tarhuja =2<¼ wkee prhoumf mhgpeftf hcnfmts.

Vsk`j Vsfr Mh-Hrokìtf ]ystfgs (VM])> MIO pimdijfs aivf i bimkekty th ofbk`f sfvfrie usfr

mh-hrokìtf systfgs. \ei`f bkjurfs mi` cf oriw` k` tafsf usfr mh-hrokìtf systfgs th mrfitf i =-O

wkrf brigf ghofe.



I pei`f bkjurf oriw` k` i Vsfr Mh-hrokìtf ]ystfg mi` cf isskj`fo i takmd`fss th mrfitf i =-Owkrf brigf ghofe. Mhgpefx =-O ghofes mi` cf mrfitfo usk`j i mhgckìtkh` hb sfvfrie usfr mh-

hrokìtf systfgs iò takmd`fssfs.

Bkj. 3.9=> Fxtruskh` Fxigpef 3

Bkj. 3.9?> Sfvheutkh` Bkj. 3.96> Vsfr Mh-hrokìtf ]ystfg

Musthgkzitkh`> Oribtk`j pimdijfs prhvkof fxtf`skvf musthgkzicef bfiturfs. Gi`y pimdijfs

irf prhvkofo wkta EK]\ cisfo hr ―M‗ cisfo prhjriggk`j f`vkrh`gf`t. _afsf mi` cf usfo th ofvfehp utkektkfs wakma mi` cf put k` gfùs iò tafsf wkee cfaivf ekdf i`y htafr mhggiò k` taf

shbtwirf. Ipirt brhg ofvfehpk`j tafsf prhjriggfs musthgkzitkh` k`vhevfs gi`y htafr tisds

wakma irf ekstfo cfehw4k. Ofskj` hb spfmkie gfùs - smrff`, puee ohw`, kmh`, cutth` ftm.kk. Mrfitk`j ghokbyk`j ek`f typfs.

kkk. Mrfitk`j aitma pittfr`s.

kv. Mrfitk`j sygches iò bh`ts.

v. Musthgkzk`j afep bkefs.vk. K`tfrbimf wkta tfxt fokthrs, oiticisf giìjfgf`t prhjrigs, sprfio saffts, iò

mhggu`kmitkh` prhjriggfs.



vkk. Vsf hb mhggiò iekisfs bhr brfquf`tey usfo mhggiòs.

]urbimfs> Ifstaftkm murvfs irf taf cukeok`j cehmds bhr pefisk`j surbimfs wakma irf taf dfy th

mrfitf jhho prhoumts. _af murvfs tait ofbk`f i surbimf irf mieefo chuòiry murvfs. Zakef mrfitk`j

surbimfs, surbimf sk`jueirktkfs gust cf ivhkofo. _afrf mi` cf okbbfrf`t surbimf typfs4

9. Sfmti`jueir> _aks typf hb surbimf ks mairimtfrkzfo cy bhur chuòiry murvfs. (Bkj. 3.92)

Bkj. 3.92> Sfmti`jueir ]urbimf Bkj. 3.9:> _rki`jueir ]urbimf

Bkj. 3.91> @-skofo ]urbimf Bkj. 3.9;> ]wffp ]urbimf

3. _rki`jueir> I surbimf ofbk`fo cy tarff chuòiry murvfs (Bkj. 3.9:)

=. @-]kofo> _af surbimf ofbk`fo cy i` ircktriry ùgcfr hb murvfs (Bkj. 3.91)

?. ]wffp> I surbimf ofbk`fo cy ghvk`j i sft hb prhbkef murvfs sghhtaey ieh`j h`f hr twh jukof

murvfs (Bkj. 3.9;)

6. Siokus Bkeeft> I cefò surbimf cftwff` twh sfts hb surbimfs (Bkj. 3.3<)

2.

Cefò> _aks ks i spfmkie bhrg hb swffp. _af jukof murvfs irf twh murvfs h` surbimf. _af

cefò ieehws usfr th cefò taf surbimfs thjftafr hr gidf i virkicef bkeeft brhg tafkr ofbk`fo

murvfs. _aks typf hb bkeeft (Bkj. 3.39) `ffos i murvf h` fima surbimf bhr mh`strumtkh`.

:. Hbbsft> I` hbbsft surbimf ks mrfitfo cy hbbsfttk`j i surbimf it i oksti`mf brhg i` fxkstk`j

surbimf. (Bkj. 3.33)



Bkj. 3.3<> Bkeeft ]urbimf

Bkj. 3.39> Cefò ]urbimf

Bkj. 3.33> Hbbsft ]urbimf

Sfòfrk`j> Sfòfrk`j ks i jf`frie tfrg ofsmrkck`j taf hvfriee prhmfss hb rfprfsf`titkh` hb =-Ohcnfmt th i saiofo 3-O prhnfmtkh` h` taf smrff` hb taf mhgputfr. _aks k`vhevfs i ùgcfr hb

prhmfssfs4

9. Jf`fritkh` hb i oiti strumturf bhr pheyjh` ghofes tait wkee mh`tik` taf k`bhrgitkh` rfqukrfobhr taf saiok`j prhmfss.

3. Ippeyk`j tri`sbhrgitkh`s

=. ]mi` mh`vfrtk`j pheyjh`s

?. Akoof` surbimf rfghvie



6. ]aiok`j kòkvkouie pkxfes.

Mh`bkjurk`j _af Oribtk`j ]hbtwirf> I oribtk`j pimdijf ks i jf`frie purphsf shbtwirf wakma

ais th cf ru` h` sfvfrie typfs hb airowirf f`vkrh`gf`t. _af tisd hb ghokbyk`j i pimdijf th

gidf kt sukticef th whrd k` i pirtkmueir airowirf f`vkrh`gf`t ks mieefo mh`bkjurk`j. _af

mh`bkjurk`j ks th cf mirrkfo hut bhr4

9. Okspeiyk`j taf oriwk`js h` i pirtkmueir typf hb gh`kthr.3. K`tfrbimk`j i pirtkmueir okjktkzfr hr ghusf.

=. K`tfrbimk`j i pirtkmueir typf hb prk`tfr iò/hr i pehttfr.

_aks ks mirrkfo hut usk`j ofvkmf orkvfr bkefs prhvkofo cy taf shbtwirf gh`kthr.

I`kgitkh`> I`kgitkh` ks taf prhmfss k` wakma taf keeuskh` hb ghvfgf`t ks imakfvfo cy mrfitk`j

iò okspeiyk`j i sfquf`mf hb kgijfs wkta fefgf`ts tait ippfir th aivf ghtkh`. _af keeuskh` hbghvfgf`t mi` cf imakfvfo k` virkhus wiys. _af ghst hcvkhus wiy ks th mai`jf taf ehmitkh`s hb

virkhus fefgf`ts hb virkhus kgijfs k` taf sfquf`mf. Htafr wiys k`meuof tri`sbhrgk`j i` hcnfmt

th i`htafr (gftighrpahsks), mai`jfs k` mhehr hb i` hcnfmt, hr mai`jfs hb ekjat k`tf`sktkfs.

Mh`vf`tkhìe I`kgitkh`> _af fgpaisks hb mh`vf`tkhìe i`kgitkh` ks usuieey h` taf irtkstkm

ispfmts iò ehhds hb taf kgijfs k` taf i`kgitkh` sfquf`mf. _af i`kgithr oriws i sfquf`mf hb

pkmturfs wakma, kb i`kgitfo, prhoumfs taf keeuskh` hb taf prhpfr ghtkh`. @h miemueitkh`s hr payskmie eiws irf k`vhevfo k` jf`fritk`j taf pkmturfs. _af gik` mrktfrkh` th jf`fritf tafsf

pkmturfs ks tait taf ghtkh` ehhds is rfie is phsskcef th taf hcsfrvk`j fyf.

Bkj. 3.3=> _ypfs hb I`kgitkh`

K` mrfitk`j i` i`kgitfo bkeg cy mh`vf`tkhìe i`kgitkh`, taf bheehwk`j stfps irf utkekzfo4

9. Dfybrigf> I`kgithrs oriw dfybrigfs tait mhrrfsphò th taf ghvfgf`t hb taf bkegmairimtfrs iò th taf tkgk`j rfqukrfo. I` i`kgithr ks usuieey isskj`fo th h`f spfmkbkm

mairimtfr. I`kgithrs irf sdkeefo kòkvkouies wah uòfrstiò augi` iò i`kgie ghtkh`s

tahrhujaey iò wah aivf jhho kgijkìtkh`.3.

K `cftwff`k`j> K`tfrpheitkh` cftwff` i`y twh dfybrigfs gust cf giof th prhoumf sghhta

i`kgitkh`. _aks k`tfrpheitkh` prhmfss, wakma ks oh`f giùieey, iò taf rfsuetk`j brigfs irf

d`hw` is k`cftwff`k`j iò k`cftwff`s rfspfmtkvfey.

=. Bhr taf sghhtafst i`kgitkh`, 3? brigfs gust cf oriw` bhr fvfry sfmhò hb i`kgitkh`. Kb tafghvfgf`t k` i mfrtik` smf`f hb taf i`kgitkh` ks th tidf @ sfmhòs, taf k`cftwff`fr gust

oriw 3?@ brigfs hb taf sigf smf`f th mhgpeftf taks ghvfgf`t.

?. E k`f _fstk`j> _af oriwk`js (ek`f oriwk`js taus bir) hb taf dfybrigfs iò k`cftwff`s irf

pahthmhpkfo h`th tri`spirf`t imftitf (mfe), iò irf bkegfo uòfr i rhstrug migfri th tfst tafquiekty hb taf ghvfgf`ts prhoumfo.

6. \ik`tk`j> Ibtfr i`y ghokbkmitkh`s irksk`j brhg taf ek`f tfsts, mfees irf pik`tfo th k`trhoumf

mhehr wakma rfsuets k` i mhehr bkeg. \ik`tk`j iesh jkvfs taf i`kgitfo mairimtfrs i sf`sf hbshekokty. ]titkm cimdjrhuòs aivf th cf pik`tfo iesh.

2. Bkegk`j> _af bkìe pahthjripay uòfr taf rhstrug migfri ks mirrkfo hut h` mhehr bkegs hr

vkofhtipfs. ]huòtrimds hb vhkmf, guskm, iò fbbfmt (suma is tauòfrsthrgk`j) irf ioofo thtaf bkeg.

]pfmkie fbbfmts irf usfo k` mh`vf`tkhìe i`kgitkh` th kgprhvf taf quiekty hb taf i`kgitfo bkeg.



Bkj. 3.3?> ]tfps hb mh`vf`tkhìe i`kgitkh`

Mhgputfr I`kgitkh`> Mhgputfr i`kgitkh` ks i vkicef sheutkh` th ieefvkitf ghst hb taf prhcefgs

hb mh`vf`tkhìe i`kgitkh`. _af usf hb mhgputfr i`kgitkh` k` f`tfrtik`gf`t ais fìcefo ghrfmhgpekmitfo ghtkh`s iò ghrf rfiekstkm kgijfs th cf k`trhoumfo tai` giùie i`kgitkh` mi`

hbbfr. Iesh, kt ais fìcefo payskmie eiws th cf k`mhrphritfo k`th i`kgitkh`.

Zkta ghrf iò ghrf usf hb taf mhgputfr k` i`kgitkh`, wf sff i sakbt brhg mh`mfkvk`j i`kgitkh`

is i gfrf irt k`th i smkf`mf. _aks sakbt ohfs `ht sujjfst taf fekgkìtkh` hb irt k` i`kgitkh`.Sitafr, kt sujjfsts tait i`kgitkh` sahueo cf cisfo h` i ciei`mf hb irt iò smkf`mf. It taf prfsf`t

tkgf, i`kgitkh` irt ks ghrf iovi`mfo tai` i`kgitkh` smkf`mf.

_wh meissfs hb mhgputfr i`kgitkh` mi` cf okstk`juksafo is bheehws4 F`tfrtik`gf`t I`kgitkh`

F`jk`ffrk`j I`kgitkh`

F`tfrtik`gf`t I`kgitkh`> Mhgputfr jripakms tfma`kqufs mi` cf usfo th jf`fritf taf oriwk`js

hb dfybrigfs iò k`cftwff`s. _af oriwk`js hb dfybrigfs mi` cf mrfitfo wkta i` k`tfrimtkvf

jripakms fokthr, mi` cf okjktkzfo, hr mi` cf prhoumfo cy prhjriggk`j. _af k`cftwff`s mi` cf

mhgpeftfey miemueitfo cy taf mhgputfr cy k`tfrpheitk`j ieh`j mhgpefx pitas hb ghtkh`. _af usfhb eiyfrs k` jf`fritk`j tafsf oriwk`js ks vfry usfbue. Oriwk`js tait irf sairfo cy ghrf tai` h`f

brigf irf sthrfo h` sfpiritf eiyfrs iò sairfo cy iee taf brigfs cy hvfreiyk`j taf prhpfr eiyfrs

thjftafr.

]aiok`j tfma`kqufs mi` cf usfo th pik`t taf oriwk`js hb taf virkhus brigfs. @ht hèy oh tafsftfma`kqufs ioo jrfit vksuie rfieksg th taf i`kgitkh` cut tafy iesh prhvkof i tf`bheo rfoumtkh` k`

tkgf tidf` bhr taks tisd.

_af usf hb mhgputfr k` mh`vf`tkhìe i`kgitkh` is ofsmrkcfo ichvf ks d`hw` is mhgputfrisskstfo twh-okgf`skhìe i`kgitkh` (shgftkgfs mieefo dfybrigf i`kgitkh`). Iuthgitkm

k`cftwff`k`j ais cff` taf prkgiry bhmus hb ittf`tkh` k` ghvk`j brhg mh`vf`tkhìe i`kgitkh` th

mhgputfr isskstfo i`kgitkh`.Ghofefo i`kgitkh` (shgftkgfs mieefo tarff-okgf`skhìe i`kgitkh`), h` taf htafr aiò, ks i`

f`tkrfey okbbfrf`t gfokug. Kt hpf`s up taf phsskckekty hb utkekzk`j taf ivikeicef mhgputfr jripakms



iò MIO tfma`kqufs th mrfitf smf`fs, ghvfgf`ts, iò kgijfs tait irf okbbkmuet th imakfvf cymh`vf`tkhìe gfi`s.

Ibtfr taf sthrychiro ks prfpirfo bhr i bkeg, taf bheehwk`j stfps irksf th imakfvf ghofefo

i`kgitkh`4

9. Jfhgftrkm ofsmrkptkh`> K` hrofr th ieehw taf mhgpeftf iò jf`frie tarff-okgf`skhìei`kgitkh` hb oriw` hcnfmts, tafy sahueo cf ofsmrkcfo is jfhgftrkm ghofes utkekzk`j

wkrfbrigf, surbimf hr sheko rfprfsf`titkh`s.

3. Brigf jf̀ fritkh`> Mirthh` i`kgitkh` ais oriw` hcnfmts brfquf`tey oksthrtfo cy strftmak`j, cfòk`j iò twkstk`j bhr aughrhus fbbfmt. Ipirt brhg taks fbbfmt, tafsf hcnfmts mi` fxakckt

oyìgkm ghvfgf`ts cy ippeyk`j virkhus jfhgftrkm tri`sbhrgitkh`s th tafkr jfhgftrkm

ghofes.=. E k`f _fstk`j> Ibtfr iee brigfs irf jf`fritfo, tafkr mhrrfsphòk`j kgijfs irf jf`fritfo cy

saiok`j tafg. _afsf kgijfs mi` cf i`kgitfo iò okspeiyfo h` taf jripakms okspeiy th tfst taf

ghvfgf`ts k` rfie tkgf.

?. Sfmhrok`j> Zaf` iee taf kgijfs iò brigfs irf sitksbimthry, taf kgijfs irf rfmhrofo brigf cy brigf h`th vkofh rfmhrofrs hr bkegs. ]hgftkgfs kgijfs irf prhoumfo h` pipfr hr mfe bhr

bkegk`j uòfr i mh`vf`tkhìe rhstrug migfri, hr buee skzf `fjitkvfs irf giof hb tafsf kgijfs

th fìcef hptkmie trkmds hr fvf` shgf aiò mhehrk`j th cf mirrkfo hut.

F`jk`ffrk`j I`kgitkh`> F`jk`ffrk`j I`kgitkh` ks k` ktsfeb i bhrg hb ghofefo i`kgitkh`,

oksmussfo k` taf prfvkhus sfmtkh`. _af okbbfrf`mf ks tait taf bhrgfr ks smkf`mf hrkf`tfo wakef tafeittfr ks kgijf hrkf`tfo. Efss fgpaisks h` kgijf rfieksg iò `h bikrk`j mairimtfrkzf f`jk`ffrk`ji`kgitkh`. K` bimt, wkrfbrigf i`kgitkh` mi` cf subbkmkf`t k` shgf ippekmitkh`s. K` iooktkh`,

kgijfry k` f`jk`ffrk`j i`kgitkh` mhueo bhmus h` taf smkf`tkbkm mh`tf`ts hb taf brigfs k`stfio hb

tafkr rfiekstkm iò smf`km ehhd.I` f`jk`ffrk`j i`kgitkh` systfg `ffos th gfft taf bheehwk`j rfqukrfgf`ts4

9. Fximt rfprfsf`titk h` iò okspeiy hb oiti> Cy oiti, wf gfi` hcnfmts hr ùgfrkmie rfsuets hb

skgueitkh`. Oiti gust cf okspeiyicef k` i` kgijf (saiofo) bhrg bhr cfttfr vksuiekzitkh` iò

uòfrstiòk`j. Sistfr okspeiys irf usuieey usfo th okspeiy i`kgitkh` cfmiusf hb tafkr ickektyth okspeiy sheko irfis hb mhehr iò pittfr`s.

3. Akja-spffo iò iuthgitkm prhoumtkh` hb i`kgitkh`> K` hrofr th usf i`kgitkh` is i` iko hb

mhggu`kmitkh` cftwff` f`jk`ffrs iò ofskj`frs, i`kgitfo brigfs gust cf prhoumfo bist iò`ffo i akja-spffo okspeiy.

=. Ehw ahst ofpfòf`my> I` f`jk`ffrk`j i`kgitkh` systfg gust cf ivikeicef th f`jk`ffrs

ourk`j tafkr ghofek`j iò skgueitkh`. _af systfg gust `ht ofpfò afivkey h` ahstmhgputfrs tait irf usuieey hvfrehiofo.

I`kgitkh` ]ystfgs>

Airowirf Mh`bkjuritkh`> I` i`kgitkh` systfg giy mh`skst hb i mhgputfr th miemueitf iò

jf`fritf taf rfqukrfo brigfs bhr i`kgitkh` iò i jripakms okspeiy (usuieey ristfr okspeiy) thokspeiy taf brigfs summfsskvfey is tafy irf jf`fritfo. Ahwfvfr, taf kìckekty hb mhgputfrs th

jf`fritf iò okspeiy taf brigfs bist f`huja gidfs kt kgphsskcef th imakfvf i`kgitkh`. Ghst

mhgputfrs mi``ht imakfvf taf i`kgitkh` quiekty hb mhggfrmkie ghvkfs hr tfefvkskh`.

H`f wiy th shevf taf ichvf spffo prhcefg ks th sivf taf brigfs is tafy irf jf`fritfo iò taf` thrfokspeiy tafg mh`tkùhusey eitfr k` hrofr th mrfitf taf i`kgitkh` fbbfmt.

_wh hb mhggh` gfoki th sivf brigfs irf migfris iò vkofhtipf rfmhrofrs. _af systfg wkta i

ghvkf migfri sivfs taf brigfs pahthjripakmieey h` i bkeg. _af migfri ks k`tfrbimfo iòtafrfbhrf mh`trheefo cy taf mhgputfr. Zaf` taf mhgputfr mhgpeftfs h`f brigf, taf ghvkf

migfri, wahsf sauttfr ks trkjjfrfo fefmtrh`kmieey cy taf mhgputfr, tri`sbfrs tait kgijf th i sk`jef

brigf iò taf` iovi`mfs taf bkeg cy h`f brigf. Zaf` taf mhgputfr bk`ksafs taf `fxt brigf, tafmigfri rfmhros kt iò ijik` iovi`mfs kts bkeg h`f brigf. Zaf` iee taf bkegs irf pahthjripafo,



taf bkeg ks ofvfehpfo iò sahw` th prhoumf taf i`kgitkh` sfquf`mf. Fbbfmtkvf usf hb taks bkegk`jtfma`kquf rfqukrfs i` uòfrstiòk`j hb taf bimthrs tait ibbfmt stkee pahthjripay hb vkofh kgijfs,

suma is fxphsurf tkgk`j, igckf`t ekjat, iò taf iekj`gf`t hb taf migfri wkta taf smrff`.

Bkj. 3.36> ]tfps hb ghofefo i`kgitkh`

i) ]ystfg wkta i migfri c) ]ystfg wkta i vkofhtipf rfmhrofr

Bkj. 3.36> Airowirf mh`bkjuritkh` hb i`kgitkh` systfgs

Bkj. 3.32> I`kgitkh` systfg wkta i vkofhtipf rfmhrofr



]hbtwirf Irmaktfmturf> I`kgitkh` shbtwirf ks taf dfy mhgph`f`t hb taf i`kgitkh` systfgs. _af

systfg ais twh prkgiry bu`mtkh`s> prhoumf taf i`kgitkh` brigfs iò mh`trhe taf airowirf. _hofskj` i summfssbue i`kgitkh` shbtwirf, bhur hcnfmtkvfs giy cf kof`tkbkfo is bheehws4

_h aivf i prfvkfwk`j mipickekty

_h cf icef th fokt i`kgitkh` cfbhrf rfmhrok`j

_h prhoumf ìturie bikrk`j hb ghvfgf`t_h mh`trhe taf prhmfss hb tri`sbfrrk`j mhgputfr-jf`fritfo kgijfs th rfmhrok`j gfoki suma is

bkegs hr vkofhtipf

_af jripakms iò i`kgitkh` fokthrs irf rfsph`skcef bhr prhmfssk`j usfr mhggiòs. _afy irfk`vhdfo cy taf mhrrfsphòk`j usfr k`tfrbimfs. K` iooktkh` th giìjk`j taf f`tkrf i`kgitkh`

shbtwirf, taf jehcie mh`trheefr okrfmts taf usfr k`put th taf prhpfr fokthr. _af jripakms k`put oiti,

rfmfkvfo cy taf jripakms giìjfr tarhuja taf jripakms fokthr, ks usfo th mrfitf taf hcnfmt

oiticisf. ]kgkeirey, taf i`kgitkh` k`put oiti ks prhmfssfo cy taf i`kgitkh` giìjfr, thjftafrwkta taf jripakms giìjfr, th mrfitf taf ghtkh` oiticisf. I tfgpeitf oiticisf hb stiòiro pirts

hr hcnfmts giy cf ivikeicef th chta giìjfrs. K` i` f`jk`ffrk`j f`vkrh`gf`t, taf tarff oiticisfs

whueo iesh cf sairfo cy htafr systfgs suma is i MIO/MIG systfg iò i oyìgkm skgueitkh`

systfg.

Bkj. 3.3:> ]hbtwirf irmaktfmturf hb i`kgitkh` systfgs

Issfgcey Ghofek`j> Issfgcey ghofek`j ks taf prhmfss hb mrfitk`j ofskj`s tait mh`skst hb twh

hr ghrf mhgph`f`ts issfgcefo thjftafr it tafkr rfspfmtkvf whrd phsktkh`s. _af mhgph`f`ts irf

crhujat thjftafr iò issfgcefo k` Issfgcey Ofskj` whrdcf`ma cy ippeyk`j sukticef pirigftrkm

issfgcey mh`strik`ts th tafg. _af issfgcey mh`strik`ts ieehw yhu th rfstrkmt taf ofjrffs hbbrffohg hb mhgph`f`ts h` tafkr rfspfmtkvf whrd phsktkh`s.



Okbbfrf`t Ipprhimafs hb Mrfitk`j i` Issfgcey> Issfgcey ghofes mi` cf mrfitfo cy iohptk`j

bheehwk`j twh typfs hb ipprhimafs4

9. Chtthg-Vp Issfgcey> _af chtthg-up issfgcey ks taf ghst prfbfrrfo ipprhima bhr mrfitk`j

issfgcey ghofes. K` taks hb ipprhima, taf mhgph`f`ts irf mrfitfo k` taf \irt Ofskj`

whrdcf`ma is (*.MI_\irt) bkef. _af` taf prhoumt (*.MI_\rhoumt) bkef ks stirtfo iò iee taf prfvkhusey mrfitfo mhgph`f`ts irf k`sfrtfo iò peimfo k` kt usk`j taf thhes prhvkofo k` taf

Issfgcey Ofskj` whrdcf`ma. Ibtfr k`sfrtk`j fima mhgph`f`t, mh`strik`ts irf ippekfo th

phsktkh` tafg prhpfrey k` taf =O spimf wkta rfspfmt th htafr mhgph`f`ts.

Iohptk`j taf chtthg-up ipprhima jkvfs taf usfr taf hpphrtu`kty th piy ghrf ittf`tkh` th tafoftikes hb taf mhgph`f`ts is tafy irf ofskj`fo kòkvkouieey. Cfmiusf taf htafr mhgph`f`ts

irf `ht prfsf`t k` taf sigf wkòhw, kt cfmhgfs guma fiskfr th gik`tik` i rfeitkh`sakp cftwff` taf bfiturfs hb taf murrf`t mhgph`f`t. _aks ipprhima ks prfbfrrfo bhr eirjf

issfgcekfs, fspfmkieey tahsf aivk`j k`trkmitf kòkvkouie mhgph`f`ts.

3. _hp-ohw` Issfgcey> K` taf thp-ohw` issfgcey ofskj` ipprhima, mhgph`f`ts irf mrfitfo

k`skof taf Issfgcey Ofskj` whrdcf`ma. _afrfbhrf, tafrf ks `h `ffo th mrfitf sfpiritf pirt

bkefs hb taf mhgph`f`ts. _aks ofskj` ipprhima ks mhgpeftfey okbbfrf`t brhg taf chtthg-up

ofskj` ipprhima. Afrf yhu aivf th stirt taf prhoumt bkef bkrst iò taf`, h`f cy h`f, mrfitf ieemhgph`f`ts. @htf tait fvf` tahuja taf mhgph`f`ts irf mrfitfo k`skof taf prhoumt bkef, tafy

irf sivfo is kòkvkouie pirt bkefs iò mi` cf hpf`fo sfpiritfey eitfr.

Iohptk`j taf thp-ohw` ofskj` ipprhima jkvfs taf usfr taf okstk`mtkvf iovi`tijf hb usk`j tafjfhgftry hb h`f mhgph`f`t th ofbk`f taf jfhgftry hb taf htafr. Afrf taf mh`strumtkh` iòissfgcey hb taf mhgph`f`ts tidfs peimf skgueti`fhusey. Is i rfsuet hb taks, taf usfr mi` vkfw

taf ofvfehpgf`t hb taf prhoumt k` rfie tkgf. _aks ofskj` ipprhima ks akjaey prfbfrrfo, wakef

whrdk`j h` i mh`mfptuie ofskj` hr i thhe ofskj` wafrf taf rfbfrf`mf hb prfvkhusey mrfitfo pirts ks rfqukrfo th ofvfehp i `fw pirt.

Computer Aided Design - CIM 1111.pdf

Documents

Transcript of Computer Aided Design - CIM 1111.pdf