CompetitionCompetition

Matt VaartstraMatt VaartstraUniversity of IdahoUniversity of Idaho

Edited from: Andy Gillham and Damon BurtonEdited from: Andy Gillham and Damon Burton

COMPOSE QUICK ANSWERS COMPOSE QUICK ANSWERS TO THESE 2 QUESTIONSTO THESE 2 QUESTIONS

What is your personal What is your personal definition of competition? definition of competition?

What does COMPETITION What does COMPETITION mean to you?mean to you?

WHAT IS COMPETITION?WHAT IS COMPETITION? Rewards are often a Rewards are often a

central component central component of many personal of many personal definitions of definitions of competition.competition.

Most of us assume Most of us assume that sport creates that sport creates winners and losers winners and losers and winners get and winners get more perks or more perks or rewards than do rewards than do losers.losers.

Reward DefinitionsReward DefinitionsCompetitionCompetition: A situation in which : A situation in which

rewards are distributed unequally on the rewards are distributed unequally on the basis of performance by the performers.basis of performance by the performers.

CooperationCooperation: A social process through : A social process through which performance is evaluated and which performance is evaluated and rewarded in terms of the collective rewarded in terms of the collective achievements of a group of people achievements of a group of people working together to reach a particular working together to reach a particular goal.goal.

REWARD-DEFINITION REWARD-DEFINITION COMPETITION QUIZ COMPETITION QUIZ

DIRECTIONS – Which of these situations is DIRECTIONS – Which of these situations is ‘competition’ according to the Reward ‘competition’ according to the Reward Definition? Definition? 1.1. Participating in a PSYCH 100 experiment and told to Participating in a PSYCH 100 experiment and told to

“perform their best.”“perform their best.”2.2. Same experiment but you get $10 if you perform to Same experiment but you get $10 if you perform to

some level.some level.3.3. Playing football in the park on Sunday afternoon Playing football in the park on Sunday afternoon

with friends.with friends.4.4. Football game ends in a tie.Football game ends in a tie.5.5. You’re alone in your living room trying to make 7 out You’re alone in your living room trying to make 7 out

of 10 putts from 10 feet . of 10 putts from 10 feet . 6.6. During your daily 5 mile run on your regular course During your daily 5 mile run on your regular course

with 3 friends, nobody says anything, but each picks with 3 friends, nobody says anything, but each picks up the pace the last 200 meters trying to finish first.up the pace the last 200 meters trying to finish first.

Problems w/ Reward Problems w/ Reward DefinitionsDefinitions

For every winner, there has to be one For every winner, there has to be one or more losers.or more losers.

Does not account for differences in Does not account for differences in individual reactions to competition.individual reactions to competition.

Assumes the ‘reward’ to be the same Assumes the ‘reward’ to be the same for every competitor.for every competitor.Intrinsic vs. extrinsic rewardsIntrinsic vs. extrinsic rewards

Problems w/ Reward Problems w/ Reward DefinitionsDefinitions

Differences between competition Differences between competition and cooperation are emphasized, and cooperation are emphasized, rather than their similarities.rather than their similarities.You have to cooperate in order to You have to cooperate in order to

compete.compete.Competition requires both within-Competition requires both within-

team and between-team cooperation.team and between-team cooperation.

Competition as a ProcessCompetition as a ProcessMartens’ Process ModelMartens’ Process Model

4 stages to the competitive process4 stages to the competitive processExplains why people respond differently Explains why people respond differently

to competitionto competitionSocial comparison processSocial comparison process

Stage #1: Stage #1: Objective Competitive SituationObjective Competitive Situation

Four objective criteria that must be Four objective criteria that must be present in order to conclude that present in order to conclude that competition is occurringcompetition is occurring 1. A standard of comparison is identified for 1. A standard of comparison is identified for

the team or individualthe team or individual 2. Another person is present2. Another person is present 3. This person knows the standard3. This person knows the standard 4. This person evaluates whether the standard 4. This person evaluates whether the standard

has been obtainedhas been obtained What are the advantages / disadvantages What are the advantages / disadvantages

of the Objective Competitive Situation of the Objective Competitive Situation (OCS)?(OCS)?

Stage #2:Stage #2:Subjective Competitive SituationSubjective Competitive Situation

How an athlete perceives, accepts, How an athlete perceives, accepts, and appraises the OCS.and appraises the OCS.SCS is affected by personality traits, SCS is affected by personality traits,

perceived importance of competition, perceived importance of competition, perception of the comparison standard, perception of the comparison standard, and perceived response capabilities.and perceived response capabilities.

As a result, athletes seek out As a result, athletes seek out competition, enter it reluctantly, or competition, enter it reluctantly, or attempt to avoid it.attempt to avoid it.

Stage #3: Stage #3: ResponseResponseAfter the appraisal of the OCS, After the appraisal of the OCS,

athletes experience positive and athletes experience positive and negative adaptations, preparing negative adaptations, preparing them for competition.them for competition.PhysiologicallyPhysiologicallyPsychologicallyPsychologicallyBehaviorallyBehaviorally

Stage #4: Stage #4: ConsequencesConsequencesAthletes’ perception of consequence Athletes’ perception of consequence

(e.g., success or failure) is more (e.g., success or failure) is more important than the actual outcome.important than the actual outcome.Athletes perceive positive or negative Athletes perceive positive or negative

consequences as a result of participation.consequences as a result of participation.These consequences impact:These consequences impact:

Short and long term emotionsShort and long term emotionsPerceptions of competencePerceptions of competenceFuture decisions to competeFuture decisions to compete

Variable Factors in OCSVariable Factors in OCSSocial EnvironmentSocial Environment

Presence of othersPresence of othersWho?Who?How many?How many?Audience or co-actors?Audience or co-actors?

Attributes of opponentsAttributes of opponentsAbilityAbilityAgeAgeSexSex

Variable Factors in OCSVariable Factors in OCSPhysical EnvironmentPhysical Environment

Playing field conditionsPlaying field conditionsWeatherWeather

RewardsRewardsTangibleTangibleIntangibleIntangible

Task CharacteristicsTask CharacteristicsPerformance demandsPerformance demandsRules of contestRules of contest

Martens’ MottoMartens’ Motto““Athletes first, winning second”Athletes first, winning second”To broaden Martens’ earlier motto, To broaden Martens’ earlier motto,

a revised motto, “Personal a revised motto, “Personal excellence- The foundation for excellence- The foundation for success” highlights the success” highlights the relationship shared between relationship shared between personal development and personal development and success.success.

Bringing the Motto to LifeBringing the Motto to Life‘‘Striving to win’ vs. ‘Actually Striving to win’ vs. ‘Actually

winning’winning’Appreciating ‘the journey’ vs. ‘the Appreciating ‘the journey’ vs. ‘the

destination’destination’The challenge becomes practicing The challenge becomes practicing

what you preach.what you preach.Community-wide philosophy Community-wide philosophy

development.development.

Problems Associated with Problems Associated with CompetitionCompetition

‘‘Win-at-all-costs’ mentalityWin-at-all-costs’ mentalityPromotes youth sport dropoutPromotes youth sport dropoutReduces motivation for those that Reduces motivation for those that

remain involvedremain involvedReduces enjoyment for Reduces enjoyment for

‘unsuccessful’ competitors‘unsuccessful’ competitorsFacilitates a short-term focus onlyFacilitates a short-term focus only

Myths of CompetitionMyths of CompetitionMyth 1: Competition is a powerful Myth 1: Competition is a powerful

motivational strategy.motivational strategy.

Truth: Competition provides the Truth: Competition provides the greatest motivation when the level of greatest motivation when the level of challenge is moderately difficult and challenge is moderately difficult and matches the current capabilities of matches the current capabilities of the athlete.the athlete.

Motivation and CompetitionMotivation and Competition

Athletes’Skill Level

Level ofChallenge

Boredom

Anxiety

Low

Low High

High

Myths of CompetitionMyths of CompetitionMyth 2: Competition is an effective Myth 2: Competition is an effective

quality control strategy.quality control strategy.Truth: Typically, competition can be Truth: Typically, competition can be

an effective strategy to improve a an effective strategy to improve a skill. skill. However, competition leads to short-However, competition leads to short-

sightedness, and athletes sacrifice sightedness, and athletes sacrifice long-term improvement and learning in long-term improvement and learning in order to achieve short-term success.order to achieve short-term success.

Myths of CompetitionMyths of CompetitionMyth 3: Competition develops positive Myth 3: Competition develops positive

character traits.character traits.Truth: Winning can be a double-edge Truth: Winning can be a double-edge

sword for teaching character sword for teaching character development.development. If athletes wants to win too much, they may If athletes wants to win too much, they may

lie, cheat, or develop bad character traits.lie, cheat, or develop bad character traits. Athletes who resist temptation, develop Athletes who resist temptation, develop

positive character traits that last a lifetime. positive character traits that last a lifetime.

Myths of CompetitionMyths of CompetitionMyth 4: Competition is a fair Myth 4: Competition is a fair

process that insures that the best process that insures that the best team normally wins.team normally wins.

Truth: The playing field is rarely Truth: The playing field is rarely level, and even when it is, winning level, and even when it is, winning is very uncontrollable and often is very uncontrollable and often pursued via unfair methods.pursued via unfair methods.

Competition: Good or Bad?Competition: Good or Bad?Competition is neither good nor Competition is neither good nor

bad. Rather, it is simply a neutral bad. Rather, it is simply a neutral process and depends on the process and depends on the athletes’ appraisal of the OCS, athletes’ appraisal of the OCS, response, and perception of response, and perception of consequences.consequences.

Competition and Cooperation Competition and Cooperation As ComplimentaryAs Complimentary

Competition and cooperation are not Competition and cooperation are not polar opposites.polar opposites.

The dynamics of how competition and The dynamics of how competition and cooperation complement one another cooperation complement one another should be taught.should be taught.

Top performers employ a blend of Top performers employ a blend of competition and cooperation strategies.competition and cooperation strategies.

Competition vs. CooperationCompetition vs. Cooperation Cooperative activities produce more open Cooperative activities produce more open

communication, sharing, trust, friendship, communication, sharing, trust, friendship, and enhanced performance compared with and enhanced performance compared with competitive activities.competitive activities.

Johnson & Johnson (1985)Johnson & Johnson (1985) Review of 122 studiesReview of 122 studies

Cooperation improved performance more Cooperation improved performance more than competition in 65 studies (8 showed than competition in 65 studies (8 showed opposite effects)opposite effects)

Cooperation improved performance more Cooperation improved performance more than individual efforts in 108 studies (6 than individual efforts in 108 studies (6 showed opposite effects)showed opposite effects)

Questionable tasks and contests howeverQuestionable tasks and contests however

What ways do athletes What ways do athletes have to cooperate in have to cooperate in order to compete?order to compete?

Association Model of Association Model of CompetitionCompetition

SportCooperative gamesFrisbeeAssembly lines

Hermit War with no rules

Noncooperative

Cooperative

CompetitiveNoncompetitive

Taking a Hint from RecessTaking a Hint from RecessCoakly (1997)Coakly (1997)

Unorganized games result in increased Unorganized games result in increased cooperation, decision making, cooperation, decision making, creativity, and action… things that creativity, and action… things that rule-centered organized sport stifles.rule-centered organized sport stifles.

Coaches, teachers, and sport directors Coaches, teachers, and sport directors should take a hint from the behaviors should take a hint from the behaviors of children when games are of children when games are spontaneous.spontaneous.

Taking a Hint from RecessTaking a Hint from RecessCoakly (1997)Coakly (1997)

Unorganized sport behaviors: Kids Unorganized sport behaviors: Kids modify games to maximize cooperation, modify games to maximize cooperation, success, and enjoyment.success, and enjoyment.Increased action and scoring opportunities.Increased action and scoring opportunities.More constant involvement during the More constant involvement during the

game.game.Closely-matched teams.Closely-matched teams.Friendship development and maintenance.Friendship development and maintenance.