Competing Myths of Nationalist Identity: Ideological Perceptions of Conflict

in Ambon, Indonesia.

A dissertation presented to the Division of Arts

of Murdoch University in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

By Kathleen Therese Turner B. Asian St. (Hons) ANU

2006

For mum and dad

Table of Contents

Page

List of Illustrations iv Abstract v Publications vi Acknowledgments vii Glossary ix

Chapter 1: Introduction 1

1.1 Sources and Methodology 7

1.1.1 Interviews 10

Chapter 2: Nationalism in Indonesia and Constructivism 20

2.1 Approaches to Nationalism and Ethnic Conflict in Indonesia 20

2.1.1 Primordialism 24

2.1.2 Instrumentalism 29

2.1.3 Constructivism 33

2.2 Social Disruption 40

2.3 Displaced Elites and Insecure Individuals 43

2.4 Myth-Making 50

2.5 The Emotional Appeal of Nationalism 61

Chapter 3: Social Disruption in Ambon and the RMS 71

3.1 Introduction 71

3.2 Factors Contributing to Disunity in Ambon 74

3.3 Factors Generating Disruptions 77

3.3.1 Colonial Changes to Traditional Structures 78

3.3.2 Christianisation 83

3.3.3 Colonial Changes to Structure 89

3.4 Constructions of Identity: Loyalist versus Nationalist 99

3.5 The Construction of an Ambonese Identity 106

3.6 A New Construction of Ambonese Identity 115

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3.6.1 Common Ancestry and Territorial Homeland 118

3.6.2 Language 124

3.6.3 Religion 125

3.7 Conclusion 129

Chapter 4: Social Disruption in Ambon 1950-2000 132

4.1 Introduction 132

4.2 Disruption of Authority Structures in the Old Order 133

4.3 Disruptions of Authority Structures in the New Order 138

4.4 The Disruptive Impact of Migration and the Financial Crisis 144

4.5 The Disruptive Impact of the 1999 Decentralisation Measures 152

4.6 Conclusion 159

Chapter 5: The FKM and the Construction of an Ambonese Identity 161

5.1 Introduction 161

5.2 The Scapegoating of Migrants 166

5.3 A Non-Separatist Religious Construction 169

5.4 A Racial Construction 175

5.5 A Claim to Human Rights, Self-Determination and Democracy 182

5.6 Support for the FKM 185

5.7 Conclusion 187

Chapter 6: The Laskar Jihad and the Construction of Ethnonationalism 189

6.1 Introduction 189

6.2 Pre-Laskar Jihad Perceptions 192

6.2.1 Muslims in Ambon 193

6.2.2 Muslims outside Ambon 196

6.3 An Ethnoreligious Construction 198

6.4 An Ethnonationalist Construction 204

6.5 Support for the Laskar Jihad 217

6.6 Conclusion 219

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Chapter 7: Conclusion 220

7.1 A Contribution to Ethnic Studies 220

7.2 The Process which Links Disruption to Ideologisation 226

7.3 A Case of Counterposed Nationalisms which Developed in

Response to Each Other 229

7.4 A Contribution to Indonesian studies of Post-Soeharto Conflict

and Violence 233

Appendices

1. Linguistic Map of Ambon-Lease 237

(Ambon, Haruku, Saparua, Nusa Laut)

2. Linguistic Map of West Seram 238

3. Linguistic Map of Central Seram 239

4. Linguistic Map of East Seram 240

5. Linguistic Map of Buru 241

6. 1950 RMS Declaration of Independence 242

from the Republic of Indonesia

7. Regional and Local Administration in Indonesia 243

8. 2000 FKM Declaration of Independence 244

from the Republic of Indonesia

9. 2002 Malino Peace Agreement 248

10. 2002 Declaration of War by Ja’far Umar Thalib 250

Bibliography 257

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List of Illustrations

Tables Page Table 1 Details of Interviewees 13 Table 2 The Total Number of KNIL Soldiers between 1927-1917 95 Table 3 Transmigration into Maluku between 1969-1999 146 Table 4 Changing Poverty Rates in Indonesia in 1996 and

Changes 1996-99, February 1996 and February 1999 (%) 149

Table 5 Poverty Incidence and Contribution to Poor in Indonesia by

Occupational Sector 150

Table 6 Regional Autonomy Laws of 1974 and 1999 155

Maps Map 1 Maluku Province xviii Map 2 Central Maluku xix

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ABSTRACT

This thesis examines the 1999–2003 case of political conflict in Ambon, in

Eastern Indonesia, in the context of political change in Indonesia from 1950-1998. It

is argued that political transformation during this period was closely influenced by a

much longer period of unprecedented social change preceding the politics of this

period. It is suggested that the ideologisation of ethnic identities is likely to occur

when structures of community are disrupted by changes in the contemporary world

such as economic fluctuations or state policy interventions. One result is to disrupt

traditional village communities so as to place individuals in stress situations making

them susceptible to new nationalist ideologies. The other impact is to dislocate

authority structures so that both incumbent and aspiring elites lose their power and

authority and thus search for new ways in order to re-establish their moral and

political legitimacy.

It is argued that nationalism is able to offer a resolution to social disruption and thus

to the community in search of social cohesion, while also functioning to rebuild elite

authority. In ethnic nationalist ideology, insecurities and feelings of isolation are

ameliorated by subsequent constructions of ‘us’ and ‘them’ where members of one

distinct community are demarcated from other communities. It is suggested that

myths of ancestry and homeland together with counterposed moral dichotomies

appealed to the Ambonese who needed this form of ideological support. It is the

insecurities and fear experienced by disrupted communities which promote this

powerful ideological formula.

It is asserted that conflict on the island has been characterised by this trend towards

ideological absolutism where two conflicting ideological constructions have translated

the conflict into a non-negotiable confrontation between opposing national rights. It is

argued that these two ideological constructions have remained internalised on the

island and embedded within the mindsets of both Ambonese Christians and Muslims,

thereby rendering setbacks to conflict resolution.

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Publications

Kathleen Turner, ‘The Construction of Identities in Ambon, Indonesia’ in Vivienne

Wee (ed), Political Fragmentation in Southeast Asia: alternative nations in the

making”, RoutledgeCurzon: London, 2005.

Kathleen Turner, ‘Myths and Moral Authority in Maluku: The Case of Ambon’, Asian

Ethnicity, vol.4, no.2, June 2003, pp.241-264.

Kathleen Turner, ‘Utopian Visions and Kinship Divisions: Ideological Perceptions of

Ethnic Conflict in Ambon, Indonesia’, Harvard Asia Quarterly [online], vol.6, no.3,

Summer 2002.

Kathleen Turner, ‘Myths of Inviolability: Ethnic Themes in the Dynamics of Conflict

in Ambon, Eastern Indonesia’, Asia View, vol.12, no.1, July 2002, p.7.

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Acknowledgments

The work of completing this dissertation has been furthered and supported by many

people. I owe a special debt of gratitude to the Ambonese who willingly shared their

time and thoughts with me during what was clearly a period of immense social

upheaval and trauma. I can only sincerely hope that their beautiful homeland finds

stability and peace.

I am grateful to David Hill for his help during the initial stages of the dissertation and

to David Brown, my supervisor, who amongst his heavy engagements, managed to

find some time to read, correct and give insightful suggestions. I also appreciate the

friendship and support of colleagues and staff at the Asia Research Centre, Murdoch

University, and outside academics. These included Greg Acciaioli, Sidney Adams, Ed

Aspinall, Emita Astami, Del Blakeway, David Bourchier, Nils Bubandt, Toby Carroll,

Fay Davidson, Tamara Dent, John McCarthy, Michael Jacobsen, Yvonne Haigh,

Tauel Harper, Julia Hobson, Stuart Latter, Nigel Little, Jae Hyon Lee, Jim

Meckelburg, Frank Murray, Karen Olkowski, Anne Randall, Garry Rodan, David

Savat, Bernard Swan, Tsukasa Takamine, Miyume Tanji, Bev Thiele, Donna Turner,

and Vivienne Wee.

I would like to express my gratitude to Muhammadiyah University in Malang,

Indonesia for sponsoring my research application to undertake fieldwork. Pak Habib

from Muhammadiyah University gave valuable counsel and I am in debt for his

assistance. The Asia Research Centre, Murdoch University and the Australian

Federation of University Women (AFUW) all provided financial assistance, which

allowed for the completion of my PhD and the opportunities to conduct fieldwork and

attend an international conference in Hong Kong.

The encouragement and kindness of my friends is gratefully remembered. I would

especially like to thank Brian Pontifex, Jeannie Yeong, Danny Marr, Anne Ryan,

Klaus Langer, Rob Richardson and Roberto Soria.. To my wonderful friend Adrian

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Luck who will never be forgotten even in passing, thank you for everything. A special

mention also to Bernard Swan, Bernard Flood, Donna Thomas, Sue Taylor and

Regina Gaujers for their support and understanding. To Sam Thomas who I met along

the way. To have waited three long years has been certain anguish but to have given

me such enduring love and support from so far away has truly been a special gift.

Greatest of all, my debt of love and appreciation goes to my strongest supporters, my

parents, in whom I could always find consolation in the desperate times and the

inspiration to keep on working. I would not have made it this far without you.

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Glossary

ABS Ambonsche Burgerschool

A ‘European’ school set up in Ambon in the 1850s and 1860s

for the children of Ambonese burgers

Adat Customary law, custom, customary authority system

Alifuru A generic term for the hill tribes in Maluku, traditionally

having derogatory connotations of someone uncouth,

uncultured and uncivilised

Anak Negeri Village member

BAKIN Badan Koordinasi Intelijen Negara

Coordinating Body for State Intelligence

Batalyon Gabungan Joint Battalion

BBM Bugis, Buton, Makassar

A reference to three of the major ethnic groups from South and

Southeast Sulawesi known for their inter-island trading and

settlement outside their homeland. It also denotes a certain

antipathy towards these people as having their rights and

privileges usurped from those whom they have traded and

settled.

Brimob Brigade Mobil

Mobile Brigade

Bupati District (Kabupaten) head, the chief official in the district

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Burger A group of Ambonese known as free citizens (orang bebas)

who, in return for services rendered to the Dutch East Indies

Company (VOC), they and their descendents were declared to

be free citizens, that is, free of the compulsory services for the

VOC and the obligations of the spice monopoly

Camat Leader of sub-district head (sub-regency or kecamaten)

Desa Induk Head Village, Governing Village

Dewan Kekaryaan Functional Service Board

DMS Dewan Maluku Selatan

South Moluccan Council

DPD Dewan Pemerintah Daerah

Regional Executive Council

DPR Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat

Indonesian Legislative Assembly

DPRD Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah

Assembly at provincial, regional, or municipal level

FKM Forum Kedaulatan Maluku

Moluccan Sovereignty Front

FKAWJ Forum Komunikasi Ahlus Sunnah Wal Jama’ah

Sunni Communication Forum

Fortaleza Fortresses built by the Portuguese in Maluku

F-Penegak Fraksi Pembela Negara Kesatuan

Parliamentary faction of the Defenders of a Unified State

x

FPI Front Pembelaan Islam

Islam Defenders Front

FPIM Front Pembelaan Islam Maluku

Moluccan Chapter for the Islam Defenders Front

GAM Gerakan Aceh Merdeka

Free Aceh Movement

GDMS Gerakan Demokrasi Maluku Selatan

Democratic Movement of the South Moluccas

HMI-MPO Himpunan Mahasiswa Islam – Majelis Penyelamat Organisasi

Splinter group of the Association of Islamic Students

HRW Human Rights Watch

ICG Indonesia Crisis Group

ICMI Ikatan Cendekiawan Muslim se-Indonesia

Indonesian Association of Muslim Intellectuals

IMF International Monetary Fund

JI Jemaah Islamiyah

Kafir harbi Infidel

KAMMI Kesatuan Aksi Mahasiswa Muslim Indonesia

Indonesian Muslim Students Action Group

Kampung Village

Kapitan Military Commander

xi

Kepala Daerah Regional Head

Kepala Kewang Head of Land Affairs

Kepala Soa Head of a collection of kin-groups

Kiai Title or reference for a teacher of Islam

KISDI Komite Indonesia untuk Solidaritas Dunia Islam.

Indonesian Committee for International Islamic Solidarity

KNIL Koninklijk Nederlands Indische Leger

Dutch East Indies Army

KONTRAS Komisi untuk Orang Hilang dan Korban Tindak Kekerasan

The Commission for Disappearances and Victims of Violence

KOSTRAD Komando Strategi Reserve Command

Army Strategic Reserve Command

Kota Ambon Ambon City

Krismon Krisis Moneter

Monetary Crisis

Laskar Jihad Java-based paramilitary group established in early 2000 who

intervened on behalf of local Muslims in the conflict in Maluku

LIPI Lemaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia

Indonesian Institute of Sciences

LKMD Lembaga Ketahanan Masyarakat Desa

Village Social Activities Group

xii

LMD Lembaga Masyarakat Desa

Village Assembly

Marinjo The soa messenger and minor police officer

Masjumi Modernist Muslim Party

Mata rumah Household, patrilineage

Negri Village

Negri Lama Village of origin

New Order Soeharto, early in his tenure as President of Indonesia,

described his regime as the ‘New Order’ as opposed to the ‘Old

Order’ government of Indonesia’s earlier and first President

Soekarno.

NIP Insulinde / Nationaal-Indische Partij

Insulinde was founded in 1907 as an organisation to promote

the social and political aims of Europeans and Eurasians in the

Indies

NIT Negara Indonesia Timoer

State of East Indonesia. Part of a Dutch federal strategy for the

creation of the State of East Indonesia in 1946-1947

NTT Nusa Tenggara Timur

Easter Lesser Sundas

NU Nahdlatul Ulama

Association of Muslim scholars, a Muslim political party of the

1970s

xiii

Nunusaku A human rights organisation based in Ambon. Also the name of

the legendary mountain in West Seram and the source of the

Three Rivers, the Eti, the Tala, and the Sapalewa. It is

traditionally regarded as the beginning and the end that is, the

source and the destiny of life.

Nusa Island

Old Order A reference to the ‘Old Order’ government of Indonesia’s

earlier and first President Soekarno as opposed to Soeharto’s

subsequent ‘New Order’regime

OPM Organisasi Papua Merdeka

Free Papua Organisation, secessionist movement of West

Papua

Pancasila The five basic principles of the Republic of Indonesia: the

belief on one God Almighty, humanity that is just and civilised,

the unity of Indonesia, democracy guided by the wisdom of

representative deliberation, social justice for all Indonesians

Parindra Partai Indonesia Raya

Greater Indonesia Party

Parkindo Parti Kristen Indonesia

Indonesian Protestant Party

Partai Katolik Roman Catholic Party

Pela Traditional ceremonial bonds of friendship and mutual

obligation established between two or more villages often

encompassing both Christian and Muslim villages in a single

alliance. It is conceived of as an enduring and inviolable

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brotherhood; an alliance that has to be renewed regularly

through important ceremonies and solemn oaths.

PDIP Partai Demokrasi Indonesia Perjuangan

Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle

PIM Partai Indonesia Merdeka

A political party formed in August 1946, the major pro-

Indonesia party on Ambon at the time

PNI Partai Nasional Indonesia

Indonesian Nationalist Party

PTB Persatoean Timoer Besar

Association of the Great East

Radicale A gathering of Indonesian and radical Dutch Concentratie representatives in the Volksraad

Raja Village Ruler

Reformasi Reformation

Repelita Rencana Pembangunan Lima Tahun

Five-Year Development Plan

RIA Republik Islam Aceh

Islamic Republic of Aceh

RMS Republik Maluku Selatan

Republic of the South Moluccas

RUU Rencana Undang-Undang

xv

Draft of a law

STAIN Sekolah Tinggi Agama Islam Negeri

National Islamic Academy

TNI Tentara Nasional Indonesia

Indonesia’s National Army

Transmigrasi Transmigration

Tuan Tanah The Lord of the Land

Saniri Council

SARA Suku, Agama, Ras, Antar-Golongan

Matters pertaining to ethnic, religious, and racial relations.

Sarekat Ambon Ambonese Association

A political party established by A.J.Patty in 1920

SMERU Social Monitoring and Early Response Unit

Soa Kin-Group

SPMM Suara Perjuangan Muslim Maluku

Voice of the Maluku Muslim Struggle – Radio Station based in

Ambon

Swatantra Self-governing unit, autonomous

Tetek-Nenek-Mojang Ancestors

TNI Tentara Nasional Indonesia

Indonesian National Armed Forces

xvi

UKIM Universitas Kristen Indonesia Maluku

The Christian University of Indonesia in Maluku

Uli A federation of family settlements

Ummat Members of a religious community

UNPO Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organisation

VOC Verenigde Oostindeische Compangnie

Dutch East Indies Company

Volksraad People’s Council

Walikota Mayor

xvii