COMPARATIVE GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

COMPARATIVE GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

Series Editor: Vincent Wright

Published Comparative Government and Politics (3rd edition): Rod Hague,

Martin Harrop and Shaun Breslin The Government and Politics of the European Community (2nd edition):

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(3rd edition): Stephen White, John Gardner, George Schopflin and Tony Saich

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COMPARATIVE GOVERNMENT AND POLITI CS

An Introduction Third Edition

Rod Hague Martin Harrop Shaun Breslin

M MACMILLAN

© Rod Hague, Martin Harrop and Shaun Breslin 1992 © Rod Hague and Martin Harrop 1982, 1987

Softcover reprint of the hardcover I st edition 1992 978-0-333-55819-5

All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission.

No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988,

or under the terms of any Iicence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court

Road, London WIP 9HE.

Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil

claims for damages.

First edition 1982 Reprinted 1984, 1985, 1987

Second edition 1987 Reprinted 1988, 1989, 1990 (twice), 1991, 1992

Third edition 1992

Published by THE MACMILLAN PRESS L TD

Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 2XS and London

Companies and representatives throughout the world

ISBN 978-0-333-55820-1 ISBN 978-1-349-22276-6 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-22276-6

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Copy-edited and type set by Povey/Edmondson Okehampton and Rochdale, England

Summary of Contents

PART 1 STUDYING POLITICS 1 Political Concepts

2 The Comparative Approach

PART 2 THE NATION-STATE: EVOLUTION AND REVOLUTION

3 The Nation-State in Three Worlds

4 Revolution, Ideology and Political Change

5 The Nation-State in One World

PART 3 THE SOCIAL CONTEXT OF POLITICS 6 Political Culture

7 Political Participation

8 Elections and Voters

9 Interest Groups

10 Political Parties

PART 4 THE STRUCTURE OF GOVERNMENT 11 The Constitutional Framework

12 Assemblies

13 The Political Executive

14 The Bureaucracy

15 The Military and the Police

PART 5 POLICIES AND PERFORMANCE 16 The Policy Process

v

3

23

45

66

100

135

156

182

209

234

261

287

313

342

367

347

Contents

List of tables, figures, maps, exhibits and exercises Preface

PART 1 STUDYING POLITICS 1 Political Concepts

Politics and government The state Sovereignty Power Elitist theories Pluralist theories Authority Legitimacy Summary Discussion points Key reading Further reading

2 The Comparative Approach The advantages of comparison

Providing context Testing hypotheses Improving classifications Making predictions

The problems of comparison Controlling comparisons Frameworks of comparison

Comparing states Comparing societies Comparing policies

Techniques of comparison Case studies Statistical analysis Focused comparisons

Summary Discussion points

VII

XVI

XXX

3 3 6 7 8

12 14 16 19 20 21 21 22 23 24 24 24 25 25 27 30 31 31 33 36 37 37 38 39 40 41

Vlll Contents

Key reading Further reading

PART 2 THE NATION-STATE: EVOLUTION AND REVOLUTION

3 The Nation-State in Three Worlds The three worlds The first world: heartland of liberal democracy

Majority democracy: the Westminster model Consensus democracy

The second world: communism and postcommunism The failure of communism The challenge of postcommunism

The third world: the politics of economics An economic classification From oligarchy to democracy?

Summary Discussion points Key reading Further reading

4 Revolution, Ideology and Political Change Types of political change What is a revolution? Explaining revolutionary change

Marxism Functionalism Social psychology Comparative history

Three revolutions: France, Russia and Iran France 1789 Russia 1917 Iran 1979

1989: the year of revolutions Documenting the revolutions Interpreting the revolutions

Ideology and revolution What is an ideology? How do ideologies arise? The end of history?

Summary Discussion points Key reading Further reading

42 42

45 45 48 50 51 54 55 56 57 57 58 63 64 64 64

66 66 67 68 68 70 71 73 74 76 78 79 82 82 83 90 91 91 96 97 98 99 99

5 The Nation-State in One World Interdependence and the nation-state The global economy

The trading world The competition state National variations Transnational corporations The financial world

The global village The global ecology

Population growth The first world: the driving force

From regulation to markets From markets to blocs?

The second world: from isolation to integration The old order: problems of isolation The collapse The new order: problems of integration

The third world: dependence or interdependence? Liberal theory Dependency theory

Summary Discussion points Key reading Further reading

Contents IX

100 100 102 102 103 104 105 108 109 111 112 113 113 114 119 120 120 121 124 125 126 130 131 131 132

PART 3 THE SOCIAL CONTEXT OF POLITICS 6 Political Culture

The first world The civic culture Ideological hegemony Postmaterialism

The second world The failure of transformation Political culture and the collapse of communism

The third world: local political cultures Tradition and modernity

Political socialisation Liberal and radical theories

Elite political culture Summary Discussion points Key reading Further reading

135 136 136 139 141 142 142 144 145 146 147 148 151 153 154 154 155

x Contents

7 Political Participation 156 Types of participation 156 The first world 157

How much, by whom, so what? 157 New politics 159

The second world 162 Regimented participation 162 The transition to postcommunism 165

The third world 167 Patrons and clients 168 Participation and development 168

Public opinion 170 Opinion polls 172 The media 173

The first world 173 The second world 175

The media under communism 175 The media and postcommunism 177

The third world 178 Summary 179 Discussion points 180 Key reading 181 Further reading 181

8 Elections and Voters 182 First world elections: bottom-up or top-down? 182 Elections in the second world 184

Elections under communist rule 184 Elections and the decay of communist rule 186 Postcommunism: the founding elections 187

Elections in the third world 190 Electoral systems 191

Converting votes into seats 192 Evaluating electoral systems 195

The social base of parties 196 The national revolution 198 The industrial revolution 200 The post-industrial revolution 201 Parties of reaction 202 Parties in the new world 202

Voting behaviour in liberal democracies 203 Classifying elections 203 Dealignment 205

Summary 206

Discussion points Key reading Further reading

9 Interest Groups Classifying interest groups

Customary groups Institutional groups Protective groups Promotional groups Geographic groups and social movements

Channels of access Direct dealings with government Indirect influence through parties Indirect influence through the media

What makes an interest group influential? The first world: pluralism or corporatism?

Pluralism Corporatism

The second world: from channelled to active groups? Groups under communist rule The emergence of active groups

Groups in the third world Summary Discussion points Key reading Further reading

10 Political Parties The functions of parties Parties in the first world

Party organisation Party competition

Parties in the second world Ruling communist parties Means of control Decline and fall Postcommunist parties

Parties in the third world No-party systems One-party systems Multi-party systems

Are parties in decline? Summary Discussion points

Contents Xl

207 207 208

209 210 211 211 212 213 214 215 216 218 219 220 222 222 224 227 227 228 229 231 232 232 233 234 235 236 236 240 241 242 245 246 247 249 249 250 251 253 255 256

Xli Contents

Key reading 256 Further reading 257

PART 4 THE STRUCTURES OF GOVERNMENT 11 The Constitutional Framework 261

Constitutions 262 Classifying constitutions 262 The origins of constitutions 263 Revising and replacing constitutions 263 When do constitutions succeed? 267

Federalism 268 Federations and confederations 268 The origins of federations 270 Classifying federations 271 The consequences of federalism 272 Central-provincial relationships 273 Assessment 275

Unitary government 276 Dual and fused systems 276 The two-way stretch 278

The judiciary 279 Administrative justice 280 Judicial independence and recruitment 280 Interpreting the constitution 282 The judiciary in the second world 283 The judiciary in the third world 284

Summary 285 Discussion points 285 Key reading 286 Further reading 286

12 Assemblies 287 Structure of assemblies 288

Number of chambers 288 Committees 289

Functions of assemblies 292 Representation 292 Making governments 295 Law-making and scrutiny 296 Recruitment and socialisation 297

Assemblies in three worlds: a policy classification 298 First world assemblies: policy-making and influencing 299 Second world: the assembly as theatre 302

Assemblies under communist rule 302

Assemblies in postcommunist states Third world assemblies: minimal and vulnerable

Problems of third-world assemblies Functions of third world assemblies

The fall and rise of assemblies? Summary Discussion points Key reading Further reading

13 The Political Executive What does the political executive do? The first world: presidential executives

The United States France Finland Assessment

The first world: parliamentary systems Heads of state in parliamentary systems Government and parliament Prime ministers and cabinets Collective responsibility

The second world: the communist executive Personality cults Succession crises Formal structures: state and party

The second world: the post communist executive The third world executive

Personal and unaccountable rule Towards accountable executives

Summary Discussion points Key reading Further reading

14 The Bureaucracy The functions of bureaucracies Sources of bureaucratic power How are bureaucracies organised? Bureaucracy in the first world

Organisation Recruitment Political control

The reach of political appointments Norms of ministerial responsibility

Contents Xlll

303 305 306 307 308 310 311 311 312

313 313 315 315 318 319 320 320 321 323 324 328 329 330 331 332 335 336 336 338 339 340 341 341

342 342 344 345 349 350 351 353 354 355

XIV Contents

The use of political advisers 355 Bureaucracy in the second world 358

Bureaucratic power in the communist states 358 Organisation in the communist states 359 Bureaucracy in postcommunist states 360

Bureaucracy in the third world 361 The colonial legacy 361 Patronage and privilege 362

Summary 364 Discussion points 365 Key reading 365 Further reading 366

15 The Military and the Police 367 The state in uniform 367 The military: who guards the guards? 367

The first world: the liberal model 368 The military and policy-making 368 The military as a police force 370

The second world: the penetration model 371 The party in the army 371 The army in the party 372 The military and the collapse of communism 373

The third world: military coups 376 Types of military rule 376 Motives for military coups 377 Back to the barracks? 378

The police 380 Liberal and radical perspectives 381 Structure and organisation 381 Specialisation 383 Community or reactive policing? 384 Community relations 385 Policing the police 386 The police and politics 387 The secret police and surveillance 389

Summary 391 Discussion points 392 Key reading 393 Further reading 393

PART 5 POLICIES AND PERFORMANCE 16 The Policy Process

The policy focus Synoptic and incremental models Stages of the policy process

Initiation Formulation Implementation Evaluation

The first world Policy styles The welfare state

Defining the welfare state Development of the welfare state Classifying welfare states A crisis of the welfare state?

The second world The planned economy What did the planned economy achieve? Dismantling the planned economy

The third world: policy stagnation Summary Discussion points Key reading Further reading

Appendix Information Sources for Politics Students Books about specific countries and regions Reference books Keeping up to date Starting a literature search Books for the beach

References Glossary Index

Contents xv

397 397 398 402 402 403 404 406 406 406 409 409 409 411 413 414 415 415 418 421 423 424 424 425 426 426 429 430 430 430 432 458 473

List of Tables, Figures, Maps, Exhibits and Exercises

• Tables

1.1 1.2 2.1 4.1 5.1 5.2 6.1 7.1 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 9.1

10.1 11.1

11.2

11.3 12.1 14.1 14.2

14.3 15.1 16.1

Forms of power Weber's classification of types of authority Almond and Powell's functions of political systems 1989 - a year of revolution The economic might of transnational corporations Membership of major international organisations in Europe Liberal and radical perspectives on political socialisation Old and new politics Eastern Europe and the founding elections Main types of electoral system in liberal democracies Some social bases of parties A classification of United States elections A classification of interest groups Duverger's classification of political parties Financial transfers from central governments to subnational governments The balance of power between central and local government in unitary states Methods of selecting judges A policy classification of assemblies Structures of administration Background characteristics that increase the chances of entry into the bureaucratic and political elites in liberal democracies Modes of control over bureaucracies Police politics: a glossary Introduction of social insurance, selected countries

• Figures

1.1 Government, state, political system and society 1.2 Elitist and pluralist views of power

XVI

10 18 35 84

107 115 148 161 188 193 199 204 213 238

274

277 281 298 348

353 370 382 410

5 12

List of Tables, Figures, Maps, Exhibits and Exercises

2.1 Easton's model of the political system 3.1 World divisions, circa 1983 3.2 Protective democracy: the US constitutional system 4.1 The J-curve theory of revolutions 5.1 Trade as a percentage of gross domestic product, 1988 5.2 Eurocentric and Pacific-centred views of the world 5.3 World automobile manufacturing 6.1 Almond and Verba's theory of the civic culture 6.2 Political learning and participation across the life-cycle: the

liberal view 7.1 The diamond of political participation 7.2 Percentage of women cabinet ministers following most

recent general elections 7.3 Attitudes to participation in Finland and the United States 9.1 A classification of interest groups 9.2 Channels of interest group influence

10.1 Organisation of the Chinese Communist Party 10.2 Communist party control over society 11.1 The territorial distribution of power 13.1 The presidential executive 13.2 The semi-presidential executive 13.3 The parliamentary executive 13.4 Soviet executive structure, 1936-91 15.1 Military spending as a proportion of GNP 16.1 Stages of the policy process 16.2 Dimensions of national policy style 16.3 Attitudes towards business people in Eastern Europe

• Maps

Peters' projection of the world 5.1 The Baltic republics

• Exhibits

2.1 The origins of comparative politics: Aristotle's classification

XVll

34 46 49 73

105 117 118 137

149 158

160 163 210 215 244 245 269 316 319 321 333 370 402 408 420

XXll

122

of governments 26 2.2 Easton's model of the political system 34 3.1 New Zealand: majority democracy under strain 52 3.2 Consensus democracy: Finland 53 3.3 India: democracy and dynasty 61 4.1 The perfect revolutionary situation 75

XV1l1 List of Tables, Figures, Maps, Exhibits and Exercises

4.2 The 'isms of politics 92 5.1 Australia: sliding down the first division 104 5.2 The Baltic republics: joining the world league 123 5.3 South Korea: promotion from the third division 126 6.1 The benevolent monarch: how British children see the

Queen 150 7.1 Women in government 160 7.2 Regimented participation: China's sparrows 164 8.1 Getting out the vote, communist style 186 9.1 Do interest groups strangle nations? 223 9.2 Austria: a corporatist waltz? 225

11.1 The European Community: a chronology 265 12.1 The legislative pork barrel 294 13.1 How powerful are prime ministers? 326 13.2 The Dutch Prime Minister: not yet a chief 327 13.4 Mikhail Gorbachev: communism's undertaker 334 14.1 The Minister's tale 346 14.2 Bureaucratic power in Japan 347 14.3 Controlling the bureaucracy: a lesson from France? 357 15.1 How not to stage your coup: the Soviet Union, August 1991 374 15.2 How to stage your coup: the mechanics of military takeover 379 15.3 Policing Japanese-style 385 15.4 Civilian control of the police in Sweden 388 16.1 The language of policy analysis 399 16.2 China's Great Leap Forward ... into starvation 401 16.3 'Private enterprise' in the Soviet Union 416 16.4 Mixed views about the market 420

• Exercise

8.1 Gulf War II: showing the effect of electoral systems 197

Preface

When a journalist asked British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan which aspect of the job caused him most difficulty, he replied, 'Events, dear boy, events.' We know just what he meant. Rewriting this book to take account of the dramatic events in the political world in the late 1980s and early 1990s has proved to be a challenging exercise.

In this new edition, we have given full coverage to the collapse of communism and to the emergence of postcommunist regimes in Eastern Europe. In rewriting all the sections on the second world, we aimed to give at least as much coverage to postcommunist governments as to their predecessors. In fact, limits of information and perspective mean that we have not kept completely to our own promise. But we think it has borne fruit anyway. We are delighted that Shaun Breslin, a young second-world specialist at Newcastle, agreed to join the existing authors for this edition - and we're even more pleased with his vivid coverage of the momentous developments in the second world.

On a minor note, we have used the past tense when referring to communist party states, except when discussing those states (notably China), where communist rulers still hang on to power.

The democratic revolution in the third world has been quieter, but perhaps no less important, than the changes in the second world. The retreat of the generals in Latin America has transformed the nature of regimes there. Elsewhere, international pressures have encouraged a transition towards democracy. We have sought to reflect these devel-opments, too, in this edition.

All this raises the question: If democracy is now universal, why have we retained a three worlds approach? The answer is that we still think this is the best and simplest way to capture contrasts between countries. The political differences between Canada, Chile and Czechoslovakia remain fundamental, even if they all now share democratic forms. The political agenda in a country is set by where a country comes from, as well as where it is now. The agenda also depends on the country's relationship to the world economy. On both dimensions, the differences between the three worlds are still vast.

The world, however, continues to shrink. Traditionally, comparative politics texts, including this one, have underplayed the whole issue of

XIX

xx Preface

interdependence between nations. We have therefore added a new chapter on 'the nation-state in one world' to this edition. Its purpose is to draw out those features of global politics which impinge most on politics within the nation-state. It reflects our belief that the dynamics of politics rest neither in national nor in global politics, but rather in the interaction between the two.

This book conforms to the law that new editions are always bigger. 'Elections and voters' and 'the military and police' now rate chapters of their own. Indeed, the section on the police is entirely new. The two opening chapters have also been strengthened, in order to provide a general introduction to political concepts (Chapter 1) and to compara-tive politics specifically (Chapter 2). New sections in other chapters include: majority and consensus democracy (Chapter 3); 1989 - the year of revolutions (Chapter 4); postmaterialism (chapter 6); new politics, public opinion, opinion polls and the media (Chapter 7); and the welfare state (Chapter 16).

We're pleased that this book is used in several countries where English is not the first language. We owe a special duty of clarity to such readers and we have made an effort to improve our expression throughout the book. Alison Wright, a recent politics graduate, went through the text for us, simplifying paragraphs, sentences and words. Passive sentences were also transformed by her into active ones (though she missed that one!) We are grateful to her for this careful work and to Paul Gliddon, another politics graduate, for compiling the index. Thanks also to Keith Povey, our copy editor for three editions of the book, for his painstaking work.

In these days of expanding student numbers, it's important for texts to provide students with a framework for independent study. We have tried to achieve this by including discussion points and key readings at the end of each chapter. We've also added an appendix giving detailed advice on information sources. We hope this will be useful for students' essays and projects. The appendix includes a detailed list of recent country and area studies, many (not all!) of which were used in preparing this edition. We've also included more sign posting in this edition, through a more detailed contents section and by adding chapter summaries. In response to feedback from students, this edition also contains more devices to break up the text and an extensive glossary of concepts.

We want to thank all our colleagues around the world who responded to our request for advice on how best to revise the book. The replies (and reading lists) really were helpful in setting the agenda for the revisions. Comments from experts on particular countries also helped us to broaden our range of examples, and in particular to

Preface XXI

provide more coverage of Australasia, North America, the Netherlands and Scandinavia. We're especially grateful to the wise owls who advised us not to change too much!

Specific thanks to:

Peter Aimer, University of Auckland Rudy Andeweg, University of Leiden Hugh Berrington, University of Newcastle upon Tyne Craig Dearden, University of Newcastle upon Tyne George Jones, London School of Economics Steven Kennedy, Macmillan Jan-Erik Lane, Lund University, Roger Leys, Institute of Political Studies, Copenhagen Chris Rudd, University of Otago Ulf Sundhaussen, University of Queensland Vincent Wright, Nuffield College, Oxford

The authors and publishers are grateful to The Observer for permission to reproduce the article by Sir John Harvey-Jones in its edition of 25 August 1991.

What began in the 1980s as an introduction to comparative govern-ment has now broadened out in the 1990s into a comparative introduction to politics. Although the book itself has changed over the years, our underlying aim has not. We have sought to write a clear and up-to-date introduction to politics for students beginning their study of the subject. We hope this edition goes a little further towards fulfilling that objective.

ROD HAGUE

MARTIN HARROP

SHAUN BRESLIN

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