Mihir Bholey, PhD

Assoc. Senior Faculty &

Coordinator, PG Science & Liberal Arts

National Institute of Design, Ahmedabad, INDIA

Comparative Aesthetics

• Comparative aesthetics: a branch of philosophy which indulges into

comparing aesthetic concepts, principles and practices in diverse cultural

settings

• It discusses the manner in which the idea of aesthetics and beauty are

perceived and conceived in different cultures around the world and how

they influence people‟s attitude towards refinement of expression

• It‟s a kind of critical attitude towards appreciating the esoteric and

intrinsic nature of art beyond the psychological and cultural conditioning of

mind

• As a branch of philosophy it compares the aesthetic concepts and practices

of different cultures. It explores how cultures conceive of the aesthetic

dimension of life in general and art in particular and what they consider

sub-standard and what sublime

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Aesthetics Defined

• Aesthetics, (sometimes spelled esthetics) is the

philosophical study of beauty and taste

• Also refers to the philosophy of art concerned with

the nature of art and the concepts which help interpret and

evaluate individual works of art

• As a philosophy, aesthetics refers to the study of sensory

principles – in other words judgment or evaluation by the

senses

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• The Greek original of this word „aisthesis‟ means „

sensation‟ and „reaction to external stimuli‟

• Semantically in modern English it means something

that can appeal to the senses

• As the meaning is subjected to sensory perception, the

definitions are often fluid, varied and subjective,

differing between people and cultures

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• The word aesthetics, derived from Greek „aisthanomai‟ is

attributed to Alexander Baumgarten (1714-1762)

• Baumgarten introduced aesthetics in his Halle master's

thesis to mean „epistêmê aisthetikê‟, or the science of

what is sensed and imagined (Baumgarten, Meditationes CXVI, pp. 86-7)

• Aesthetics consists of two parts: the philosophy of art, and

the philosophy of the aesthetic experience and character

of objects or phenomena that are not art

Aesthetics: the Western Tradition

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• Even without a nomenclature aesthetics was integral to

philosophy

• In the Platonic discourse the educational value of the

works of art was questioned in the Republic (380 BC)

• Plato's (427-347 BC) main opposition to art was its

cognitively uselessness, trading in mere images of

particulars rather than universal truths

• "All mimesis are ruinous to the understanding of the

hearers, and the knowledge of their true nature is the

only antidote to them" (595a, Book X)

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• Aristotle (384-322 BC) tried to defended art and

aesthetics in Poetics

• He contrariwise felt that arts, or at least poetry, depict

universal truths in more palpable forms, unlike for

example, history, which concerns only with particular

facts (Aristotle, Poetics, Chapter-9)

• The arts can also be important to the development of

morality by revealing important moral truths; the other

pole of Plato's doubts

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• Plato‟s theory of Mimesis, says by nature all art is

mimetic; it‟s an imitation of life

• He considered „idea‟ as the ultimate reality and since

art imitates idea it becomes imitation of reality

• Gave more credence to philosophy as philosophy deals

with the ideas while poetry with illusion

• Thus to Plato arts of all kind become things which are

twice removed from reality

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Is Plato Antagonistic to Poetry and Aesthetics?

• Plato calls poetry an imitation thrice removed from the

truth, and Homer as well as the dramatic poets imitators

• Nevertheless, he himself is an artist gifted with impressive

poetic spirit, never misses a chance to quote poets

• Sometimes even seems to attribute their art to divine

inspiration or a kind of madness

• In his ideal state a large part of the education of the young

is based on the study of certain kinds of poetry

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• Despite his apparent expulsion of the poets and poetry

in the Republic he even says:

“And I suppose we shall also allow those of her

patrons who are lovers of poetry without being

poets to advocate her cause in prose by

maintaining that poetry is not only pleasurable,

but profitable in its bearings upon governments

and upon human life; and we shall listen to

everybody. For we shall be gainers, I presume, if

poetry can be proved to be profitable as well as

pleasurable.” (Republic: Chapter X, Pg. 340)

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• A great deal of misunderstanding about Plato's views

about poetry is due to the partial examination of his

writings and to assume it the core of Platonic

philosophy

• There‟re people who consider that the Republic only

lambasts the poets and denies poetry all access to truth

• There‟re others who think contrary to Republic Plato‟s

Phaedrus is the apotheosis of poetic madness, and with

Phaedrus Plato intended to dethrone the reason

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• Much of the conflict in Plato‟s doctrine on art is on account

of „original‟ and „imitation‟

• Philosophy being more original than poetry

• But when it comes to „divine madness‟ that often drives the

poetry, the originality of idea can‟t be questioned

• „Divine madness‟ being a gift of gods, some of the best

things we have including poetry

• The question is how does then one justify divine as imitation

or copy?

The Conflict of Original and Imitation

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Longinus and the Idea of Sublime

• Cassius Longinus‟s (Circa 1st -3rd Century AD) treatises were

first published in mid 16th century

• His concept of sublime which became more popular during

the 18th century; overwhelms the theory of art, aesthetic

and philosophy of the western world

• Takes the philosophical and metaphysical discussion of Plato

and Aristotle on art to a more realistic and measurable plane

• In other words; offers methods to convert the esoteric into

empirical

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• Longinus established the idea and the purpose of

sublime in art. In his view artistic genius was the skill of

metaphor

• Reiterated Plato and Aristotle in a way but differed

from their notion of the elements of literary style as

ornamental and subordinated to thought and passion

• Longinus measured the effect of artistic genius through

a kind of language which was expressive, lofty and

elevated

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• Longinus believed “Nothing is poetry unless it transports”,

thereby explained the meaning of sublime

• In other words, the purpose of poetry is to transport and

elevate the soul

• The characteristics of sublime are: it pleases; pleases

immediately; pleases all; pleases all the time and place; and

pleases forever

• According to him true sublime is one which “arises out of

lofty ideas clothed in lofty language”

Sublime: What’s the Big Idea?

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Sources of Sublimity

Sublimity has five cardinal sources:

1. Grander of thought

2. Capacity for strong emotions

3. Certain kinds of figures of speech

4. Nobility of diction; and

5. Dignity of composition

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Obstacles to Sublimity

Longinus finds four obstacles namely:

1. turgidity- the use of bombastic language

2. puerility- the opposite of turgidity, thoroughly low

in nature

3. frigidity- is about pedantic thought; and

4. false emotion- is about display of emotions where

none exist

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Measuring Sublimity of a Work

Longinus gave the following criteria to measure sublimity

of a work. He asks to imagine:

1. How would the great masters like Homer have said

the same things or how Plato or Demosthenes would

have invested it with sublimity?

2. If Homer and Demosthenes would have been alive,

how would they react against it (a new piece of

art)?

3. How will posterity take it?

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Comparative Aesthetics:

Occidental and Oriental

Source: Google Images (For academic illustration only.)

Mihir Bholey, PhD NID Ahmedabad INDIA 19

"A thought in its naked simplicity, even though unuttered,

is sometimes admirable by the sheer force of sublimity."

(On the Sublime: Chapter IX, Line No. 08)

यथा बीजाद भवेद वृक्षो वृक्षात पुष्पपं फलम यथा ।

तथा मूलम रसााः सवे ततो भावा व्यविथथतााः ॥

(38, षष्ठोध्यायाः, Chapter VI)

(Just as a tree grows from a seed and flowers and fruits from a tree, sentiment is the source of all

psychological states and likewise psychological states exist as the source of all sentiments.)

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The Idioms and Idiosyncrasies

• Any systematic comparative study of the western and

Indian aesthetics begins from Aristotle’s Poetics and

Bharata’s (200 BCE-200CE) Natyasastra

• Poetics is imminent to understand the western concept

of dramatic theory practice and aesthetics

• Obsession of European scholars with the Greek

perspective of aesthetics has rendered them oblivious

of other traditions

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• Similarly , to appreciate Indian contemplation on

aesthetics Bharata and Natyasastra is still pivotal

• In other words, what Aristotle is to the Greek and

western tradition of aesthetics, Bharata is to the Indian

tradition

• The highest finding of Aristotle in Poetics is his

doctrine of catharsis while for Bharata the essence of

aesthetics lies in Rasa and Bhava

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Natyasastra: the Indian Treaties on Aesthetics

• According to Alamkar Sastra artistic beauty cannot exist

unless the heart of a man of good taste is moved to delight

by the fascination of its expression

• Indian aesthetic tradition is rooted the doctrines of Bharata‟s

Natyasastra

• Besides its numerous offspring it is primarily celebrated for

its concept of Rasa (sentiments) and Bhavas (emotions)

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• Brahma expressed that the theme of the Natya or drama

should be acceptable to all and comprise of different

sentiments and values

• Pleasure for all should be the purpose it should aim to

achieve

• He ordained Natya in such a way as to ensure virtue, fame,

longevity and also advise (message) to the audience

• Natya was structured in such a way as to provide enough

scope for the display of all forms of art and artifacts

The Purpose of Natya

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• It‟s believed that Brahma created Natyaveda, the fifth Veda

borrowing elements from the four earlier Vedas

• Brahma borrowed Pathya – the text from Rigveda. Gita or

songs from Samveda. Abhinaya or acting from Yajurveda and

finally Rasa or sentiments from Atharvaveda

• He made Natyaveda accessible to people of all Varnas as

against the earlier four. It‟s called Sarvavarnikam

न वेदव्यवहारोय ंसंश्राव्याः शूद्रजितषु

तथमात् सृजापरं वेद ंपञ्चमं सावववर्णिकम

(Natyasastra: Chapter-1, Sloka – 12)

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Natyasastra: the Historical Backdrop

• Believed to be composed somewhere between 2nd Century BC – 2nd

Century AD. Contains 6000 slokas (hymns) spread across 36-37

chapters

• The written manuscript located so far roughly belong to the period

between 12th – 18 century

• The commentaries on Natyasastra date back from 6th to 7th

century

• The earliest surviving commentary on Natyasastra is by

Abhinavagupta (10th century AD) followed by Saradatanya (12th-

13th century), Sarangadeva (13th century) and Kallinatha (16th

century)

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Aesthetic Attributes of Natyasastra

• According to Alamkar Sastra artistic beauty cannot

exist unless the heart of a man of good taste is moved

to delight by the fascination of its expression

• Indian aesthetic and artistic expressions are rooted in

the fundamental doctrines of Bharata’s Natyasastra

which besides its numerous offsprings is celebrated for

its concept of Rasa (sentiments) and Bhavas (emotions)

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• Natyasastra talks about 10 Rupakas or types of play. Rupa

or Rupak is the term used for a play because it‟s primarily a

visual representation

• The ten types of plays are – Nataka, Prakaran, Samavakara,

Ihamrga, Dima, Vyayoga, Anka, Prahasan, Bhana, and Vithi

• Natyasastra enumerates four types of Abhinaya or acting

(Chapter VIII) which are Angika – by body part motion,

Vachika – by speech, Aharya – by costumes and makeup and

finally Sattvika – by subtle movement of lips, eyebrows,

ears etc

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• Abhinaya Darpan has an interesting sloka which means:

“Eyes should follow the hand, mind should follow the eye

when the mind is applied, there is Bhava or expression and

where there is expression, there is Rasa or sentiment.”

• Rasa (sentiments) and Bhavas (emotions) explore the

complex realm of human psychology and explain their fine

distinction and interdependence in the context of aesthetics

न भावहीनो अिथत रसो न भावो रथवर्णजताः ।

परथपरकृता िसििथतयोरिभनय े भवेत ॥

(36, षष्ठोध्यायाः, Chapter VI)

(Rasa can‟t be deprived of Bhava nor can Bhava be deprived of Rasa as together they make drama complete.)

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Rasa and Bhava: the Cognitive Correlation

• The whole histrionics revolves around nine Rasas (Navaras) and

eight Bhavas

• There are only four basic Rasas according to Natyasastra which

are Sringar, Vira, Raudra and Bibhatsa

• The rest four- Hasya, Karuna, Adbhuta and Bhayanak are

drawn from Sringara, Raudra, Vira and Bibhats respectively

• Natyasastra also identifies eight Bhavas which correspond to

the first eight Rasas

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• Rasa is the cumulative result of Vibhava (stimulus) and Anubhava

(involuntary reaction) and Vyabhicharibhava (voluntary reaction)

• All the Bhavas have their corresponding Rasas

Bhavas Rasas Rati (Love) Śṛngāram (Love)

Hasya (Mirth) Hasya (Comic)

Soka (Sorrow) Karunam (Pathetic/Kindly)

Krodha(Anger) Raudram (Furious)

Utsaha (Energy) Viram (Heroic)

Bhaya (Terror) Bhayanakam (Terrible)

Jugupsa (Disgust) Bibhatsam (Odious)

Vismaya (Astonishment) Adbhutam (Wonderful)

Santam (Tranquility)

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Navrasa through Bhava. (Source: Dhananjayan on Indian Classical Dance, Delhi: B R Rhythms, pp 95)

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Rasas and their Associations

• Natyasastra associates the navrasas with different colours.

Besides, each Rasa has a prime deity too:

Rasa Colour Prime Deity

Sringara Dark Blue Vishnu

Hasya White Pramata

Raudra Red Rudra

Karuna Pigeon Colour (Grey) Yama

Vira Yellowish Indra

Adbhuta Yellow Brahma

Bibhatsya Blue Shiva

Bhayanaka Dark Kala

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• The most important question is what exactly is meant by Rasa? The

answer is “What is relished is Rasa”

• Explaining Rasa Natyasastra says as taste results from a

combination of various spices, vegetables and other articles and as

six tastes are produced by ingredients such as raw sugar, spices or

vegetables, similarly the durable psychological states

(sthayibhava) when come in contact with other psychological

states attain the quality of a sentiment. That‟s the notion of Rasa

भावािभनयसंयकु्ााः थथाियभावाथंतथा बुधााः

आथवादयितत मनसा तथमान्नाट्यरसा : थमृतााः

(Natyasastra: Chapter VI, Sloka 33)

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• Natyasastra says that just as connoisseurs of food while eating

food prepared from various spices and ingredients taste it, so do

the learned people in their heart (manas) taste the durable

psychological states viz. love, sorrow etc. The durable

psychological state in a drama is called Rasa or sentiment. (Chapter

VI : Sloka 32)

• Natyasastra raises a fundamental question – does Rasa emanate

from Bhava or vice-versa? Bharata confirms that though Rasa is

produced from Bhava but both are interdependent

न भावहीनो अिथत रसो न भावो रथवर्णजताः ।

परथपरकृता िसििथतयोरिभनय े भवेत ॥

(Natyasastra: Chapter VI : Sloka 36)

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• Bhavas on the other hand are the emotional state. They‟re

called so since they produce the idea of poems by use of

words, gestures and mental attitude

• Bhavas are called so because through words, gestures and

representation of sattva they infuse (bhavayanti) among the

audience the meaning of the drama

• Bhava is an instrument of action; an action which instills

Rasas िवभावरैाहृतो योऽथवथतवनभुावने गम्यत े|

वागंगसत्त्वािभनय:ै स भाव इित संिित: ||

(Natyasastra: Chapter VII, Sloka 1)

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• Bhava – a psychological state is determined by two other factors :

Vibhava (Determinants) and Anubhava (Consequents)

• Vibhava (Determinants) : Its synonyms are karana, nimitta and

hetu. Actions and feelings are evoked in connection with certain

surrounding objects and circumstances, called Vibhava- So Bhava

arises due to them.

• Anubhava (Consequents) : Different mental and emotional states

manifest themselves and become visible through universal

physiological reactions called Anubhava–The determinants lead to

consequents

• Both Vibhava and Anubhava depend on human nature and the

external world

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Relevance of Rasa and Bhava

• Rasa-Bhava establishe a link between the performer and the

spectator. The ideal spectator is a sahrdaya, one who empathizes

with the author

• Success of spectacle is measured by the transference of intended

experience (Rasa) among the audience, so spectator becomes a

vital participant in the play

• Bharata refers to human soul as Bhava-Jagat (the world of

emotions). Actor is mere bearer, media and connector who

connects audience with the emotions of the character

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• By transmitting emotions the actor gradually opens inner

Bhava-Jagat of the character, creates an emotional

atmosphere, which can be experienced and relished

• Spectator is introduced to the emotional atmosphere

through actors

• He transfers emotions of the character to the spectators.

Spectator may relish Rasas collectively or individually

• This way emotions are personified and translated from one

person to many

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Aesthetics: the Esoteric and Empirical

यो अथो ह्रदयसंवादी तथय भावो रसोद्भवाः I

शरीरं व्यापते तेन शुष्कं किष्ममवाििना II (Natyasastra)

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• Aesthetics by nature is an esoteric experience but in

expression it has to be empirical since it is also about

cognition

• According to Coomarswamy (1877-1947) „it is not by

sensibilities but by his intellect that man can be called

an artist‟

• Referring to Plato he says that anything irrational can

not be called art

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• Art is something which makes man function in a higher level of his

being, in his spirit, in his universal self or consciousness

• Art is the „summum bonum‟ (highest good) of human existence

• For Plato the purpose of art is „to attune our own distorted modes

of thought to cosmic harmonies‟, „by an assimilation of the knower

to the „to-be-known‟

• The (Rig) Vedic poets compare poetic hymn to a chariot (Ratha),

which transported him to his God; art for them is the fiery chariot

of contemplative thought

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To Conclude

• Aesthetics deals with the notion of beauty and taste

• Shapes aesthetic judgment, attitude, understanding and emotion

• Aesthetics manifests in several genres : poetry, music, drama,

painting, design, architecture among others

• The manner of evoking pleasure has been discussed in various

treaties of aesthetics

• Appreciation and expression of aesthetics are determined both

psychologically and culturally

• The nature of aesthetics is not universal, it‟s particular; thus an

„emic category‟ in sociological terminology

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• Aesthetic qualities of art, design, sculpture and architecture

reflects in the combination of the following: Unity – Proportion –

Scale – Balance – Symmetry and Rhythm

“The beauty of art presents itself to sense, to feeling, to perception, to

imagination; its sphere is not that of thought, and the apprehension of its activity

and its productions demand another organ than that of the scientific intelligence.

Moreover, what we enjoy in the beauty of art is precisely the freedom of its

productive and plastic energy.” (Hegel; Philosophy of Fine Art)

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Bibliography

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Press, 2012.

• Dwivedi, Hazari Prasad. Dwivedi, Prithvinath. Natyasastra Ki Parampara aur Dasroopak. (Hindi) Delhi: Rajkamal

Prakashan, 2007.

• Greene , William Chase. Plato's View of Poetry. Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, Vol. 29 (1918), pp. 1-75,

Department of the Classics, Harvard University. http://www.jstor.org/stable/310558 (Accessed on 10-7-2013)

• Hegel, George W.F. The Introduction to Hegel‟s Philosophy of Fine Art. Bosanquet, Bernard (Translator),

Kessinger Publishing, 2011.

• Hussain, Mazhar. Wilkinson, Robert. (Editors). The Pursuit of Comparative Aesthetics. Hants, Ashgate Publishing

Ltd. 2006.

• Kumar, Pushpendra. Natyasastra of Bharatamuni. Delhi: New Bhartiya Book Corporation, 2010.

• Megh, Ramesh Kuntal. Athato Saudaryajigyasa. (Hindi), Delhi: Vani Prakashan.

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• Prasad, Gupteshwar. I A Richards and Indian Theory of Rasa. Delhi: Sarup & Sons, 2007.

• Raghavan, V. The Aesthetics of Ananda Coomaraswamy. Bangalore, Indian Institute of World Culture, 1982

• Robert, Wilkinson (Ed.) New Essays in Comparative Aesthetics. UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2007.

• Vatsyayan, Kapila. Aestheics of Indian Dance. http://www.indologica.com/volumes/vol23-24/vol23-

24_art12_VATSYAYAN.pdf (Accessed on 10-7-2013)

• Plato. Republic. Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Editions Ltd. 1997.

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