Ashby,
the subject,
but to
advantage.
§
§
Fig.
a
photograph
Orange,
Plate
Pompeii (from a
Fig.
....
Reliefs
a
from
a
a
394
Plate
them
into
relation
peninsula.
the Po. In the
east
the
Venjeti,
in
the
Indo-European
of Italy,
France
movement of Greek
of the
north at
Latium,
Roman tradition from the works of Callias and Timaeus, which
were
of his
smelting
of
the
every
chipped,
though
not
polished
(bos
primigenius).
the transition
Italy
by
The
people of
the
by
a
stone
patterns)
characteristic
the
hollowed out artificial
of
hills),
and
Alatri,
period
copper
New
Stone
precisely
of
These
villages
are
all
objects of bronze
the
palafitte
belong
the
threw
all
reasonable
this was the north-east
(v.
infra,
§ 2),
and
that
the
raised
were kept,
found.
The
of the oil
into
a
stations,
which
the
north-
east
'Villa-
nova'
civilization,
wholly
geometrical
where
several
groups
of
see
1901-2
river-valleys
which
run
inland
towards
the
will presently
be described.
new homes in
have
bore the name
Apennines was Felsina,
Age
Etruscan place-
valley
pozzo)
The early
to
the
gradual
Etruscans
brought
necropolis
adjoining
by others
with
grit
(imjiasto
later
phases
most numerous
Greek or
to the
if not the
absolute antiquity of
method of building with unhewn
stone
is
earlier
doubtedly
the
so-called
filled with
the name
than
coursed
opus
quadratum,
such
as
we
see
in
historical
as we find in
roughly
horizontal : but
an
earlier
*
seventh century b.c.
to
of construc-
of
the
material
limestone
regions
such
as
the
of
cities
; but
they
by
ancient
writers.
The
site
of
to
be
limit
the
pomerium
was
a
strip
of
ground
just
inside
clear of
it was
so called
Tacitus
f
opus
quadrat
om.
intersection
historical
times
in
the
foundation
of
carried into
that
we
also
pattern
norum
pagus,
which
survived
in
of the crops
antiquity of
as to
the pagus
and
their
affairs
were
administered
by
praefecti
and
aediles,
and
the
Roman
writers
through
the
medium
of
known as the groma. which is represented on
the
tombstone
of
a
the
a. d.
by Augustus
at 12
feet in
(subruncivi)
8
feet
broad.
The
centuriae,
have
is
of
greater
tresviri
we
read
k
vii
(kardo
Septimus),
and
the
direction
of
the
decumanus
which
terminates
one
of
the
Licinius
death
of
Tiberius
Gracchus.
and
clear
traces
scale is
portion
of
the
Roman
province
8 :
7).
The
decumanus
maximus
was
inclined
The intersection
of the
remains, but
the
planning
of
camps.
or
forma,
made
of
canvas
and
inac-
4).
as
extremities
of the
vxtx
privileges,
were
absorbed
into
the
ruling
community
(municipia).
coast,
the
of
Roman
life
and
manners
in
founded
expense
of
life
of
a
Rhine and
that
24-6.
a.d.
79,
growth
of peace
which
sprang
city
1
—
public
buildings
were
completed
half, then, as
destroyed
the
a. d. By this time
the
walls
by
place of
(see
of
earthworks,
towns in
Roman Britain,
;
of
of public
The
amphitheatre
destroyed
by
the
Saxon
(§
of
heights,
Janiculum
between
Capitol,
Palatine
and
Aventine,
quarried
on
name
was
quae
original
pomerium,,
but
the
i
its
name
to
the
settlement.
Romanula,
the
gate
This
was,
however,
by
of
villages
The Seven
tradition,
but
a
group
most
settlers.
needless
to
enter
it
was
said
their dwelling-place.
religious
sense
wall of circumvallation
the
the
first
urbs
founded hy
',
the
Capitol
was
excluded,
although
it
lay
tribes
regions,
and
e.g.
the
sort, without which it could not have
held its
own the
the
Janiculum
citadel rose
as an
some nine miles from
extended beyond
the number
in
the
list
of
villages
which
formed
the
Septimontium.
of
the
ruling
aristocracy.
Soon
with
their
colonnades
flanked
and
the column found its
tions
were
taking
place
vici
speculation,
a
new
city
and must
words
ttbei
continent
e
habitatur.
In
only
needs.
54
b.
a),
so
of
determine
Lares
compitales,
under
limited
have
attempted
Maximus
the
fourteen
'regions'
of
sixth,
which
were
saved
by
all
use
and
narrow, winding
them
to
be
House
to
public
uses
which its
made
worse
St.
Angelo
(p.
190),
and
Quirinal
were
smaller)
had
271,
cf.
p.
72)
was
built
because
the
Po
prosperity
of
its
population
of recipients of
density
of
population
(260
Lanciani,
Ruins
and
Excavations
of
1871-1907.
Further
references
to
at the
present time.
The
purposes
which
the meshes of
between
probably
exaggerated,
of
the
enormous
number
of
Romans and.
their allies
with the
Aequi in
the fifth
characteristic
of
Roman
military
roads
by
the
directness
gradients,
and
leav-
ing
order
to
a
to
Placentia,
and
gave
(Vado on the
hence bore the
both
181
b.c,
(148
b.
the
direct
coast-
Tiberius
Gracchus
the
mention
of
the
most
direct
route
be-
fore
that
period.
2
Such
be
dated
after
military
road
from
the
Augusta,
and
A
which crossed
the Rhine.
Roman armies,
in 15
Wald to
Poetovio (Pettau).
The development
Ill,
(in
a
later
sense
road
constructed
communication. The main high-
of traders between Italy
at
Satala,
London, which is
a load constructed
which
carried
so
to
High
l
east
which
never
the
principle
is
once
more
1)
for
laying
mosaic
con-
form.
In
these
we
usually
found
a
But the
the
between
These
fine
gravel.
surface preferred
side-walks.
the surface-drainage
Empire.
was to
a
milestone
(Dessau
5801)
aediles
the
numbers
the
Via
Appia,
Postumius Albinus,
the builders
of the
;
the
measurement
was
the
schoinos
(about
four
Roman
expended on
b.
c.
legend
ex
construction
and
maintenance
were
monuments.
time of
Rome
was
given
in
York
to
London
service
was
so
great
that
coasting routes,
far
ditions, and the exceptions
days
the
open
Mediterranean
;
Pamphylian
coast,
sighting
of
his
Natural
History
Pliny
Valerius Marianus,
from Puteoli
Ostia
on
the
is surely
whose
voyage
is
described
in
VEmpire
romain,
p.
268
ff.,
1909).
Hastings's
Dictionary
of
vault,
dome.
The
the
massive
gateways
of
the
Etruscan
cities,
such
artistic
motive
temple,
invariably
oblong
in
form,
and
stood
only.
The
actual
temple
or
cetta
either
columniation—
which lent
itself to
which for some
The
third
century
the
Rostra,
the
edge
{anathyrosis).
Finally,
in
headers
(PI. IX), and the wall is 4 feet in thickness. The finest example
of this construction is the facade
of
the
Tabularium
(78
b.
c.)
which
mentioned
In
the
later
Often,
however,
masonry
b.c, the use
of lime for
and
was
brick
and
This method
be
seen.
Under
the
early
Empire
this
Villa of Hadrian
purposes,
Claudia on
Nicola
time when
usually about
clamps
which
was
ransacked
for
precious
materials
acquaintance
with
the
arch,
vault,
and
dome.
took
the
decisive
step
of
deserting
the
principle
wall-surface.
From
the
arch
we
are
led
a
metal
lid.
and
ribs
the
systems
often,
Pantheon,
extremely
elaborate—
of
a mere
Pantheon is
Romans
understood
the
advantages
strengthened
piers,
were foreign
to their
Venus
distributed between six enormous
act
as
invisible
artistic treatment of internal
to
huge
in
as
has
The
propor-
tions
of
find
a
the
the
remains
of
porphyry
Terme and
order is
which
no
doubt
goes
back
to
Hellenistic
times
and
by
the
columns
of
Trajan
chapter with the
Banister
Fletcher
and
which Rome was fortified
tradition to
built
on
an
artificial
shelf
hill
has
been
dark
brown
tufa
that
and
stretchers
latter.
Both
backing
of
concrete,
for
of tufa are
impregnable
system
of
defences,
It
It seems at
of
a
wall
of
is shown
120
Roman
feet
as
the
Servian
forti-
fication,
shows
that
all
the
existing
Servian walls
were pierced
Capena, from
skirts
the
slopes
of
the
the first
to be placed on the
more
Aventine
that
the remains
that
exist-
ing
Porta
fact
formed
is
front
at
the
sides,
raking
point,
massive
here
be
illustrated.
The
1
A
ditch
was
commenced
by
by
Belisarius
(p.
72),
four
gate-
ways
a
matter
of
dispute
it
is
probable,
that
it
on
at an
early
period.
But
we
have
no
evidence
that
stone
bridges
were
built
constructed
(by
At
first
this
consisted
of
later
The
first-named
is
well
preserved
and rich
was
carried
whilst
the
constructed in the
of Sulla.
Under the
piers.
These
again
carried
the lower
was
means
when
romaine,
1907.
Gates
a
portico,
the
the
of Etruscan
rule in
Cqpitolia
itself.
The
restored
on
a
national faith.
purely
Tuscan
type
The
cella,
which
measures
about
150
ft.
by
75,
has
a
been
suggested
that
this
a.d.
189).
portico
of
six
columns
between
13).
The
interior
side
walls
were
broken
by
(exclusive
of
the
corner-pilasters
provided
for
in
the
came
a
and exedrae
artificial
distinguished,
but
out
by
Septimius
Severus
and
Julia
The most
famous of
stood
in
the
Forum
IV
(1471-84)
will suffice to
200,
its tetrastyle
seen
from
the
whose walls
circular opening
dome admits light. In
bronze.
The
founda-
tions
bearing
dates
ranging
from
a.
of
a
building
resembling
in
form
columns,
and
the
pediment
is
inclined
at
development of
a
number of
tribe to
which they
It
macellum,
which
other
cities
to
the
adjoining portion of the
the basilica
Empire
completed on
provision
market,
rebuilt
on
a
larger
1
In
front
which
may
have
served
as
(p.
32).
The
At
the
north-
east
of
stood
;
afterwards
have
later times
almost
possible
to
refer
the
monument
to
the
regal
period
of
To
the
early
days
of
rose
about
b.c,
and
that
whether
public
or
private,
column
(Columna
Maeniana)
on
the
west
seat
the second
Martius,
and
the
construction
of
a
new
Forum
which
should
early Rome
built,
reducing
the
restored
by
Plancus,
and
those
of
Tiberius.
arches
was
Julian
house,
Pharsalus
Forum
Augustum,
the
the
by
east
a
large
open
court
entered
from
the
side
of
the
Trajan,
feet) indicated
monarchies, at
;
by M. Aemilius
;
on the south
in
cities of Italy
for
and
restore
the
Basilica
his family
and
partly
by
29
metres,
and
consisted
of
a
public
from
surrounded with
separated
by
two
small
rooms
on
such portions
Metelli,
built
two
temples,
those
of
sculpture, as
of those
genius.
Pliny
lends
xxxiv.
27)
that
whereas
in
former
days
honorary
statues
were
sustained seven
the
reigning
fact that
revolt (a.d.
throughout the Empire were
colonies and
of the harbour
recently
discovered
at
Asseria,
a.
d.
114,
it
commemorated
to Dacia.
was
Julius
reliefs in
military colony
at
it became
example
instances
are
and
there
is
hither
after
the
battle
Aix. These places may
massive
low
pediment,
scarcely
attains
many
other
sculptures
belonging
to
the
a)
was
(Theveste),
which
has
two
detached
later
entire surface except the
2,
1909.
feature
in
temperature,
leading
was
water.
The
tepidarium
Other
methods
will
be
so-called Thermae
of bathing
a
raised
ninepins,
beyond
which
is
distinguishing feature
2
use
of
the
sexes.
The
men's
baths,
which were on the east side of the court, were entered
at
the
south-east
we find waiting-
(b)
leading
niches in
domed,
and
light
is
admitted
which
is
studded
while
the
caldarium
at Pompeii.
a
corridor
(i)
which
originally
had
no
opening
to
the
west.
The
women
had
no
frigidarium
similar
in
principle
to
that
found
at
Such a chamber
the
hollow
floors
and
arrangements
ualineaepensiles, hypocausta)
examples
(hypocausis)
afterwards
rows, sometimes with
by holes and disposed with
open passages
latest
which Vitruvius
remains
now
and
Trajan.
of
halls, and
;
212
**l\
v*
J
o
c5
^3
cletian
were
designed
for
twice
notable
example
is
the
hall
with
a
Roman thermae.
thus infer that
serve
to
give
of
El-hammam
{Aquae
Flavianae)
during the
century which
and in 13
by
L.
Cornelius
time to time
the
situation
of
the
others
can
be
Theatrum Pompeii ...... 17,580.
Theatrum Marcelli 20,500.
Theatrum Balbi 11,510.
Pliny, however, gives
diminished the orchestra
its circumference
the
scaenae
frons
of the stage.
The
con-
centric
in
the
they
the stage
their theatre
already
come
into
existence
in
Campania.
theatres
shelter
the
spectators
of
the
of vaulted
familiar
probable,
cannot
were fixed to
inside, with
order
of
columns.
Amphitheatres
were
protected
pass
through
openings
procurrentes).
side
passages
giving
access
buildings were
made
part
preserved.
Amphitheatres.
The
amphitheatre,
to
one-
quarter
highest
of
an
century
a.
d.,
are
told
two
lower
orders
the Stadium whilst
it was being
the hand of the
sloping banks ; the seats
the
cavea
by
a
podium
faced
with
marble.
Upon
this
of travertine
a row of
which
undoubtedly
correspond
-with
the
two
: and
the
most
use
(see
p.
125).
A
large
exist
in
Italy
and
and covered with
temporary wooden
through
1
There
planted in
—which seem to date
columns
the three
orders the
middle
is
Composite.
Pola.
upper colonnade,
c,
set
box (pulvinar),
p.
was
every
third
arch-
way
(see
Fig.
26)
contained
a
staircase
towers
on
either
the
spina
nius,
built
the
left
miles from
m. in breadth,
copied
from
the
Circus
Maximus.
Bovillae,
considerable
remains
of
which
were
brought
to
light
in
;
that
of
the
of
a
Julius Quintianus Flavius
Rogatianus, who bequeathed
the sum of
of the
Flavia.
3
The
to
have
been
as those in
on
the
Forum
of
Pompeii
2
Pergamon, Smyrna,
rapidly
encrusted
the
walls
of
its
(hence
called
cippi found
to
the
windings
of
Esquilina.
Its
water
Iovia).
4.
the Porta Maggiore.
Virgo, said to
have taken its
out by
Via
del
7.
Agrippa,
moreover,
(as
was
mentioned
above)
Augustus
Aug.
1,
From the
brick
arches
are
still
to about 47
Its
sources
lay
near
formed
a
familia
repair.
This
familia
he
bequeathed
to
the
State,
supplied
rule. Claudius, when
formed
a
new
familia
Caesar
is.
460
it
where the
e.
g.
the
Aqua
by the cleaners
knowledge
the
alignment
of
the
a
support the
of
tier).
1
system.
1
The
length
distributing-station.
Vitruvius
directs
pipes used
the
maker
and
lead was
1
Even
or in
c.
The
;
prevent.
approximately to
c.
in an
in
Fourvieres
stands :
valley
at
high
pressure
sewers
—the
Cloaca
Maxima
and probably
of the
depression between
on the
crossed
the
Tiber. The
lower part
streams
which
united
the
regula-
tated
a
the Cloaca
Cloaca
(lapis
Gabinus)
laid
dry,
and
are
paved
of
the
extinct
with
ravines
and
hollows,
free
pla}*
which can be
ranean
passages,
which
areas
had
to
subterranean
the tra-
cuniculi
which
drain
the great natural
tion
the
Alban
Hills
Campagna—
too
much
to
in height,
enter an
part by
in
width
and
is
an
waters of
roughly excavated
tunnel, averaging
by
of
waterfalls.
The
bed
of
the
river
and
the
emissarium
which
gave
an
outlet
to
the
by
1854-76
by
Prince
Alexander
Torlonia.
The
jpittei
the
the
inauguration
for its
lake was only
many
good
harbours.
are subject to
;
sands.
Few
Rome's
history
Emporium, with
quaysand storehouses,
enclosed.
of
as
the name
mentioned
Marcius.
of
the
Republic
such
a
which
with
fragments
trapezoidal in
b.
c.
Agrippa
constructed
the
Portus
kilometre
in
diameter
—was
Sextus
shallowness
of
the
separated
by
a
the
1538 changed the
one
great
prove that
market-gardening
industry
which
popularity
of
Ostia
vessels from entering the mouth of the river, and they
were
obliged
to
discharge
of Ostia, and
the navigable
Claudius
(cf.
Fig.
28)
is
now
at
which had
then
heaped
;
work
of
Claudius
Trajan from the
richly decorated palace, possibly
of Canina:
mouth of
mass
appeared
above
the
surface.
This
of
the
adjoining
the
Roman
essential
the sky.
in existence, and
enlarged
the annexed figure.
origin
rectangular frame
at a
the
master
and
taken in
described,
and
Fig.
8
(a),
marble
illustrate
would
tabemae
grown.
The
used
on two sides.
traces
of
a
staircase
leading
to
an
toporticus
which
skirts
the
atrium.
It
must
be
the street front was, as in other houses, occupied by
tdbernae.
On
the
other
the
the tech-
sense of a group of tenements owned one proprietor, of
which at
fragments
Rome
The Plan,
was
in
Republican
times
the
Catilina,
and
Clodius
were
on the
Julius
Caesar,
he
bought
the
house
of
it appears from the
hill,
results
of early excavations it may be inferred that it possessed a
central
court
;
tells us
Colosseum)
surrounded
and its
some
had its principal
facade to the
entrance
to be
an apse
rooms
ending
symmetrical
plan
of the
not
only
the
building
just
the
when
that
Hadrian
built
the
formed
housed.
neither
more
nor
less
than
a
large
Rome
rustica,
of
which
luxury,
of
which owes its
villa,
half an amphora
was
then
transferred
by
a
pipe
were crushed
(V).
The
In the room
the
olive.
open
are
are naturally
a
tributary
although
since it lay on
Rome
to
to
the
east,
should
he
neighbours
made
the
Campagna
lay not
on. but
only near
for
a
with
this,
however,
Cicero
when
at
the
zenith
of
Naples.
However,
Cicero
from
exile
we
find
him
often
his
beloved
a
villa
owning
'
copy it
the second discovered
ii.
17
chosen
the
1
Ath
court
which recalls
palace. This,
long court
which we
of
build-
ings
on
site
describe certain
does not include
a detached building.
;
of the
entrance, the
The
the
oecus
a
two
atria
not
consisted
in
and
said to
point to
the
cryptoporticus,
which
was
furnished
with
a
fresh
ccddarium,
On the
eastern side
not
concern
us
here
deposited
century
b.
was
natural,
the
of
road
l
which
of irregularly-shaped
the
custom
of
inhumation
when
L.
Cornelius
Scipio
Barbatus,
consul
stands
in
can best
of
the
street
which
may
to
originally
public
property.
semicircular
bench,
glass vase now
in the Naples
may be seen part of a
semicircular bench or scJwla,
 
growth
of
population
and
the
consequent
of the
only
found
at
Rome
succeeding
him,
it
by well-to-do
aedicula,
or
therein, served as the
the
walls
resold
where
there
are
no
the
class
than
the
others,
their
members,
or
of
in
the
upper
mem-
bers
which are
familiar
to
all
who
are
acquainted
with
Appian Way,
and the
by
;
of course very
displayed by Roman
tombs (cf. the
and
owes
its
preservation
to
the
shrine,
belonged
to
the
equipment
According
to
Roman
tradition,
the
army
as
organized
by
Romulus
consisted
of
3,000
footmen,
1,000
;
traditions
which
and fifth
restricted to the
self-defence
hastati,
the principes
but
a
had
hitherto
served
during
or
semi-cylin-
drical
shield,
in
true
to
if,
known
to
us,
both
was
of
the
same
length
which
with tall
of
pilum.
(b)
Pilum
murale.
not,
however,
mentioned
after
the
was
believed
that
he
is
Cn.
Domi-
tius
the
bodies
of
occupied
the
centre
of
and
sixty
centuries,
but
the
first
in order to
is
be
compared
with
a
general
of
praefectits
Galatian
levies
of
King
Deiotarus.
The
equipment
3
inches.
Portions
of
an
iron
mountings were found at
is very
hamis
the
monu-
ments,
the
halteus
or
baldric,
by
or
brass,
with
padding.
The
received
a
tions
are
mentioned,
such
as
the
armilla
twisted necklace, such
Gauls ;
which
they
upon the
and the
triumphator,
the
soldier
who
coronae
of
various
kinds
the
freedom
the numerous
furnished
as to
the danger
the
neighbouring
that
of
the
auxiliary
(funditor) and
voluntariorum.
the cavalry
force
to each
and
placed
regiments
formed
in
Imperial
(in
practice
480)
did good
barebacked.
Their
oval
shields
are
shown,
but
not
their
weapons
Parthians.
legionary.
It
was
probably
a
Celtic
weapon.
palatini
or
of
his
colleagues
palatini
or
comitatenses.
the same
time greatly
reduced in
Books,
etc.,
points
for
the
sections.
unit
existed
a
only
are
mentioned.
We
shall
see,
however,
that
in
and
their manipuli and
the
brought
back
an
enemy's
spoils.
shows much the
;
conferred
on
individual
soldiers.
The
medallion
skin,
probably
Column of Trajan with
other
regiments. Pliny
be
in
which
was
an
head of the legion on the
march,
that
these
symbols
and
similar
the
Seyeri
and
Gallienus).
The
to
be
that
they
are
of
have an
rather
than
of
whole
corps
it as the ensign of mounted sections attached to infantry
corps
the
the representation
The
under
It
time
before
the
war
Athenian arsenal, and
portion of his/x^^aviKr/
writers,
and
the
fourth-century
historian
Ammianus
Marcellinus
gives
an
accurate
account
of
the
onager,
to
be
described
presently.
The
earliest
re-
short of the
however,
criti-
cally
edited
by
who
succeeded
m. with
a two-pound
together
with
been
of
torsion
produced
by
bear, it is necessary
when the
somewhat
similar.
discharged arrows,
as
an
evocatus
Angusti,
and
filled
the
-epLTpTjTa,
possible
by
means
of
arms of
motive
power
a
groove
on
PI.
XXXIX
a
series
of
teeth.
At
the
end
had struts
single arm (from
drawn back
ass
because
bowstring
libramentum,
in
Tac.
Hist
iii.
23.
2
The
protected
by
caps.
The
projector
show
trained
men.
The
operations
the enemy's
them. Such
in
warfare,
1
and
high
Aeneas
Tacticus,
form the
fort. The next step was to suspend it by rings
from
a
stout
pole
means
by the frame on
ram
was
the
by
his
1
They
8
To
a
body
Republic, however,
they adopted
the Greek
custom. We
86 b.
the upper
a
series
a
frieze
doubt that it
memorated
by
gave
reliefs is
a.
D.,a
description
of
of three
department of
the land-surveyor's
in
Chap.
I,
et strigas
decumanus
was
two
50 feet
intersected
the quarters
feet
50
the legionary
(intervallum) was
are
not
so
clearly
the tribunes
socii
whom
they
com-
manded.
Behind
this
the scamnum.
Polybius
the
vanguard,
of march
44).
The
date
of
the
d.
The
of
three
legions
groma
the via principalis lay
of
it
down
as
but
the
measurements
which
the first
praetorii.
and
the
first
four
cohorts
mentioned
above.
active service), but
tribunorum
legatorum
Auxiliary
Cohorts
and
irregulars
Auxiliary
which
will
observed that the
on a duodecimal
maniple of two
of these
reign
tion,
1
built
a
Cologne
(Valeria
Victrix).
Under
Tiberius,
communications with the authorities in Belgic Gaul by the valley
of
the
Twentieth
Legion
apparently this legion
and
a
cavalry
regiment
(ala).
In
the
Germany, and
then Dillius
by
Petillius
Cerialis
after
the
suppression
of
was
con-
structed
in
the civil
which
had
sprung
as
only
about
three-fifths
as
large
Civilis's
revolt,
legionary
life
nently
later
of
was 10
breadth of 30
surrounding
the
camp
was
reduced
to
40
feet
by
praetorium.
The
barracks
clearly traceable,
an
open
space
for
for one-
were doubtless tethered. The
however,
a
matter
of
eastern and
western sides,
to
of the
quarters assigned
of buildings
whose destination
Szc,
made
therein.
from 80 to 90 feet
;
like those of
is
about
116
feet,
and
which
(allowing
for
the
less
of the
place in each
quingenaria numbering
via praetor
It
was
separated
the west
found
central
portion
was
was
separated
by
rooms
suitable
it
seems
possible
that
the
praefectus
castrorum
had
ii
more
elaborate
buildings,
whose
growth
was
fostered
by
the
sanctuary
the
far
from
the
days
by the
no
doubt
was
the
force
In
from that
of Lambaesis
on
this is at least as early as any
of
those
which
that
this
fine archway
;
have
been
brought
from
elsewhere.
The
a
a
to
the
entrance
is
an
apsidal
hall,
beneath
which
are
cellars
were
Severus, whose constant
although
no
permanent
legionary
camps
Aemilianus
(134-133
B.C.)
the
such as the
of horse.
the
first
—
of
confining
regarded as forming the
northern frontier, though the
when the
Western
Germany.
of such castella
such
of an advancing force
periods,
we
that
:
of
the
Rhine
legions
permitted to
promotisque
led
an
expedition
modern
times
been
called
Brohl a
their way
a
a
limes
was
intercourse between barba-
reign of
nings
of a system of frontier defence. In a. d. 78 and the
follow-
ing
years
Gn.
Julius
Agricola,
as
Governor
by
a
Solway to be discussed later. In a. d. 81 he
reached
the
estuaries
of
Forth
were
found
the
ditches
surrounding
an
earth
fort
measuring
191
X
160
feet.
somewhat
irregular
in
outline;
it
is
ingeniously
doubled
in
Agricola
could have received
but little support
notable rather
measures of
observed
as a
Black Sea
to Gaul'
by a
was
then descended into
It
was
not
only
on
the
What steps were
line
expansion
furnished
fashion
from Rhine
to Danube,
and may
control
of
traffic
barbarian
to see
defence,
much
was formed
above belong to
;
of
military
of
an
earthen
rampart
from
the
Forth
fort
of
shown
by
the
dark
the south
of the
tide of
was
;
mechanical barriers. In Britain
origin
is
ascribed
needing
garrisons, is
here
of
dis-
position
find on
the western
built on an
An
arched
entrance
led
into
an
a
feature
where
the
accounts
chest.
2
A
large
find
of
form of
of
was
to
each
soldier
but
little
the frontiers
straight ditch
attacking
party
would
be
forced
to
expose
Roman
soldiers
did
not
forego
the
have been at
cannot
tell
why
the
same
plan
was
not
adopted
in
;
chain
of
small
defence
perfected scheme
while
the
provide the frontiers
serious
attack
this
Legionary
camps
were
built
confidence
Reman Frontier in
fleet to
services
arose.
1
The
extension
of
Roman
the operations against
c.
four
quaestores
dassici
that
their
must
be
sceptical
he
gives
—e.
g.
the
numbers
of
while the command of
but only
the
chief
naval
the
Roman
navy
continuous
decline,
close of the century,
Rhodians,
that
restored
Gabinia
was
passed,
entrusting
the
chapter
in
especially
the
Rhodians
the
fleet as
large as
Caesar could
and his conduct of
good
fortune.
It
was
not,
how-
this
stage
of
the
succeeded
to
the
control
own element.
the
manned by
a
large
scale
in
It was not,
(on the
canal dug
at
1,000
vessels
in
flotilla consisted
respectively.
Detachments
of
short
tunic,
employed
firmly
established
in
as the
management of
the awnings
name. He notes
in the harbours of the Greek
East.
in
groups
of
three
abreast.
To
assume
b. c,
cance
of
-rjp-qs
in
the
is to
close the
oars.
fleet with
no
naval power to fear, was able to discard the e pensive
types
of him
at Mylae
so
banks of
unwieldy
and
unserviceable,
one
of
sinking. The
relief from
as
duties of
believes that
warship.
2
This
is
clear
use
at
the
besets
those
of
our
own
time
and its disastrous
Studies,
1905).
Tarn,
The
Fleets
of
the
First
Punic
primitive
or
official
degree free
no
story-
they had a minute
worshipper
even
to
exert
a
form
Putting
aside
the
question
whether,
in
which
is
highly
inconsequent
survives when
amongst
an
the
period
of the shrine
and
this
Greek model.
which
times
Of
what
to
holder
to
of
this
is
quite
unconvincing.
The
most
view from
a supposed
(com/pita)
below,
p.
294).
In
a. d.
tunica praetexta
became
peristyle,
as
in
a
to
as
a
male
figure
one hand
Genius is,
the
according to
year—in February
family tomb, while
Feralia, a
cognatio,
in
which
the
Lares
were
dating
the
clanking
hostile spirits, to be
duly buried
jealous.
was
a
special
ills
by
the
wearing
significance.
The
Bride
made
divorce
eas}
T
who
anointed
her,
burial
a
procession
relief
found
tomb
or
columbarium
(cf.
p.
188).
A
period
honour of distin-
real or
adopted a
gentes of
Fabiani, which
was
originally
carried
which
never
obtained
State
insisted on
of the god
community. Thus
there
which
public
business
would be
truer to
of this
also
upon
his
the
17th
was
sacred
chiefly
concerned
with
a
fertility-charm.
On
the
19th
was
two
are
specially
interesting.
On
the
a
grove
time
of
October was the
new were
horse of
tail pre-
primitive
festivals—
the
Saturnalia
(Dec.
17),
from
hide,
ran
round
from the
Athens
and
of its festivals
that
in ritual,
it
reflects
no doubt
sacred
hearth.
In
nearly
finished
at
the
ceremony
a sacred spring and if the sacred fire were accidentally
extinguished, it
in
the
bifida,
wore
the
toga,
but
this
statue
is
draped
with
rex
sacrorum
hierarchy.
On
the
relief
already
mentioned
(PI.
LXIV
b.c, was
'
peace. Like
are
fully
from
which
drawn
in
towards
are
connected
by
a
kind
of
the
Regia
(it
was
is stated or
the
1st
of
of
divination
was
was
performing his
Tiberius
the cult of
(though but
were
offered
to Italy and
(Fig.
12,
p.
85)
observed
that
temple is assigned
were
branch and tripod.
But they exercised
of the
the second Punic
of
the
quindecimviri.
From
in
the
following
section.
The
ancient
different
deification of
often
was
later to the
had
bodies
we
must
carefully
distinguish
the
State
death
of
Pis.
XLVII
and
heaven-
wards
celestial globe
of
left
hand.
He
represents
the
is that set up
this
the
The
custom
was
a
very
ancient
We have seen that horse-races took place
in
connexion
with
the
;
shall
the head
of Amusements
: here it
were
preceded
who acted
the
were
name is unknown),
wheels
is
not
quite
certain.
front,
sometimes
behind.
It
was
a
to a
where the tibicen
of the
Bosco
Reale
(PI.
is the
priestly
colleges,
the
popular cults.
of the
the slope of
exotic
priests of the goddess,
admitted
to
their
the
cult.
Zeus and
hand
a
pomegranate
and
in
fruits
and
w
r
e
also
see
money.
dendrophori
or
river
Gallus,
took
place
at
cult
temple
to
foreign
cults
should
style
was
adherents
Isis
restoration
to
life
an
afternoon service is illustrated
devotee
was
the
shaven
head
and
of
the
afterglow.
In
the
eternal
and
the
heavenly
bodies,
and the
elements. After
in
the
upon
the
head
youth
as a nude
time
into
Empire.
Their
War
under
Nero
of Mithraism.
of
Mithras
admitted
all
initiation into
his mysteries
Senate
the first century
The local divinities
Deus
Sol
invktus
Elagdbalus
syncretism
the
various
Oriental
(p.
was
strictly
en-
forced,
derived
from
inscriptions
such
permitted such
purposes of
husband.
members, who were evidently
ten—
the
Georgics
country life,
Nor
was
only
two
we
'
a
form
of
investment
for
whom
the
harvesting
later, the
writings on
his predecessors,
subdivisions
from the
history,
feeding
it
in
those
that
the
as
income-pro-
ducers
(salictarius)
leguli
(pickers)
and
tract
—lambs, wool,
or metayer, and
for
a
payment
slaves
but
freemen
: the
situations
generally
as
frumenta
'
the
best
spelt-flour.
Of
the
little
grown
for
human
consumption,
except
wasted
on
a
that
their
ashes
might
the dungheap
ploughed
in
before
reaching
fertile soil of
Where
a
sheath
threshing-floor
(area),
'
speak of
known
(p. 6),
of
the best for
Istria and
to
expressed
from
the
fruit,
had
been
22
miles
south
of
Theveste),
Numa vino
;
The
wines
held
the
agriculturist;
and
in
as
vinum
the Campanian
as
trained on
for
fodder
as
well
October,
trodden
with
the
or
boiled
lined
with
pitch
dolia
were
and
transferred
to
the
apotheca
Only
a
few
species
of
flowers
lily and
(sheep,
classes.
kine
—
trackways
by
which
roadside
grazing
time
under
the
name
of
but
were
bred
for
racing,
riding,
and
Calabria
and geese
bred and
which
he
gave
a
favourite
dish
the sea-coast
(muraenae).
The
management
Varro
tells
us
of
tilling
eleven, another four, the rest are in several ownership and
none
are
was
set
Oued-Atmenia, between
Cirta and
was
a
long
three
of
inscriptions.
the
colonus,
who
of
B.C.
of Puteoli
was
overrun
conquest
mastered
a
bill
of
exchange
(permutatio)
and
a
cheque
or
or to the
negotiantur
who
are
ships
except
for
a
wealthy
Romanized provincial
was able to compete on more equal terms with the inhabitants
of
to be
the
main
routes
by
in
the
was con-
pepper
(always
highly
prized
pearls.
controlled
by
the
Sabaeans
the
Further
East.
137,
found
at
to account
conveyed
to
the
port
of
expense
of
mentioned above.
product.
2
is
destroyed
the
ambassa-
of
the
trader,
excepting
the
varieties
of
of
that of
direct
a
colony
of
Dalmatian
brought to
the
a source of raw
North
Gaul
in
Rome
was
marmor Numidicum
famous
voyage
of
of
the
exported
way
overland
to
Romans conquered the
at once began to work the lead-
mines
of
Fig.
51.
Ponto.
and
the
lines
such
the
fishing-boat
called
1
vated
were
long
buildings
divided
by
(except
the private houses
whose frontage lay
by
the
a
seated
figure
with
may
be
classed
as
such.
It
he refers,
peace and
which
was
considered
so
returning
spread
original
toga
trabea had
the
and under the
18^
feet
and
the
perpendicular
was thus left free)
Antoninus
Pius
3
This
right
arm
was
wound
tightly
fashion
by
which
the
battens
was
care-
fully
the only
Romulus,
the Gauls,
at
a
sleeveless
tunic,
which
they
fastened
leaving the left
a
 
most
commonly
used,
wore
the
in this
Imperial
period
testify.
An
The
coarser
and
thicker
plied their
trade in
In
another
skins
of
a
barbarous races
(utricularii), and
latchets, two
others
higher
up
on
ordinary calceus—
which
unfortunately
not
of
the
building
a
primitive
building
in
from
used
in
Rome.
which
a
terminus
age
of
buildings.
The
better
qualities
Augusta
(also
called
rcgia)
and
the
roll
in
in
it was necessary
columns.
two
hundred
' (ducenae)
has
been
name
1
Suetonius
modern
memoranda
were
strung
2
1
Papyrus
is
liable
Hebrew
Scriptures
are
still
errors. The
or
near
the
beside
the sale
We possess
all
Kilnste bei
ROmern,
1907.
183-96),
who
places
and
Livy,
works
author
can be meant, but there is no need to correct the text by
reversing
the
order
pieces of fixed
no doubt the
338
b.
c.
fact
at Capua.
6, 4,
may
perhaps
to
that
of
bronze
silver
scriptulum
became
thoroughly
Jupiter
as
seems
value
Pliny
seems
to
the figures
type
of
the
Castores
from
about
217
alludes to
descendant.
When
Rome he set
In
this
particular
he
an
arrangement
B.C.
of
senatorial
provinces,
well
as
(2)
the
increasing
importance
was
instituted
as
a
honorum.
2
The
supervision
exercised
by
the
the
Capitol ;
placed at
(PL
LV,
6),
was
supple-
held
by
patri-
cians
from
Antioch
in
Syria,
while
the
Commune
a
similar
privilege
was
and adminis-
fixed
and
permanent
mints,
each
Augustus onwards,
early
Save) for the Danube
into
the
temporarily closed
others set
that
Augustus
silver
1
Antoninianus—the
but
the
effect
of
the
reform
was
only
of the
that
use in
The denarius
metals,
and
in
a.
d.
were
equivalent
be
maintained,
aureus
metals,
smaller denominations
forged
issued
as
a
temporary
measure
in
proposal
of
Livius
Drusus
; and
the bigati
personnel
mint
embraced
a
as twelve of these
work
from
314
to
324
in a. d. 115 by
various
officials
ninus Pius
these
multiples of
were, no doubt, in the first instance distributed by the
emperors
in
congiaria
and
donatiua.
coins in
returning New
from the
fourth and
corn or
a money-present
festivals, which could be exchanged
for food, presents, &c.
inscription truia
15,
of Ceres,
plebs, was
at
first
occasional,
but
became
time of
a four-yearly
7revTerypLs) under
(19
B.C.),
and
formally
By
the number
Imperial achieve-
of a.d.
80 at
the Kepublic
it is
the
traditions
performed at
The
last,
and
perhaps
the
most
by Philip
publici there
(ludi
funebres)
into
athletes to perform
was said
horse-races
Neronia
prize
was
an
the Odeum
of
took place
in the
find forty-
the
presiding
derived
Nevertheless,
jjomjya,
clad
foot
and
horse.
Next
tribunal editoris (cf.
celebrated
games
the
entire
day
usually
consisted
in
seven
laps
as they
;
coincided
in
date.
Possibly
in
such
a
as
it
was
by
Domitian
in
the
shows
&c,
were
held
by
Nero
and
Elagabalus.
by
one,
two,
three,
or
four
chariots.
The
drivers
(which
chariot-racing
won
not
survive
achievements
with those
populace.
Crescens,
2
start.
He
was
placed
second
was
forty-
two
sometimes
as
high
as
50,000
or
60,000
sesterces
(£500
or
<£600)
of the
shows,
visited
1,127
victories
—102
for
the
and
their
Victor, a
chestnut, driven
the Campanians
from the Etruscans,
Naples, and was
allies
over
the
310
B.C.
guard
Juvenal
taken
in
Thrace
a
sword
with
its
perfo-
rated
vizard
turned
been
thought
that
the
as the
told by a good authority that
the Gallus was afterwards known
as
the
d.)
to
the
murmillones
decorated
be identified
mm here represented.
interpreted as the
classed
either
as
1
Samnites
murmittones.
Next
to
them
dead
from
the
of
amongst the
that in
the centre
torical sea-fights.
was
and two fleets, representing
a
Huelsen
and
Lucius
of Dio Cassius.
arena of
nanmacliiae
is
the
Empire
was
that
he
triumphed
over
the
Carthaginians
first
venatio
Nobilior, the
conqueror of
b. c,
that
Livy
(xxxix.
22)
with
those
Caesar's
triumph.
;
at the dedication
of the theatre
cage
zebra,
Europe.
Under
the
and
at
the
shows
of
a.d.
107,
trained
men
(venatores),
or
to
their
friends
with
an
invitation
2
These
devices
 
!
§
the
they were
Atellana
was
the
caste,
which
w
T
as
in
the
modern
Punch
and
the
his
name
shows,
was
distinguished
of the
of the
Rome took place
produced
both
stage ;
p.
351).
The
number
the celebration
festivals
of
later
times
of the
actor Roscius
earliest dramatic authors
Roman
comedy,
this
was
largely
Plautus and Terence
(a)
accom-
paniment,
the
L.
fourth
in
order
of
Thus
white
hair
black
mouth
of
have been the
sometimes under compulsion from the
emperors. Women,
adaptations of
tomb of
especially
that
the
side
columns
are
inclined
The play
in which
identify.
To
and
the
we
must
suppose
an
unlikely
supposition).
be regarded
as an
spirit
or
two
actors.
Such
sketches
were
Florales (see
the
Republic
is
well
held by
period
it
was
the
a
creation
of
Roman
times
and
later artists
represented
tragedy
in
a
sort
of
ed.
8,
1910,
ii,
pp.
Empire,
vol.
ii,
pp.
whether
the
(chap.
I,
Greeks, for
artistic
faculty
employed
foreigners
in
the
acquired works of art
early
the
temple
Liber,
Wars
(343
B.C.),
were
doubtless
many
or most of the statues set up in early Rome were
the work
in
painted
terra-
cotta,
or
in
of
a
city
of Greek
statues, paintings,
without
a
and
the
Greek
cities,
but
5).
;
minds in
originals
or
copies,
1
were
and the
art,
properly
historical
manifestation
appealed to the Roman taste, that we find masterpieces of
the new style,
ministering
Italian
soil
las
the
history
of
Etruscan
its form a
a
of
the
surface
There
pre-eminent
(cf.
PI.
LXIII).
Nowhere
that they
under
such
expression
that of
the
beard,
its similarity to
laying
stress
however,
until
that this
tendency became
mass of
the
two
respects.
Firstly,
classicism which
reminds
of its pose,
with the ideal
of the
c,
and
Of
later
statues
it
student of
and
instinct for the
play. Scenes
ascribe
to
the
decoration
of
an
the centre
as
sculpture.
tion
of
The altar stood
inner
w
T
ith
was
It
must
an
and western) fronts.
These facts were
and
partly
in
the
absolutely
probable.
the Louvre,
pletely
preserved,
but
com-
held
the
office
oipontjfex
maximns
Parthenon
frieze.
In
reliefs.
From
The
Museo delle
comparison
is
thus get
the neutral back-
which
gave
birth
to
the
Of
the
lessons
of
one
another
in
order
to
Polygnotus
of battle is
treated according
to the
a
composition
Septimius
Severus.
Finally,
the
back-
of
Gor-
as
good
an
example
in Roman sculpture was
which the
execution,
emphasize.
rical monuments
Roman sculpture
trievably
lost
which the
annalist of
Salus,
a,
who
defeated
Hiero
and
the
Carthaginians
in
Sicily,
like
Roman
sculpture,
of Salus.
over
Fabius Pictor
are reproduced.
solely
in
that
which
succeeded
'
'
 
wall. The next step was to treat the uppermost portion
of
the
wall-surface
sents
the
surroundings
of
the
picture
at
Bosco
Reale
—a
small
temple
or
rustic
its
specific
character
if we
often decorated
Helen
hero
;
the central
here find the
with
devoted to
to
walls
with
approaching
fowlers, hunters, even
from
origin
that the
view
majority of the
mythology.
It
might
be
of the
a
framed
painting
lost.
bright
sunshine—
which
is
the
The luxurious
as
is
proved
by
this
period,
such
as
the
famous Colossus of Nero, clothed with the attributes of the Sun-
god.
The
Pompeian
decoration.
The
room
in
execution,
but
dashes
tricli-
are
painted
with
architectural
perspectives,
allow the artist credit for adapting them to the given
surroundings,
in the
imagined lighting
sufficient reason for treating
examples of
common
type.
The
sorceress
Genetrix.
Into
the
vexed
question
original we
of
where
we
artists,
and
leads
us
to
;
more than cheap
of
the
technical
a
time
during
and made firm before the next
was applied. The result
—
—
of
his
figures
only
possible
on
such
surfaces
as
scenes-
likely.
The
—
the
Golden
same superficial
well-
worn
'
'
our enthusiasm
that if
the decline of
This lost technique,
which may be
the
portrait
was
painted,
sometimes
a
tempera,
but
more
identi-
(H. JV".
was
§
Greece. The history
Fortune
at
Praeneste
and
the
glass-mosaics
used
for
ceilings
;
mosaic
was
i
of its most widespread
know
It
is
his
command
smoothness
of
of
colours
employed
pictorial
effects.
'
; but,
like
the
purely
ornamental
art.
The
proper
so-called
far
in
search
was common in
giving
Aventine
show
that
a
central
emblema
border
of
Egyptian
landscape
;
now
in
the
Museum
colour is left to
whose signatures
are preserved,
from
its
rich
variety
tablinum
of
a
has
some
iconographic
value
adaptations of
Apuleius.
We
in
m
m
iiiiiiiiiiimiimiiiiiiimimiiiiM ..........
. . mrn i n 1 1 tin n 1 1 n i
mniiiimig
Vergil
representing
the
served
was the
first so
are
pre-
served.
was given
in from
treated
by
cameo-cutters
(when
not
portraits)
are
hands of a
period
the
Arabian
not
possess
were
of
58
b.
(cf.
p.
354),
and
that
Capitol.
Six
collections
exercise
care
in
the
choice
of
their
signet-rings
: that
Roman
Republic
and there
is a
of
Sextus
Pompeius,
signed
by
as were those
was
of the
Sign of Capri-
the
Inhabited
Earth—
of
which
exploit
being roughly
the
ideal
which
in some
having returned
memorated by the cameo, the
greater
divina
in
his
his hand in
steed
is
Germanicus,
now
dead
(a.d.
19).
throne links
There is a
a
Imperial
period.
One
the
i.
fourth-century
History
Eoman
a).
Pliny
Orestes
Corsini
collection
at
Rome.
with
the
early
Empire
light in various
century
a.d.,
though
cantharus.
pairs of vases
has
figures
of
cranes,
the
other
cmblcma,
the
of
continent)
of
a
divinity
surrounded
Apollo,
One
face
of
each
cup
They
three
divinities,
which
have
been
variously
sacrifice. On
the other
face (PI.
the bull
in front
of
the
of its
of
Roman
Imperial
art,
he
offered
in
tribes,
and
we
may
recognize
appears before
war
his
child
mounts
on
his
shoulder
in
order
to
catch
a
glimpse
art of the
true
Hildesheim
(a subject
a
serpent
the treasure.
silversmith.
"We
shall
it
to
Italy.
front
in
the
Soon, however,
Italy,
especially
in
Campania,
was
found at
by
those
who
could
not
afford
real
been much dis-
means
a
school
of
craftsmen,
these
were
the
surface
chiefly in
over Mithradates, and
as
that
valued
at
800,000
was an
who speaks
of Lower
afford to
Issus copied at
Roman
local
clay,
'
an
exception
for
some
more
65)
has
a
hunting-scene
in
which
Alexander
lay
terra sigiUata,
i.e. earthen-
sometimes that
of the
Northampton-
Boscoreale
(Monuments
Piot,
Museum,
1908.
Chios,
266,
310.
288,
f.,
72.
89,
101.
367,
428;
Philip Y.,
337.