comp exam 1

Running head: How Classroom Environment and Curriculum Impact 1

How Classroom Environment and Curriculum Impact Intermediate Elementary ESOL Students:

Modifications, Assessments and Resources to Support their Progress

University of South Florida


It’s the first day of school and among your 28 third-graders are five ESOL children, only one of

whom is bilingual. Describe how you would modify the classroom environment and the

curriculum for these students. Where would you look to find resources to support your efforts to

help these ESOL children, and in what ways could you assess their progress?


Abstract

English for Speakers of other Languages (ESOL) is a term used to identify students who speak

another language but lack knowledge of the English language. Washburn (2008) states in his

article: “It is imperative that all teachers think carefully about how they support and supplement

second language development” (p. 250). This paper explores ways for educators to accomplish

this. This paper also provides strategies in which teachers can apply to aide in the struggle

English language learners (ELLs) endure and how educators can modify their learning

environment and instruction to ease some of the struggles. This paper focuses primarily on

intermediate elementary school children. It also includes various ways to accurately assess ESOL

students, since it can be difficult to identify valid results due to language barriers. Additionally,

this paper includes valuable resources for educators of ESOL students to utilize in the classroom.

It includes research-based methods and strategies that can positively impact English language

learners’ education.


How Classroom Environment and Curriculum Impact Intermediate Elementary ESOL Students:

Modifications, Assessments and Resources to Support their Progress

Introduction

Today, educators face many challenges as they attempt to find successful ways to

accommodate and assess the growing diverse population of students immigrating into the school

systems. Many of these students come from other countries where English is not spoken. As a

result, students enter a predominately English-speaking, American classroom with no knowledge

of the English language or American culture. They speak only their first language at home, but

are immediately immersed into the English language at school and forced to cope and

comprehend. These students are identified as “ESOL” (English for Speakers of Other

Languages), or “ELL” (English Language Learners). According to the U.S. Department of

Education (2003), 43% of the teachers in the United States had at least one English Language

Learner in their classroom in 2002, and it is estimated that by the year 2030, 40% of the school

population will speak English as a second language (as cited in Orosco & Klingner, 2010).

Accordingly, it is important for teachers to identify new strategies and methods to support

English language learners. Educators are responsible for attaining increased proficiency in

cultural awareness and planning methods to be certain that students of all ethnic and linguistic

backgrounds can obtain an equal education. How can teachers achieve this goal?

The following research and information develops a possible plan for modifying the

classroom environment, curriculum, and assessment methods for third-grade ESOL children in

the various stages of language acquisition. The plan consists of modifications the teacher can

adjust in order to provide support to the classroom environment and instruction for ESOL

students on the first day of school and following. The adjustments include: “sheltered


instruction” components, interactive strategies, comprehensible input, modeling, speech

adjustment, comprehension checks, and contextualization. The plan for aiding ESOL students

also consists of modifications that the teacher can apply to the intermediate elementary

curriculum, including scaffolding, activating background knowledge, organizing instruction

around thematic units and utilizing cognates. Additionally, the plan includes modifications for

assessment practices that benefit the ESOL students, including the use of pretests, performance

sampling, drawings, discussions, journals and portfolios. Additionally, resources are listed to

support this plan.

Before modifying the curriculum or classroom atmosphere, the teacher must first be

aware and understand the stages of language acquisition in order to fulfill the needs of each

ESOL student. Since there is one student in the given prompt that is bilingual (and assuming the

other ESOL students are not), the educator needs to be aware of all of the stages of language

acquisition, from the preproduction stage to the last two stages where ESOL students are nearly

bilingual. According to Eby, Herrell, and Jordan (2009), “In order to teach effectively, teachers

must understand how language is acquired and know how to adjust their assessment, curriculum,

and planning to take advantage of the multiple language-centered perspectives contained within

almost every classroom” (p. 106).

Stages of Language Acquisition for ESOL Students

Preproduction

The first stage of language acquisition is often called the preproduction stage, or “silent

period” (Hill & Flynn, 2006). ESOL students in this stage rarely speak because they are focusing

on absorbing as many sounds and meanings from the new language as they can. This stage

normally lasts from zero to six months (Hill & Flynn, 2006). In this stage, teachers can

communicate with students by pointing, circling or asking questions that elicit one simple


answer. Students may also answer questions by nodding or shaking their heads. Much of the

time, language learners in this stage feel anxious or nervous when asked to speak (Diaz-Rico &

Weed, 2006), so teachers must be sensitive to this issue.

Early Production

The second stage of language acquisition in which educators of ESOL students should be

aware of is frequently referred to as the early production stage. This stage usually lasts for the

next six months or year. Students at this stage can use names, labels, lists and repetitive language

models (Hill & Flynn, 2006). Teachers may use simple prompts when trying to communicate

with students in this stage, such as yes or no questions, either/or questions, and questions that

elicit one or two word responses. Students at this stage use mainly present-tense verbs to

communicate (Hill & Flynn, 2006).

Speech Emergence

This stage lasts the next one to three years (Hill & Flynn, 2006). Students have gained

good comprehension skills at this stage (Hill & Flynn, 2006) and start to speak more freely (Diaz

& Weed, 2006). Students are also able to use simple phrases and sentences (Hill & Flynn, 2006),

but they still make errors in grammar and pronunciation (Hill & Flynn, 2006). Teachers can

prompt students in this stage by asking students to further explain a concept or ask questions that

elicit short-sentence responses (Hill & Flynn, 2006).

Intermediate Fluency

At this stage, which lasts for the next three to five years, students have excellent

comprehension skills and make few errors (Diaz-Rico & Weed, 2006). They instigate their own

conversations with others and can easily continue the conversation (Diaz-Rico & Weed, 2006).

Much of the time, English language learners in this stage can recognize their own errors and


correct them (Diaz-Rico & Weed, 2006). Teachers can ask questions that elicit longer and more

complex responses at this stage (Hill & Flynn, 2006).

Advanced Fluency

For the last five to seven years of language acquisition, ELLs are in this stage (Hill &

Flynn, 2006). At this point, students are close to sounding like English natives. They have strong

pronunciation, fluency and grammar. Teachers can ask students in this stage to summarize or

retell stories and answer questions that elicit high levels of critical thinking (Hill & Flynn, 2006).

Responding to Each Stage

It is very helpful for educators to understand the five stages of acquisition, so they can

modify the way they communicate and prompt their students correctly during instruction. These

types of prompts or questions during the different stages of language acquisition based on the

ELL are called “leveled questions” (Eby, Herrell & Jordan, 2009) and would be beneficial to use

with the five ESOL students described. Eby et al. (2009) suggests that “the teacher asks the

questions in a way that encourages each student to answer by pointing to a visual or giving a

one-word response, complete sentence, or explanation depending on the level of language

acquisition” (p. 109). In order to use “leveled questions,” the teacher needs to carefully observe

each of the English language learners to determine what stage of language acquisition they are

in, so that they can use the appropriate level of questioning (Eby et al., 2009). Knowing how to

communicate with ESOL students is an important part of creating a supportive learning

environment.

Modifying the Classroom Environment for English Language Learners

Teachers are expected to provide a safe and comfortable learning environment for all

students while at school. This is especially true for elementary children, since they are still very

vulnerable and sensitive to environmental factors. There are many ways a teacher can create a


supportive learning environment for his or her students. When it comes to ESOL students,

educators may need to take extra time to really understand the needs and feelings that need to be

accommodated.

Orosco and Klingner (2010) state, “Educators should become familiar with the beliefs,

values and cultural and linguistic practices of their diverse students so that they can support their

learning in positive ways” (p. 272). By meeting students’ emotional needs, teachers can promote

a safe and loving learning environment where students are liberated to learn.

The First Day of School

An English language learner’s first day of school has the potential to be traumatizing, and

there are many ways to reduce the anxiety that ESOL students might feel in their first days and

weeks in a new environment. According to Washburn (2008) “Students of all ages need to feel

they belong, have a place, and know their environment” (p.249).

Teachers need to attempt to ease the minds of English language learners as they adapt.

According to Washburn (2008), teachers should make sure ELLs know important places

throughout the school (such as the cafeteria, restrooms and the library). They should also make

sure the ESOL students can read and understand their class schedules, how the schedules change

throughout the week, their teachers’ names, and so on (Washburn, 2008). Teachers should make

sure to know their ESOL student’s name and be able to say it correctly (Washburn, 2008). ELL

students should also be assigned a buddy or partner for the first weeks of class, until they are

comfortable and familiar with the procedures of the school day (Washburn, 2008). It is even

better to partner the new student with another student who is also an English language learner,

who perhaps has already experienced the same stress as the new student. Teachers should also

place ESOL students in groups or teams with other students during class activities, so that they

have opportunities to find friends that are well-matched for them (Washburn, 2008).


Sometimes educators forget that English language learners have not only come from a

place where the language is different, but also the culture. The rules and expectations of one

culture may be very different from the American culture, and it is the teacher’s job to

communicate these norms to the ESOL students. According to Dailey (2009) teachers need to

make English language learners are aware of “…cultural elements related to success in the…

English classroom….teachers should help ELLs learn to process, prioritize and organize

information according to the norms and logic of English” (p. 129). By doing this, teachers will

reduce the likelihood of an ELL feeling embarrassed or confused as he or she adapts to the new

culture.

Additionally, ELLs can share an interesting piece of information from their culture with

the class, such as how to say a common greeting in their native language (Washburn, 2008). This

creates a sense of confidence for the ELL student, while also giving the English-speaking peers a

chance to see what it’s like to learn another language (Washburn, 2008).

Provide a Supportive Learning Environment

Specially designed academic instruction in English.

Specially Designed Academic Instruction in English (SDAIE), also known as “Sheltered

Instruction,” creates a comfortable and supportive atmosphere for ELLs. Diaz-Rico and Weed

(2006) define SDAIE as “…an approach used in multilinguistic content classrooms to provide

language support to students while they are learning academic subjects, rather than expecting

them to ‘sink or swim’ in a content class designed for native-English speakers” (p. 103).

According to Weinstein and Mignano (2007) the model of SDAIE contains five components: “…

the teachers’ attitude, content, comprehensibility, connections, and interaction” (p. 409).

A teacher’s attitude is very important to any student’s success in the classroom. The

attitude of a teacher should reflect an openness to cultural differences and empathy for the


students who may be feeling alone and anxious. Diaz-Rico and Weed (2006) state that teachers

should “…believe that all students can learn…they do not assume that because a student does not

speak English he or she is incapable of learning” (p. 105). Teachers should be as accepting of

new cultures and beliefs as are the ELL students who are new to the American culture (Diaz-

Rico & Weed, 2006).

When referring to content, teachers need to be ready to modify instruction and curriculum

with language in mind (Weinstein & Mignano, 2007). Instruction must also help ESOL students

to comprehend the materials successfully (Weinstein & Mignano, 2007). Creating connections in

the classroom are extremely important for helping students to link prior experiences to the

instructional content (Weinstein & Mignano, 2007). Finally, interaction means that ELLs should

have numerous opportunities to interact with their peers so they can view information from

different perspectives, and so English-speaking peers can help to explain concepts in their native

language (Weinstein & Mignano, 2007). These five important facets of sheltered instruction will

support ESOL students and help them to be successful in the classroom.

Interactive learning and involvement.

Teachers should modify the learning environment and reduce anxiety of ESOL students

by allowing opportunities to verbally interact with their peers and use hands-on materials (Eby et

al., 2009). By using hands-on materials, students are able to interact with the content being

learned about, which leads to increased understanding.

When conversing with peers over the content, ELLs have a chance to hear different

perspectives, practice their English in a non-threatening setting, develop positive self-esteem and

expand their vocabularies. According to Eby et al. (2009):

Activities that provide students with opportunities to work in small groups on a project

that requires use of new skills and problem-solving strategies also require the students to


engage in verbal interactions, contextualize the language they are using, and generally

serve to reduce anxiety. (p. 111)

Interactive peer groups are vital for building a strong social environment for English

language learners. By providing time for interactive peer groups, all students feel a sense of

community (Eby et al., 2009), which leads to feelings of belonging and safety. Johnson and

Johnson (1993) state, “Working together in a group as part of a team causes students to promote

more differentiated, dynamic, and realistic views…of other students…than do competitive and

individualistic learning experiences” (as cited in Eby et al., 2009, p. 111). Additionally, by

becoming familiar with other students in peer groups, stereotypes and misconceptions about their

cultures are reduced or eliminated.

Comprehensible input.

Increasing comprehensible input is one way a teacher can provide a supportive learning

environment for English language learners. Comprehensible input means making classroom

instruction more comprehensible to English language learners by supplementing it with hand

gestures, graphs, charts, real objects, pictures, and so on (Eby et al., 2009). Showing examples

and non-examples can also be very helpful to English language learners. “Showing instead of

telling” (Eby et al., 2009) is a good rule of thumb to think about when modifying instruction so

that it is easily understood by ELLs.

Modeling.

Modeling is another method teachers can use to supplement their instruction and create a

supportive learning environment for English language learners. According to Diaz-Rico and

Weed (2006) modeling involves “…demonstrating new concepts [that provide] hands-on, show-

and-tell explanations in which students follow a careful sequence of steps to understand a


process” (p. 115). The students follow and imitate the steps at their desk, and as a result, gain a

deeper understanding of the material without having to use linguistic skills.

Speech adjustment.

Another way the teacher can modify the environment for ELLs is by adjusting or

reducing verbal instruction. Teachers should be aware of ways to modify the manner in which

they instruct students according to different proficiency levels (Diaz-Rico & Weed, 2006, p.

115). Teachers can modify their speech by slowing it down and clearly articulating each word.

As a result, ESOL students have a chance to process the words they are hearing (Diaz-Rico &

Weed, 2006, p. 115). Teachers should also use simpler, shorter sentences, more concrete

vocabulary, longer pauses between words and sentences, exaggerated intonation and repetition of

important words and phrases (Diaz-Rico & Weed, 2006, p. 115) to improve instruction for

English language learners.

Comprehension checks.

Comprehension checks are a way for teachers to frequently monitor students’ listening

and reading comprehension (Diaz-Rico & Weed, 2006) and is an important method for

modifying the learning environment for ELLs. Comprehension checks let teachers know when

an English language learner is lost in the lesson so he or she can find ways to adjust his or her

teaching methods. Some ways to monitor comprehension while teaching include: asking students

to give thumbs up or down if they understand, raise their hands, use head movements, and point

(Diaz-Rico & Weed, 2006). English language learners who are still in the “silent period” benefit

from knowing nonverbal movements to communicate to the teacher. Students who can speak

English may demonstrate their comprehension by paraphrasing information from the lesson to a

partner. When comprehension is not occurring, teachers need to repeat or rephrase the

information in a different way (Diaz-Rico & Weed, 2006).


Contextualization.

An educator can adjust the learning environment for ESOL students by adding context to

the instruction. According to Eby et al. (2009) “One of the biggest factors in a student’s ability to

comprehend language is how well that language is supported by context” (p. 111). When a

teacher provides directions, instructions or assignments, he or she should be aware of the way

they are explaining what is expected. Adding context to the given instructions by utilizing

gestures, visuals and modeling helps English language learners make sense of the teacher’s

instructions (Eby, et al., 2009). Additionally, teachers can use media, write key words on the

board, pictures, maps, and the overhead projector or computer (Diaz-Rico & Weed, 2006).

Modifying the Curriculum for English Language Learners

In the Lau v. Nichols case (1974), the United States Supreme Court concluded that ESOL

students were not always given an equal or fair opportunity to learn what they needed from the

content areas (Lake & Pappamihiel, 2003). Although English Language Learners were given the

same materials and instructions from teachers, their low levels of proficiency in English inhibited

them from being able to use them (Lake & Pappamihiel, 2003, p. 201). According to Lake and

Pappamihiel (2003) “It is not equal, fair, or developmentally appropriate for teachers to utilize

the same instructional strategies for all the children in their classrooms” (p. 201). ESOL students

require different modifications to the curriculum based on linguistic abilities.

Gyovai, Cartledge, Kourea, Yurick and Gibson (2009) found English Language Learners

“…present special academic risks, including underachievement, grade retention, attrition from

school (Abedi, 2002; Haager & Hakuta, 1997), and poor reading acquisition (Haager &

Windmueller, 2001)” (p. 143). Because of this, it is imperative that teachers reflect on the ways

they can modify lessons so that English language learners can learn the same material as their

monolingual peers.


Entering Third Grade

Olsen (2006) states, “Most language learners who enter U.S. schools in the primary

grades make good academic progress, but many fall behind around 3rd grade because of the

changing cognitive demands of increasingly print-based instruction” (as cited in Hadaway, 2009,

p. 38). As students enter the third grade, instruction and material becomes longer and more

complex. Imagine what it must be like for English language learners, who are trying to

comprehend difficult materials while also still learning English. Zehler, Fleischman, Hopstock,

Pendzick, and Stephenson (2003) reported that the “…achievement status of limited-English

proficient students suggests that nearly three-quarters of ELLs read below grade level in English

in the third grade, and more than half perform below grade level in math” (as cited in Gyovai et

al., 2009, p. 144). By the fourth grade, researchers saw the struggles of third grade carrying over

into fourth. “On one 2007 national assessment, fourth-grade ELLs scored 36 points below native

speakers in reading and 25 points below them in math” (Nordby & Loertscher, 2009). These

statistics could be attributed to the growing difficulties of comprehending longer and more

complex textbooks and materials that occur in the intermediate elementary grades.

There are several methods and strategies that teachers can use in their classrooms to help

ESOL students attain higher achievement levels in all content areas, and adjust to the growing

expectations as they enter third grade. Teachers must aide English language learners by

developing strategies and modifications to help ELLs successfully navigate through more

abstract texts and instruction as they progress into the intermediate elementary grade levels.

Scaffolding.

Scaffolding is helpful to students of all ages, but in the intermediate elementary grades, it

can be even more useful for ESOL students who need more support in the content areas because

of the more difficult language and abstract ideas. Scaffolding is defined by Eby et al. (2009) as


“…reducing complex tasks to manageable steps” (p. 107). This strategy of teaching is very

important in the elementary grades because young learners need accommodations to their current

vocabularies to learn new skills (Eby et al., 2009). Scaffolding is effective when the teacher has

done his or her research. This includes reflecting on the students’ needs and identifying

techniques that will help students be successful (Eby et al., 2009). A teacher can successfully

scaffold a lesson by modeling academic language, using visuals and gestures, and providing time

for interactive activities (Eby et al., 2009).

Activating prior knowledge.

Activating prior knowledge and experiences is an excellent way to help English

language learners in the intermediate grades make connections and learn new concepts. As stated

by the National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth (2006), “…there is

growing evidence that ELL students are often able to perform at or even above the level of their

English-speaking peers in the areas of spelling and word recognition, but…struggle more in the

areas of reading vocabulary and comprehension” (as cited in Dreher & Gray, 2009, p. 133). This

is because ELL students have not gained as much vocabulary in the English language as their

English-speaking peers (Dreher & Gray, 2009) and hence, cannot comprehend words that are not

in their vocabulary.

A method that seems to be consistently helpful in aiding English language learners in

their development of vocabulary is activating prior knowledge and experiences and connecting

them to the content (Dong, 2009). When ESOL students can connect new concepts to what they

already know, they learn much faster and with greater comprehension. According to Dong

(2009):

English language learners’ previous cultural, language and literacy experiences influence

their ways of learning both English and subject-matter knowledge…when teachers invite


English language learners to link new knowledge to what they have already learned,

learning becomes more comprehensible, meaningful, and exciting. (p. 31)

Dreher and Gray (2009) suggest implementing texts that help ELLs make connections

between their prior knowledge and experiences with the content they are reading. They also say

the “…connections are particularly important for ELL students, who may bring different ‘funds

of knowledge’ to school than their native English-speaking peers” (p. 138). By finding books and

materials that appeal to students’ interests and backgrounds, students will increase their

understanding of the content, while also becoming engaged and motivated to read about the

content.

According to Dong (2009) “One way to draw on English language learners’ prior

knowledge is to invite these students to talk and write about their previous literacy experiences”

(p. 30). When teachers show an interest in students’ past experiences, ELLs become more

motivated and excited to share. Students who struggle with writing in English should be

encouraged to write in their native language. A bilingual aide can help to translate their writing

so the class and teacher can learn about the ELL’s prior learning experiences (Dong, 2009).

Dong (2009) states, “These students’ writings offer a window into their previous education and

can help teachers modify instruction according to students’ strengths, weaknesses, and interests”

(p. 30).

Activating prior experiences in ESOL students is helpful for all content areas, but in his

article, Dong (2009) shows ways to use prior knowledge of students to aide social studies

curriculum. He says, “Numerous topics in the world geography and history curriculum provide

social studies teachers with opportunities to connect to their students’ prior historical

knowledge” (p. 30). Discussing history provides a moment where an English language learner

can feel familiar with topics and have the confidence to speak about them. According to Diaz-


Rico and Weed (2006) “The teacher not only gains valuable insights that can help in teaching,

but he or she also gives students an opportunity to see how their experiences fit into the realm of

social studies” (p. 121). Teachers can use this information to decide which topics would be most

relevant and meaningful for ELLs to learn about in Social Studies. This gives the ELL an

opportunity to share his or her views and join in the discussions.

Another excellent way to activate English language learners’ background knowledge is to

find out more about their interests and after-school activities. Mathematics can be very useful

outside of school if it is connected to children’s own everyday experiences (Diaz-Rico & Weed,

2006). For example, students can help calculate how much their family’s groceries cost per

week, or calculate their batting averages on the baseball team (Diaz-Rico & Weed, 2006).

Just like in math, using everyday examples in science is an excellent way to create

connections for English language learners to their prior knowledge and experiences. Relating

science to concepts that students are probably already aware of, such as how running water

comes out of the faucet, or how airplanes lift off into the air. A good strategy for finding out

ELLs’ previous knowledge is to use a K-W-L Chart (Diaz-Rico & Weed, 2006). “K-W-L”

organizes the information referring to what students already know, what they want to learn, and

what they learned from the lesson (Diaz-Rico & Weed, 2006). A K-W-L Chart is helpful to

teachers, because it is a way for them to find out what students already know and what their

interests are, and as a result, are able to focus on these topics during instruction.

Organizing thematic units.

Using broad themes to organize instruction is an excellent way to help English language

learners in the intermediate elementary grades see the “big picture” and make connections

between content, previous experiences, and prior knowledge. Thematic units that are based on

the interests of the English language learners will engage them in enjoyable activities that are


meaningful. Diaz-Rico and Weed (2006) state in their article, “These themes engage students in

meaningful activities that focus on the area of inquiry rather than a specific skill” (p. 121). This

type of learning revolves around the students as opposed to the teacher and there is much more

peer interaction. Freeman and Freeman (1998) describe thematic curricula: “The…format forces

a reconceptualization of the curriculum away from a narrow focus on subject areas to broader

concepts that connect to significant ideas and issues” (as cited in Diaz-Rico & Weed, 2006, p.

121). The thematic curricula concept is an excellent way to modify curriculum in all content

areas because it increases ELLs’ vocabulary base, allows more interaction with different types of

perspectives, and develops their knowledge of certain concepts at deeper levels (Diaz-Rico &

Weed, 2006).

Creating a thematic unit using literature is an excellent way to engage ELLs and

encourage a deep passion for reading. As stated by Krashen (2004) “Language learners acquire

the structures and vocabulary of language through frequent exposure to such structures and new

words in a ‘comprehensible context’” (as cited in Hadaway, 2009, p. 40). A strong example of

“comprehensible context” is children’s books. Because textbooks frequently add to the cognitive

load because of their “…use of abstract, technical vocabulary and unfamiliar text structures”

(Hadaway, 2009, p. 39), children’s books can be an important supplementary tool for children

who are just starting to get used to the complex format of textbooks. This is especially true as

students progress into the intermediate elementary grades. Children’s books can be helpful

because they come with various topics, language levels, and layouts (Hadaway, 2009) that any

ELL student can come to enjoy and comprehend with ease.

One strategy to help third, fourth, and fifth grade English language learners, according to

Hadaway (2009) is to use “narrow reading” with children’s literature. Hadaway (2009) describes

narrow reading as “…the reading of texts focused on one subject of tightly defined theme- or by


one author” (p. 38). Narrow reading can be a strong addition to the language arts curriculum as a

thematic unit. According to Hadaway (2009) “Narrow reading in a theme or single topic

increases readers’ background knowledge and provides more context for new vocabulary-both of

which boost comprehension” (p. 40).

Overall, focusing on simpler children’s books can help to expand English language

learners’ vocabulary and strengthen comprehension skills. ELLs also have the opportunity to

choose children’s books that contain specific themes or information that are of interest to them.

This increases motivation and passion for reading, while also creating a stronger vocabulary in

that subject area.

Utilizing cognates.

When English language learners come across a new word, they immediately attempt to

find resemblance of that word to words in their native language (Cummins, 1979; Short &

Echevarria, 2004/2005; Dong, 2009). In this way, cognates can be very helpful in expanding the

vocabularies of ESOL students (Freeman & Freeman, 2009; Kieffer & Lesaux, 2007;

Rubinstein-Avila, 2006; Dong, 2009). Cognates are defined as the English word’s equivalent in

an English language learner’s native language (Buteau & True, 2009). There are numerous

words that are similar to English words in spelling and meaning, especially Latin-based

languages (Manyak & Bauer). Educators can use this method in the classroom by providing

students with reading passages or textbooks that contain cognates that are similar to words from

the ELL’s native language, and encouraging English language learners to find the similar words.

For example, the word “insects” in English is almost exactly the same in spelling and meaning as

“insectos,” in Spanish (Dong, 2009). Students will easily be able to remember these words

because they have made a connection to their own language.


Assessing English Language Learners and their Progress

It is important for teachers to understand the difficulty of accurately assessing an English

language learner, and as a result, that it is important to identify various forms of valid assessment

to use in the classroom. As stated by American Educational Research Association, American

Psychological Association, and National Council on Measurement in Education (1999) “Students

who are not yet proficient in English may take longer to process the language of the test and

frequently encounter difficulty assessing the content of test items due to unfamiliar language,

cultural references, or format” (as cited in Willner, Rivera & Acosta, 2009, p. 697). English

language learners require modifications that can be applied to the testing environment and

procedures in order for teachers to assess them accurately.

Assessments are very helpful to teachers when they show the students’ strengths and

weaknesses correctly, but many tests do not. According to Abedi et al. (2006) “…research on the

assessment of ELL students…strongly suggests that language factors can threaten the validity

and reliability of content assessments” (as cited in Wolf & Leon, 2009, p. 140). Researched

alternative forms of assessment help teachers to feel certain that they are accurately measuring

students’ abilities. By assessing students’ skills correctly, teachers have a full grasp on what

instruction needs to be modified and reflected on. Rogers and Helman (2009) state, “Through

multiple assessments teachers can get to know their students and create meaningful learning

experiences for each child because even with the same native language one size or type or

instruction does not fit all” (p. 22).

Pretests

The first part of assessment should be the pretest. Pretests are useful for ESOL students

because ESOL students bring different background knowledge and experiences from previous

schooling in other cultures. A pretest is used to test the student prior to learning any given


subject and gain useful information about what they know and don’t know already. Then,

teachers can plan for what they need to teach and what students need to learn (Eby et al., 2009).

Pretests can take many forms, from quizzes to writing a paragraph on a topic.

Performance Sampling

Performance sampling is a type of assessment where students are observed as they

complete a project or task and evaluated based on how they perform during the process of the

task (Eby et al., 2009). For example, students might work a long math problem, or write a speech

and present it. Performance sampling works well as an assessment for ESOL students because

the assessment is based on their abilities and skills related to the task rather than their English

fluency (Eby et al., 2009).

Drawings and Draw Talks

Cox-Peterson and Olson (2007) found their third through fifth grade science students

knew much more than they had shown on the traditional tests after talking to them about

scientific concepts. These students had previously failed many of their traditional tests because

of the language barriers that kept them from showing their progress in science. However,

drawings provided a way for these ELLs to communicate with fewer limits than other types of

assessment (Cox-Peterson & Olson, 2007). Cox-Peterson and Olson (2007) also conducted

“draw talks,” or short interviews, after the students expressed themselves through the drawings.

They were allowed to practice with peers before conversing with the adults; this created a more

relaxed atmosphere where they could feel confident in their abilities to communicate what they

know (Cox-Peterson & Olson, 2007).

After the “draw talks,” students were encouraged to write about the drawings in journals.

Journals are an excellent tool for students to be assessed in any content-area, because journals

give English language learners the freedom to write whatever they want in whatever style they


want. They are even encouraged to write in their native language, which they can later translate

to English when they have accrued more English words in their vocabulary (Cox-Peterson &

Olson, 2007).

Portfolio Assessment

Teachers can involve English language learners in assessment by letting them reflect on

records the teacher has saved over time and documenting their own progress at the end of the

year (Dailey, 2009). For example, Dailey (2009) suggests letting ESOL students revise a piece of

writing that they wrote at the beginning of the year. This is an excellent, interactive way for

ELLs to measure their progress over time. Portfolio assessment helps students and teachers keep

track of assignments and samples of work. As the year progresses, students have a chance to see

how much progress they have made and set goals for the future (Eby et al., 2009). This type of

assessment is highly appropriate for English language learners because it is more hands-on and

easier for them to understand; it is not focused on language abilities (Eby et al., 2009). As Eby et

al. (2009) state in their book: “The focus in this approach to assessment is celebration of progress

rather than focus on weaknesses” (p. 122). In celebrating an ELL’s progress, they feel more

confident and motivated to move further and continue to grow into their English linguistic skills.

Resources to Support ESOL Students

Teachers who have English language learners in their classrooms should be aware of the

resources that are available to them. In her article, Young (1996) refers to various support

systems: reading specialists, school librarians and the library, foreign language teachers,

colleagues, parents and classroom volunteers, and other native speaking students as important

assets to any multilinguistic elementary classroom.

According to Young (1996), the reading specialist is an important source of information

for teachers because teachers can ask him or her for “…knowledge of literacy development to


understand how the reading process facilitates transfer of L1 reading skills to reading in L2” (p.

18). She also suggests the reading specialist be invited into the classroom to observe ESOL

students’ reading and language development (Young, 1996, p. 18).

The librarian and the library are both excellent sources for mainstreamed ESOL teachers.

It is important for a teacher to have access to appropriate reading materials for English language

learners. Christine Sutton (1989) says ESOL students should be exposed to a variety of books

written in different styles (as cited in Young, 1996, p. 18). Also, Young (1996) recommends

asking the librarian to subscribe to ESOL journals, including The Language Teacher, the Journal

of Basic Writing, and TESOL Journal (Young, 1996, p. 18). Also, librarians and the media

specialists in today’s school libraries can provide access to multimedia that are suitable for

ESOL students, such as language learning software, computer games, websites, movies, and so

on.

Young (1996) also suggests asking the other foreign language teachers in the school for

help because they are knowledgeable about the process of language acquisition, they are

empathetic to the difficulty of learning a second language, and they can provide strategies for

second language teaching (Young, 1996, p.18).

Teachers who have and are still learning how to teach second language learners are also

valuable resources. Young (1996) recommends forming a support group of teachers who can

study, ask questions and share advice for how to teach English language learners.

Classroom supporters are an important resource to any type of classroom, but especially

classrooms containing ESOL students. Parents, volunteers, teacher’s aides and other teachers

who speak the native language of the English language learners can act as translators and provide

knowledge about their cultural norms (Young, 1996, p. 19).


Other students in the classroom who speak the native language of the ESOL students are

wonderful resources because they can help the ESOL student adjust (Young, 1996) and act as a

translator. Young (1996) suggests forming a “Newcomers Club” after school that helps

recognize ESOL students and their culture and makes them feel part of the school (Young, 1996,

p. 19).

Conclusion

It is important for teachers to understand the challenges English language learners face,

as well as how they acquire a second language. In response, teachers should make sure they

provide a safe, empathetic environment and modify ways they conduct instruction. The first day

of school is particularly important for teachers to plan for, since this day can be very stressful for

ESOL students. Educators should always be aware of the diverse needs of English language

learners and openly welcome different cultures into the classroom. Third grade is a difficult year

for ESOL students, since materials become more abstract and greater in length, so teachers

should find various ways to modify the curriculum to provide a supportive learning environment.

When it comes to assessing ELLs, various forms should be used for valid results. There are

several resources that educators can access to support English language learners. English

language learners deserve the same level of education as their native peers, and language barriers

should not keep English language learners from obtaining an excellent education. Utilizing the

methods and activities explored in this paper can give ESOL students the opportunity to achieve

success in both academic content and linguistic abilities.


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