COMMUNITY RADIO HANDBOOK - INFOAMÉRICA · 2010. 2. 16. · Community Radio Handbook Colin Fraser...
Transcript of COMMUNITY RADIO HANDBOOK - INFOAMÉRICA · 2010. 2. 16. · Community Radio Handbook Colin Fraser...
COMMUNITY RADIO HANDBOOKCOMMUNITY RADIO HANDBOOK
Community Radio Handbook
Colin Fraser and Sonia Restrepo Estrada
copy UNESCO 2001
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the following people and organizations for their generous support and help Maria Victoria Polanco Sophie Ly and Elvira Truglia of the WorldAssociation of Community Broadcasters (AMARC) David Shanks of the World Association for Christian Communication (WACC) Martin Allard of Mallard Concepts LtdLawrie Hallet of the UK Community Media Association and the authors of the five case studies Louie N Tabing Ian Pringle Alex and Wilna Quarmyne Zane Ibrahimand Ms Adams and Bruce Girard Special thanks are due to Louie Tabing whose pioneering work in the concept and practice of true community radio and prolific writings on the subject have been aninspiration for much of the material in the handbook
Much research interest has been devoted to mass media In their findings communicationspecialists have always acknowledged that there are many sectors communities and minorities whose access to information and means of self-expression are not always guaranteed by mass channels They have recognized that more sharply focused customizedand essentially small and local media are crucial in filling this gap
During the last two decades UNESCO has commissioned a number of studies andpublished monographs on the theme of community media The first monograph published byUNESCO on the theme of community media was Access Some Western Models of CommunityMedia by Frances Berrigan which appeared in 1977 and in 1981 the enquiry was extendedto the developing countries in a study by the same author entitled CommunityCommunications ndash the Role of Community Media in Development (No 90 in the series ofReports and Papers on Mass Communication) A few years later Peter Lewis prepared theUNESCO study Media for People in Cities (1984) which brought together a number of case-studies and the conclusions of two research meetings on urban community media
During the ensuing years UNESCO began setting up community radio stations in Africa(Homa Bay 1982) and Asia (Mahaweli 1986 and Tambuli Community radios 1982) The growthof the community radio lsquomovementrsquo was covered in a section of the UNESCO WorldCommunication Report in 1997
UNESCO sees community radio as a medium that gives voice to the voiceless thatserves as the mouthpiece of the marginalized and is at the heart of communication anddemocratic processes within societies With community radio citizens have the means tomake their views known on decisions that concern them The notions of transparency andgood governance take on new dimensions and democracy is reinforced Community radiocatalyzes the development efforts of rural folk and the underprivileged segments of urbansocieties given its exceptional ability to share timely and relevant information on developmentissues opportunities experiences life skills and public interests Given the audiencersquos lowliteracy rate and radiorsquos ability to involve women and to treat them not only as objects ormerely as a target audience but as participating agents and as a valuable source communityradio becomes one of the most promising tools for community development This hasbeen demonstrated by the special UNESCO project Women Speaking to Women community radiostations for the empowerment of women
In the age of multimedia and online communication the potential of community radioto provide for effective outreach to discuss and create demand for the Internet has becomeeven greater The Kothmale Internet radio experiment in Sri Lanka has proven that radiostations can promote and use the Internet in rural communities overcoming language barriersand lack of infrastructure By using radio and browsing the Internet to respond to listenersrsquodirect queries by sharing information and knowledge derived from the Internet the wholecommunity is involved and empowered with new opportunities
Against this background of challenges I believe that this handbook can contributetowards helping different communication actors technicians operators and radio producersin community radio stations to make more efficient use of community media for communitydevelopment by getting people involved in clarifying issues and solving problems and intalking to each other
The handbook is based on the experience and innovative thinking of communicationexperts and practitioners whose contribution I would like especially to acknowledge thelate Jake Mills former Director of Engineering Ghana Broadcasting Corporation whodesigned the prototype sound mixer Martin Allard electronics engineer designer of theUNESCO prototype transmitter Alex Quarmyne former UNESCO RegionalCommunication Advisor in Africa and project manager for Homa Bay in Kenya the firstcommunity radio in Africa Carlos Arnaldo former Chief of Communication Policies andResearch Section at UNESCO as project manager of Mahaweli community radio GeorgesDupont-Henius engineer UNESCO Communication Development Division WijayanandaJayaweera UNESCO Regional Communication Advisor for Asia and creator of KothmaleInternet Radio project Kwame Boafo of UNESCO Communication and InformationSector Louie Tabing project manager of Tambuli community radios and creator of Village on the Air For the time they took in producing this book and for their valuablecomments I should also like to thank Sonia Restrepo Estrada and Colin Fraiser for compilingthese experiences and putting them together for publication
Claude OndoboDeputy Assistant Director-General
for Communication and Information and Director of Communication Development Division
PREFACE
iii
Preface helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip iii
Introduction helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 1Any Community Can Start its Own Radio Station helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 1
Chapter 1 Community Radio in the Broadcasting Scene helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 3
Community Radio in the Context of the Globalization of Media helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 5
The Evolution of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 6
An Important Initiative by UNESCO helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 8
Box 1 The Minersrsquo Radio in Bolivia helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 12
Box 2 Radio SutatenzaACPO in Colombia helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 13
Chapter 2 Features and Functions of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 15
Essential Features of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 15
Functions of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 18
Box 3 Involvement of Women helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 23
Chapter 3 Legal Aspects helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 25
Uneven and Haphazard Legislation helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 25
Most Progress in Africa helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 25
Asia and Indiarsquos Lengthy Debate on Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 27
Legislation in Some Latin American Countries helliphelliphelliphelliphellip 28
Some Examples from Western Europe helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 30
Convergence and Divergence in Legislation helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 31
Applying for a Licence helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 32
Chapter 4 Technical Aspects helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 33
Technical Background helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 33
Broadcasting Equipment helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 35
Reliability and Maintenance helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 39
Studio Premises helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 40
Spatial Relationship Between the Components of the Radio Station helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 40
Future Possibilities helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 41
Specialist Advice helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 43
Box 4 Basic Equipment for a UNESCO-supported Community Radio Station helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 44
Chapter 5 Getting Started helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 45
Legal Context helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 45
Preparatory Work in the Community helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 46
Importance of a Mission Statement helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 48
Role of the Religious Establishment helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49
Role of Local Educational Institutions helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49
Involvement of Politicians helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49
Choosing a Location in the Community helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49
Box 5 Involvement of Politicians helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 50
Choosing a Model helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 50
Power of the Transmitter helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 51
Ownership and Management helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 51
Programminghelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 51
Staff helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip52
Sustainability helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip52
Looking for Outside Funding for Start-up Costs helliphelliphelliphellip54
Box 6 Main Factors to Consider When Planning a Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip54
Chapter 6 Programme Policieshelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 57
Participatory Programmes helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 57
Community News helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 60
Balancing Views helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 60
Coverage of Religious and Cultural Events helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 61
Local Election Broadcasts helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 61
Educational Broadcasts helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 61
Audience Surveys helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 63
Chapter 7 The Community Broadcaster helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 65
Code of Conduct helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 65
A Prototype Code of Conduct helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 66
Selection of Community Broadcasters helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 71
Training of Community Broadcasters helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 71
Chapter 8 Case Studies helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 75
Radio Olutanga (Tambuli Project) Philippines helliphelliphelliphelliphellip 75
Radio Sagarmatha Nepal helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 80
Radio Ada Ghana helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 85
Bush Radio South Africa helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 90
Radio Chaguarurco Ecuador helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 95
Table of contents
Communities and Communication
ldquoPeople live in a community by virtue of the thingswhich they have in common and communication isthe way in which they come to possess things in commonrdquo 1
T here are more than 20000radio stations in the worldand more than 2 billion
radio receivers Any notion thatTV and other sophisticated communication technology willreplace radio is unfounded forradio is in constant expansion Itswaves reach almost every cornerof our planet It is the prime electronic medium of the poorbecause it leaps the barriers of isolation and illiteracy and it is themost affordable electronic mediumto broadcast and receive in
The last two decades have seen arapid expansion in the number andpopularity of community radiostations Among the reasons forthis are the democratization anddecentralization processes in manyparts of the world deregulation ofthe media and the relaxing ofbroadcasting monopolies by stateinstitutions and disaffection withcommercial radio channels
Furthermore awareness is growingof the social and economic benefitsthat can result when ordinarypeople have access to appropriateinformation And it is also evidentthat when people especially the
poor can participate incommunica-tion processesand consensusbuilding aboutissues thataffect theirlives it helpsthem to cast off their traditionalstate of apathy and stimulatesthem to mobilize and organize tohelp themselves
ANY COMMUNITY CANSTART ITS OWN RADIO STATION
To start a small radio station is notas complicated and expensive asmany people think There isenough experience in many countries to prove that it is withinthe reach of almost any community
Community Will is the Key
The primordial condition for acommunity to start its own radiostation is a sense of internal cohe-sion and community consciousnessThere must be willingness forcooperative work and to poolresources and enthusiastic consensus
that the people want their own radioin order to advance their community
As part of the consensus buildingthat leads to the decision to establisha community radio the communitymust analyze its communicationneeds and determine how radiocould help to resolve them Thetraditional approach to develop-ment is to provide support to agriculture health education andso on and a radio station may notnormally be seen as a priority Buta community that analyzes itsneeds in detail and thinks aboutthe causes of its problems andmarginalization will often cometo the conclusion that it needscommunication processes to helppeople share common understan-ding and common goals This is thefirst step towards a communitytaking action to establish its ownradio station
ldquoEveryone has the right to freedom of opinion andexpression this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek receiveand impart information and ideas through any mediaand regardless of frontiersrdquo
Right of information section Article 19 of theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights
ldquoCommunity radio is a social process or eventin which members of the community associatetogether to design programmes and produce andair them thus taking on the primary role of actorsin their own destiny whether this be for something as common as mending fences in theneighbourhood or a community-wide campaign on how to use clean water and keep it clean or agitation for theelection of new leaders The emphasis is on the ownership of democratic and development efforts by the members of the communitythemselves and the use of media in this case radio toachieve it In every sense this is participatory communication(not programmes made about them by somebody else) It is above all a process not a technology not merely ameans because the people are part of that means and sois the message and the audienceCommunity radio is most relevant to a group of peoplewho live and act as a community and this could be severalfamilies several neighbourhoods or even several villagesor communities but the important thing is that theyinteract That is why I think of community radio as the
community speaking to each other and acting together forcommon goalsrdquo
Carlos A Arnaldo
Introduction
A basic Community Radio Studio in Burkina Faso
1
Com
mun
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Rad
io H
andb
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- UN
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Intr
oduc
tion
Phot
o U
NES
CO
2
Producing Programmes does notneed Magical Skills
The professional tasks of managing astation and producing programmesare not beyond the reach of typicalcommunities Unfortunately expo-sure to commercial andor stateradio leaves many people with theimpression that such professionalstandards are the norm and theydo not realize that good and effec-tive radio broadcasting can bemuch less formalized Nor do theyrealize that the usefulness andimpact of any media productiondepends much more on its relevan-ce to the audience than on its for-mal quality
This is not to say that quality ofprogrammes in terms of theirstructure and their technical level isunimportant For example impro-per use of recording equipmentmay result in programmes of suchpoor sound quality that they aredifficult to understand Howeverexperience with community radioshows that when people are moti-vated and enthusiastic the mini-mum technical levels required forbroadcasting can be masteredduring only a few weeks of trainingAnd as they gain hands-on produc-tion experience their skills developmarkedly They quickly reach fullysatisfactory levels of performance
The Cost and Technologyare not Prohibitive
The equipment requiredfor community radio isrobust and easy to main-tain and it does not needsupport from broadcastingengineers beyond some ini-tial training Its cost isconstantly falling For atypical community radiostation the normal cost ofthe equipment is little morethan US$20000 For minimalbroadcasting there is even asuitcase available weighing 16 kgwhich contains a five-watt trans-mitter a six-channel audio mixertwo compact disc players two cas-sette taperecordersplayers and anantenna The total cost is aboutUS$3000
There are also FM radio receiverswith a solar strip that can eitherpower the radio or charge a batteryAt night the radio can be poweredby a dynamo winding up the radioby hand for two minutes provides30 minutes of listening time
The tendency among those produ-cing equipment for communityradio has been to focus on simplicityof installation use and maintenanceAnd local people often show extra-ordinary capacity to adapt andbuild for themselves For examplein Cape Verde UNESCO helpedlocal technicians to install a single
transmitter on one islandHowever the technicians were soeager and enterprising that after-wards they built two more trans-mitters so that they could have oneon each of the three main islandsThis was despite the fact that thecomponents originally made avai-lable were scarcely enough for onestation Furthermore they also linkedthe three stations over seeminglyimpossible distances to form a net-work that shares programmes in acomplicated schedule every day5
Media and Development
ldquoDeveloping communities are characterized by isolation from ideas and information as well as services At the simplest level before people canconsider a question they need to be fully aware of allthe facts the short-term effects and the long-termimplications ways in which decisions taken in onearea will affect future planning Communicationmedia could present this informationrdquo 2
Phot
o C
A A
rnal
do
The Judges are the Listeners
ldquoIt is unfortunate that the so-called radio professionals have set certain artistic productionstandards which could intimidate the regular villagepeople The irony is that the so-called professionalproductions cannot compete with programmes doneby the inexperienced village people The professionalsforget that the ultimate judge of a radio programmeis the listenerrdquo 4
Donrsquot be afraid of radio
ldquoNo one should be afraid to use radio I have been abroadcaster for almost a quarter of a century andI know nothing about the electronics side of radio
Even today I cannot explain how my voice in the studio is processed and passed on finally to the family radio maybe hundreds of kilometres awayrdquo 5
1 John Dewey (1916) cited by Elizabeth Blanks HindmanldquoCommunity Democracy and Neighbourhood NewsrdquoInternational Communication Association (1998)
2 Frances J Berrigan ldquoCommunity Communications - the role ofcommunity media in developmentrdquo Reports and Papers onMass Communication no 90 UNESCO (Paris 1981)
3 Louie Tabing Neighbourhood Radio ProductionUNESCODANIDA Tambuli Project Philippines
4 Martin AllardrdquoOn the AirhellipThe Development of CommunityRadiordquo UNESCO Sources no 21 (1990)
5 Louie Tabing Manager of the UNESCODANIDA TambuliProject Philippines
Mang Vicente of Ibahay on Aklan Island in Southern Philippines plays traditional melodies on a flute made from PVC plumbing pipe
Chapter 1Community Radio in the Broadcasting Scene
3
Com
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Rad
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1
T his chapter describes the place of community radio in the broadcastingscene and explains the essential
difference in its approach compared to conventional public service or commercialbroadcasting A rationale is put forward for itsimportance in the scenario of increasing mediaglobalization
The evolution of community radio from itsfirst experiences some 50 years ago is tracedand set in the context of broadcast mediaownership patterns technical developmentsand the recent trends towards democratization and decentralization
The reader will acquire
bull An understanding of the special nature ofcommunity radio compared to other types ofradio broadcasting
bull An understanding of its place and importan-ce in the trend towards media globalization
bull Knowledge about its background specificfield experiences and the factors that havedetermined its evolution
This theoretical framework provides the long-term foundation for practical knowledge andskills to be gained in later chapters
Broadcasting can be divided into three general categories
bull Public-service broadcasting is generally conductedby a statutory entity which is usually - though notnecessarily ndash a state-supported or a state-ownedcorporation Its broadcasting policies and programmingare often controlled by a public body such as a councilor a legally constituted authority This body ensuresthat broadcasting operates to provide informationeducation and entertainment to the citizens andsociety in general and independently of governmentparty politics or other interests Much of the fundingfor the operation comes from licence fees that the listenersviewers pay for the receivers they have intheir homes
bull Commercial or private broadcasting providesprogrammes designed primarily for profit fromadvertising revenue and is owned and controlled byprivate individuals or by commercial enterprises
bull Community broadcasting is a non-profit servicethat is owned and managed by a particular communityusually through a trust foundation or association Itsaim is to serve and benefit that community It is ineffect a form of public-service broadcasting but itserves a community rather than the whole nation asis the usual form of public broadcasting describedabove Moreover it relies and must rely mainly on the resources of the community A community is considered to be a group of people who share
A Declaration of Principle
ldquoCommunity radio responds to the needs of the community it serves contributing to its developmentwithin progressive perspectives in favour of socialchange Community radio strives to democratizecommunication through community participation indifferent forms in accordance with each specificsocial contextrdquo
World Association of Community Broadcasters(AMARC) 1988
4
common characteristics andorinterests The commonality ofinterests may be based on
- The sharing of a single geographicallocation that is to say those livingin a specific town village orneighbourhood
- The sharing of economic and sociallife through trade marketingexchange of goods and services
Unfortunately this tidy classificationinto three categories of broadcastingis less than tidy in practice forthere can be combinations andoverlapping situations For examplea local commercial radio stationmay also broadcast some communityservice programmes a station ownedand managed by an NGO such as areligious institution may fill most ofits air time with such programmesand state-owned public-servicebroadcasting has increasingly beendecentralizing to the local level andproviding programming for thecommunities around it
Not surprisingly there is still nosingle definition or description ofcommunity radio And to complicatematters further there have beenvarious terms applied to small-scaleradio broadcasting such as lsquolocalrsquolsquoalternativersquo lsquoindependentrsquo or lsquofreersquoradio All of these lack precision Forexample the term lsquolocal radiorsquo
could also cover the decentralizedoperation through a local stationof a state-controlled broadcastingsystem or even a small commercialstation Terms such as lsquoalternativersquoand lsquofreersquo are also imprecise even ifin the context of radio they arenormally taken to mean alternativeto the mainstream mass media andfree from government ownershipand control Logically thereforethey include community radio butthey do not necessarily include it
The various definitions of communityradio that have been formulatedshare many common elements Thesimple and catchy phrase lsquoRadio bythe people and for the peoplersquo isoften used as a good summary Thisphrase captures well the essentialprinciple that must be in place for abroadcasting service to be consideredtrue community radio It must firstlybe managed by the communitysecondly be to serve that community
Strict application of these two principles would mean that a radiostation owned by a non-profitNGO and also managed by thatNGO would not necessarily qualifyas a true community radio even ifmuch of its programming wereaimed at community developmentThis is the case for many broadcastingservices run by religious organiza-tions and in practice the term
lsquocommunity radiorsquo is often used tocover this type of operation as wellOne example is Radio Maria whichbeginning from a single parish inNorthern Italy in 1983 now coversall of Italy and also has stations in21 other countries It is essentiallyan evangelical operation but it alsodoes a great deal in social servicesand community developmentusing volunteers and supported byspontaneous contributions fromlisteners
The somewhat confusing situationregarding what constitutes truecommunity radio can perhaps bestbe understood by considering thefollowing quotation this sums up aphilosophical approach that makescommunity radio different fromcommercial or public-service radio
ldquoCommunity radio emphasizes thatit is not commercial and does notshare what it would call the prescriptive and paternalistic attitude of public-service broadcas-tinghellip The key difference is thatwhile the commercial and public-service models both treat listenersas objects to be captured foradvertisers or to be improved andinformed community radio aspiresto treat its listeners as subjects andparticipantsrdquo 4
One Definition
ldquoA community radio station is characterized by itsownership and programming and the community it isauthorized to serve It is owned and controlled by anon-profit organization whose structure provides formembership management operation and programming primarily by members of the community at large Its programming should bebased on community access and participation andshould reflect the special interests and needs of thelistenership it is licenced to serverdquo 1
On Radio Work for Ordinary People - a Practitionerrsquos View
ldquoRadio is simply people talking with people The Tambuli stations have merely expanded theopportunity for people to talk more to a wideraudience and to listen to a more expansive array ofideas on matters that directly concern themrdquo 2
On Community Ownership and Management
ldquoTo qualify as a community radio the ownership and control of the station must rest squarely and unquestionably with the community it claimsto serverdquo 3
Commercial Media Antagonism Towards Community Media
ldquoMainstream commercial media continue to harbournegative feelings about community media and areconvinced that they are adequately able to servecommunity needs They have not yet come around toaccepting that the special character of communitymedia is complementary rather than antagonisticand mutually exclusiverdquo 5
This placing of both public andcommercial broadcasting into aprescriptive category treating listeners as objects is significantfor even when they broadcasttheir so-called community serviceprogrammes they usually remainin the same prescriptive modeThis is contrary to the participatoryessence of community radio programming
COMMUNITY RADIO IN THE CONTEXT OF THEGLOBALIZATION OFMEDIA
Recent years have seen a strongtrend towards the globalization ofmedia Colossal media enterprisesof a commercial nature have beenformed and increasingly span theglobe with their programmesCertain countries have also becomecentres of highly successful mediaproduction mainly of an enter-tainment character and sell theiroutput to TV channels worldwideObvious examples are soap operasfrom the USA However audienceresearch has shown that peopleprefer to watch programmes withtheir own cultural orientationsrather than those imported fromothers For this reason media productions from developing
countries such as Brazil ChinaEgypt India and Indonesia arenow gaining wider distribution inlarge-scale commercial media
While some people argue that theglobalization of the media disruptslocal cultures others state thatglobal media intensifies theconsciousness of the world as awhole and is therefore beneficialThey see global media and community media as complemen-tary each forming important functions that the other cannotAnd this is certainly the case
By definition global media arecommercial and need to attractlarge audiences for their adverti-sing content Thus they broadcastprogrammes that attempt to satisfya common thread of sensitivitiesamong large numbers of peopleusing well-tried and rather standardif not banal entertainment formatsThe lack of variety in programmeorientation is therefore generallyattributed to the lsquoself-censorshiprsquoof the market which uses entertainment as the sole criterionfor selection However it is alsotrue that governments tend to bemore comfortable with privatebroadcasters limiting themselvesto entertainment rather thanbecoming involved in the moreproblematic area of news and
current affairs For these reasonsthemes reflecting socio-politicalinterests are often insufficientlycovered or deliberately ignoredby private broadcasters
Clearly given their characteristicsand orientation commercial andglobal media can hardly meetsocio-economic and developmentneeds of the countries they coverThe excessive entertainment provided by commercial televisionhas often provoked a call for areappraisal of the potential ofpublic broadcasting stressing theneed for quality programmes anddemanding more possibilities ofchoice and access for audiences A logical step in this direction is toexpand the democratization ofmedia to the community levelespecially through communityradio in which accessibility is thenorm
Furthermore community radioworks in the cultural context ofthe community it serves it dealswith local issues in the local language or languages it is relevantto local problems and concernsand its aim is to help the commu-nity to develop socially culturallyand economically This is not onlyin contrast with global media operations it is also in contrastwith centralized urban-based 5
Com
mun
ity
Rad
io H
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1
Global Communication
ldquoGeorge Orwell in Nineteen Eighty-Four warned us ofa society controlled by Big Brother Is that what weare encountering today when we see so many peoplein poor communities tuning into western dominatedideals of the rich consumer society Orwell was veryconcerned about the socialist drives of the industrialage But perhaps he was also warning about the takeover of society by a democratic political power drivento degradation by these very industrial drives and bythe easy resort to globalization of mediardquo 6
The Power of the Local Approach
ldquoAn effective strategy for the community radiostation is to present what cannot be offered by any
other radio station that is local content with a localflavour The local radio station must dwell on itsstrongest reason for existence - local events issuesconcerns and personalities If a local station can doan exhaustive reportage of what goes on in its community on a regular basis there is no way aregional or national broadcast outfit could competefor listenership The element of proximity is the mostpotent quality that the community radio should capitalize on People will be enthusiastic to know ona daily or even hourly basis about the people andevents unfolding next to their place of aboderdquo 7
6
national media even of a publicservice nature for they are oftenremote from the realities of ruralcommunities and their needs
THE EVOLUTION OF COMMUNITY RADIO
The pioneering experiences fromwhich todayrsquos community radio hasevolved began some 50 years agoin Latin America Poverty and socialinjustice were the stimulus forthose first experiences one beginningin Bolivia in 1947 and known as theMinersrsquo radios and another inColombia in the same year knownas Radio SutatenzaAccioacutenCulturalPopular (See boxes 1 and 2 at the end of this Chapter for descriptions)
These experiences in Bolivia andColombia set a trend even iftodayrsquos concept of communityradio has evolved considerably Forexample the Minersrsquo radios inBolivia were working in thedecades of ideological clash between Marxism and capitalismThus their principal focus was tounite the community of miners tobattle for better and fairer workingconditions They were generallyconsidered to be trade unionradios even if the miners providedmuch of the finance for the purchase
of equipment and running costs
Radio SutatenzaACPO in Colombiaalthough inspired by the aim ofsupporting the community of peasants was not owned or directlymanaged by them There was muchfeedback from peasants - some50000 letters a year ndash and thesecertainly ensured the integration ofthe peasantsrsquo desires and needsinto the radiorsquos programming Butit was not truly lsquoradio by the peoplefor the peoplersquo which is todayrsquosaim
Even so this first systematic effortby Radio Sutatenza to educate byradio created a movement thatldquohellipspread and was later consolidatedthrough ALER the Latin AmericanEducational Radio BroadcastingAssociation This inter-linkage ofradio and education is basic to theidea of public service and markedthe birth of community media inLatin Americardquo 8
However even if the groundbreak-ing work was in Latin America itwas in Europe that communityradio first became a vital phenome-non an alternative to ndash or a critiqueof ndash mainstream broadcast mediaThe first challenges to state public-service broadcasting were in the1960s-70s when ldquoswashbucklingentrepreneurs boarded the airwavesillegally and seized as much of the
audience as they could carry awayfrom the treasure chest monopolycontrolled by the staterdquo 9 In theWest these pirate stations proved acatalyst in motivating governmentsand national broadcasting systemsto introduce legitimate local radio
In Africa the establishment ofcommunity radio became in abroad sense a social movementafter the demise of the apartheidregime in South Africa This wasfollowed by democratizationdecentralization and to someextent structural adjustmentelsewhere in that continent10
The pressure groups that have instigated community radio inmany parts of the world (egminers pirate radio operators missionaries and democracy movements) have been less presentin Asia In their place internationalagencies such as UNESCO andother external donors have oftentaken initiatives to help get community radio off the groundAnd in some cases it has been thenational broadcasting organizationthat has itself started communityradio services
Vision of Joaquiacuten Salcedo founder of RadioSutatenza and Accioacuten Cultural Popular
ldquoWithin weeks of arriving in Sutatenza Salcedo as ajunior priest had challenged the peasantry from thepulpit to take up arms against the poverty and backwardness that afflicted them and had offered hishand and vision in a partnership They respondedand so a pact was formed
Salcedo pioneered a concept known as lsquointegralfundamental educationrsquo similar to what today is
often called lsquolife educationrsquo The core of the conceptis that the educational process must be the development of the individual as a whole person and as a member of society
It became an ACPO slogan that lsquodevelopment is inthe mind of mankindrsquo And providing people witheducation in the broadest sense would enable themto make informed decisions and become proactivein taking control of their livesrdquo 11
The Influence of DifferentBroadcasting Ownership Systems
Latin America adopted the NorthAmerican system of mainly privateand commercial broadcastingwith multiple stations of variedpower and reach In this context itwas relatively easy for new stationsto start up And several thousandhave done so in Latin Americaoften initially as illegal or piratestations
In Western European countriesthe public-service state broadcastingmonopolies which had been setup when radio and later TV werefirst introduced usually had management mechanisms throughstatutory public bodies Thesecontrolling bodies ensured thatbroadcasting policies and programmes were as independentas possible of government partypolitical or other influences
European countries that adoptedthis public-service broadcastingapproach through state networksdid so because from the very firstdays of radio in the 1920s and TVsome 30 years later the electronicmedia were considered by leadingthinkers as marvellous instrumentsfor expanding culture educationand information and for improvingsocieties According to that thinkingthe mass media could not be
allowed to function principally ona commercial basis and as a vehicleto be taken over by the advertisingindustry to market products
Many countries in the developingworld especially in Africa and Asiawhere European countries hadheld influence as colonizers adoptedthe European model at least as faras the state monopoly on broad-casting was concerned Howeverthey did not always allow broad-casting policy to be controlled by astatutory and independent publicbody preferring complete controlby government of all aspects oftheir electronic media Thus manygovernments especially those ofcentrally planned economies usedtheir broadcasting networks tofurther their political aims and inparticular to consolidate theirpower base
In such circumstances and fullyrealizing that information ispower these governments withfully state-controlled broadcastingwere extremely reluctant to allowany electronic media to operateindependently This made it difficultfor community media initiatives toget started Only in the early 1980sdid some governments begin torelax their opposition to indepen-dent media but even today manygovernments still effectively oppose
the idea of relinquishing theirmonopolistic control of the broad-casting media
On the other hand it has becomeclear in the last decade or so thatattempts to control information ina society are doomed to fail The fax machine on a desk thecomputer connected to theInternet electronic mail andsatellite television are underminingall the efforts of repressiveregimes to control and conditionthe information that their peoplereceive This situation coupledwith the spread of democracy andfreedom of expression in mostparts of the world is opening thedoor to community media initiativesand particularly to communityradio And governments in countriesthat have already opened the doorare able to see for themselves thatcommunity radio has great potentialfor promoting and supportingd e ce n t ra l i ze d e n d o g e n o u sdevelopment
Technical Evolution
In addition to the political aspectsof decentralizing broadcastingthere are technical factors thathave played and continue to playa very important part in the evolu-tion of community radio 7
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mun
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1
Alternative Media as Antibodies
ldquoSome fifteen years ago I described alternative media as antibodies producedas a protection against the neglect insensitivity and insanity of the conventional mediardquo 12
8
Two important breakthroughs haveallowed major progress firstlycheap transistor receivers andsecondly low-powered and cheaptransmitters
Until the invention of the transistorin the mid-1950s radio receiversused valves and were expensive andcumbersome Until that time mostof the worldrsquos radio receivers weremanufactured in North Americaand Europe but the arrival of thetransistor paved the way to massiveradio ownership in developingco u n t r i e s Fo r e xa m p l e i n Sub-Saharan Africa India andChina the number of radio receiversexpanded from two million in 1956to 90 million in 1975 And the number of radios has continued toexpand dramatically worldwide tothe two billion or more of today
The availability of cheap receivershas played a key role in the evolu-tion of community radio with apush-pull effect in the sense thatonce a community station starts tobroadcast there is often a significantrise in radio ownership This is anindication that radio listening maybe as much a function of peoplersquosinterest in what is being broadcastas their ability to afford a radioreceiver For example in a poorrural area of Mali where a communityradio station began to function
radio ownership rapidly rose by 140 percent 13
The second technical breakthroughwas low-power transmitters using abroadcasting system known asFrequency Modulation (FM) Thesebecame increasingly available in the1970s and 1980s (See also Chapter4) Small companies in severalcountries began to produce equip-ment that was designed specificallyfor community radio operationsMuch of it was in kit form and sorobust and simple that it was idealfor use in the often harsh conditionsof developing countries
AN IMPORTANT INITIATIVE BY UNESCO
Among UNESCOrsquos missions areldquothe free exchange of ideas andknowledgerdquo and promoting ldquofreeflow of ideas by word and imagerdquoIn this context UNESCO launchedan initiative to support communityradio in 1980
The initiative began with discussionsin 1980 between UNESCO and theEconomic Commission for Africaon local radio broadcasting Thesehighlighted the fact that very fewAfrican countries had a commonlanguage that enabled nationalbroadcasting to effectively reachthe rural people who made up as
much as 80 percent of the popula-tion The best broadcasters coulddo was to select perhaps ten of themain local languages and broadcastdaily programmes in them on atime-sharing basis Thus no singlecommunity could listen to a languageit understood for more than a shortperiod each day
There were also problems of physi-cal and mental distance the centralbroadcasting facilities were oftentoo far away from their ruralaudiences for their broadcastsignals to be received intelligiblyand the urban-based programmeproducers were too far away mentally to know and understandtheir rural audiences properly
The discussions in those early daysand for many years afterwardsassumed that the state broadcastingsystems would be decentralized tolocal stations These would mainlyrelay the signal from the capital but would also originate some programmes locally This systemwould keep the local radio underthe control of the national broad-casters and as such it cannot beconsidered as an example of thecommunity broadcasting model oftoday
On the Potential of Community Broadcasting in Africa
ldquoCommunity-based radio broadcasting could be theleast costly mass medium for development in media-starved rural Africa It could promote positivecultural identity using local languages which areineffectively used on national broadcasting stationsand are usually accessible only to urban and eliteaudiencesrdquo 14
Big Boxes are More Impressive
ldquoIntegrated circuits and new componentsenable us to make smaller pieces of equipment but some manufacturers justlike to use big boxes open them up andthey are practically empty insiderdquo 15
Equipment Factor A first needwas for cheap and simple equip-ment quite different from the kindof equipment used by state orcommercial radio stations SoUNESCO organized a workshop atBrighton Polytechnic in 1980 thatbrought together British ChineseCuban French and Ghanaian engi-neers The purpose was to identifypriorities and outline designconcepts A first requirement wasa 10-watt FM transmitter thatcould run off a 12-volt car batteryor even solar panels and thesecond was for a simple and cheapaudio mixer similarly powered forbringing together sounds (voicesmusic and sound effects) into asingle programme for broadcast-ing The other necessary itemssuch as tape recorders and recordturntables could be purchased atreasonable prices in the market
The transmitter was designed andbuilt by Mallard Concepts inBritain and the six-channel audiomixer was designed and its pro-duction supervised by Jake Mills aGhanaian who was for many yearsthe technical director of GhanaBroadcasting Corporation
Based on integrated circuitry theMallard transmitter was onlyslightly larger than a home hi-fiamplifier It could be deliveredeither in kit form or fully assem-bled The largest component in theequipment was the transformer the
device for conver-ting power from110- or 220-voltalternating currentto 12-volt directcurrent
The cost of theMallard equipmentpackage was aroundUS$2000 comparedto about US$15000or more for com-mercial transmittersof similar power
Tests with theMallard transmittershowed that itssignal could beheard on a normalradio at a range ofup to 12-20 km Itwas so light androbust that it could easily be takenout into the countryside in a carPowered from the carrsquos batteryand with an antenna hoisted into atree an outside broadcast stationcould be set up
UNESCO also worked on solar-powered receivers and onproblems such as the cheapconversion of existing AM receiversso that they could also pick up FMbroadcasts Despite some promisingdesigns for solar-powered receiversit proved impossible to find amanufacturer that could mass-produce them on the scale necessaryto make them cheap enough for
Soldering circuits for 20-watt FM transmittersin Brixham UK
9
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1 An early model
of the FM community radiotransmitter designed byMallard ConceptsLtd UK forUNESCO
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o C
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o W
Jay
awee
ra
10
even the very poor to buy Bothsolar and wind-up generator radiosets are manufactured today but atprices still prohibitive to most ruralfolk
Political Factors Solving thetechnical problems was often lessdifficult than overcoming the political ones in promoting thespread of community radioUNESCOrsquos push in the area of community radio was essentiallyradical based on concepts ofhuman rights and freedom ofexpression But the world of theearly 1980rsquos was still divided byideological conflict between Leftand Right and state monopolies onbroadcasting were the norm inmany developing countries
It is easy to think that governmentssimply wanted to repress all formsof self-expression that could pose athreat to their authority or to theirstable hold on power However closer consideration shows thatmany governments especially incountries with a multiplicity of ethnic groups and languages feltthat national identity and unitywould be strengthened throughhaving a single broadcasting voicefrom the centre and through promoting a national languageWhatever the reason for govern-ments to defend their broadcasting
monopolies UNESCO faced anoteworthy challenge in promotingcommunity radio
The First Community RadioStation in Africa
The government of Kenya was thefirst to open the door to UNESCOrsquosproposal for setting up a communityradio In May 1982 a Mallard 10-watt transmitter as well as anaudio mixer designed by Jake Millsand related broadcasting equipmentof a total value of less thanUS$25000 were supplied to thecommunity of Homa Bay on LakeVictoria This is a poor area withmany problems of underdevelop-ment Local people were givenbasic training in how to use theequipment and the station beganbroadcasting for two hours a day inLuo one of Kenyarsquos principle lan-guages but not that of the dominantethnic and political group
Homa Bay was successfully on airfor only two-and-a-half years beforethe government closed it down forit was said to be working contraryto the official policy of makingSwahili and English the nationallanguages Furthermore despite itsvery local coverage it was said tobe increasing tensions between different ethnic groups
Building on Homa Bay
Despite this political setback theHoma Bay experience proved that asmall community radio operationcould be effectively set up withequipment costs of less thanUS$25000 and that it could function in a low-technology environment without encounteringtechnical problems
UNESCOrsquos initiative in communityradio coincided with some worldtrends that favoured it The mostimportant of these was the growingawareness of the limitations of centrally planned economies leadingultimately to the collapse of theideology that had built them But innon-Marxist countries too demo-cratization decentralization andneo-liberal policies were on themarch and this was also leading toa greater willingness to decentralizenational broadcasting systems
In Sri Lanka the Sri LankaBroadcasting Corporation hadalready regionalized its services andthe notion of starting communityradio was a natural next step Thusin 1983 the second UNESCO community radio initiative wasbegun in the context of a largemulti-purpose irrigation schemethe Mahaweli DevelopmentProject About a million peoplewere being resettled on newly
Excerpt from 1988 Evaluation of MahaweliCommunity Radio
ldquoIt has animated settlers into participation in activities that not only encouraged self-actualizationbut also community identify and development Intandem with Mahaweli development workers it hasmotivated the settlers to try innovative practices inagriculture and health It has likewise motivatedlocal development workers to take the settlers andtheir problems more seriously ensuring a more palpable degree of service to the peoplerdquo
Some Achievements of Mahaweli Community Radio
ldquoIn one area we came across a group of teenagedelinquents who had no land and were desperately insearch of something to do Through our programmesand discussions we motivated them to clean up thevillage pond and set up an ornamental fish production enterprise In another village we arranged a mass wedding to solemnize the marriageof elderly couples who were living togetherTheir offspring had faced many hardships as theirparents were not legally married I produced manyprogrammes on gambling and alcoholism which helped the addicts to reflect upon themselves andgive up the vicerdquo 16
Bamako Declaration on Radio Pluralism(President Konareacute of Mali 1993)
ldquoRadio pluralism is an essential componentin the deepening of the democratic processnow under way it allows people greateraccess to a diversity of information andguarantees increased popular participation for sustainable human developmentAfrican statesmust speed up the ending of the monopoly over ofthe airwaves and give priority to national proponents of independent radio when allocatingbroadcasting frequenciesrdquo 20
irrigated land and these familiescame from various parts of thecountry Originally no media element was included among thevarious rural development inputsfor Mahaweli However it waslater realized that a communityradio service could help the sett-lers to integrate and to take initia-tives to improve their living stan-dards In effect they needed todevelop a sense of community aswell as learn more about improvedagricultural practices health andso on
Community radio offered greatpotential for this so with financialsupport from Danish InternationalDevelopment Assistance (DANIDA)and UNESCO the MahaweliCommunity Radio was set up Itsfirst station covered about 20000settlers in the major developmentregion surrounding the town ofGuirandurokotte but it was latercomplemented by several othersmall FM stations in the area
Although the Mahaweli CommunityStations were all under the controlof the Sri Lanka BroadcastingCorporation they used a truecommunity radio style This wasquite different from the style usedby the national broadcaster
One of the main thrusts ofMahaweli Radio in addition toproviding settlers with information
was to obtain feedback from themabout development activitiesthrough recordings made in thecommunities which were laterincluded in programmes orthrough having settlers come intothe studios to talk on air Withsuch participation in the radio programming and dealing as it didwith local problems and issues theradio became a vital andpersonalized link in the life of thecommunity
Community Radio Expanding ata Fast Pace
Riding on the flood tide of changethat has been sweeping the worldtowards democratization anddecentralization in the 1980rsquos and1990rsquos community radio has beenexpanding at a fast pace UNESCOfollowed its Kenyan and Sri Lankanexperience with support to otherstations in a wide variety of coun-tries among them Ghana TongaHaiti Cape Verde St LuciaTrinidad and Tobago SurinamJamaica Guyana the Philippinesand many others However UNESCO is now far from beingalone in promoting communityradio A wide range of internationaldevelopment agencies and nationaland international NGOs are involvedin many parts of the world
The rapidity of the spread of community radio is remarkableand Mali provides an interestingexample In 1991 after 23 years ofmilitary dictatorship severe socialdisturbances finally overthrew thegovernment and a multi-partydemocracy was formally establishedA transition government came topower pending democratic elections
Mali is a primarily rural society andthe transitional government orga-nized consultations with represen-tatives of the rural people It wasfound that after more than twodecades during which the nationalmedia had been the channel forissuing instructions and exhorta-tions and with government staffin rural areas equally distant thepeasantry was disaffected and alienated by the governmentrsquosimposed development programmesThey preferred to ignore them 17
The transitional government andthe elected one that took its placedecided to install with the help ofUNDP and the Food and AgriculuralOrganisation (FAO) a policy ofusing communication systemati-cally for Malirsquos development thefirst country in the world to do soMali also took a lead in media libe-ralization in Africa notablythrough organizing a crucial confe-rence in Bamako in September1993 called ldquoFreedom for AfricanRadiosrdquo 18 19 11
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12
Mali had itself just liberalized its state TV andradio which ever since they began had broadcastexclusively in French a language only understoodby the countryrsquos elite And with illiteracy levelsof about 70 percent the majority of the peoplehad had no access to media-based information
In the five years after Mali liberalized its mediamore than 60 independent radio stations beganto operate providing access in local languagesto people for the first time since the dawn ofradio broadcasting And many other countriesare becoming similarly involved with communityradio Much has happened to improve thesituation for community broadcasting since theHoma Bay community transmitter was closeddown by the government of Kenya some 15 yearsago And as an endnote Kenya today is also discussing legislation that would recognizecommunity radio as part of the countriesbroadcasting scene
The Bolivian experiencebegan with a radio servicecalled the lsquoVoice of the
Minerrsquo linked to the Siglo XXmine in the Department of PotosiacuteIn subsequent years 23 stationsin the various mining areas of thecountry were set up and came tobe known collectively as theMinersrsquo Radios
These radio stations were born asa trade union response to theappalling conditions of workersin the mines most of which wereowned and operated until 1952 bya few rapacious and fabulouslyrich families the lsquotin baronsrsquosuch as the Patintildeos who wereknown world-wide for their extra-vagant lifestyles Meanwhile theminers who were the source oftheir wealth and of the mainnational export were being inhu-manely exploited Living in primitive mining camps often inthe cold of very high altitudespoorly paid and suffering fromtypical minersrsquo afflictions such assilicosis they were already oldmen by the age of 40 Their lifeexpectancy was further reducedby the lack of safety precautionsin the mines and frequent accidents In 1952 the mineswere nationalized but little chan-ged for the miners becausegovernments lacked socialconscience
Unfortunately historical factsabout the Minersrsquo Radios remainsomewhat vague for the mainsource of information is the
memory of the people involvedHowever it is certain that theradios were a crucial element inhelping to lead the struggle ende-mic in Bolivia for many years - aconfrontation that saw massacresof miners and their families civilwar and revolution
The radios helped to unite theminers in the struggle and provided them with news andinformation that countered thenegative propaganda against theirinterests that was being put out bymost of the mainstream mediaThe importance of the MinersrsquoRadios is evident from the num-ber of times they were systemati-cally destroyed or their equip-ment confiscated by the militarysent in by one or other of the succession of governments thatruled the country
It was in fact the miners that initiated the massive strike in1981 that finally led to the end ofdictatorship in Bolivia As on allprevious occasions of seriousconfrontation with the authoritiesone of the principle demandsmade by the miners was thereturn of the equipment for theirradio stations or in cases wherethe equipment had been destroyed the right to start themup again with new equipmentThe miners usually contributedmost of the cost a further illustra-tion of the importance of theseradio stations in their lives
Although the main role of theMinersrsquo Radios was the defence
and promotion of minersrsquo rightsthey were also central to a widerange of cultural and educationalactivities They promoted andbroadcast festivals of minersrsquopoetry discussions about theaesthetic value of popular songsand other art forms and discus-sions about education issueseven including a discussion ofwhether minersrsquo children shouldlearn to play chess
The miners themselves contributedto the costs of establishing andrunning their radio stations but inmost cases the management andprogramming policy was in thehands of their unions And therewas little participation by minersin the kind of radio programmesthat would be promoted by com-munity radio today However theintegration of the radio stationsinto the mining community wasto a great extent ensured by theirphysical location close to themine they served and peoplecould generally visit the studioand say their piece if they wanted
Most Minersrsquo Radios were set upin the second half of the 1950sbut their most flourishing yearswere between 1963 and 1983After that world tin prices beganto drop and in 1985 a neo-liberalgovernment passed a decree tolsquorelocatersquo miners throwing about20000 of them out of miningwork forever This cut the groundfrom under the feet of their radiosSome were passed to peasantgroups but today less than tenare still operating
BOX 1 The Minersrsquo Radio in Bolivia
BOX 2 Radio SutatenzaAccioacuten Cultural Popular in Colombia
This initiative was launchedin 1947 by a priest JoaquiacutenSalcedo in an Andean
village called Sutatenza It beganusing a home-made transmitterwith a range of two to three kmbut from this Radio Sutatenzagrew into Colombiarsquos mostpowerful broadcasting network
Salcedo an atypical priest wasmore concerned about the socialand economic status of Colombiarsquospeasants than about conventionalChurch matters Driven by his mission to bring education to peasants to help them develop herealized that radio could reacheven into the most isolated parts ofmountainous Colombia Thus theidea of the Radio Schools ofSutatenza was born and from thatAccioacuten Cultural Popular (ACPO)
The educational broadcasts byRadio Sutatenza expanded untilthey covered a wide range oftopics including literacy numeracyhealth farm production housingimprovements family and personalrelationships sport and leisureand - crucially as it turned out - theresponsibilities of parenthood andpractising responsible procreation
People listened to these programmes in informal RadioSchools - in effect small groupswho came together each eveningThe groups were assisted by moni-tors people with more knowledge
and experience than the group Atany one time there was usually anenrolment of some 200000 peasants in about 20000 RadioSchools
To complement the radio programmes ACPO produced arange of textbooks and a PeasantrsquosLibrary of 100 books on topics forrural communities And a weeklymagazine with an estimated readership of 600000 people waspublished Furthermore trainingof peasant leaders and technicaltraining courses in communitieswere a part of the activities
The Roman Catholic Church supported the operation from thebeginning mainly with funds fromCatholic groups in Europe butACPO also attracted world-wideattention and many internationalagencies also became involved infinancing it
Ultimately Radio Sutatenza wasthe victim of its own successW h e n i t i n t r o d u c e d i t s programmes on lsquoresponsible procreationrsquo the Church begansystematically to undermine itSalcedo declared that the problemwas to convince the masses that itwas not sinful to discuss these matters and that it was difficult toeducate people for human dignityand for responsible maternity in acountry dominated by religiousrules ACPO held no position on
chemical or physical methods ofbirth control Its task was only tocreate the basis on which indivi-duals could take their own respon-sible decisions
This position infuriated the Churchhierarchy in Colombia which heldthat the only purpose of humansexual intercourse was procreationof the species So it convinced theEuropean Catholic groups to with-draw their support HoweverACPO continued to function withother international funding passedthrough the government
The operation struggled on usingmainly borrowed funds until 1985when its powerful and valuableradio infrastructure was sold to acommercial network In 1987 after40 years successfully dedicated tohelping peasants develop theirminds knowledge and life skills itfinally folded completely Itsassets which included a publi-shing house a plant for pressingmusical records a 14-storey officeblock in the capital as well as peasant training centres were soldto meet its debts
13
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mun
ity
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1
1 Independent Radio and Television Commission of Ireland1988
2 Quote Louie Tabing Manager of the UNESCODANIDATambuli Project Philippines
3 Zane Ibrahim and Ms Adams Bush Radio 895 FM (See CaseStudy)
4 P M Lewis and J Booth The Invisible Medium PublicCommercial and Community Radio MacMillan (London 1989)
5 Jocelyn Josiah Presentation on Media for Community Buildingin the Caribbean during Roundtable on Communication forDevelopment Brazil (Bahia 1998)
6 Carlos A Arnaldo Localism and the Displacement of Politics Placebased Communication Development (Globalism and the Politicsof Place) Vol 41 No 2 1998 Sage Publications and SID (Rome June 1998)
7 Louie N Tabing Programming Tips for a Community Radio StationUNESCO-DANIDA Tambuli Project (Manila 1998)
8 Rafael Roncaglio lo Public Service Broadcasting ndash Cultural andEducational Dimensions UNESCO (Paris 1995)
9 T McCain and F Lowe Localism in Western EuropeanBroadcasting Journal of Communication Vol 40-1 (1990)
10 Moncef M Bouhafa Child Survival and Broadcasting ndashOpportunities and Challenges paper presented at internationalconference on Broadcasting for Child Survival Voice ofAmericaUSAID (Washington April 1998)
11 Colin Fraser and Sonia Restrepo-Estrada Communicating forDevelopment - Human Change for Survival IB Tauris (LondonNew York 1998)
12 Peter Lewis in Alternative Media Linking Global and LocalReports and Papers on Mass Communication No 107 UNESCO (Paris 1993)
13 Mary Myers The Promotion of Democracy at the Grass-roots The Example of Radio in Mali Frank Cass Journal Vol 5 No 2 (London 1998)
14 Jake Mills of Ghana the designer of the cheap 6-channelaudio mixer (1990)
15 Martin Allard designer of a simple and cheap FM transmitter
16 Interview Sunil Wijesinghe broadcaster of MahaweliCommunity Radio (1999)
17 Colin Fraser and Sonia Restrepo-Estrada op cit
18 Moncef M Bouhafa Grassroots Media and CommunityEmpowerment in West Africa paper presented to theInternational Conference on Media and Politics CatholicUniversity of Brussels Belgium 1997 (revised 1998)
19 Mary Myers op cit
20 Ibid
14
In Barbados after running the experimental UNESCO community radio for the 1995 World Environmental Conference students took over the radio station and continued programmes ever since from the Barbados Community College as Radio GED
Phot
o U
NES
CO
Kin
gsto
n
Chapter 2Features and Functions of Community Radio
15
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mun
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T his chapter describes the special featuresand programming approach of communityradio in terms of public access and partici-
pation ownership management funding editorial independence and credibility as wellas its representation of different groups andinterests in the community and its inclusion ofmarginalized and minority groups
The section on functions covers the role of community radio in reflecting local identity andculture in providing a diversity of voices opinionsprogrammes and content on air and in promotingdemocratic process social change developmentcivil society and good governance Its functionas a lsquopeoplersquos telephonersquo and its contribution tothe training of human resources for the broad-casting industry are also touched on
After absorbing the content the reader will
bull Have a clear picture of the many features andfunctions of community radio
bull Be able to act as a resource personleaderduring discussions in a community about the possibility of setting up a radio stationproviding the necessary background informa-tion for decisions on ownership manage-ment programming policies and the benefitsthat can be expected from a communityradio
ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF COMMUNITY RADIO
The Audience asProtagonists
While community radio is a form of public-servicebroadcasting it has anapproach that is differentfrom conventional broad-casting Its specific focus isto make its audience themain protagonists by theirinvolvement in all aspects of its management and programme productionand by providing them withprogramming that will helpthem in the developmentand social advancement oftheir community
A Special Slant on News Entertainment and Education
News on a community station unlike that on the mains-tream media is not an isolated story or event alone ratherit aims to be part of an ongoing and future process whichsupports change and development in the community
Special Sunday treat for Radio Ibahay - actress Chin ChinGutierrez visits the station during the childrenrsquos programme
and sings a song in Aklanon
Phot
o C
A A
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16
Entertainment is provided in aform that is a collective culturalexpression rather than a featuringof refined performers It is morelike singing Karaoke than listeningto a professional artist
Education is more the sharing ofexperiences and learning from othersin the community than listening toan expert or teacher talking
Principles of Public Access andParticipation
Citizens have a democratic right toreliable accurate and timely infor-mation Based on this right it is apublic interest of broadcasting thatit should incorporate the principlesof access and participation
Access implies the availability ofbroadcasting services to all citizensparticipation implies that the publicis actively involved in planning andmanagement and also providesproducers and performers
In concrete terms for communityradio these concepts mean that
bull A community radiorsquos broadcastpattern reaches all members ofthe community it aims to serve
bull The community participates informulating plans and policies forthe radio service and in definingits objectives its principles ofmanagement and its program-ming
bull The community participates indecisions concerning programmecontent duration and schedulesPeople se lect the types ofprogrammes they want ratherthan having them prescribed bythe producers
bull The community is free to commentand criticize
bull There is continuous interactionbetween producers and receiversof messages The radio itself actsas a principal channel for thisinteraction but there are alsomechanisms that allow easycontact between the communitythe programme producers and themanagement of the radio station
bull There are unrestricted opportu-nities for members of the com-munity as individuals or groupsto produce programmes and behelped by the radio station staffusing the technical productionfacilities available
bull The community participates inthe establishment managementadministration and financing ofthe radio station
Ownership
The facilities of community radioare almost invariably owned by thecommunity through a trust founda-tion cooperative or some similarvehicle However there could becases where formal ownership wasin the hands of a body external tothe community but which has passedthe facility to the community for itsindependent and exclusive use
Management
Irrespective of formal ownershipthe stationrsquos policies managementand programming must be the responsibility of the community inorder for it to be considered a truecommunity radio There will usual-ly be a representative communitycommittee or Board of Directors toset overall policies while day-to-day
Radio quickly and easily becomes he link in society between poor and rich between rural and urban groups between agricultural routine and city leisure At Radyo Ibahay one of the smallest Tambuli stations film and TV actress Chin Chin Gutierrez share her ideas on development in an interview for the Sunday programme
Phot
o C
A A
rnal
do
administrative andoperational decisionsare left to a stationmanager selected by thecommunity
Funding
A community radio service is set up and run asa non-profit organization Itrelies on financial supportfrom a diversity of sourceswhich may include donationsgrants membersh ip fees sponsorsh ip or advert i s ing A combination of these is themost desirable in order to ensureindependence Many communityradios also organize fund-raisingevents among their audience Theoverall aim is always to reach astate of financial self-sufficiency
Editorial Independence andCredibility
Community radio is editoriallyindependent of central and localgovernment of political partiesand of commercial and religiousinstitutions in determining its policies and programming Overallpolicy is set by the aforementionedrepresentative community-levelcommittee but with day-to-day
operational decisionsabout programming taken by thestation manager hisher role as acredible and non-partisan personbecoming crucial
Representation of DifferentGroups and Interests in theCommunity
Communities are inevitably madeup of different groups and inter-ests Community radio broadcastsprogrammes that cater to theseand also encourages them toexpress themselves on air Clearlyhowever programme and timeallocation are approximately pro-portional to the size of any parti-cular group or interest in the com-munity taking into account anyspecial circumstances or needs
Inclusion ofMinority and MarginalizedGroups
Community radio includes minorityand marginalized groups on equalterms rather than giving them an
17
Com
mun
ity
Rad
io H
andb
ook
- UN
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pter
2
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o C
A A
rnal
do
Even the smallest children haveaccess to the radio on the
Radio Ibahay Sunday childrenrsquosprogramme
Carol Singing for a Tape Recorder
Community radio stations often organize communityevents such as community fairs cultural eveningsand other fund-raising activities One Tambuli community radio station in the Philippines organizeddoor-to-door carol singing at Christmas to raisefunds to buy a new tape recorder
18
occasional voice as in the case of many public broadcasters Its programming ensures a wide diversity of voices and views frommarginalized groups such aswomen and youth and it promotesand protects the interests cultureand linguistic diversity of ethnicminorities in the community
FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNITY RADIO
Community radio aims to fulfil thefollowing functions
Reflect and Promote LocalIdentity Character and Culture
Co m m u n i t y ra d i o p ro v i d e s programming that is particular toits communityrsquos identity and character Thus it relies principallyon local content It includes outsidenews and events that have a specialinterest or implications for itsaudience
It also focuses on local cultureCulture is what a community saysto itself and what it says to othersIt is how the people the individualmembers of a community expresstheir dreams and hopes and howthey talk about their past and theirfuture It is what they care aboutLike life itself culture is infinitelyvariable and constantly evolving Itis the result of a process not of
definitions And that is why indemocracies governments areexpected only to establish broadframeworks for cultural expressionby the people Governments mustnot get involved in content or style 1
Community culture is also of courseartistic expression through localmusic dance poetry theatre storytelling and so on and these arefeatured strongly by most commu-nity radios Local performers areencouraged to go on air uninhibitedby considerations of the lsquoprofessionalstandardsrsquo they may have acquiredfrom mainstream media The valueof content and lsquolocalnessrsquo usuallyoutweighs formal quality and lsquoprofessionalismrsquo though thisshould not be used as an excuse forsub-standard technical production
Culture is also Language Locallanguages and expressions are theraw material that feeds communityradios They are the cement of cultural diversity which is as important for the successful futureof humanity as biological diversityThere are some 6700 languages inthe world and 63 percent of theseare in Africa and Asia Nationalbroadcasting and media globaliza-tion combined with other factorssuch as urban migration threatenhalf of the worldrsquos languages with extinction during the nextgeneration And with them will go
their cultures Community radio is aprime defence against this gravetrend towards the impoverishmentof cultural diversity 2
Create a Diversity of Voices andOpinions on the Air
Community radio through itsopenness to participation to all sectors and people in a communitycreates a diversity of voices andopinions on the air
Some discord is present in all communities they are not the peaceful harmonious groupingsthat outsiders may idealisticallyimagine Discord may be caused bydiffering interests by differing ethnic linguistic or religious backgrounds or even by someancient feud The acknowledgementof conflict is necessary for democracyand for democratic communitiesThrough an understanding of whyconflict exists communities canunderstand themselves better andpave the way to resolve conflicts A function of community radio is totry objectively to air all sides of a dis-cussion without itself taking sides
Main Functions of Community Radio as Formulatedin South Africa
Community radio stations should
bull Promote and reflect local culture character andidentity
bull Assist in creating a diversity of voices and opinionsand encourage individual expression
bull Increase access to a diversity of voices on air
bull Assist in creating a diversity in broadcastingownership
bull Be responsive to the needs of their community
bull Contribute to human resources development forbroadcasting and where appropriate to job creation
bull Encourage members of the relevant community toparticipate in programming and production matters
bull Encourage innovation and experimentation in programming 3
Preserving Linguistic Diversity in IndustrializedCountries too
Community radio stations in New York broadcast inWolof on Sundays for people of the Senegalese community Two other stations broadcast in Koreanwhile in France the Arab population has demandedthe right to set up media channels that meet its specific needs 4
Provide a Diversity ofProgrammes and Content
Community radio provides a diversity of programmes in a varie-ty of formats and styles Forexample roundtable discussionsreportage interviews talks call-inprogrammes live broadcasts ofmeetings in the community etcAudience preferences are takeninto account in deciding what formats are most suitable
Content also covers a wide rangeof topics again in accordance withthe expressed desires and needs ofthe audience Content is mainlydetermined by the lifestyles andlivelihood of the community andby the problems it faces In ruralareas themes such as health farming fishing environmentcredit marketing of producesmall-scale enterprises etc usuallyfeature prominently but always setin the context of the communityrsquosactual situation
News broadcasts may also focuson different types of contentThey may cover only local eventsand issues or they may includenational items that have local relevance or they may evenbroadcast national and internatio-nal news per se in the case of aremote community with no accessto other media channels
Encourage Open Dialogue andDemocratic Process
The ancient Greeks who inventeddemocracy conducted their politi-cal debate in public All those whowished could be present at themeetings to listen and voice theirviews Sheer numbers of peoplemake this impossible today andfor this reason democratic processhas become distant from ordinarycitizens Typically once politiciansare elected their contact withtheir electorates is limited andthey go about their tasks withoutmuch further consultation ordebate with them
It is a function of community radioto provide an independent platformfor interactive discussion aboutmatters and decisions of importanceto its community This is in keepingwith the decentralization processesnow being implemented in manycountries a purpose of which is tobring democratic decision-makingcloser to the people concerned
However for social and economicprogress to take place democraticprocesses cannot start and finish inthe community They must reachinto the government and privateinstitutions operating in the community as well as to policymakers and authorities at thelocal regional and even nationallevel
The public debates aired by thecommunity radio will certainlybe heard by locally-basedstaff of government andprivate institutions and theradiorsquos content should berelayed by them to theirsuperiors This lays the foun-dation for development initia-tives that are responsive to thecommunityrsquos felt needs andpossibilities In additionrecordings by the communityradio service can be used inmeetings or even broadcast byother stations to make betterknown what is happening at thegrassroots level
In sum the core of democraticprocess is the ability of people tohear and make themselves heardCommunity radio provides theforum for that to happen
Promote Development andSocial Change
People in poor communities tendto be fatalistic about their situationThey will all have individual perceptions but developmentcannot take place on the basis ofthese What is needed is a collectiveperception of the local reality andof the options for improving itThis can only be achieved throughinternal discussions within the
Connections
ldquoLocal radio stations have the responsibility toconnect people with people people with peoplersquosorganizations and people with officials and govern-ment functionariesrdquo 5
19
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mun
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While group listening is not the norm among radio audience radioachieves a certain level of similarity among people living in rural areasProblem-solving becomes easier when there is ldquocommonnessrdquo in knowledge perceptions aspirations goals and processes
20
community about its situation thecauses and possible actions forimprovement
Community radio provides the perfect platform for these internaldiscussions and for reaching a collective perception of the situationSpecific problems can be analyzedremedies discussed and thosemost affected - or who can helpwith the solution - mobilized tocollective action
Anti-social behaviour by minoritiesin a community can also be modifiedby exerting pressure from themajority through community radioprogrammes
Promote Civil Society
Civil society is that multiplicity ofsocial institutions that allows asociety to live in harmoniouscoexistence It creates its own stan-dards and values for individual andgroup behaviour rather thanhaving them imposed from above
Especially in countries that haverecently adopted democratic systems after decades of single-party or authoritarian rule theyounger generations have littleidea about what democracy entailsor about the civil society thatmakes democracies function
Some community radios focus onexplaining the implications ofdemocracy and civil society raisingawareness about peoplersquos rightsbut also about their obligationsThey work to explain how a civicsense is needed if new-found freedoms are to result in harmonyand social progress
Promote Good Governance
In poor communit ies loca l authorities and politicians can easily take advantage of citizenseither individually or as a group inpart because the marginalized andoppressed have no way to complain Community radio helpspeople to obtain their just rights bygiving them a platform to air theirgrievances And through playing acommunity watchdog role it makeslocal authorities and politiciansmore conscious of their public responsibilities
Broadcasting of discussions orquestions and answers betweenmembers of the community andlocal authorities about some issuethat i s exerc i s ing them i s a technique that is often usedAnother technique is to broadcastlive the discussions of local government meetings
This function of community radiois not always easy to fulfil In veryremote communities and wherepower has been held by a few familiesfor generations the people may bereluctant to speak their mindbecause they all have a debt of onesort or another to those familiesAnd equally the powerful familiesmay be unwilling to take criticism
Encourage Participation Sharingof Information and Innovation
Participation is a key word in development circles but it is notalways appreciated that participationand communication are two sidesof the same coin for when peoplecommunicate about their situationand about options for improving itthey are in effect participating Andthey are also laying the foundationfor collective action in which theywill participate Community radioencourages participation by providing a platform for debateanalysis and the exchange of ideasand opinions
In addition community radioallows for the sharing of informationand innovation For example onefamily or group in a communitymay have solved some problemthat is common to many otherpeople such as obtaining farm
Some of the Social and Development Benefits ofTambuli Community Radio Stations in thePhilippines
bull There is a new vibrancy and will to change in thecommunities
bull Men gave up their passionate pastime of gamblingafter a series of discussions over the radio clearlyshowed its negative economic impact on their fami-lies and on the community
bull Butchers were prohibited from bringing live ani-mals to the market and slaughtering them there
bull A large poultry farm was cleaned up to reduce itssmell and pollution
bull Creeks were dredged to reduce risks of flooding
bull A footbridge and extra lighting were installed
bull A day care centre for children was created by thelocal authorities
bull Illegal logging and fishing were stopped as a resultof community pressure 6
A Statement by the Programme Director of the Independent Radio Bamakan in Mali
ldquoThere are a lot of aspects of democracy that peopledonrsquot know about and we are obliged to raise awa-reness to explain that democracy is not anarchythat democracy involves rights and obligations Wehave the right to demand but we also have obliga-tions to the Staterdquo 7
credit from a new bank in the
nearest city A broadcast account
by them explaining how they went
about it and the procedures required
would be the stimulus for other
families to do the same Another
example might be providing infor-
mation about a farmer in the area
who had multiplied seed of an
improved vegetable variety and
was willing to sell it
Give Voices to the Voiceless
In many traditional societies
women and youth and ethnic and
linguistic minorities are virtually
ignored in community affairs But
no community can change and
develop equitably and satisfactori-
ly without the active and informed
participation of its women youth
and minority groups (See Box 3 at
the end of this Chapter)
Therefore community radio gives
voice to the voiceless in the
community This of course is in
addition to giving the community
in general a voice after years of
having been inert recipients of
state or commercial broadcasts
Provide a Social Service asa Replacement for theTelephone
In poor rural areas where
telephones hardly exist
community radio replaces
them to an important extent
by broadcasting messages
For example a family living
in a remote part of the
community can be informed
that a relative living in the
main agglomeration has
been taken ill and would they
please come to visit Or a
farmer with an animal he
wants to sell can have the
fact announced over the radio
replacing the series of calls he
would make if telephones were
available Again a person looking
for temporary labour to help with
some farm task could alert those
people who were interested to
offer their services through a
broadcast announcement
The efficiency of government ser-
vices say in health is improved by
broadcasting the schedule for field
visits ahead of time so that people
will be waiting for these on arrival
Contribute to Diversity inBroadcasting Ownership
Community commercial andnational or state broadcasting allhave roles in society though com-munity broadcasting is the onethat has generally lagged behindthe others Community radio helpsto redress this and provides thebalance of broadcast informationsources needed by democraticsocieties for their advancement
In Benin children participate directly in literacy courses on the air
21
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mun
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In October 1992 Bhutan Broadcasting Corporation was transformed from a statebroadcaster to a public corporation with a much decreased subsidy Above at thenew Punaka market a broadcast trainee talks with the people about prices travelalong country roads quality of the harvest and news of the village This project was financed by DANIDA
Phot
o U
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CO
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A A
rnal
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Difficulties in Achieving Transparency - a Case Studyfrom the Philippines
The more remote the community the more hesitantpeople are to speak out People rely on their leadersfor the smallest problems and they all owe a debt tothe few political families To criticise them wouldseem ungrateful
The local council told the community radio to acceptcalls from listeners with queries or comments duringlive broadcasts of the weekly council sessions Butwhen the calls began to come in the council toldthem to stop accepting them The council also beganto chose which portions of the sessions could bebroadcast and told the radio team to leave the roomwhen budget discussions were under way 8
22
Contribute to theDevelopment of HumanResources for theBroadcasting Industry
Community radio arguablydemystifies the broadcasterrsquosprofession by taking communitymembers as message producersIt is also a school for fledglingbroadcasters where they ofcourse acquire valuable technicalskills
But there is another factor that makes people trained in community radio particularlyvaluable They are broadcasterswho live among their listenersshare many of the same problemsand get constant feedback ndash positive and negative - on the formats of their programmes andon their interest and usefulnessThis gives them unique insightsinto the broadcaster audiencerelationship and into radio as a toolfor change and development It isnot uncommon therefore forcommunity broadcasters go on tojoin the staff of mainstream broadcasting
lsquoThe Peoplersquos Telephonersquo in Haiti
ldquoWhen the bandits sped off on their motorcycle leaving a cloud of dust a dead body and a distressedvillage in their wake they thought they were on theroad to freedom They hadnrsquot heard about the villagersquos radio station Radyo Flanbo In Haiti community radio stations such as Flanbo are knownas lsquothe peoplersquos telephonersquo and as the bandits prepared to terrorize the next village Flanborsquos newsreader broadcast a warning of their imminentarrival The bandits might as well have drivenstraight to the police stationrdquo 10
Phot
o U
NES
CO
Kin
gsto
n
Radio Muye the first community radio run bywomen in the Caribbeanunder the UNESCO specialproject lsquoWomen Speaking toWomenrsquo
One of the youngest womenrecruits of the community
radio station in CuyoPalawan DYMC Radio
1 Adapted from Pierre Juneau GeneralIntroduction Public ServiceBroadcasting - the Challenge of the21st Century Reports and Papers on Mass Communication No 111 UNESCO (Paris 1997)
2 Sophie K Ly El Recuerdo delConocimiento Perdido InteRadio Vol 9 No 2 AMARC (Montreal 1997)
3 Triple Enquiry Report IndependentBroadcasting Authority Republic ofSouth Africa (1995)
4 Ibid
5 B S S Rao during the Consultationon Media Policy and Community RadioBangalore India (1996)
6 Colin FraserSonia Restrepo-Estrada Communicating forDevelopment - Human Change for Survival IB Tauris (LondonNew York) 1998
7 Mary Myers The Promotion ofDemocracy at the Grass-roots The Example of Radio in Mali FrankCass Journal Vol 5 No 2 (London Summer 1998)
8 Adapted from Cecile Balgos The Sounds of Silence UNESCOSources No 89 UNESCO(Paris 1997)
9 Felix Librero in Communication forPeople Power Ed Maslog NavarroTabing Teodoro UNESCOTambuliProject Institute of DevelopmentCommunication College of MassCommunication UNESCO NationalCommission Philippines (Manila 1997)
10 David Shanks Voices for the VoicelessA feature prepared by WorldAssociation for ChristianCommunication (WACC) (London March 1999)
Information as a Commodity for Decisions
ldquoThe appropriate use of community broadcasting isto satisfy community and social needs In the processof doing so people are able to access the very important commodity called information on whichthey base their day-to-day decisionsrdquo 9
Phot
o L
Tab
ing
23
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mun
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2
Filipino women - particularly
those in the countryside
where socialization has been
limited by poverty and inadequate
educational attainment - are often
shy reserved and timid In addition
rural families are often resistant to
changing the traditional position of
women as housekeepers and
women would generally prefer that
their husbands participate in
community projects
It is very evident that the issue of
collectively pursuing womens rights
and empowerment has been relegated
to the lowest priority among rural
people So it often takes cajoling and
reassurances before women will
come out of their shells
However increased readiness to
participate in community projects
can be seen among those who have
been exposed to mass media culture
and our initial talks in communities
regarding special radio programmes
for about and by women were met
with much eagerness I attribute this
to the fact that some family and
social institutions that had been
trying to promote womenrsquos activities
in the community felt threatened and
welcomed the support that radio
could provide
Once involved women are highly
dependable They adhere to rules
Compared to men they are more
meticulous They are less subject
to anomalous behaviour and
malfeasance They are consistently
enthusiastic And where the women
are mixed with men the men also
become more enthusiastic if not to
say better performers
Meriam Aranas the president of
the Olutanga Islanders Media
Development Foundation was a
strong-willed leader of an active
womens group promoting livelihood
and conservation projects She
registered the association and led the
drive to erect a building for the radio
station
A schoolteacher Rosario Gozos was
appointed as station manager in
Partido Camarines Sur She is
single-handedly running a family
because her husband works abroad
She spearheaded the
successful drive against illegal
gambling in the district Among
other things she has initiated an
all-women Saturday programme
Her infectious dedication
has inspired all the other
volunteers in her radio
station In less than three
years the station became
an institutional power in
the community It has
contributed greatly to
the progress and well
being of Partido
Lyn Villasis a soft-
spoken beautician has
been running a story-
telling program for
children for years and has become
one of the most popular personalities
in the station in Banga Aklan
Malou Angolluan is a youthful
college graduate who has taken
voluntary activity as a vocation Her
exemplary work and dedication to
service have earned her profuse
admiration from her listeners She
has turned down several offers to
work in bigger commercial radio
stations
BOX 3 Involvement of Women
In Ibahay Aklan province PhilippinesAte Meds rushes from Sunday mass tothe Studio for her weekly childrenrsquosprogramme
Phot
o C
A A
rnal
do
24
In Pastapur Hyderabad India women discuss local problems for airing on a regional radio station of All India Radio They are also advocating for new legislationto enable them to broadcast on their own antenna
Phot
o J
im B
entl
ey
25
Chapter 3Legal Aspects
T his chapter gives an overview of the legis-lation governing community radio in avariety of countries world-wide Special
attention is given to South Africa wherebroadcasting legislation is in many ways exem-plary and could be used as a model by othercountries The main common factors and themain differences that exist in national commu-nity radio legislation are described as are typi-cal requirements for obtaining a licence
The reader will gain
bull An awareness of the wide variations in legisla-tion and of the obstacles that communityradio may face in some parts of the world
bull An understanding of the need to examine clo-sely the existing legislation before embarkingon a community radio project
bull Knowledge of the likely information andconditions that the authorities will requirebefore issuing a community radio licence
UNEVEN AND HAPHAZARD LEGISLATION
The airwaves or the frequencies for broadcastingare a public asset It is therefore incumbent uponnational administrations in line with the decisionsof the administrative planning conferences organizedby the International Telecommunications Union(ITU) to regulate and allocate their use with thepublic interest in mind as well as with fairness andtransparency And general national media policiesshould meet the same criteria
Unfortunately this does not always happen andthe legislation governing community radio is veryuneven In several regions of the world communityradio suffers because current legislation is eithernon-existent inconsistent or basically hostile Thishandbook is not the place for an exhaustive description of the legislation country-by-countrybut a brief overview of the situation in a few countries world-wide will give a feel for the situation
MOST PROGRESS IN AFRICA
Many countries in Africa have made good progress inlegislating for community radio This is particularlyinteresting because at first sight it would appearto be a paradox on the one hand communityradio certainly has a natural role to play in cateringto the information needs and interests of the wide
ethnic cultural and linguistic diversity present inmost African countries but on the other handgovernments fear that freedom of ethnic and linguistic expression might undermine nationalunity It will be remembered that this was partlywhat brought the Homa Bay community radioexperience in Kenya to a premature end in 1984
However it seems that the lesson has now beenlearned about authoritarian suppression of diverselinguistic and cultural expression within a countryThis ultimately produces strong resentment andtensions in society Indeed even in industrializedcountries the last two decades have seen a changeof heart by governments that now try to preservethe traditional linguistic and cultural identity of theirminority groups They have realized that a pluralisticsociety can also achieve national identity and unity
This is the case in many parts of Africa too Sincethe early 1990s countries such as Mali BurkinaFaso Namibia and South Africa have all embarkedon a course of freeing their airwaves and promo-ting community radio as part of the nationalbroadcasting spectrum backing the policy withappropriate legislation in most cases
South Africarsquos progress towards new broadcastingpolicies and community radio legislation is consideredexemplary Some countries have already copied itand many others could also find it a useful modelIt is therefore outlined in the next section
Com
mun
ity
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io H
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26
Broadcasting Legislation inSouth Africa ndash an ExemplaryCase
The government of post-apartheidSouth Africa realized that the countryrsquos media could help toresolve many socio-economicdevelopment needs and at thesame time help to build a democraticand pluralistic society But newbroadcasting policies and opera-tions would be needed
An Independent BroadcastingAuthority
The first step taken in 1993 wasthe creation of an IndependentBroadcasting Authority (IBA) ajuridical body to formulate broad-casting policy plan the use of thefrequency spectrum issue licencesadjudicate in the case of com-plaints and in general regulate thebroadcasting industry It functionsindependently of the State and ofgovernmental and political partyinfluences It is a non-profit entitythat is financed partly by the Stateand partly from fees that itreceives
The IBA is run by a Council madeup of seven people appointed bythe State President They arepeople with expertise in fields thatinclude broadcasting policy media
law marketing journalism enter-tainment and education They arealso selected on the basis of theircommitment to fairness freedomof expression the right of thepublic to be informed opennessand accountability
Overall Objectives of theBroadcasting Legislation
Among the main objectives ofSouth Africarsquos broadcasting legisla-tion are the following
bull Promote the provision of a diverserange of broadcasting services ona national regional and local levelwhich cater for all language andcultural groups and provideentertainment education andinformation
bull Promote the development ofpublic private and communitybroadcasting services which areresponsive to the needs of thepublic
bull Develop and protect a nationaland regional identity culture andcharacter
bull Encourage ownership andcontrol of broadcasting servicesby persons from historicallydisadvantaged groups
bull Ensure that private and commu-nity broadcasting licences are
Western Media Models a Disservice toDevelopment
ldquoBroadcasting media have developed into aone-way model in Third World countrieswith information news and massive dosesof entertainment flowing from large urbancentres The uniform prescription designed by theaffluent minority at decision-making level does notaddress the issues of development which require alocal perspective for each county and each community The concepts and use of the media as developed in industrialized societies have not proved conducive to the development needsof our countryrdquo 1
controlled by persons or groupsfrom a diverse range of commu-nities in the Republic
bull Ensure equitable treatment ofpolitical parties by all broadcas-ting licencees during any electionperiod
bull Ensure that broadcasting licenceesadhere to a code of conductacceptable to the IBA
Categories of Radio Broadcasting
The legislation foresees three categories of radio service
bull A public service ndash A serviceprovided by the South AfricanBroadcasting Corporation or byany other statutory body or person that receives revenuefrom licence fees paid by listenersfor their receivers
bull A private service - Operatedfor profit and controlled by aperson who is not a publicbroadcasting licencee
bull A community service - A broadcasting service which
Is fully controlled by a non-profit entity and carried onfor non- profitable purposes
Serves a particular commu-nity
Encourages members of thecommunity served by it orpersons associated with orpromoting the interest ofsuch community to partici-pate in the selection andprovision of programmes tobe broadcast
May be funded by dona-tions grants sponsorshipadvertising or membershipfees or by any combinationof these
The term lsquocommunityrsquo includes ageographically founded communityor any group of persons or sectorof the public having a specific andascertainable common interest
South African LicencingArrangements
In keeping with the general andcommunity radio policies outlinedabove the legislation providesdetailed requirements that mustbe met by applicants for commu-nity radio licences It also laysdown the procedures to be follo-wed These are complex anddemanding in terms of the detai-led information that is called forCommunity radio licences areawarded for four-year periodsalthough shorter temporarylicences can also be issued
Licences are not granted to anyparty movement organizationbody or alliance which is of a politi-cal nature
Readers may wish to browse theIBArsquos website (httpibaorgza)for more details on South Africancommunity radio policy legislationand licencing
ASIA AND INDIArsquoSLENGTHY DEBATE ON
COMMUNITY RADIO
The situation in Asia is far lessfavourable than in Africa andIndia provides a good illustration ofthe problems Nepal and Sri Lankashow ways of solving problems
All India Radio (AIR) was establishedas a state broadcasting monopolyin 1935 in line with the Britishmodel the BBC The debate aboutbreaking that monopoly beganmore than 30 years ago with theChanda Committee reportSubsequent committees have spe-cifically recommended decentrali-zing broadcasting to institutionalizethe process of participation and tomeet peoplersquos fundamental rightto information The SupremeCourt passed a landmark judge-ment in 1995 declaring that theairwaves were a lsquopublic goodrsquo andstressing the importance of main- 27
Com
mun
ity
Rad
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3
28
taining a balance in broadcastingbetween market (commercial)forces government monopoly andmeeting the peoplersquos needs andrights to receive and impart infor-mation This judgement openedthe door to the granting of licencesto local stations for public partici-pation and territorialsectoralbroadcasts but the legislationnecessary to allow this to happenhas still not been passed It seemshowever that it is under prepara-tion at the time of writing
The main results so far of thedecades of debate on the subjecthas been some decentralization byAIR to lsquolocalrsquo stations and a recentand rapid expansion of commercialstations using FM frequenciesbelonging to AIR that have beenleased to private operators Someof the AIR lsquolocalrsquo stations try to getcloser to the community and usecommunity radio styles But for themost part these lsquolocalrsquo stationsmerely relay urban-oriented pro-grammes from the national or fromregional capitals rather than pro-ducing locally relevant materials
Commercial broadcasting is onlyallowed to provide entertainmentNews and current affairs and evensex education are banned Thusthe private FM stations which havebeen expanding in response to mar-
ket forces have created a profile aslsquoelectronic discosrsquo for urban youth 1
A consultation session attended bymore than 60 broadcasters legalspecialists university staff anddevelopment communicators metin Bangalore India in September1996 and signed the BangaloreDeclaration urging the governmentto take steps to legitimatize andpromote community radio Sopressure has been building andthere appears to be light at the endof the tunnel
In Nepal the Government-ownedradio service was the only onebroadcasting until May 1997 whenRadio Sagarmatha came on air (SeeCase Study 2) Present govern-ment policy on broadcasting whichgoes back to legislation passed in1993 favours a mix of governmentcommercial and communitybroadcasting but even so it tookfrom 1994 to 1997 before the firstcommunity radio licence was awar-ded to Radio Sagarmatha Its successhas been such that community radiois now set to expand in the country
In Sri Lanka another country witha government-owned broadcastingservice it was this service itself thatbegan community broadcasting in1983 with Mahaweli Radio asdescribed in Chapter 1 It laterexpanded community radio to
cover other parts of Sri Lankamainly in support of rural develop-ment However in mid-1997 aSupreme Court ruling put an end tothe government monopoly of theairwaves and a parliamentary committee was established to pre-pare a new broadcasting bill Thiswill certainly recognize and promotecommunity radio for it is a branchof broadcasting that has becomewell entrenched in Sri Lanka basedon the long experience ofMahaweli Community Radio
In Asian countries that have essen-tially followed the North Americanpattern of commercial broadcas-ting such as the Philippines com-munity radio stations often func-tion without licences
LEGISLATION IN SOMELATIN AMERICAN COUNTRIES
Despite Latin Americarsquos pioneeringrole in community radio todayrsquoslegislation leaves much to be desiredThere are about 6000 registeredradio stations on the ContinentAbout 85 per cent of these are privatecommercial about 7 percentare governmental and the remain-der are in the hands of the ChurchSome of the latter consider them-
Nepalrsquos National Broadcasting Act (1993) Prioritiesfor Programming Should Include These Themes
bull Development oriented programmes agricultureeducation industry commerce science and technology health family planning forest andenvironmental protection
bull Harmony among all classes languages castes religions and religious groups equality and goodwill among all
bull Growth of different languages and cultures inNepal
bull Growth of national interests and unity
bull Growth of moral and national awakening
bull Awakening of social awareness
bull Non-detrimental influence on Nepalrsquos relation withneighbouring and friendly countries
bull Foreign policy pursued by the nation
bull Growth of folksongs folklore and culture
bull Important activities on national and internationallevels
Success Breeds Success in Nepal
In less than a year of operations the value of RadioSagarmatha in improving information flow and creating a forum for democratic dialogue among stakeholders in development issues was so evidentthat the government which had initially restrictedhours of broadcast to only two per day increased itto 13 and then to 24 hours daily The initial andtotal ban on advertising was also lifted the licencewas expanded to include mobile broadcasting and itsfrequency was reserved for its exclusive use throughout the whole country
selves to be community radios In addition there are very largenumbers of unregistered stationsthat have been in existence foryears many of them communityradios which are in formal senseillegal
It was only in the mid-1990s thatsome Latin American countriesbegan to pass legislation on com-munity radio and that legislationis often unfavourable
For example Brazilrsquos very recentlegislation limits the power ofcommunity stations to five wattsseldom enough to cover a typicalpoor peri-urban settlement of 10-20000 people It also makescommunity radio impossible inscattered rural communities ofwhich there are many in Brazilrsquosvast interior Nor is any advertisingpermitted which makes sustaininga community radio even more difficult than it is usually
In Ecuador community radio wasnot legally acknowledged until1996 Most community radios arelicenced as commercial or culturalstations The law in 1996 finallyrecognized community radio as adistinct part of the broadcastingscene but the legislation imposedrestrictions on the power of transmitters that could be used -500 watts at the antenna - andprior approval from the army was
required Any commercial activitywas prohibited as in Brazil
T h e n a t i o n a l o rg a n i z a t i o nrepresenting community radio inEcuador brought a constitutionalchallenge to the law and managedto remove the clause requiring theprior approval of the army but thelimits on transmitter power andcommercial activities remain inforce As late as early 1999 therewere still no community radiostations operating under the newlegislation they all had commercialor cultural licences
After its leadership role in communi-ty radio there is now a paradoxicalsituation in Bolivia In 1995 a lawwas passed under which licenceswould be granted in future only toradio and television stations of acommercial nature that werepublic or private limited compa-nies in accordance with the coun-tryrsquos commercial code Among themore than 500 radio stations inBolivia there are a number ofwell-established educational radioservices that will be allowed tocontinue operating for 20 yearsunder the new law but scores ofcommunity and peasant radiosbecame illegal in 1996 If closeddown their frequencies are sold tothe highest bidder
The contradictory aspect of all ofthis is that it occurred shortly afterthe passing of another law that on
Popular ParticipationThis in effect is part of adecentralization processwhich delegates deci-sions to the local leveland provides funds to implement themCommunity radio couldevidently have enor-mous potential for assis-ting the decentralizationprocess by arousinginterest and participa-tion in local policy anddevelopment decisionsHowever this will not bepossible under the newlegislation which discri-minates against commu-nity radio
In Argentina a situa-tion somewhat similar tothat in Bolivia exists De facto there have beennumerous community popularcultural and university radios stations in existence for manyyears But in 1998 a governmentdecree on broadcasting frequen-cies was issued and a NationalFrequency Plan approved Anarticle in the decree stipulated theimmediate closure of radio stations that were not officiallyrecognized Furthermore theNational Frequency Plan did nottake into account the frequenciesalready being used by many small
Radio Sagarmatha in Kathmandu Nepal led a five year legal battle to obtain itsauthorisation to broadcast It began in 1990 with a communication policy lsquowhitepaperrsquo wich eventually led in 1994 to a new broadcasting act which opened the airwaves to non-governmental organisations or private individualsand organisations for the purposes of education and culture
29
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mun
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Phot
o J
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ngle
30
radios that had been working foryears throughout the country
Most serious of all however wasthe fact that the overall broadcast-ing legislation the context for frequency applications remainedunchanged and this is legislationthat goes back to the days of thedictatorships that used to rule thecountry The legislation excludesany form of social organizationfrom having a broadcasting frequency and specifies that onlycommercial organizations canapply for them
In 1996 a decree modified thato lder leg i s lat ion for i t was recognized as unconstitutional anddiscriminatory But this correctivedecree of 1996 was cancelledwithin days of its publication Thusby default the old legislation fromthe days of the dictatorships wasleft in force
This situation threatens the wholesector of community and popularradios in the country At the time ofwriting the community and not-for-profit broadcasting sectoris fighting tooth and nail for newlegislation that recognizes its rightto exist and its role in democraticsociety
SOME EXAMPLES FROMWESTERN EUROPE
For the purposes of comparisonthe situation in Europe is worthexamining Western Europeancountries were all models of nationalpublic-service broadcasting untilsome of them began to allow inde-pendent and commercial radio andtelevision channels to operate inthe 1960s However even thengovernments applied regulationsto the operations of those channelsThen in the early 1980s there wasa general deregulation of broadcast-ing in most of Western Europewhich resulted in a free-for-all inmany countries Privately ownedcommercial radio expanded likewildfire but so did communityradio in many countries
The Scandinavian countries parti-cularly Sweden were among thelast in Europe to bow to pressurefrom the commercial media firm intheir belief that their nationalpublic broadcasting systems werebest for their societies - societiesthat are world famous for theirdemocracy and strong civic senseBut even if it proved impossible toresist the commercialization andprivatization of the electronicmedia in Scandinavia the door wasopened at the same time to a vastexpansion of community radio
There are more than 2000 commu-nity radios in Sweden the majoritycatering to special-interest commu-nities
In Denmark the 300 or so com-munity radios provide access to 96percent of the population Many ofthese community radios even ifthey have been allowed to broad-cast commercials and receive sponsorship since the late 1980swork in financially difficult circum-stances Most also receive supportfrom various sources such as membership fees bingo listenerdonations and contributions fromorganizations such as trade unionsreligious groups or the local municipality Community radio isseen as a cultural activity that iscomparable with other culturalactivities It has even been suggestedthat a government fund be createdto subsidize community radio likeother cultural areas
In Ireland the 1988 Radio andTelevision Act included licencingprocedures for community radiobut the Act did not go into anygreat detail on the subject In theearly 1990s the issue of broadcas-ting policy attracted much attentionand in 1995 a Government PolicyPaper on Broadcasting was published
Democracy without Communication
ldquoWithout democratic communication democracy is not possible The broadcasting spectrum must beregulated and normalized [in Argentina] but thiscannot be done using criteria from the days of dictatorshiprdquo 3
As part of the general concernabout achieving suitable broadcast-ing policies for Ireland theIndependent Radio and TelevisionCommission launched an 18-month community radio pilot pro-ject It began operating in 1995and it was designed to explore andevaluate the potential of commu-nity radio in the country Animportant element favouring theproject was the surge in communi-ty and voluntary activity in Irelandthat had resulted from increasingnational and international concernabout issues such as poverty andunemployment
Eleven community stations wereestablished under the project tooperate until the end of 1996 Thisexperience showed that communi-ty radio stations could developinto a viable and distinct strand inIrish broadcasting Certain difficul-ties were encountered during theproject and realizing the potentialof community radio will call for asubstantial level of ongoing com-mitment from support agenciesand from the communities servedHowever there can be little doubtthat community radio will developand assume its appropriate role inthe Irish broadcasting scene in thefuture 4
CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCE IN LEGISLATION
National community radio legisla-tion where it exists usually sharessome common factors but thereare also significant differences between countries
Main Common Factors
bull Community radio must beowned and controlled by a non-profit entity
bull It must be run as a non-profitoperation
bull It must serve the interests of aparticular community whichmay be a geographical commu-nity or a community of peoplewith common interests
bull It should provide programmingthat promotes socio-economicand cultural development forthe different sectors in the community at the same timefostering civic integration andsolidarity
Factors that Vary in CommunityRadio Legislation
Power of the TransmitterSome countries place an upperlimit on the power of the transmitter
that may be used by a communityradio usually in the range of five to500 watts Such limitations couldbe unrealistic in mountainousareas where transmission over difficult terrain can require higherpower
Creation of Networks Somecountries specifically forbid thecreation of networks betweencommunity radios even if theyallow occasional link-ups for special events of interest to thecommunities involved
Advertising andor SponsorshipRegulations about this vary consi-derably Some countries forbid allcommercial advertising on orsponsorship of community radioswhile others allow it but put a limiton the minutes in an hour that canbe devoted to it This usuallyranges from six minutes to up to15 minutes per hour
In some cases there are restrictionson the type of advertising that maybe broadcast When this is casethe usual tendency is to limit thescope to matters directly linked tothe community served by theradio for example local workopportunities events that are totake place and business and services that are carried out in thatarea Even when legislation doesnot specify such restrictions about
the type of advertising some com-munity radios impose it them-selves They may for examplerefuse to advertise items that aredamaging to health such as alcoholand tobacco
Some legislation specifies a ceilingon the proportion of total stationrevenue that can be derived fromadvertising usually setting it at 50percent
Other Sources of FundingMembership fees from listenerscontributions from individualsorganizations or local authoritiesand charges for personal announ-cements are other sources of funding but in keeping with theCharter of the World Associationof Community Radio (AMARC)some legislation specifies that nosingle source should provide morethan 50 percent of a stationrsquosrevenue Funding from politicalparties or from other special interestgroups is forbidden in some legislation
Political Broadcasts These areforbidden at all times in somelegislation while in others they areallowed in designated pre-electionperiods When they are allowedthe principle of lsquoequal time andequal opportunityrsquo for all parties isusually stipulated In some casescommunity radios have to report
31
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to the nationrsquos independent broadcasting authority any politicalspeech that lasts for more thanthree minutes providing the actual duration date and time of broad-cast and the name of the politicalparty concerned
APPLYING FOR A LICENCE
Anyone anywhere who hasserious intentions of starting acommunity radio should ascertainwhat existing legislation is in forcebeginning with licence require-ments Some countries apply quitesevere sanctions to punish illegalbroadcasters heavy fines andorconfiscation of the equipment arethe commonest
The procedures for applying for alicence vary between countries butin any event entities that apply willusually be expected to provideinformation about the followingwith supporting documentation asappropriate
bull The juridical and non-profit sta-tus of the entity making theapplication
bull The probity of the individualsmanaging the entity
bull The community to be served andthe size of the potential audience
bull An explanation of how the com-munity could benefit from aradio service
bull The demand in the communityfor such a service
bull The technical features of the proposed radio station and theheight and location of its antenna
bull The community managementstructures and the personnel thatwill be put in place to run the service
bull The type of programming thatwill be featured the productionarrangements foreseen and howcommunity participation will beensured
Some countries that have recentlyintroduced legislation that coverscommunity radio have drawn uplists of available FM frequencies ineach of the smallest administrativeareas of the country such as muni-cipalities or counties In somecountries especially in LatinAmerica periodic announcementsof the frequencies that are availablefor community radio are made bythe broadcasting authorities andrequests for their use are solicitedIf there is an excess of requests forthe available frequencies the win-ners are adjudicated on the basis ofthe quality of their proposals theexperience of the applicant in
community development work theradio programming planned andthe size of the community
Licencees normally pay a one-offfee for the frequency they are allocated and a much smallerannual fee thereafter For examplein Colombia which introduced itscommunity broadcasting legisla-tion in 1995 the typical one-off feefor the frequency ranges from theequivalent of about US$900 toUS$2000 depending on the size ofthe potential audience The annualfee averages about US$150
1 Report of Consultation on Media Policy and Community Radioorganized by VOICES (Bangalore India 1996)
2 Ibid (Intervention by Hasmukh Baradi)
3 From statement issued by the not-for-profit broadcasting sector in Argentina demanding new legislation (1999)
4 Independent Radio and Television Commission IRTC Policyon Community Radio Broadcasting IRTC (Dublin 1998)
5 Personal communication from Alida Becerra Director of the Social Development Department Ministry ofCommunications (Colombia 1999)
Community Misconceptions about Costs
ldquoQuite a lot of the applicants who have been grantedcommunity radio licences here in Colombia since 1995could not find the funds to pay for the frequencyOthers thought that the Ministry of Communicationwould provide them with the equipment These aresome of the reasons why of the 560 licences we havegranted only about 150 community radios areactually functioning Of course we have had to revoke many of the licences because they were notput to use within the prescribed time periodrdquo 5
Chapter 4Technical Aspects
33
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T his chapter opens with a brief explanation of the scientific principles underlying radio
broadcasting including the differences between AM and FM propagation It then describes
the range of equipment required for FM broadcasting under four categories transmitters
antennas studio programme production equipment and field programme production equipment
It explains the role of each The practical implications of the lsquoline-of-sightrsquo characteristics of FM
broadcasting are discussed
A section covers issues of reliability maintenance and precautions to reduce the risk of damage
The requirements for a community radio studio (size layout soundproofing acoustical balance etc)
and suitable spatial arrangements for the various components of the radio station are described
A section on future possibilities discusses the role of computers in programme production merging
community radio with the Internet and new technologies
A box provides a basic list of equipment required for a community radio service and its cost
In the main the reader will
bull Learn about the basic technicalities of broadcasting and the equipment needed for an FM service
bull Be able to make an initial assessment of the technical suitability of a specific area for setting
up a community radio service
bull Know about the technical requirements for the siting of the components of the broadcasting
system and be able to consider how best to meet them in given circumstances
bull Know the approximate investment required for equipment
Nevertheless the knowledge gained will not necessarily eliminate the need for early advice from a
technical specialist nor hands-on or formal training
TECHNICAL BACKGROUND
Radio broadcasting creates electro-magnetic waves that travel in anapproximately straight line and at thespeed of light about 300000 km persecond
A radio wave that is being propagatedoscillates each side of the straight lineHow far these oscillations go beforereturning to the centre line and movingout to the other side of it is known asthe amplitude of the wave The distancefrom the crest of one wave to the crestof the next is known as the wavelength
How long the cycle of each oscillationtakes is known as the frequency It isexpressed in Hertz named afterHeinrich Hertz a German radio pioneerA cycle time of one second is one Hertz(1Hz) a thousand cycles in a second isa kiloHertz (kHz) and a million cyclesin a second is a megaHertz (mHz)
Radio waves are propagated from thetransmitterrsquos antenna system like theripples in a pond when a stone is drop-ped into it Waves from a broadcastingstation are known as carrier wavesbecause they are carrying information
34
that has been attached to themThe process of attaching informa-tion to the wave is achieved bymodulating or varying one of itscharacteristics either its amplitudeor its frequency Hence the termsAmplitude Modulation (AM) andFrequency Modulation (FM) for thetwo methods of wave transmission
Radio broadcasting uses four frequency bands Their names derive from whether their wavelengths are measured in kilometres hundreds of metrestens of metres or metres
bull The kilometric band ndash long waves(Frequency 150-280 kHz)
bull The hectometric band ndash mediumwaves (Frequency 525-1600 kHz)
bull The decametric band ndash short waves(High Frequency 6-25 MHz)
bull The metric band (Very HighFrequency 875 ndash 108 MHz)
AM Broadcasting
For the first three bands the signalis attached to the wave by amplitudemodification (AM) AM signals travel great distances For examplelong waves can be propagated forup to about 1000 km before fadingout and medium waves travel several hundred kilometres
Short waves even if limited by thecurvature of the earth can travelenormous distances because theybounce off the ionosphere an invisible layer of electrically charged particles at the outer edgeof our atmosphere from wherethey return to earth far from thetransmitter
The main layer of the ionosphereresponsible for long distance communications is the ldquoF layerrdquoAfter dark this layer is a singledense one about 250 km above theearth and it reflects short wavesignals very effectively But duringthe day the ldquoF layerrdquo splits into twothin layers ldquoF1rdquo about 200 kmabove the earth and ldquoF2rdquo about350 km above the earth Thesetwo layers are less effective inreflecting radio signals and that iswhy reception of short wave broad-casts is better after darkWorldwide radio services like RadioFrance Internationale the BritishBroadcasting Corporation or theVoice of America use short wave toobtain the geographic coveragethey require It can also be particu-larly useful in mountainous countries
AM broadcasting is subject tomuch atmospheric interferenceand distortion and it is thereforeunsuitable for stereo services It
also requires a considerable inputof electrical power and otherinvestments For example thewhole mast of the antenna of anAM medium wave station is chargedwith current and therefore it has tobe insulated from the ground
FM Broadcasting
The fourth frequency band themetric band uses FrequencyModulation (FM) to attach thesignal to the carrier wave This system varies the frequency - speedof oscillations of the waves - butkeeps their amplitude or breadthconstant
FM was invented in 1933 in theUSA and the first station to use itwas built in 1939 It has advantagesover AM especially in its freedomfrom distortion and interference Itrequired different broadcastingtransmitters and radio receivers tothe ones in general use in the 1930sand 1940s and so it was slow toexpand Indeed it really only beganto take off in the 1950s and 1960sin industrialized countries and inthe 1970s and 1980s in developingcountries ndash and even as late as the1990s in some of these
FM broadcasting requires muchless electrical power than AM anduses a very simple antenna The
Frequency modulation (FM)
Amplitude modulation (AM)
wavelength
ampl
itud
e
The Inventor of Frequency Modulation
Edwin Armstrong an American scientistresponsible for much of the earliest technical development of radio broadcasting in the first two decades of the20th century made the FM breakthroughin 1933 Born in 1890 he was enthused as a boy by the exploits of Guglielmo Marconi who in 1901had managed to send the first radio signal across the Atlantic At the age of 14 Armstrong decided to become an inventor
In 1939 he financed the first ever FM station fromhis own pocket at a cost of $300000 to prove itsworth Sadly Armstrong was forced to spend much ofhis life in litigation to protect his inventions and infighting the established radio industry which did notwant to embark on his new FM system Finally in1954 with most of his wealth gone in the battle forFM he took his own life
quality of the signal is excellentand it can be mono or stereo
However FM signals reach muchshorter distances than AM signalsbecause FM follows the line ofsight In other words the antennaand the radio receiver must beable to lsquoseersquo each other with noobstructions in the path - such ashills or high buildings - whichinterrupt the signal in the sameway as they interrupt sight Buteven with the transmitter andreceiver in line of sight the distancebetween them is important becau-se with radio signals each time thedistance is doubled the signalstrength is reduced to a quarter ofwhat it was Put another way inorder to reach twice the distancefour times the power is needed
BROADCASTING EQUIPMENT 1
In general terms the equipmentrequired for broadcasting falls intofour categories
bull The transmitter that generatesthe signal to be broadcast
bull The antenna through which thetransmitterrsquos signal is radiated
bull The studio equipment used toproduce the programmes
bull The equipment required for programme production in thefield and for linking outside locations to the studio eg forfield reporting
A complete list of equipment withcosts for a typical UNESCO-
supported community radio
project is provided in Box 4 at the
end of this chapter Reading the
following section in conjunction
with that equipment list and with
diagrams should provide an
appreciation of the role and
function of each part of the
system
Transmission Equipment
The power output of a transmitter
is measured in watts Community
radio relies mainly on low-power
FM transmitters with typically an
output of between 20 and 500
watts usually in the range of
20-100 watts However a
distinction must be made between
the power of the transmitter itself
and the power that actually leaves
the antenna which is known as the
Effective Radiated Power (ERP)
The design of the antenna affects
the ERP So-called lsquohigh-gainrsquo
antennas can result in considerably
more watts of ERP than the out-
put watts of the transmitter itself
A low power FM transmitter
35
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mun
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Mal
lard
Con
cept
s Ltd
U
K fo
r UN
ESCO
Met
ric
wav
es
Dec
amet
ric
band
(sho
rt w
aves
)
Hec
tom
etri
c ba
nd(m
ediu
m w
aves
)
Kilo
met
ric
band
(lon
g w
aves
)
100
MH
z
875
MH
z
25 M
Hz
6 M
Hz
1600
kH
z
525
kHz
280
kHz
150
kHz
Frequency modulation A m p l i t u d e m o d u l a t i o n
The four radio frequency
36
Several companies around theworld now produce cheap FMtransmitters for community radiousing frequencies between 875 and108 mHz the usual band for FMbroadcasting They range in pricefrom a little over US$ 500 to some$ 2000 and they are about the sizeof a thick paperback novel Not allof the models available especiallythose from the US are built withthe possible harsh conditions ofdeveloping countries in mind
The technology of FM transmittersis now so simple and well knownthat it is not beyond the capacity ofcompetent engineers in developingcountries to build them Usinglocally available materials the DANIDAUNESCO Tambuli community radio project in thePhilippines locally produced its firsttransmitter and successfully put itto work in 1998 though most ofTambulirsquos stations still use British orChinese transmitters The experi-ence of Cape Verde where localtechnicians built their own transmitters was mentioned in theIntroduction
Low-power transmitters may alsohave an amplifier or booster atta-ched to them to increase theirpower output Many of the UNESCO-supported communityradios have 20-watt transmitters
with a 100-watt booster Thistransmission equipment especiallythe booster generates considerableheat and so it is always accompan-ied by a cooling fan and it needs tobe installed in a well-ventilatedplace
Nearly all FM transmitters built forcommunity radio require a 12-voltDC power supply Thus they can berun either off an electrical mainsource with a transformer thatconverts this into a 12-volt DCoutput or a vehicle battery or solarpanels
It is important to keep the audiosignal from an FM transmitter atthe right level If the signal is overmodulated distortion will resultand possible interference withnearby stations A device called alimitercompressor is thereforeincluded in the audio chain to keepthe signal at its pre-set level
In a few cases community radiosuse AM broadcasting Setting upand running costs are generallymuch higher than they are for FMHowever the ability of AM toextend over a wider broadcast areaeven if one of lower sound qualitymay make it desirable in certain circumstances In some cases particularly in large towns wherethe competition for FM frequen-cies is very high obtaining one at
reasonable cost may be impossibleand therefore some communityradios have found it easier to rentor buy an existing AM frequencyThis will probably have a commer-cial licence but the communityradio management can lay down itsown policy in respect of advertising
The Antenna
The height position and adjust-ment of the antenna play a primor-dial role in achieving high qualityand the furthest possible reach ofan FM broadcast signal This isbecause as already noted FMsignals travel in a more or lessstraight line and follow the line ofsight The antenna that propagatesthe signal must therefore be as highas possible and there should befew obstructions that will block thesignal The higher the antenna isthe further its signal will reacharound the natural curvature of theearth
FM Problems in Hilly Areas FMhas limitations in hilly areas becau-se even if the antenna is placed ontop of a peak there may be areas ofsignal shadow in the valleys Theonly solution for using FM in hillyareas may be to install one or morerelay transmitters to cover theareas in shadow
Martin Allard explains Broadcast Coverage Patternin Relation to Watts and Antenna Height
All of the differing figures given for the coverageradius of FM are reasonable in their own way It is farfrom being an exact science however and opinionsvary considerably as to what is an acceptable signalstrength that is sufficient for a normal listener
The basic facts to understand are these
The Effective Radiated Power (ERP) of an FM stationis approximately the power of the transmitter multiplied by the number of elements in the antennaThere are practical limits as to how big an antennacan be and above a certain size losses in the cablesbecome significant
Of course VHF signals do not go far beyond the optical horizon They do bend around hills to a smallextent but otherwise they behave much like lightThe distance to the horizon depends on the height ofthe antenna and must take into account any largeobstructions
For an acceptable stereo signal you need 3-4 timesthe power of a mono transmission We have foundthat upgrading some of the early low-power stationswith a modern high-gain antenna and low-loss feedercable produces a good stereo signal over the samerange without an increase in transmitter power
Some typical range figures based on stereo transmission in a flat area with an antenna 25metres high would be
20 watts ERP - 5 km
100 watts ERP - 12 km
1200 watts ERP - 30 km
But each case is different We have one example of astation running 1200 watts ERP with regular listeners 80 km away 2
The height of the antenna willdepend on the terrain and on anyobstacles that the signal must passHowever it is usually at least 20-30 metres above the ground evenin flat terrain The antenna may beplaced on a building or hilltop togain the necessary height or amast may be constructed for it
Constructing the Mast Antennamasts can be built locally usingsteel uprights and lathes to createa lattice construction However asimpler and cheaper version canbe built using galvanized steelwater pipes Steps are welded tothem so that the broadcastingantenna itself fitted high on themast can be reached for adjust-ments and repairs
Both types of mast must be firmlyanchored in a concrete block in theground and they must be heldvertical by guy wires also anchoredin concrete
The Two Categories ofAntenna There are two broadcategories of antenna omnidirec-tional which as its name impliesradiates the signal in all directionsthrough 360 degrees around itselfand directional which radiates thesignal towards one segment of thecircle around it Almost all com-munity radio stations use an omni-directional antenna but there are
situations where a directionalantenna is better One example iswhere an antenna is placed on theside of a mountain overlookingthe community to be reached Adirectional antenna beaming thesignal only over the communitywould give added power compar-ed to using an omnidirectionalantenna that wasted part of itssignal against the mountainsidebehind it
Antenna Design Manufactureand Tuning FM antennas comein a variety of designs and thechoice and tuning of the antennato get the best signal is the work ofa specialist Antennas can bebought ready made but for mostcommunity radios they are fabri-cated on the spot by a metal worker using materials that canusually be bought in a local hard-ware shop such as copper piping 37
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Typical Antenna Mast Made from Water Pipes
and aluminium or PVC piping allheld together by hose-clamps and solder
Fine-tuning of the antenna to getthe best signal is done with an instrument called a power metrewhich measures the StandingWave Ratio (SWR) It costs lessthan US$ 100 This costs less thanUS$ 100 It is connected betweenthe transmitter and the antenna to
38
measure the ratio between thepower coming from the transmitterand the power being reflected backfrom the antenna If a lot of poweris being reflected back by theantenna it is not properly tunedand broadcast power is being lostThe specialist adjusts the lengthand position of the moveableradiating elements on the antennauntil the SWR meter shows thatthere is little or almost no powerbeing reflected back from theantenna Many modern transmit-ters incorporate an SWR powermetre
Studio Equipment
Recording and Playback Mostof the equipment used in a radiostudio would be familiar to any onewho had ever used home musicalequipment It consists in the mainof cassette recordersplayers andother tape recorders record turntables and compact discplayers However the quality of thisequipment in a radio studio ishigher than that of the commonrange of home equipment This isbecause firstly high-quality soundis needed so that even after theinevitable degradation of thesound between the studio and thelistenerrsquos ear the quality will still beof an acceptable level Secondly
studio equipment must withstandmuch heavier and more constantuse than its equivalent in the home
Some small community radios inindustrialized countries prefer tobuy cheap consumer electronicitems such as CD players and sim-ply replace them when they wearout This is seldom a suitableapproach in developing countrieswhere it is usually easier to obtainfunding for initial costs than it is forrecurrent costs Furthermore suchcheap consumer electronic itemsmay be less available here than theyare in industrialized countries
Control ConsoleMixer Themain unfamiliar item to mostpeople entering a radio studio forthe first time is the control consoleand mixer unit This allows the programme producer or his techni-cian to select the sound sourceswanted during the programme forexample a cassette or compact diskplayer or one or more of themicrophones in the studio It alsoallows him to raise and lower thevolume of each source graduallyand to superimpose one or moreover another as in the case of avoice with background music orsound effects This is calledlsquomixingrsquo the sound channels Theconsolemixer has sockets for head-phones through which the producer
can listen to the various channelshe has available or to the final mixedversion for broadcast An output linefrom the consolemixer goes to thetransmitter
All the studio equipment is power-ed from a local electricity sourcewhich should pass through anautomatic voltage regulator Thisreduces power fluctuations thatchange the speed of voices or music
Programme Production andNews GatheringEditing in theField
Remote Microphone Mixer Inthe simplest operations in the fielda single tape recorder can be usedto gather material or a microphonecan be connected by a long line tothe studio console for nearbyoutside coverage But any more elaborate programme productionoutside the studio when severalmicrophones and sound inputs arerequired needs a remote micro-phone mixer sometimes alsoknown as an auxiliary microphonemixer This functions in much thesame way as the studio mixer but itis smaller and usually runs off bat-teries In the field it is used toselect andor mix the varioussound inputs required for the programme that is being recorded
Linking Reporters and Othersto the Studio A second aspect ofoutside broadcasting is linking thefield reporter to the studio for livelyand interesting eyewitness reportson events and for news in outlyingparts of the community
In industrialized countries and inmajor towns in developing coun-tries the telephone is the mostcommon way of making this linkAll that is required is a device calleda telephone adaptor to patch theincoming phone call into the studioconsole from where it can bebroadcast or recorded for later use
However in rural areas of the devel-oping world where telephones arescarce other means must be usedto connect an outside reporter tothe studio Very High Frequency(VHF) or Ultra High Frequency(UHF) transceivers (lsquowalkie-talkiesrsquo)are one method Some countriesset aside certain frequencies in the200 mHz range - where the qualityof the sound is good - especially forconnections between outsidereporters and their studios Thisrequires a base station in the studioand handsets for the reporters inthe field
Cellular mobile phones for outsidereporters are another solutionwhen there are no fixed telephonelines
Mobilizing People with VHF Transceivers
In some deprived areas where there is notelephone service amateur VHF transceiversare abundant in fact they are a statussymbol This is the case in a remote islandin the Philippines where a community radioof the Tambuli project has managed to mobilizenumerous people with VHF transceivers to participatepersonally as reporters in radio programmes and alsoto lend their transceivers to others to do the sameThus without any investment from the communityradio a volunteer network of outside reporters hasbeen set up (See Case Study 1- Putting CommunityPeople in Charge)
Telephone Call-Ins Some com-munity radios especially in townswhere telephones are availableinstall a special telephone mixersystem which allows them to receivemultiple and simultaneous callsput them on hold in the order inwhich the calls came in and thenpass them in turn to the consolemixer to go on air at the commandof the programme producer Thissystem which of course can alsobe used by outside reporters phoning in is relatively expensiveand may not be justifiable in atypical rural area of a developingcountry In some developingcountries local technicians havedesigned their own telephonepatch system The cheapest way ofputting a telephone call on air is tohave a telephone with a speaker inthe studio and put a microphonenext to it but the quality of theresulting signal is not very good
RELIABILITY AND MAINTENANCE
Most of the equipment outlinedabove is inherently robust andreliable and is generally quitesimple to maintain by someonewith appropriate knowledge andtraining However certain simpleprecautions need to be taken toprevent accidental damage
Precautions against LightningExperience has shown that light-ning striking the antenna duringthunderstorms is a common causeof damage to transmitters It istherefore vital to weld a lightningconductor to the top of the antennamast And if the antenna is fixed ona roof an earthing wire of braidedcopper should be welded to it rundown the side of the building andfixed to an iron bar driven deepenough into the ground to findmoist soil
Handling Precautions Otherprecautions concern handling ofthe equipment Any radio trans-mitter that is switched on withoutbeing connected to its antenna
or to an equivalent load will be permanently damaged Thuswhen a transmitter has been disconnected from the antennasay for testing or repair a dummyload of the same resistance as theantenna must be attached to itLoad resistors as they are calledcan be purchased ready-made andcome with a variety of resistancesor they can be rigged up by using anormal electrical light bulb of theappropriate watts
Another handling issue of obviousimportance is always to take parti-cular care to respect the polarity -the positive and negative terminals -when connecting equipment Amistake here can burn it out
In Kothmale Sri Lanka the nationalgovernment providedland tower and antennas These madeit possible to set upmicrowave transception telephone twenty-fourhour link to Internetand FM transmission
39
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Block Diagram of Studio Equipment
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40
STUDIO PREMISES
Size A simple radio studio can beset up in any existing house orroom having a minimum of ninesqm available This is needed toinstall the equipment and to givespace for the operators to use itHowever it is much more practical toaim for premises of at least 25 sqmwith 50 sqm or more as the ideal
The minimum practical size for anannouncerrsquos booth is about 12sqm If one can count on a total ofsome 50 sqm about half of thiscan be devoted to the announcerrsquosbooth which will then be bigenough for roundtable discussionssmall groups of performing musi-cians and the like The remainingfloor space in the building can betaken up by a technicianrsquos cubicleand receiving and working areas
Announcerrsquos Booth andTechnicians Cubicle Theannouncerrsquos booth is often separa-ted from the technicianrsquos cubicle bya window with carefully fitteddouble glass panes to prevent out-side noise reaching the micro-phones in the booth This arrange-ment means that the announceronly has to worry about the micro-phone in front of him or her whilethe technician works the consoleand the sound channels such astape recorders and record players
However not all community radiosseparate the announcerrsquos booth
from the technician and some-times the announcer likes to dohisher own production handlingthe equipment and talking into themicrophone as a lsquoone-personshowrsquo So there can be flexibility indesigning the studio layout
Soundproofing and AcousticalBalance The announcerrsquos boothmust be soundproof because themicrophones in it will pick up anyexternal noise that reaches themPartitions made of light board suchas plywood usually need to be dou-bled with a space in between thatcan be filled with sound-deadeningmaterial and spaces around doorsneed to be sealed with rubberstrips
The acoustical balance in theannouncerrsquos booth must be care-fully adjusted Sound bounces andreverberates off hard walls and pro-duces an echo or lsquocathedral effectrsquowhen picked up by the micropho-ne To avoid this parts of the wallsshould be covered with soft mate-rials While acoustic tiles are avai-lable commercially for this purpo-se the same effects can be achie-ved with simpler and cheapermaterials such as egg trays cur-tains mats or cardboard Howeverif too much of the wall space iscovered with these sound-absor-bing materials the lack of resonan-ce will make all programmes soundas if they are coming from an openfield
Air Conditioning If air condition-ing is to be installed it should be ofthe silent split type with the com-pressor in a place apart from therecording studio and where its humwill not be picked up by the micro-phones in the announcerrsquos boothCold air should be blown into theannouncerrsquos booth through a ductand a silent extractor fan shouldalso be fitted in the booth
SPATIAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COMPONENTS OF THE RADIO STATION
The transmitter is connected to theantenna by a coaxial cable Thiscable absorbs a considerableamount of the power coming fromthe transmitter and therefore thelength of the cable should be asshort as possible With the relative-ly cheap types of coaxial cable normally used for communityradio the distance between thetransmitter and its antenna shouldnot exceed about 30 metres
Ideally the transmitter and studiowill be in the same building withthe antenna close to it or on theroof However the transmitter isbest put in a room separate fromthe studio equipment because if itis too close radio frequency emis-sions from the transmitter canaffect the studio equipment andcause noise and hum
A commercialy available load resistor
Typical studio layoutPh
oto
M A
llard
There will be occasions howeverwhen the site chosen for theantenna will be unsuitable for thestudio because of height consider-ations it is possible in the circum-stances to place the antenna on ahilltop with the transmitter nextto it and have the studio some distance away in a more favourablelocation All that is required is apower line up to the transmitterand a second line that carries theoutput from the studio to thetransmitter This programme lineas it is called should not be longerthan 1000 metres The ideal material for this line is telephonecable which is designed to carryvoice communication and to resistexposure to weather But evenhousehold electrical wire can beused though this is not designedfor outdoor use and will need tobe checked regularly
FUTURE POSSIBILITIES
A Studio in a Computer
Computers have long been used inradio studios for simple tasks suchas word processing of scripts andindexing and cataloguing recor-dings Radio studios accumulatelarge numbers of recordings overtime and it becomes difficult tofind specific items say parts ofpast coverage of a certain subject
required for a new programme ifrelying on human memory aloneComputerized index and catalogueon the other hand can provide a listand short description of all thematerial on that subject with thenumbers of the tapes and the location of each
Computerized ProgrammeProduction In recent years digi-tal technology has opened up newvistas for radio production It isnow possible to store all of thematerial for radio programmes -talks music sound effects jinglesetc - on the hard disk of a compu-ter whereas before these had to bestored on tape
Computer software now existsthat allows programme producers- as many as 15 at a time workingat separate terminals simulta-neously - to select the materialthey want from the hard disk andmix and edit it into a programmeWith the completed programmerecorded on its hard disk the computer can then be instructed
to put the programme or even aseries of programmes on air atpredetermined times without further intervention from studiostaff
This type of computerized produc-tion can replace the function ofmuch of the equipment in a tradi-tional studio and it is certainlyhighly efficient for programmeproduction In practice howevernot all of the traditional equip-ment is likely to disappear in thenear future for example audioequipment for recording materialand transferring it to the hard diskof the computer later will certainlycontinue And for outside programme production the remotemicrophone mixer described earlieris cheap and convenient even iffinal production in the studio iscomputerized
In addition it should be rememb-ered that good community radioalso relies on participation fromthe audience in live on-air sessionsin the studio rather than on
The Pastapur community in India built their own radio studio using locally firedclay bricks The tower is a professionally fitted self-standing mast with an omni-directional antenna crafted under the guidance of a profesional broadcasting technician Adjacent are five school rooms for lsquolearning withoutfrontiersrsquo also built from the same kind of bricks
41
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mun
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Phot
o J
im B
entl
ey
Maximum Distance from the Studio to the Transmitter is 1000 M
pre-recorded productions only Forlive programmes in the studiosuch traditional equipment is stillthe most practical
Community Radio and theInternet
The Internet holds enormouspotential for development especial-ly in rural areas For example infor-mation about health agriculture or
42
the environment can be down-loaded from it it can be used toconnect health workers agriculturalextensionists or ordinary villagerswith technical experts to discusssome particular problem and it canbe used to put communities incontact with each other for on-linediscussions and debates aboutissues that affect them or aboutproblems and their solutions
The Village Trail and theInformation SuperhighwayUnfortunately in most developingcountries up to now Internetaccess and the valuable informationit can provide have been availableonly to a relatively small and privi-leged minority For example inAfrica less than 15 percent of thepopulation had Internet access atthe end of 1998 And nowhere arethe rural poor a part of that privile-ged Internet-using minority Theproblem can be summed up in thequestion How can poor ruralpeople living along the village trailbe connected to the informationsuperhighway
Integrating community radio pro-gramming with the Internet is oneway to reach out to villagers If theradio station has a computer withInternet access programme produ-cers can call on an enormous spectrum of information on sub-
jects of general concern to theiraudience as well as being able tolook for replies to specific queriesraised by members of the comm-unity Broadcasting such informationcan effectively bring the Internetinto any home even into thosewhere the family could never aspireto having a telephone withoutmentioning the computer to gowith it
The Internet and ProgrammeProduction The Internet can bevery useful for programme produc-tion A station can obtain a vastquantity and range of informationfrom it For example material frommajor news agencies is available onthe Internet as is information fromdevelopment agencies non-governmental and governmentalorganizations universities and thelike In addition more and more
audio programmes can be down-loaded from the Internet for re-broadcast The themes of theseproductions often cover issues ofgreat importance to communityradios such as health educationwomenrsquos rights and so on
The Internet is also a forum for the exchange of programmesServices such as OneWorldGlobalRadioService and A-Infosallow producers to deposit programmes for other producers to pick up and broadcast and vice-versa
A community radio may also wantto offer information about itself toother Internet users It can open asite on the World Wide Web todescribe its organization program-ming staff etc in as much detail asit wants 3
Bringing the Internet to Rural People in Sri Lanka
Kothmale is a constituency covering a cluster of ruralcommunities with a total population of about150000 Its community radio station is the basis foran innovative experiment to use radio as an effectiveinterface between local people and the Internet
Each day the radio station airs a programme calledlsquoRadiobrowsing the Internetrsquo during which communitybroadcasters discuss and interpret the informationon selected Internet sites The local language is usedmaking the information easily accessible to peoplewho understand no English and would be unable touse the Internet directly
Listeners can request information on specific topicsOf particular benefit is information on markettrends agriculture life skills for poverty alleviationformal and informal educational materials healthand medicine
This UNESCOGovernment of Sri Lanka pilot projectis also providing free Internet access through in anInternet Cafeacute and two terminals in community librariesfor people who wish to browse in person
In addition the radio station is developing a community database of the information frequentlyrequested by listeners Much of this is in the locallanguage and is particularly suited to local develop-ment interests and needs This is important becausepackaged information on the Internet is seldom suitable
Kothmale lsquoradio browsingrsquothe on-air announcerbrowses the Internet inEnglish and simultaneouslyreports her findings inSinghala She can alsorespond to questions in the studio or from livephone calls
Phot
o M
Sen
anay
aka
Rural Multi-Purpose Telecentres
Speculation about the use ofmicrochips and satellite communi-cation as tools in rural develop-ment goes back to the early 1980sOne of the ideas that has beenmaturing since then is that of ruralmultipurpose telecentres whichhave also been called lsquorural infor-mation shopsrsquo
The basic principle is to create aplace where villagers can go forinformation - either free or for afee - on agriculture health familyplanning and other developmentalor social topics In its fullest andmost logical form a communityradio station would form thenucleus for a rural telecentre providing a variety of services
This telecentre would of coursehave an Internet connection toprovide the services outlined inthe previous section related toaccessing databanks and sourcesof expertise and connecting com-munities to each other In additionit could offer other functions suchas public telephone and fax as wellas building libraries of videosaudio-visual materials books andpublications In one of the formsproposed for India under a WorldBank programme the centreswould sell records and cassetteshire out videos and audio-visualequipment and provide servicessuch as desktop publishing and
photocopying These serviceswould aim to help the centresbecome self-sufficient
In Bangladesh it is highly signifi-cant that the Grameen Bankfamous for its imaginative micro-credit programmes for the ruralpoor especially women startedGrameen Telecom in 1996 Thisprovides loans for women to buycellular phones and set up a publicservice and it also providesInternet connections in majorcities It plans to put telephoneservices into all of Bangladeshrsquos50000 villages and also to expandits Internet-access services This isa first step along the path towardsrural multi-purpose telecentresHowever it is sad that broadcast-ing in Bangladesh is still a govern-ment monopoly and there is nosign that community radio will beallowed to begin any time soon
Digital Technology
Digital technology has steadilytransformed the way in which pro-grammes are made and distribu-ted in recent years Many broad-casters have already invested indigital systems for contributionand production Now the switchfrom analogue to digital is movingalong the broadcasting chain intotransmission At the same timethe digital developments are draw-ing together the broadcasting
telecommunications and compu-ter industries in a process ofconvergence For all broadcastersthis is leading to a new and chal-lenging business environment inwhich they are searching for a clearlsquomultimediarsquo role The InternationalTelecommunications Union (ITU) isediting a publication on this subject
SPECIALIST ADVICE
This chapter has provided an over-all guide to the technical aspects ofsetting up a community radio ser-vice Nevertheless anyone embar-king on such a project should seekspecialist advice on the technical
In Kothmale Sri Lanka Buddhist monks surf the net for religious texts at the Kothmale Community Radio on the Internet and on the air
43
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aspects of the particular circum-stances before going ahead withthe investment Such advice canusually be obtained from the tech-nical staff in a nearby state or com-mercial radio station and it neednot be costly 1 Much of the material in these sections is based on
Community Radio Station - A Technical Manual by staff ofthe UNESCODANIDA supported Tambuli CommunityMedia Project Philippines That manual provides moretechnical detail than can be included in this more general handbook
2 Martin Allard in a personal communication (1999)
3 Philippe Beacutechamp The ABCs of ICTs InteRadioVol10No 2 (Montreal December 1998)
4 Colin Fraser and Sonia Restrepo-Estrada Communicatingfor Development - Human Change for Survival 1B Tauris(LondonNew York 1998)
5 Laurie Hallett provided the following information onDAB in a personal communication (1999)
44
BOX 4 Basic Equipment for a UNESCO-supported Community Radio Station (Prices in US Dollars)
Item No Description Unit price Total
TRANSMISSION EQUIPMENT
1 2 FM Stereo Transmitters 100 Watt
Note one as a standby transmitter 800 1600
2 1 Wide-band Omni-directional Antenna (four layer with splitter set for the allotted FM Frequency of the station) 1200 1200
3 1 Heliax antenna cable (50 Meter) and connectors 550 550
4 1 A1000 Two channel compressor and limiter 545 545
5 1 Locally fabricated antenna mast and anchors 1200 1200
Transmission equipment total US$ 5095
STUDIO AND FIELD EQUIPMENT
6 1 Professional Studio Console with built in telephone hybrid 10+10 watt amplifier for studio monitors stereo monitor output for cue talkback microphone VCA feeders with a total of 7 mono inputs9 stereo inputs 3 mono outputs8 stereo outputs 2000 2000
7 2 PMC Studio Monitor Speakers ( Power ouput 150 watts) 515 1030
8 2 Dual Auto Reverse Cassette Deck 570 1140
9 1 CD Changer 900 900
10 4 Headphones 100 400
11 5 Dynamic Microphones with Windshields 390 1950
12 2 Utility Mixer with XLR input 400 800
13 3 Microphone stand with swinging arm 55 165
14 2 Microphone desk stand (flexible) 115 230
15 5 Portable cassette recorders with XLR mic inputs and carrying case 515 2575
16 5 Dynamic Microphones for portable casette recorders 170 850
17 2 Quartz Clock Diameter 25 cm hoursminsseconds 25 50
18 40 XLRMF Canon connectors (20 Male and 20 Female) 10 400
19 20 Phono connectors Male 3 60
20 20 Phono connectors Female 3 60
21 25 RCA connectors 1 25
Item No Description Unit price Total
22 1 MIC cable (100 m role) 260 260
23 1 Audio cable (100 m role) 150 150
24 4 Automatic voltage regulators 50 200
25 1 Multi-tester + assorted repair equipment set 50 50
Total Studio and Field Equipment US$ 13295
COMMUNITY RADIO BASIC EQUIPMENT TOTAL US$ 18390
Additional Costs Support to community fo building remuneration and studiofabrication - US$ 2500(Consumables and costs for energy source not included)
Item No Description Unit price Total
OPTIONAL (Computer based Audio and news processing)
1 2 Digital Audio Computer Workstation PIII-700 with 20 GBHDDCD-R Drive (SCSI) USB port Speakers and a Sound Card (Sound Blaster) with Windows 982000 1500 3000
2 2 USB Interface controller with two XLR inputs two balanced 14rdquo TRS inputstwo unbalanced 14rdquo inputs and SPDIF IO Four channels of audio in and two out simultaneously via USB 600 1200
3 1 Editing software package 400 400
4 100 CD-R Media (CD re-writeble) 3 300
5 1 Internet ready Computer withWindows 98 + MS-WORD 1100 1100
6 1 Laser Printer 750 750
Total Optional Computer Equipment US$ 6750
Chapter 5Getting Started
45
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T his chapter sets out the various practical steps involved in setting up a community radio service
beginning with ascertaining the legislative context and conducting a proper consultation and
analysis process in the community A qualitative research method based on Focus Group
Discussions is outlined for this process
The value of drawing up a Mission Statement for the radio station is explained and the involvement
of religious authorities local educational institutions and politicians is discussed
The technical and social criteria for choosing the site in the community for the studio and the
transmitter and antenna are outlined Alternative models including loudspeaker systems are
described as are the main factors governing the choice of power of the transmitter
Later sections deal with ownership and management staff sustainability and looking for outside
funding The issue of advertising and its implications where permitted are discussed in some
detail
Box 6 at the end of the Chapter provides a checklist of questions to which answers are required for
the successful setting up of a community radio
Reading this Chapter will enable the reader to
bull Obtain a good grasp of the various steps involved in setting up a community radio service
bull Appreciate the need for the careful consideration of social factors and relationships in the
community as well as for a full analysis and consultation in the community of its needs and
expectations in respect of a community radio
bull Assume a leadership role or participate in ensuring that all of the necessary preparations are
properly conducted and that informed decisions are taken by the community
Proper research and planning areessential for starting a communityradio service The process should beginwith the gathering of information fromvarious sources but in particular fromthe community itself
A series of questions that need answersis provided in Box 6 at the end of theChapter The sections that follow hereexpand on those questions and areintended as guidance for in-countrypeople groups or organizations thatare planning a community radio
LEGAL CONTEXT
A first step for setting up a communityradio is to find out what the nationalbroadcasting legislation sets out for thelicencing of independent radio stationsIf there is no mention of non-profitcommunity broadcasting there may beother avenues to explore For examplethe provisions for commercial radiomay also apply to a community serviceand in some countries many communityradios have commercial licenses Thisshould not however lead to a situationwhere profit is the main or sole motiva-
46
tion of the station There may alsobe licences for cultural radio Insome cases people simply proceedwithout a licence However care isneeded because this can have penalconsequences (See Chapter 3 forthis and for more informationabout applying for licences) Wherecommunity radio is still forbiddenthere may be other options that donot involve radio transmission (Seethe section below on models)
PREPARATORY WORK INTHE COMMUNITY
Answering the questions laid out inBox 6 will call for much ground-work in the community Thisgroundwork consists of consulta-tion processes within the commu-nity to analyze its situation existingmedia access how a communityradio might usefully serve theinterests of the community in whatways and so on
Clearly the leaders of the commu-nity - which include the elected andthe religious authorities as well theinformal but also influential opin-ion leaders - must be part of theconsultation process
But equally if not more importantis a consultation process thatinvolves the community at largeGroup discussions with the various
sectors in the community areessential These could include forexample farmers fishermen shopowners teachers artisans etc It isalso crucial to consult women andyouth who are traditionally margi-nalized in many rural societies Norshould any minority cultural andlinguistic groups be left outPeoplersquos attitudes towards the exist-ing situation towards the desirabi-lity and possibility of change anddevelopment and towards the pos-sible role of a community radio ser-vice must be ascertained and hope-fully confirmed This is the realbasis of community radio socialwill not technical equipment
Experience has shown that in some
cases merely holding participatoryworkshops to discuss the situationof the community and exploreways of improving access to basicservices may lead spontaneously tothe idea that better communica-tion within the community couldbe a first prerequisite for changeand development A communityradio may then emerge naturally asthe most appropriate communica-tion medium
Preliminary Results The initialconsultation process should indicate
bull The level of enthusiasm for andcommitment to the notion ofhaving a community radio service
Phot
o M
Alla
rd
On Defining the Future Radio Station
ldquoIt must be decided what the station will be and forwhom Will it be a tool to be used by a selected fewor by only one sector of the community talking downto the many Will it be monopolised by disc jockeysOr will its main function be to empower the community as a whole to learn more about issuesthat directly affect its members such as primaryhealth care religious tolerance basic education teenage pregnancy etcrdquo 1
Before doing the technical work of setting up radio in Western Nepal it is essential to encourage the community to discusstheir idea of radio and their aspirations in focus group discussions
Faith in the capacity of all people
ldquoCommunication is a vital process for everyone concernedwith development It is a process not an end It is a meansto sustainable development The role of communication in the development process is to make people consciousof the reality of their situation and make them aware thatthey have the power to change their social realities It assumes that people are equal that they have a right toknowledge and culture and that they can criticize theirsituation and act on it It also implies having faith in thecapacity of all people including the illiterate to discusssocial issues intelligentlyrdquo
Ed Moyo
bull What its overall objectivesshould be especially in terms ofchange and development
bull How in general terms it shouldoperate
If no broad consensus on theseissues can be reached the future ofthe idea may be compromised orthere could be a need for more andbroader discussion
As the consultation processescontinue answers to the moredetailed issues laid out in Box 6should be sought
Contacts will also need to be madewith people and institutions outsidethe community who could have abearing on the project These willinclude among others any state orcommercial radio channels thatalso reach into the communitydevelopment institutions NGOsconcerned with communitydevelopment and local officials ofgovernment services in healthagriculture education and thelike
A Method for Conducting theConsultations
Among the most powerfulmethods for researching peoplersquosopinions and ideas are FocusGroup Discussions (FGDs) and
this technique can be successfullyused for the community consulta-tions being described hereOriginally used for market researchFGDs have more recently beenapplied with outstanding results indevelopment work when qualitativeinformation about peoplersquos opinions perceptions ideas andaspirations is required 2
What is an FGD An FGD bringstogether from six to12 people whoare homogeneous in terms of theireducation life-style and economicstatus and who therefore sharesimilar problems They need to behomogeneous to reduce the chancethat one or more persons of a levelthat the rest perceive as beingsuperior dominate the discussionThere should not be less than sixpeople in the group or it will bedifficult to get a dynamic discus-sion going and to gain a meaning-ful consensus and there shouldnot be more than twelve so thateveryone will have a chance to speak but also to avoid the formation of sub-groups and sub-discussions
These community consultationscould also include groups of sayunemployed youths or motherswith small children or small farmers
The Facilitator The group discussion is run by a facilitatorwhose principal task is toget members of the grouptalking among themselvesabout the subject in ques-tion This might for examplebe what types of radioprogrammes would beuseful to help youngmothers safeguard andimprove their infantsrsquohealth
The facilitator adopts a lowprofile and a very informal stan-ce so that the group feels relaxedHeshe also uses special tech-niques to encourage members ofthe group to talk among them-selves and not to respond tohimher directly The facilitatorguides the discussions with pre-pared open-ended questions thatbegin with words such as lsquoWhatdo you think aboutrsquo or lsquoHowwould you suggest that wersquo iequestions that cannot be answeredwith a simple lsquoyesrsquo or lsquonorsquo
Stimulating In-depth AnalysisA further key function of the facili-tator is to stimulate the group intodeeper analysis of the issues beingdiscussed For example heshemust never let a statement ofopinion by a member of the grouppass without probing it to find out
what lies behind that statement A group member might say some-thing like lsquoI really like that pro-gramme and I never miss itrsquo Or agroup member might say the exactopposite to the effect that heshethoroughly disliked the program-me In either case the facilitatorshould immediately say - but in amild manner ndash something likelsquoThatrsquos an interesting opinion Tellus why you think thatrsquo In factquestions using lsquoWhyrsquo are the keyfor provoking deeper analysis andreaching a fuller understanding ofthe issues at stake as the groupsees them
The Observer While the FGD isin progress an observer is sitting
The participation oflocal institutions whether government or nongovernmentcontributes to makingthe stationrsquos programming relevantand dynamic
47
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48
quietly taking notes of the mainpoints that are being made Whenthe discussion is finished it is agood idea for the observer to takeover the proceedings and to readthe main points back to the groupIt is very important that hesheseeks their confirmation of eachpoint in order to ensure that it hasbeen correctly noted This leadsmore easily to a broad consensus
Effectiveness of FGDs Especiallywith people of low educational sta-tus FGDs are remarkably effectiveThe group feels at ease becausethey are talking with their peersand because the facilitator deliber-ately creates a totally informalatmosphere Once the members ofthe group start discussing among
themselves they spark reactionsideas and opinions off each otherin a way that provides true insightsinto what is in their minds andhearts FGDs are generally far moreeffective for gaining these insightsthan are one-on-one interviews forall too often the interviewee herewill say what he or she thinks theinterviewer wants to hear At theother extreme general and mixedgroup discussions can easily bedominated by a few people - not tomention that women and youthhardly ever speak out freely at suchgatherings The facilitator shouldbe aware of this guard against itand encourage the less outspokento air their feelings without embar-rassing them
Some FGDs with different sectorsof the community backed up withkey informant interviews withopinion leaders local authoritiesand the like will normally providethe desired information with whichto plan a community radio serviceBut whatever methods are used forthe consultation within the com-munity and with other interestedparties the process should neverbe rushed Mistakes or misunder-standings that are not put right orclarified in the early stages maycome back to haunt the communi-ty radio operation later on
Furthermore during the planningphases and indeed at all stagesone must be very alert to the possi-
bility that special interest groupsmight have hidden agendas that inthe end could result in their high-jacking the radio service for theirown interests
IMPORTANCE OF A MISSION STATEMENT
It is important to begin drafting a short and concise mission statement about the objectives ofthe planned community radio ser-vice at an early stage This providesa basis for discussion and it can bemodified and refined during theconsultation phase
Once a final version of the missionstatement is agreed by the variousstakeholders this constitutes abasis for common understandingand a platform on which to buildThis is not to say that the missionstatement is carved in stone it mayneed modification in the light ofexperience but any changes shouldalways be the result of a communi-ty consultation process
What the station does once opera-ting to adhere to its mission state-ment will depend largely on theindividuals chosen to direct andmanage it There must be regularassessments perhaps by a specialcommittee within the communityof how the operations are fulfillingthe stationrsquos mission
In Senegal women are very active in disussing issues of the daythey make for anatural forum face-to-face or on the air
Phot
o C
Fra
ser
On the Mission Statement
ldquoThe mission [statement] of a radio station definesits aims it is the map that provides directiontowards the achievements of its objectives it is theinstrument to measure its success it is thefoundation on which everything else is built it is the star that guides us The entire programming must be based on the principles established by the missionrdquo 3
ROLE OF THE RELIGIOUSESTABLISHMENT
Special consideration should begiven to the role of the religiousauthorities in the community Innumerous communities they havebeen crucial in helping to start andrun a radio service Their commit-ment to genuine community parti-cipation and to ensuring that theradio is run in the best interests ofthe people is often outstanding
However it should not necessarilybe assumed that all religiousauthorities are free from influencepeddling or political interests Soeven if the religious establishmentcan often be of pivotal importancein starting and running a commu-nity radio service detailed discus-sions are necessary to establish itsposition and its perceptions beforeautomatically seeking a partner-ship with it
ROLE OF LOCAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
The staff of local schools may havea particular interest in communityradio and help to get it started For example they may see it as away of increasing the involvementof parents in the education of theirchildren
In addition schoolteachers canplay a major role as volunteerbroadcasters They often broad-cast a daily programme to remindchildren about their homeworkand assist them with it And insome communities the operationof the radio station is handed overto schoolchildren once a week
INVOLVEMENT OF POLITICIANS
There are varying points of viewabout the role of politicians incommunity radio or whether theyshould have one at all (See Box 5for the opinion of an experiencedcommunity radio broadcaster)
CHOOSING A LOCATION IN THE COMMUNITY
Technical and social considerationsdetermine the appropriate loca-tion of the radio infrastructure in acommunity
Technical Criteria
Position of the antenna and transmitter
bull Given the line of sight character-istics of FM radio waves theantenna should be as high aspossible on an elevated site oron a mast not less than 30metres high and not obstructedby tall buildings
bull The transmitter and antennashould not be close to high-tension power lines
bull There should be an availablepower source
bull The transmitter and antennashould be as close as possible toeach other and not more than30 metres apart
Position of the antenna and transmitter relative to the studio
bull The studio may be up to 1000m from the antenna and trans-mitter but it must be connectedto them by a cable ndash the pro-gramme line Alternatively theprogramme could be fed fromthe studio to the transmitter sitevia a small power link VHF trans-mitter
Position of the studio
bull The studio must have an available power source
bull It should be away from uncon-trollable sources of noise
Social Criteria
bull The studio should be as close aspossible to the centre of popula-tion
bull It should be in a site easily accessibleto members of the community
bull It should have low or no rentalcharges
bull It should be in a site that is freeof vested interests
bull It should be secure from vandalsand pilferers 49
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A Comment on the ReligiousEstablishment and Community Radio inthe Philippines
ldquoThe religious establishments are not
expected to have political or business
interests A majority of them are genuinely dedicated
missionaries who have a deep understanding of the
problems of the poor It is a shame however that
some individual members of the clergy overtly carry
their own personal idiosyncrasies and social biases
and in some cases political partiality into the com-
munity
In [a] community where we actually set up a radio
station the priest happened to be named
chairperson of the Community Media Council
Unfortunately he had never shown fondness
in getting the people to participate in decision
making He distrusted local leadership motives
He ran the station management by himself and
conferred involvement to his minions
When the election campaign period came
the priest threw his support behind the candidate
whom he deemed the peoplersquos favourite
As the station was conveniently located in the
convent the priest took the occasion to use
the programmes to build up the favoured candidate
and downsize the opponentrdquo 4
ldquoAfter 22 years as a broadcast journalist I have a
generally sceptical attitude towards politicians
Whenever I listen to a politician speaking
I try to figure out what is at the back of his mind but
often in vain
The question in the project was whether we should deal
with politicians or leave them out totally After numer-
ous discussions in our team as well as consultations
with professional sociologists the conclusion was that
politicians needed to participate in operating the radio
station After all politicians are inescapable elements
of community life They could be influential cogs in the
development of the community
The project cannot totally do away with politicians
even if the opportunist ones are quick to see the poten-
tial of a community-wide medium to get them votes
and public admiration Our approach is to place the
politicians role in logical perspective If for instance
partisan politicians agree to be involved in the
Community Media Council all the important political
parties must be represented
Certain politicians may publicly manifest a desire to
keep their hands off the project while some may
volunteer resources and heavy personal involvement
However even among those who ostentatiously adopt a
hands-off policy they could have lackeys in key
positions in the station - perhaps either as a generous
benefactor an intellectual or a domineering station
manager Thus the extension of his personality and
interests could creep into sensitive station decision-
making
Some politiciansrsquo pronouncements may indicate
unconditional concern for the masses and they may
well include a candid pledge of non-interference in the
stationrsquos affairs However few make good their
promises Some will ostensibly adhere to their public
commitment particularly when the project manage-
ment makes its presence felt But the shrewd politician
may intervene surreptitiously
Quite often the saying lsquoHe who has honey in his
mouth has a sting in his tailrsquo is confirmed This may
apply not only to the typical impassioned politician
but also to certain other eloquent members of the
community
However I grant that these are general observations
and there are certainly exceptions to them
The way programmers and broadcasters respond to
political manoeuvres will be determined by their
ethical foundation and trainingrdquo
Louie Tabing Manager of the UNESCODANIDATambuli Project Philippines
BOX 5 Involvement of Politicians in Community Radio
50
CHOOSING A MODEL
Most community radios aspire tohaving their own broadcasting facilities and frequency but this isnot always possible due to the prevailing legislation or to a lack ofeconomic resources The alterna-tives at least initially are
bull To obtain airtime for communityprogrammes from an existinggovernment or commercial sta-tion that covers the area
bull Rent an existing frequency butthis solution is normally confinedto urban areas
bull To install a lsquocommunity radiorsquo sys-tem that uses loudspeakersconnected to the studio and situa-ted to cover the communityrather than broadcasting by atransmitter
Whatever model is used it is generally a good idea to start withonly a limited number of hours aweek of broadcasting and then tobuild up slowly In this way therewill be time to plan and prepare thebroadcasts properly As experienceis gained and as the programmeproducers and other staff becomeaccustomed to their roles thehours of broadcasting can beexpanded
Loudspeaker Systems
Community radios often begin by usingloudspeakers and some even remain withthat system because of unfavourable legislation Loudspeaker systems have twodrawbacks firstly the sound quality is notgood and secondly people are compelled to listenwhether they want to or not This can produce tensions in the community
Part-Time Broadcasting
ldquoIt is usually thought that radio must operate on adaily basis but this is purely a presumption derivedfrom mainstream media Given the usual staffingand resource problems of daily operations in a ruralcommunity it could be more effective for its radioservice to operate on a limited but regular basisHistorically the socio-political programming of alternative media has not been continuous Regular intervals between programming increaseaudience loyalty and attention They also give broadcasters the time they need to plan and producemore relevant programmesrdquo 5
One good strategy for the start-upperiod is to broadcast at weekendsonly This will make it easier to findvolunteers who have weekendtime available However theaudience must be informed andreminded that the station will beon air only each weekend Thisshould be done through weeklypublicity efforts using means suchas a mobile loudspeaker announce-ments by the religious establish-ment posters etc
POWER OF THE TRANSMITTER
A broadcast pattern that coverstoo wide a physical area compli-cates the operations of a commu-nity radio and may make it difficultto concentrate on the immediatecommunity that is to be servedGiven that community radiodepends to a large extent onvolunteer participation a largetarget area may result in workloads that are difficult to maintainlsquoSmall is beautifulrsquo in communityradio too and it is often better tohave more small transmitterscovering specific communitiesthan one more powerful one thatspreads its signal widely
In rural areas a 20-watt transmit-ter should normally provide suffi-
cient power but there may be jus-tification for an amplifier to boostthe output to 100 watts In a citywhere there is competition fromother stations transmitters maygo up to 300-500 watts
It is important to ensure that thebroadcast pattern covers a com-munity having between 5000 and25000 potential listeners To besuccessful a community radiomust be able to rely on variousforms of support from its listenersless than 5000 may not providethe critical mass that will allow theradio to sustain itself and muchmore than 25000 means that theradio begins to become imperson-al and difficult to manage with aresultant loss in the communitycharacter of the service
OWNERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT
These are crucial issues that needcareful thought Even if the overallconcept is that the communityowns the radio there usuallyneeds to be some body such as afoundation or association whichrepresents the communityrsquos inter-ests and also provides the juridicalentity to apply for the licence andto hold it In some cases it may bepossible to plan for a community
media cooperative This couldallow each member of the com-munity to buy a share
With regard to management theconcept of community radio isthat the community itself shouldbe in overall control Obviouslyhowever the whole communitycannot be involved all the timeand therefore some sort of manage-ment body needs to be formedthat represents the different sec-tors in the community In manycases a community media com-mittee is created to assume themanagement role Whatever thebody is called its members mustrealize that they are accountableto the community at large and tothe particular sector they repre-sent Their decisions regarding therunning of the station and its programming must be democraticand transparent
PROGRAMMING
Programming policies are coveredin the next chapter Howeveranyone planning a communityradio should give early thought toprogramming issues especiallywith regard to mechanisms that willensure the maximum possible com-munity access and participation 51
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Reach of the Station
ldquoHow far the station reaches is less important than where the station reaches A station with atransmitter that has a long reach may be situated ina sparsely populated region whereas a station situated in a densely populated region may have atransmitter that doesnt reach very farrdquo 6
52
As a tactic for starting communityradio programming it is useful tofind out what people enjoy andappreciate about other radio pro-grammes they listen to and whythey like them Focus GroupDiscussions would be an idealmethod for obtaining this qualitativeinformation
STAFF
Few if any community radio sta-tions can afford to pay staffbeyond perhaps the station mana-ger if they are lucky Thus mostcommunity radios rely extensivelyon volunteers as programme pro-ducers reporters and studio tech-nicians However the use of volun-teers is not simply to get cheaplabour for a poorly funded opera-tion On the contrary volunteersgive a special and positive characterto community radio creating animage of goodwill commitmentand service for the common goodThose same characteristics arerequired in the community at largefor it to change and develop alongdemocratic lines
SUSTAINABILITY
Generating Income
While many community radios indeveloping countries are launched
with support fromsome outside donor -national or interna-tional - anyone plan-ning and promoting acommunity radioshould bear in mindfrom the very begin-ning how to sustainthe service once it isup and running
There are severaloptions for raisingrevenue to cover run-ning costs as follows
bull Commercial adverti-sing when this is allowed underexisting national legislation
bull Sponsorship which may also bedebarred by national legislation
bull Donations
bull Fees for private announcementsmade over the radio as lsquothe peoplersquos telephonersquo
bull Membership fees paid by listeners
The Advertising Issue In manycountries that have recently intro-duced legislation for non-profitcommunity radio the commercialmedia are so strong and influentialthat they have succeeded in ensur-ing that community radio is prohi-bited from accepting advertisingthus preventing it from infringing
on their lucrative domain But des-pite the revenue problem that thismay present it may have someadvantages for the image and cre-dibility of community radio forcommunity radio is essentiallypublic-service broadcasting and itshould be seen to be free fromcommercial interests andinfluences
Thus even where advertising isallowed careful thought should begiven to the type of advertisers thatwould be acceptable within thecharacter of a community radioservice These would normally onlybe local providers of goods and ser-vices the multinational soft drinksindustry and goods that are dama-ging to health such as tobacco andalcohol should be avoided
A Conversation with the Manager of a CommunityRadio about Sustainability
During the preparation of this handbook theauthors telephoned the manager of a successful community radio station in one of the poorest partsof Colombia Towards the end of a long conversationabout the radiorsquos character and operations theauthors asked lsquoHow do you sustain the radio How does it survive
The lady burst out laughing and then said cheerfullylsquoBy miracle or rather by one miracle after anotherrsquo
This same manager had the clever idea when theradio was started to organize a party to whichpeople were asked to bring cassette tapes or recordsof their favourite music These were played at theparty She then asked to borrow then so that shecould make copies for use by the radio In this wayshe started the stationrsquos collection of popular music7
Phot
o C
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On the Government of Ecuadorrsquos Ban on Advertisingby Community Radio
ldquoWe are not for profit but we are not for bankruptcyeitherrdquo 8
The carabo or water buffalo as it is known in most parts of Southeat Asia is a preciousanimal It ploughs the field it transports goods it provides music and community
programmes through the radio strapped to its horns Some people call this lsquocar-abao stereorsquo
On Keeping Staff - the Case of CrispinZarate a Liability Turned to an Asset in thePhilippines
ldquoCrispin was a farmerrsquos son an unem-ployed school dropout Pinny as he wasfamiliarly called could usually be seenhanging around in his neighbourhood bar He wouldinvariably go home drunk His lifestyle and drinkinghabits hardly made him an eligible bachelor Norcould anyone consider him handsome The only talentthat Pinny exhibited was playing the guitar well
When the training for volunteers for the radio sta-tion was announced Pinny was among those to signup Since he was jobless he fitted the criterion thattrainees should be available for a three-week crashcourse
Pinny was an ardent trainee and became a dedicatedvolunteer broadcaster People expressed admirationfor his voice Indeed he had a knack for radio and hisinnate good nature came to the surface
His friends would tease him alluding to his lookslsquoYou sound like a real human being when you go onthe air Pinnyrsquo He would take the teasing with aproud smile
Everybody was struck dumb when they heard thatPinny was getting married and even more so whenthey learned that it was to one of the most amiableteachers on the island
I was delighted about Pinny Radio work had turneda derelict into one of the most appreciated and lovedpersons in the community
Then I received the bad news he had left the non-paying job in the station to find work in a construc-tion project on the mainland His wife was expectinga child so he could not afford to be jobless
But perhaps the loss to the station was a gain to thecommunity We had converted a liability into a usefulfamily manrdquo 9
Conflicts of Interest Sponsorshipcan also be plagued by problemsrelated to conflicts of interestsespecially when the sponsors arecommercial organizations
On the other hand sponsorshipfrom community-based associa-tions say of women farmers orfishermen can be extremelyimportant and so can sponsorshipfrom development organizationsand NGOs The same applies todonations from similar associa-tions or organizations
In the long term however relianceon outsiders will always put sustain-ability at risk Thus sustainabilityshould be seen as the ultimate res-ponsibility of the communityitself and the challenge to themanager of the station and to histeam of producers reporters andtechnicians is to make the serviceso enjoyable useful and valuableto its listeners that they will bewilling to support it through sub-scription fees voluntary donationsin cash or kind and the like
Keeping Staff
Sustainability is not only related tofunding the sustainability of staffis equally important Most person-nel working with a communityradio are volunteers and the men
volunteers are usually unemployedand looking for a paid job Thushigh staff turnover is a constantconcern Training which givespeople job satisfaction and careerprospects is one inducement (Forvolunteer work on a communityradio see Chapter 7 on training)Having women on staff may alsohelp reduce turnover because theyare less likely to be looking for jobsoutside the community
An innovative idea used in theUNESCODANIDA-supportedTambuli project in the Philippineswas to include livelihood-genera-ting activities for the staff of theradio stations The principle was to
provide small credits that wouldallow staff to start some commer-cial activity to support themselveswhile they continued to work asvolunteers with the radio In somestations this idea has worked wellbut in others it has been more dif-ficult to put into practice
53
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The radio station is excepted to address withintegrity and fairness the main issues andproblems in the community Sponsors and
donors with vested interests may potentially draw away the
station from its avowed directions or undulysway its programming decisions
54
LOOKING FOR OUTSIDE FUNDING FOR START-UPCOSTS
Community radios often manageto obtain funding from outsidedonors - such as national or inter-national NGOs or bilateral or multilateral development agencies- for the investment required forthe initial purchase of equipmentand to train staff The mission statement of the proposed com-munity radio is an essential ele-ment in any request for externalfunding It is also useful to puttogether a brief dossier that detailsall the important points about theproposed station in order toencourage a donor to invest in itCare is needed however not toproduce an over-glossy presenta-tion that could give the wrongimpression
Donors do not part easily withtheir funds and they will scrutinizethe proposed community radioproject with care They will want tosee how the points raised in Box 6have been answered and they willcertainly conduct their own on-siteenquiries
It should by now be clear that starting a community radio stationthough not particularly complica-ted does require a considerableamount of preparation and hardwork For the initiative to succeedit is vital not to skimp any of it
1 Legislation
bull What is the current legal situation for non-profit com-munity radio
bull If it is provided for in the legislation what are the termsfor obtaining a licence and the necessary qualificationsof the applicant
bull Is the cost of the licence affordable how long will ittake to obtain and what will be the terms for renewal
bull Can the transmitter be purchased and installed withouta licence or will prior approval of the telecommunica-tion authorities be needed
bull If community radio is not allowed for in the legislationwhat other avenues exist For example are the sameconditions for private commercial radio stations appli-cable to non-profit community stations Are there pro-visions for culturaleducational channels
bull If it is not possible to set up a proper radio station coulda community loudspeaker system be used instead
2 Location Criteria
bull Does the area planned for the broadcast pattern - 10-15km in radius - have a large enough population to sustaina community radio say from 5000 to 25000 people
bull Is the terrain suitable for low-power line-of-sight FMbroadcasting or is it too hilly
bull What mainstream commercial or state radios reach thecommunity If many do it may be difficult to sustain acommunity radio service Alternatively are there anymainstream media that could support or be linked intothe proposed community radio service
bull What cooperation and support can be mobilized fromlocal institutions and organizations eg local councilsgovernmental and non-governmental organizations
bull Is the site selected for the station centrally placed andeasily accessible to the community
3 Characteristics and Capabilities of Promoters ofCommunity Radio
bull What is the credibility level and the previous experienceof the people promoting the project
bull Are they generally acceptable to the stakeholders in theproject
bull What is their capacity to mobilize human and financialresources to sustain the operations of a communityradio
bull What is the level of democracy in their decision-making processes
bull Have they been accepted as credible and non-partisanactivists in the community with a reputation for integrityand transparency in their dealings
bull What are the constraints and opportunities for organizinga representative community radio council (Board ofDirectors) or a cooperative society for communitycommunication
4 Context for Setting the Objectives and Drafting a Mission Statement
bull How does the community perceive its situation and theneed for change and development Are people unhappywith the present circumstances and if so to what extentdo they see change as good and also as possible
bull What are the principle obstacles to those changes inattitude and behaviour that could help to promotedevelopment
bull What are the traditional decision-making processes inthe community and how might these be affected byopening a democratic forum for discussion in the shapeof a community radio
bull Who are the formal and informal opinion-leaders in thecommunity and are there any that hold explicit orimplicit leadership roles in relation to the proposedcommunity radio
BOX 6 Main Factors to Consider When Planning a Community Radio
1 Quote Zane Ibrahim and Ms Adams Bush Radio 895 FM(See Case Study 4)
2 Colin FraserSonia Restrepo-Estrada Focus Group Discussions inDevelopment Work Some Field Experiences and Lessons Learned Journal of Development Communication Number One Volume Nine(Kuala Lumpur June 1998) This article provides details of this subjectand technique for which there is only space for an outline here
3 Quote Bill Siemering US public radio activist (1997)
4 Quote Louie Tabing Manager of the UNESCODANIDA TambuliProject Philippines (1999)
5 Based on a written statement by W Jayaweera UNESCO Project Officer(1999)
6 Comment Zane Ibrahim and Ms Adams Radio by Bush Radio South Africa(See Case Study 4)
7 Personal communication Cilia Mosquera Manager of Radio CanaleteIstmina Colombia (1999)
8 Comment community broadcaster in Ecuador (See Case Study 5)
9 Quote Louie Tabing Manager of UNESCODANIDA Tambuli ProjectPhilippines (1999) 55
Com
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bull What points of resistance - either from individuals orgroups - might the community radio be expected toencounter in pursuing its declared objectives
bull Why and how could a community radio service help tobring about change and development In particularwhat impact could it have in mobilizing local resourcesfor development and in increasing community partici-pation for good governance
5 Technical Aspects
bull What is the situation regarding an electricity source forthe studio and for the transmitter
bull What transmission power is likely to be needed to coverthe community
bull Can the antenna be installed at least 30 m above theground firmly anchored to prevent wind damage andwith a lightning conductor
bull Can the antenna and transmitter be installed next toeach other - not more than 30 m apart
bull Can the studio and transmitter be installed far enoughapart to prevent radio frequency emissions from gettinginto the studio equipment
bull Is the place selected for the studio - as well as beingcentrally located and easily accessible to the population -free of uncontrollable noise and free of vested interests
6 Ownership and Management
bull What type of ownership structure can be envisaged
bull How is the community to be involved in managementand programming
bull To what extent do the plans for the community radiointegrate the traditionally vulnerable and marginalizedgroups - ie women youth and ethniclinguistic minorities - in the management and operations of theproposed community radio
7 Programming for the Community Radio Service
bull As an initial guide what programmes do people listento now which do they like most and why
bull What mechanisms can be set up to ensure regularconsultation and feedback with the community to ensurethat programmes meet their likes and needs
bull What special measures will be necessary to ensure thatprogramme producers respect the desires of theiraudience
bull Are there any particular programme formats that arelikely to be especially favourable or unfavourable inhelping to meet the objectives of the radio service
bull What mechanisms can be set up to identify individualsor groups that could produce their own programmes forbroadcast and how will they need to be encouraged andhelped
8 Staffing and other Resources
bull Is there enough interest and enthusiasm to be able tomobilize human and material resources to start and runthe station
bull Who can assume the task of the day-to-day manage-ment of the radio station
bull Is the proposed manager of the station acceptable to allsegments of the community and does heshe have thenecessary managerial and interpersonal communicationskills
bull What will the role of volunteers be in running the operation
bull What resources can be mobilized to ensure the start upof the community radio
bull What resources can be mobilized to sustain the com-munity radio over time
56
The church as a major institution of society has a major role to play
Phot
o C
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Moneky Bay Radio Station
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A A
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Chapter 6Programme Policies
57
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T his chapter stresses the need for participation of the audience in establishing programmingneeds and preferences in programme production (as presenters and performers) and in evaluation
It describes the crucial role of community news as part of an ongoing process of change and development discusses the ethical standards required by journalists and goes on to emphasize theimportance of balancing views in all programming
Later sections deal with policies for coverage of religiouscultural events local election broadcastsand educational broadcasts
The final section is on the importance of audience surveys and outlines how to conduct them
After absorbing the Chapter the reader will
bull Be able to establish programming policies and operations that will achieve maximum partici-pation of the community and its various sectors at all stages
bull Be able to set up mechanisms to ensure that programming meets audience needs and wishes
bull Know the ethical principles for news gathering and reporting and for maintaining a balance ofviews in a programme
bull Be aware of the possible legal conditions surrounding coverage of local elections and knowhow to handle coverage fairly and objectively
bull Gain insights into the use of radio as an educational medium and know the requirements tomake it effective
PARTICIPATORY PROGRAMMES
Any successful radio station mustappeal to the interests tastes anddesires of its audience What makesprogrammes for a community radiodifferent is that in addition to pleasingentertaining and perhaps providingsome general enlightenment for itsaudience they also seek to facilitatechange social progress and betterliving conditions in the community thatthe radio serves
It needs high numbers of listeners andaudience loyalty to achieve this but theunique advantage that communityradio has over any other type of broad-casting in winning audience is its abilityto be specifically relevant to the particular needs interests and desiresof its relatively small audienceHowever it can only reach this level ofrelevance through the constant invol-vement and participation of thataudience in the planning operationand evaluation of its programming
58
Participation in AscertainingNeeds and Preferences
A consultation process is requiredto establish certain things abouteach of the main audience sectors(eg women men youth farmerscooperative members etc) Themain points to be ascertained are
bull Listenersrsquo needs
bull Listenersrsquo preferences
bull Listening habits (ie times of daywhen people mainly tune in)
This information is the basis fordeciding on programme contentformat and the scheduling of pro-grammes at times that best suit thevarious segments of the audience
Participation in ProducingProgrammes
Everything possible should be doneto encourage individuals andgroups to participate in program-me production In this contextgroups might also be NGOs working in the community or staffof government services The principle role of the station staffapart from encouragement shouldbe to provide technical support andfacilities to the producers
In the Philippines an interestingp ro g ra m m e fo r m a t c a l l e dBaranggayan sa Himpapawid
roughly lsquoVillage on the Airrsquo hasbeen developed by the UNESCO-DANIDA supported Tambuli ProjectThe programme is produced in adifferent village each week in thearea covered by the communityradiorsquos broadcast pattern
In essence it is a variety show inwhich the villagers take the lead assingers musicians humorists poetsinterviewers and interviewees panelmembers and so on Althoughmost of the programme consists oflocal culture and entertainment italso contains a section that givesthe community the chance to discuss relevant issues and villageconcerns in public with local leaderscalled on to respond and maketheir opinions and position clearThis often gives rise to a debate onthe subject
A k a r a o k e s y s t e m - t h erecorderplayback lsquosing-alongrsquomachine which is very well knowneven in Philippine villages - usuallyserves as the outside recording studio Its familiarity to the villagershelps to reduce possible inhibitions
The programme is normally broad-cast the day after it is recorded andit is enormously popular even if thevillagers who produced it had noprevious experience of talking orsinging in front of a microphone
Participation of Individuals andGroups as Presenters orPerformers
Obviously programme formats like lsquoVillage on the Airrsquo in thePhilippines provide occasions forordinary people to present and perform in front of a microphoneBut even without such a program-me format it is important to solicitand support performances thatinvolve ordinary people These cantake a variety of forms includingfor example musical presentationsreadings of poetry comic skits orquite simply interviews round-tables or discussions in whichpeople present their ideas and opinions about any issue that is ofinterest to the communityProgramme formats that inviteparticipation from people in thecommunity should be a regular feature of the stationrsquos broadcasts
Every effort should also be made tohave the radio station seen as afocal point in the communitywhere people are free to come andtalk to the staff and discuss ideasfor programmes in which theycould be involved
An Overview of Programming
Programming decisions are among the most sensitiveand challenging tasks in a station This activity isnecessary when starting a radio station or whenmodifications are called for Periodic evaluation exercises usually trigger a programming revamp
Long hours of consultation and brainstorming sessions are devoted to programme planning A cunning programme manager serves to facilitate aparticipatory deliberation ndash rather than dictateideas - to determine the thrust format content andphilosophies By participating the staff [too] becomeenthusiastic implementers of the programme planIndeed participation makes the station a genuinecommunity radio 1
This graph shows the time avilability of various target groups for radio listening Different localities may show slightly varying trends from this
hypothetical illustration To determine the time slots of programmes designed for specific groups the programmers must at least figure
out if not make a formal research on the habits of their target listeners
Time Availability Chart
BROADCAST TIME
Participation in Evaluation ofProgramming
Community radio stations normallyreceive considerable numbers ofletters andor telephone callsfrom listeners These often providefeedback from the audience aboutthe stationrsquos programmes Thisprocess is very useful to the stationpersonnel and the audience shouldtherefore be encouraged by theannouncers and presenters towrite or call with their comments orsuggestions
However in addition to this routinefeedback a community radioshould conduct periodic evalua-tions of its programming with theparticipation of members of itsvarious audience sectors TheFocus Group Discussion techniqueoutlined earlier is an excellentmethod for eliciting peoplersquos opin-ions about existing programmestheir effects on community lifeand their ideas as to how programmes could be improved
Individual programmes may alsobe evaluated in conjunction withthe audience Programmes arenormally analyzed from two basicviewpoints
bull The formal structure of the programme including its technicalquality (the sound effects used
performance of the announcersand other participants controlof extraneous noise etc)
bull The content of the programmewith specific relation to
Information sources - were theywell selected credible and suffi-cient in number
Context - were the themes of theprogramme pertinent to the specific situation and needs of theaudience
Timeliness - were the themes ofthe programme pertinent in thesense of covering an actual orongoing situation
Actors and roles - did the physicalactors (persons) and the non-physical actors (institutions) eachplay their appropriate role in theprogramme
Communication approach ndash wasthe programme one-way or participatory Did it lead to anycritical analysis by the audience
bull Message formulation - did thecentral message come out clearlyWas there a good balance bet-ween rational emotional andaffective elements Was the format suitably matched withthe content
It is vital that a community radiomanager and his or her staff realize from the beginning thatprogramming decisions must bepart of a dynamic processFeedback and evaluations shouldbe constantly driving the processof improving and adapting theprogramming to meet the needsand preferences of the listenersAnd it must be remembered thatthese are not necessarily constantTo fall into a programming routineand to assume that listeners aresatisfied with what is on offer isthe short road to listeners desert-ing the frequency And that in turnis the short road to the death ofthe community radio
Peoplersquos views and opinions are important for strenghtheningdemocratic practice and for arriving at a cooperative approach tocommunity development Hence in Olutanga a small island in thesouthern part of Zamboanga Philippines the Village on the Airprogramme is the most popular of all It exemplifies the key themeof community radio- participation of the people
59
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mun
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Phot
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Tab
ing
60
COMMUNITY NEWS
Community news is a unique feature and a prime strength thatgives a community radio station theinside track in competing againstlarger commercial or government stations However it must beremembered that the news provided by community radio incontrast to that of the mainstreammedia is not an isolated story orevent alone rather it should bepart of an ongoing and future process that is supporting progressand development in the communityRegular local news broadcasts inthe context of a process are thereforethe lifeblood of a community radioProgramming policies and opera-tions need to give them maximumimportance
Gathering local news is not alwayseasy especially when limitedresources make transportation andmobility for station personnel diffi-cult The idea of lsquopopular reportersrsquo- essentially a few volunteers scat-tered in the community - whoreport in to the studio by telephonecellular phone or VHF radio isalways worth pursuing
However journalistic ethics are justas important in community newsgathering and reporting as they arefor any major news organization
Indeed these ethics can be evenmore important in a communityradio For given the more intimaterelationship that exists betweenthe radio and its audience and thefact that the audience is also inter-related because it is part of a com-munity incorrect or tendentiousreporting or misrepresentation ofan event or issue can have moreimmediate and damaging effectsthan they would in a larger and lessinvolved audience
Thus a community radiorsquos programming policy with regard tocommunity news needs to be basedon having personnel and outsidereporters who have been properlyinitiated into the ethics of journa-lism These cover such aspects ashonesty fairness and objectivityand verification of sources beforeissuing a news item It is difficultnot to make the occasional mistakebut if it does happen an immediateacknowledgement and correctionshould be broadcast (See also the Code of Conduct in the next chapter)
Many community radios also pre-sent news bulletins that includeregional national and internationalitems The source for these is usuallythe mainstream media ndash newspapersradio and TV It is sometimes possible to arrange a link up with a
state or commercial radio stationand re-broadcast its news bulletinto the community Some communityradios make a point of having newsitems discussed on air by listenerseither through telephone calls orby 2-3 member panels in the studio
Whatever approach is used for out-side news the overall policy shouldbe to present or comment on it in away that makes it accessible andmeaningful to the communityaudience
BALANCING VIEWS
The main thrust of a communityradio should be to try to promotefair discussion and debate that canlead to resolution of conflictingviewpoints and to democraticconsensus The personnel of thestation and the way they work arefundamental in achieving this (Theterm lsquopersonnelrsquo of course includesvolunteers)
The staff of the radio station mustof course appear to be neutral Thisis not to say that they will not havetheir own personal points of viewbut they must on no account lettheir opinions influence the waythey stimulate and conduct any dis-cussions or make presentations onair A station manager should bewatchful for any manifestations of
DECLARATION OF PRINCIPLES ON THE CONDUCTOF JOURNALISTS
Adopted by the Second World Congress of theInternational Federation of Journalists at Bordeaux25-28 April 1954 and amended by the 18th IFJ WorldCongress in Helsingoumlr 2-6 June 1986 This interna-tional declaration is proclaimed as a standard of pro-fessional conduct for journalists engaged in gathe-ring transmitting disseminating and commentingon news and information and in describing events
1 Respect for truth and for the right of the public to truthis the first duty of the journalist
2 In pursuance of this duty the journalist shall at all timesdefend the principles of freedom in the honest collectionand publication of news and of the right of fair commentand criticism
3 The journalist shall report only in accordance with factsof which heshe knows the origin The journalist shallnot suppress essential information or falsify documents
4 The journalist shall use only fair methods to obtainnews photographs and documents
5 The journalist shall do the utmost to rectify any publishedinformation which is found to be harmfully inaccurate
6 The journalist shall observe professional secrecy regardingthe source of information obtained in confidence
7 The journalist shall be aware of the danger of discrimination being furthered by the media and shalldo the utmost to avoid facilitating such discriminationbased on among other things race sex sexual orientationlanguage religion political or other opinions and national or social origins
8 The journalist shall regard as grave professional offencesthe following plagiarism malicious misrepresentationcalumny slander libel unfounded accusations theacceptance of a bribe in any form in consideration ofeither publication or suppression
9 Journalists worthy of that name shall deem it their dutyto observe faithfully the principles stated above Withinthe general law of each country the journalist shall recognize in professional matters the jurisdiction of colleagues only to the exclusion of every kind of interference by government or others
bias by his staff while on air as wellas in hisher normal socialcontacts for if any staff are knownto have a strong position on somesubject and express it openly insocial conversations it will bemore difficult for them to presenta position of neutrality while onair Furthermore station managersshould take seriously and lookinto any complaints from listenersabout bias or manipulation ofinformation in the work of the stationrsquos personnel
The balancing of views also callsfor equal opportunity and time toallow different viewpoints to beexpressed on air The managementshould have a rigid policy thatensures this
It must always be rememberedthat the credibility and integrity ofthe service and of the personnelwho run it are crucial to its successand sustainability
COVERAGE OF RELIGIOUSAND CULTURAL EVENTS
Religious functions in a communi-ty are often cultural events as wellAdequate coverage of these occa-sions has to be included in theradio stationrsquos programme In amulti-religious community theradio station should take the
necessary steps to ensure reason-able access to all the different reli-gious institutions and denomina-tions To achieve this it is oftengood to have a committee of differ-ent religious leaders to agree onand advise the station on airtimeallocation for different religiousprogrammes The basic thrust ofreligious programming should betowards promoting religious harmony in the community deni-gration of other peoplersquos religiousbeliefs must be avoided at all costs
LOCAL ELECTION BROADCASTS
Some countriesrsquo legislation specifi-cally forbids community radio tobecome involved in any way withpolitical campaigning Othersallow campaigning under strictlycontrolled conditions only duringspecified election periods Themanagement of a communityradio should examine carefully theparticular legal situation withregard to electioneering
If a community radio is involved inpolitical campaigns it is essentialthat no party or candidate derivesundue advantage or suffers unduedisadvantage A transparent sys-tem of providing equal opportuni-ty and equal time to duly register-ed political parties and candidates
must be established The conceptof equality in opportunity andtime must take into account thelength of the broadcast the qualityof presentation and any advantagesthat might accrue from the timeand day of the broadcast If noagreement can be reached betweenthose concerned drawing of lotsor some similar system may beused
Any programme of a politicalnature which is sponsored or paidfor with the intention of influen-cing voters in a certain directionmust be properly identified as suchat the beginning at regular intervalsduring the programme and againat the end (See also the section onpolitical broadcasts in the Code ofConduct in Chapter 7)
Community radio can effectivelymonitor and ensure good conductof elections and thus support thisvital democratic process
EDUCATIONAL BROADCASTS (School on the Air)
In the 1960s and 1970s when ruralbroadcasting was being widelypromoted by development agen-cies there was much emphasisgiven to the educational possibilitiesoffered by radio a strategy
Everywhere religion plays a major role in the lives of people Community radiobroadcasters must also learn to appreciate this role while keeping radio free
from undue religious influences
61
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rd
62
pioneered by Radio Sutatenza inColombia However experienceshows that as an educationmedium radio alone is weak itneeds to be supported by othermedia such as printed materials aswell as by inter-personal contactsto form a complete educationalpackage
A community radio may well decidethat part of its programmingshould consist of educationalbroadcasts for example for farmerson agricultural techniques or formothers on childcare and nutritionIf such a policy decision is takenthe best results will be achievedwhen it is based on proper adulteducation methodology Thisbegins with careful structuring of
the educational content of thebroadcasts in accordance with thetraineesrsquo circumstances needs andcapacities It should also involvesome sort of enrolment and recog-nition award for successful comple-tion of a course in order to enhancepeoplersquos sense of commitmentAnd the radio programmes shouldbe supported by other materialsgroup discussions and inter-personalfollow-up
Setting up a programme of educa-tional broadcasts can be a veryworthwhile objective for a commu-nity radio but it needs to be care-fully thought out planned andwork in conjunction with theappropriate services in say healthor agriculture Advice and support
from an adult education specialist
can help to ensure successful
programmes
Whether or not a community radio
decides to broadcast educational
programmes per se its policy
should take into account that edu-
cation in the broad sense of the
word and in the context of helping
people to improve their lives is one
of the fundamental objectives of
community radio Thus educa-
tional content will always be present
though it may be built into a variety
of formats including reportage
interviews panel questionanswer
sessions or discussions entertaining
drama etc
School on the Air ndash Girandurukotte CommunityRadio Sri Lanka
ldquoThe School on the Air was an action-oriented programme whose primary objective was to provideinstructional education in a manner that would leadto action It also attempted to develop a coordinatedapproach in which all those concerned with thedevelopment of the area could work together We
believed that such an approach would pave the wayfor our listeners to put into practice the instructionsthey received through radio and other channels ofcommunication
The radio producer in charge of agricultural pro-grammes worked with the agricultural extension officers in the area and with the committee thatadvised on the farming programme of the School onthe Air to develop an agricultural calendar and toidentify on-farm activities and their technicalcontent for the coming season
The calendar with the relevant technical informationwas produced and circulated among 115 farmers whoenrolled in the agricultural programme of the Schoolon the Air These farmers were asked to listen to theradio programme and to make notes in the blankspace provided in the calendar itself
A question was asked at the end of each programmeto which the farmers sent in their reply either bymail or during a visit to the radio stationThe programme received an average of 200-250replies many of which were from farmers not enrolled in the programme
The correct answers were discussed in the follow- upprogramme and those who had provided correct answers received marks
A seasonal course usually lasted 2-3 months and atthe end of the course farmers who had collected anaggregate of pass marks were awarded a School onthe Air certificaterdquo 3
Phot
o C
A A
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In Laurel Batangas a police officer runs the lsquoTraffic and Good Behaviourrsquo programmeThe studio is an abandoned classroom at the local high school
Phot
o L
Tab
ing
Some stations like Radio Voice of Manduyog in Banga Aklan Province are fortunate tobe linked to an educational institution In this instance the Aklan State College ofAgriculture serves its community with agricultural and technical programmes as well aspublic service womenrsquos programmes children stories good behaviour Students volunteerfor station duty as researchers or announcers
AUDIENCE SURVEYSA community radio that has goodfeedback from its audiencethrough letters telephone callsand visits to the studio and whichregularly conducts participatoryevaluations of its work as describedearlier will have access to muchqualitative information Howeverthis may not be enough to providea full picture of a radio stationrsquosperformance and standing Theindependence of an outside surveyteam is required to obtain reliableanswers to questions such as
bull Does the station have credibilityamong its listeners
bull Is the station seen as a reliablesource of information
bull What image and status do thestaff have in the eyes of the community
bull To what extent does the com-munity depend on the stationfor information and develop-ment materials
bull What do listeners do with theinformation they gain Do theyuse it store it pass it on toothers or look for additionalinformation
bull What impact is the radio havingin the community Whatchanges can be essentially attributed to the radio
In addition some quantitativedata may be needed about howmany people listen to the station
and when compared to other stations and how many listen toparticular programmes This infor-mation provides a picture of howthe community radio stands inrelation to other media channelsavailable to the audience
The type of information mentionedabove is often difficult to obtainThere are specialized companiesthat conduct audience researchusually for large commercial stations They have a natural tendency to inflate the listeningfigures so that the radio stationthat contracted the survey can usehigh ratings as a basis for chargingmore for advertising time In addition the experience of thesecompanies is mainly urban
Unfortunately the gadgetry usedby mainstream media to electronic-ally record the number of receiverstuned into a programme and evenwhen the channel is changed isbeyond the reach of communityradio stations So other methodsneed to be used to obtain thequantitative data
The commonest method is to takea sample of the audience - specialsampling techniques exist for theselection - and have them answer aquestionnaire either by mail orduring an interview The resultsare extrapolated to give a picturefor the whole community
The radio station itself canuse certain techniques totry to determine listeningpatterns One of these isto invite the audience tosend in entries to acontest or to make contri-butions to a communitycampaign The announce-ment is systematicallyrepeated throughout thedayrsquos programming andthe respondents are askedto say at what time ortimes they heard theannouncement
In most countries one candiscard the use of com-mercial media research organiza-tions for community radio It isbetter to enlist the help of NGOsuniversity students or volunteerswho are unknown in the commu-nity to conduct surveys and inter-views (If interviewers are knownin the community respondentsmay feel conditioned in the waythey answer) What is ideal is toget help from the staff of anothercommunity radio station for suchan outsider view They also learnfrom the experience
However difficult it may be toarrange surveys by outsiders fromtime to time are important to beable to gauge the way a communi-ty radio is functioning and thestanding it enjoys among itsaudience
Bus stops provide unique opportunities to gain feedback from audience and conduct interestinginterviews In Punka the Chief of Programmes of Bhutan Radio interviews an expectant passenger While waiting for the bus his handy radio helps pass the time
63
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1 Louie Tabing Programming Tips for a Community Radio Station UNESCO-DANIDA Tambuli Project (Manila 1998)
2 Louie Tabing et al Neighbourhood Radio Production UNESCO-DANIDATambuli Project Manila undated
3 Based on MJR David Mahaweli Community Radio A Field ProducerrsquosNotebook Institute of Development Communication Laguna(Philippines 1993)
Interviewing for Agricultural School on the Air Sri Lanka Recordingtraditional songs for transplanting rice
Phot
o W
Jay
awee
ra
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rnal
do
64
Homa Bay Radio Station
Phot
o U
nesc
o
Chapter 7The Community Broadcaster
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mun
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T his chapter provides a prototype code of conduct for community broadcasters A community
radio service could use it as it stands or it could modify it according to any special local needs
or conditions It includes sections on programme production and on ethics conduct and
teamwork during operations and in the studio on the care of equipment and on the general conduct of
broadcasters in their normal life in the community
Other sections deal with conduct related to financial matters and provide details of how these can
be handled Appropriate policies and conduct for political broadcasts and for advertising
and sponsorship are also covered
Sections on the selection and training of community broadcasters give advice on selection criteria
on the content and categories of training required and describe various types of training modalities
There is a discussion of the pros and cons of on-site in-country and overseas training and a final
section on the financing of training
The reader can expect to
bull Gain an understanding of the need for and content of a code of conduct for community
broadcasters
bull Have a model code of conduct to apply as it stands or to modify to suit local circumstances
bull Learn about the different types and content of training needed by community broadcasters
and have guidelines for the general planning and organizing of training activities
CODE OF CONDUCT
The conduct of the personnel whowork with a community radio is centralto achieving the levels of efficiencyintegrity and positive image requiredfor its success Some national broadcasting legislations that includecommunity radio also provide a codeof conduct for broadcasters In additionthe UNESCODANIDA supportedTambuli Project in the Philippines hasdrawn up a code of its own 1
Although most codes of conduct arealmost identical in their generalapproach there may also be a need forspecial points to cover aspects that arespecific to a certain country For exam-ple where community radios areallowed to accept advertising or becomeinvolved in political campaigns theproper ethical conduct of these willneed to be included in the code
It is a useful idea therefore for community broadcasters in a countryto form associations and agree on acommon code of conduct appropriateto their circumstances In essence the 65
66
code of conduct should be a professional instrument for self-regulation and not a law or regula-tion enforced by government Thecommunity being served by thestation should also be informed ofthe code being applied
The code of conduct which followsbelow brings together elementsfrom several sources but it is basedon the structure of the Tambulidocument It is provided as a proto-type which community radios mayuse or modify as they wish
A PROTOTYPE CODE OF CONDUCT
Preparing and ConductingBroadcasts
General
bull Programmes should be well pre-pared in order to present newideas new information and newpoints of view
bull Broadcasters should obtain infor-mation from reliable sources andorganize their programmesproperly before going on air
bull A good balance should be main-tained between news entertain-ment and public-service programmes
bull Programming should maintain abalance that properly reflects the
differing interests of the variousmajority and minority sectors inthe community
Research
bull Broadcasters should actively andconstantly be researching newinteresting and comprehensiveinformation The most persistentresearchers and enquirers willultimately be the most reliablesources of information for otherpeople
Decency and Good Taste
bull Programmes should excludematerial that is indecent obsceneor offensive to public morals orto the religious convictions of anysector of the community
bull Programmes should promotegood relationships between differ-ent sectors of the community andshould most certainly avoid pre-judicing them
bull Justifiable material that relates tobrutality violence atrocitiesdrug abuse and obscenity shouldbe presented with due care andsensitivity and always in contextnot gratuitously Special care isnecessary when children are likelyto hear the programme
bull Broadcasters should rememberthat listeners especially children
and youth may make radioannouncers and presenters theirrole model and therefore theyshould behave accordingly
Respect for Privacy
bull Broadcasters should use care andconsideration in matters involv-ing the private lives and concernsof individuals The interest andeven the right to know of a com-munity is not a licence to invade apersonrsquos privacy But there can becases of exceptional overridingand legitimate public interestthat waive the right to privacy
bull Information provided by an inter-viewee as off-the-record shouldbe treated as such by a reporter
Preference for a Positive andConstructive Approach
bull Broadcasters should stronglyavoid the temptation to includerumours gossip slurs criticismsconflicts and indirect propagan-da in their programmes
bull Where the public interest is atstake and a controversy must bediscussed on air the broadcastersshould do everything in theirpower to present all sides of thestory
Responsibilities
ldquoLike every bestowed opportunity the privilege touse radio carries with it responsibilities - towards theinstitution and more than this towards society It isthe responsibility of anyone using the power of communication to uphold the dignity of the stationand his co-workers Radio is a powerful tool withwhich one person can manifest care for the community dependent on him for fair honest andtruthful communication rather than serve selfishmotives It is easy to detect whether a broadcaster isrepresenting his interest or that of the communitywhere he belongsrdquo 2
lsquoHate Radiorsquo A Warning
The former Director-General of UNESCO AmadouMahtar MrsquoBow stated ldquoBecause radio can be verypowerful it may sometimes be detrimental to thepeople it aims to serve We saw in Rwanda that aradio station Radio Mille Collines contributedgreatly and criminally to the tragedy that hit thatcountry To avoid human rights abuses even minorones community media practitioners and humanrights activists are trying to rally internationallyaround a Peoples Communication Charter that pro-vides guiding principles to prevent such potentialabuses Inter alia the Charter states that ldquorestrictions on access to information should be permissible only for good and compelling reasons as when prescribed by international human rightsstandards or necessary for the protection of a democratic society or the basic rights of othersrdquo
A Real Emergency is the Only Valid Excuse
ldquoIt is only in emergency cases that an announcer maybe allowed to absent himself without previous noticeThis would need to be on the level of a deathof a member of his household or the need tobring to the hospital a member of the familywho is running a fever of 40 degreesrdquo 3
bull Broadcasters should emphasizeinteresting and useful informa-tion rather than dwell onunsavoury conflicts
bull When dealing with a problemrather than bemoaning it thestress should be placed on dis-cussing it in the positive light ofwhat possible actions could betaken and by whom to solve it
Conduct During Operations
Teamwork
bull The personnel of a communityradio are all part of a team andshould act and work as such Thismeans among other thingsbeing willing to help a colleaguewho is in difficulty for any reasonand co-operating by providinginformation contacts andmaterials to colleagues who mayneed them
bull Individuals should participate inevaluations and discussions andencourage their colleagues toassess and criticize their work
bull Individuals should be willing toaccept and act upon evaluationcritiques
bull Broadcasters should be willing tomake announcements that promote other programmes inthe stationrsquos schedule
bull In live programmes it should benormal practice for a broadcasterto stand in for the programmefollowing hishers if the nextbroadcaster should be delayedThe broadcast should never beleft unattended
Respect for Management
bull Personnel should respect themanagement and comply fullywith the administrative andoperational procedures it hasput in place
bull Any disagreements betweenstaff member(s) and the man-agement should be first discussed with the station manager If the problem cannotbe resolved at that level thematter should be referred to themanagement body of the community radio whose decisionshould be final Respect fromboth sides and a democraticprocess should be observed inthese discussions with the inter-ests of the radio station and thecommunity it serves as the dominating criterion
Punctuality and Reliability
bull Personnel who are to go on airmust be punctual leaving suffi-cient lead-time to prepare them-selves and their materials and to
confer with the station manageror with guests or interviewees asnecessary An absolute mini-mum of ten minutes beforebroadcast time should beobserved though consider-ably longer lead-time isusually advisable
bull If an individual anticipates notbeing able to fulfil a broadcastcommitment heshe shouldinform the station manager atleast one day before so that areplacement can be appointedand have time to prepare properly
Conduct in the Studio Premises
bull No personnel should be allowedto bring firearms into the studioeven if they are members of thepolice or military
bull Drinking or taking of illicit drugsin the studio premises should betreated as a violation of the sta-tionrsquos standing and integrity Soshould coming to the stationintoxicated or under the influenceof drugs
bull Broadcasters should not inviteguests and relatives to the studiopremises without briefing themon proper behaviour especiallywith regard to orderliness andsilence 67
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mun
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Broadcasters mustbecome a reliablesource of information for people
In no case should the announcer cometo the sudio less than10 minutes
before broadcast time
68
bull Guests should not be allowed todistract broadcasters disruptactivities or tamper with or pilferstation equipment and property
bull Children visiting the stationshould always be accompanied by aparent or other responsible adult
Care of Studio Equipment
bull Every member of the stationrsquos staffshould participate in preserving itsequipment and property
bull The operation of studio equip-ment should only be by peoplewho have been trained qualifiedand authorized to use it
bull All equipment not in use shouldbe switched off All personnelshould be obliged to clean recapcover and store equipment theyhave used in their proper place
bull No piece of equipment should betaken out of the studio premiseswithout the prior approval of thestation manager or the person towhom heshe has delegated con-trol of such matters Ideally thisapproval should be in writing
bull Any equipment taken out of thestudio premises should bereturned promptly after use
bull Systems of usage and borrowingshould be set up A userrsquos log anda borrowerrsquos log should be kept
bull Broadcasters should immediatelyreport to the station manager orothers in authority any malfunc-tion loss or damage to equip-ment they were using noting thetime and circumstances in whichit happened
bull Based on the points outlinedabove the station manager inconjunction with the rest of themanagement body of the com-munity radio should establishregulations for the use of itsequipment and ensure that allpersonnel are aware of them
Conduct of Personnel Outsidethe Radio Station
bull Community broadcasters arereformers and agents of positivechange and development Theircomportment in their social andfamily life and in their life in gen-eral in the community shouldmatch the image they project asstaff of the community radio
bull Any member of the staff shouldbe automatically dismissed iffound guilty of any criminal orillicit activity The managementof a community radio shouldhave the constitutional right tosuspend or dismiss any such person especially when it isdeemed that keeping himher
would prejudice the image andstanding of the station
bull No member of the staff shoulddivulge classified information
Solicitation of FundsAdvertising or Sponsorship
bull Only personnel who have beenspecifically designated to do soby the management should beallowed to solicit or receive donations grants sponsorship orany other form of financial support for the community radioor for specific programmes Theauthorization to solicit or collectfunds should be in writing
bull No radio station should acceptfunds from any illegal source orfrom any source whose activitieshave a negative effect on thecommunity society or the countryeg gambling rings smugglersdrug traffickers producers orpurveyors of tobacco and alcoholconcerns that are damaging orpolluting the environment etc
bull No funds should be acceptedfrom political parties or otherinterest groups that could latercompromise the stationrsquos editorialindependence
Caution with Record Companies
ldquoCommunity stations can end up playingmusic all day The music industry makes iteasy to lsquospin discsrsquo instead of providing thecommunity with the programming it needsWhen a record company gives a station freemusic the station becomes a record sales outlet for the only place people hear new music is on radioIn South Africa record sales increased dramaticallywhen community radio began Another problem isthe gifts and unsolicited attention that many recordcompanies lavish on the individual who is responsiblefor the lsquoplay listrsquo of tunes that are broadcast to givethe station its identityrdquo 4
Management of FinancialResources
bull The community radio shoulddesignate a treasurer whoshould open a bank account forthe safekeeping and disbursementof its financial resources Thechoice of bank should be madein conjunction with the manage-ment body of the radio
bull Two signatures should berequired for withdrawal of fundsfrom the bank account
bull All funds grants earnings collections and other incomeshould be remitted to the desig-nated treasurer as soon as possibleand never later than 24 hoursafter being received Any personnel who keep funds forlonger should be considered tohave misappropriated them andbe disciplined accordingly
bull The treasurer should keep arecord of all receipts and payments This should be avail-able for inspection at any timeby any member of the manage-ment or by the authorities
bull Only after income has beengiven to the treasurer and itsreceipt duly recorded should itbecome expendable No staffshould be permitted to use
unrecorded incomeeven to reim-burse legitimateexpenses theym a y h a v ei n c u r r e d
bull The stationm a n a g e rshould haveaccess to ap e t t y c a s hf u n d T h i ss h o u l d b ereplenished bythe treasurer whenever it fallsbelow a predetermined amountFull records of the petty cashexpenditures and replenish-ments should be kept
bull The community should be keptinformed at regular intervals ofthe financial state of their radiostation and also have the rightto ask for related information atany time
Political Broadcasts (where allowed)
bull The community radio manage-ment should ascertain in detailany provisions in the nationalbroadcasting legislation con-cerning radio coverage duringpolitical campaigns and abide bythem scrupulously
bull bull
bull Broadcasters should not giveundue advantage or disadvan-tage to any political party orcandidate
bull Equal opportunity and equaltime should be accorded to dulyregistered political parties andcandidates Equality in this con-text takes into account thelength of the broadcast thequality of presentation and anypossible advantages from thetime and day of the broadcast
bull If no agreement on such equalitycan be reached between thoseconcerned drawing of lots orsome similar system may beused
bull News and other informationprogrammes should be edited 69
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70
for strictly factual informationand should avoid bias in favour oragainst any political party or candidate
bull Any personnel of a communi-ty radio including the man-agement body should resigntheir post and refrain fromany regular activity as a broad-caster before or at the time ofdeclaring their intention ofbecoming involved in any politicalor partisan activity
Advertising and Sponsorship(where allowed)
bull The management body shoulddecide whether advertisingwhen allowed under the existinglegislation is compatible with the aims and objectives of the community radio
bull If it is decided to accept advertisingthe management body shouldestablish criteria for the types ofcommercial interests whose publicity will be broadcast
bull Preference should be given toevents goods and services beingorganized or offered by commer-cial concerns within the area inwhich the community radio is situated
bull Advertising should not be accepted
from concerns offering goods thatare harmful to individuals to thecommunity or to society especiallyin terms of health or behaviour(eg tobacco and alcohol) Norshould advertising be accepted foritems that are generally detrimentalto the socio-economic welfare ofthe poor (eg junk food carbonat-ed drinks and other items that are low in nutritional value and relatively high in cost)
bull In respect of sponsorship - whereallowed - and advertising careshould be taken to ensure thatthere is no potential conflict ofinterest between the sponsor oradvertiser and the change anddevelopment objectives of theradio station
Advertisements by PoliticalParties and Candidates
Advertising by political interestsduring election campaigns - asdistinct from party politicalbroadcasts - presents a specialproblem The communityradio management body
should take one of three possible decisions
bull Apply the principle of equaltime and opportunity to politicaladvertisements as in the caseof party political broadcasts
bull Allow each party the freedom tobuy as much air time as it wantsand can afford
bull Not accept advertisements frompolitical parties or candidates
Some community radios chargehigher rates for political advertise-ments than they do for commercialones and it is tempting to solvemany of the sustainability problemsthat afflict all community radios byselling air time willy-nilly to all thepolitical interests that want it andcan pay for it Nevertheless it isdubious whether a communityradio should help the alreadystrong parties to get strongeragainst the weaker alternative par-ties that might bring greater socialprogress From an ethical view-point it is probably better to apply
Some Typical Examples of Potential Conflicts ofInterest between Advertising Revenue and theGeneral Good
bull Revenue from infant formula producers or retailersversus promoting the healthier practice of breast-feeding
bull Revenue from farm pesticide manufacturers versusthe need to promote integrated pest management
bull Revenue from international bottlers of carbonateddrinks versus promoting the use of locally grownfruit-based drinks
bull Sponsorship for a farming programme fromcommercial dealers or outlets of farm produce ver-sus support to farmers to obtain better prices
bull Sponsorship from a mining company with localoperations versus the need to reduce its negativeenvironmental impact
The Commercial Radio Viewpoint
After a series of elections in Ecuador spread over a short time the owner of a commercial stationin Cuenca said only half joking These politically unstable times have saved half of us frombankruptcy 5
Training Experience at Radio Sagarmatha Nepal
Two types of training have been conducted the firstfocusing on broad concepts and techniques has successfully upgraded general skills and brought people into the fold the second has been integratedinto the stations specific needs and context workingwith producers and developing new programmes
The first type has been done with foreign resourcesgenerally the training centres of international broadcasters This training was important for identifying and developing human resources While Nepal has excellent media resources of its ownthe expertise of these international broadcasters hasbeen extremely beneficial
The second type has used local resources and integrated the needs of the station and of thetrainees into the planning and conducting of trainingcourses using a more hands-on on-the-job approachThis has proved appropriate to the overall development of the station and to existing and available technologies This training has beenconducted by station personnel and internationaltechnical advisers working locally It has concentrat-ed on existing station staff rather than new recruits
the equality principle or not toaccept any political advertisingeven if this means loss of revenue
SELECTION OF COMMUNITY BROADCASTERS
Some community radios arestaffed by people chosen mainlyfor their commitment to the wel-fare and improvement of theirown community and for theirinterest in radio as an instrumentfor social progress Other commu-nity radios are able to draw onpeople who have some experienceor training in the area of commu-nication or journalism but whomay be outsiders to the communi-ty Although they may have a bet-ter education and more skills thanordinary members of a communi-ty they may well be at an initialdisadvantage until they havegained full insight into how thecommunity functions
When selecting people from thecommunity it is usual to apply certain other criteria besidesthese peoplersquos sense of commit-ment They should be residents ofthe community with no immediateintention of migrating away fromit they should have good oralcommunication skills they shouldbe of good moral standing and
have leadership potential theyshould be representative of anyethnic and religious groupings andof political affiliations in the com-munity and they should have timeavailable for the initial training andfor a volunteer job
The balance between women andmen is particularly important Inmany countries it is usually mainlymen who come forward whentraining is being offered but it isessential that women be integratedinto the operation in balance withmen Quite apart from fundamentalissues of gender equity most com-munity radios have high numbersof listeners among women whoneed information that is best supplied by other women Womenon the air will also help others toassume an equitable and respectedrole in the affairs of the communi-ty and its development Staff sustainability will usually beimproved by having womenbecause they are less likely to leavethe community in search of work
In one community radio in SouthAfrica which provides training forbroadcasters no training course isallowed to go ahead unless at leasthalf of the participants arewomen (See Case Study 4) Insome countries it may be difficultfor cultural reasons to insist on this
condition immediately but itshould certainly be a target every-where
TRAINING OF COMMUNITY BROADCASTERS
Community radio stations veryoften begin with people who havenever been inside a radio studionever held a microphone andnever had any involvement withthe world of media or journalismTraining such people presents anoteworthy challenge but experi-ence has shown that it is not as difficult as one might expect
Content of Training
Many skills are involved in broad-casting The principal ones thatstaff collectively of a station needto have fall into three main types
Technical - use of equipment andsimple repairs
Programme production - coveringelements such as radio talk voiceperformance script writing inter-view techniques news gatheringwriting and delivery magazineprogramme production produc-tion of radio spots jingles andpublic-service announcementsproduction of participatory pro-grammes in the community basic
Martin Allard on Technical TrainingldquoI think that the future of community radio is theelimination of the role of the technician as aseparate activity and the inclusion of a limitedamount of technical training in the functions ofstation managers and programme producersrdquo 6
71
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c o m m u n i c a t i o ntheory and practice
Management andOperations ndashincluding manage-ment skills overallprogramming for acommunity radiomarketing the station audienceresearch methodsradio laws andethics
In addition every-one working with acommunity radiomust be well
versed in the Code of Conductbeing applied
Categories and Phases ofTraining
The training required for broad-casters falls into two broad categories
bull Introductory training needed forthem to able to function at theminimum level of competencerequired
bull Refinement of their skills untilthey become fully competent inone or more broadcasting roleeg programme producerannouncer reporter studio
technician etc In many smallcommunity radio stations peoplehave to learn to function in any orall of these roles
Introductory Training
This should cover three basic typesof content
bull The philosophy of communityradio and its role in news enter-tainment and education andparticularly in change and development
bull The principle factors in the codeof conduct for community broadcasters
bull The use of broadcasting equip-ment and basic programme production
Some community radios manage toprovide this basic training in anintensive introductory course lasting about three weeks and heldin the community The courseshould include a large amount ofhands-on training as indeed shouldall types of broadcaster training
The introductory training providedwhen starting a community radioservice will of course need outsidesupport both in terms of trainersand funding The trainers can comefrom other well-established com-munity or public-service broadcast-ing stations in the country
The introductory training can be
used to help the selection process
for staff It is useful to include more
trainees than the staff actually
needed and to select the best of
them at the end of the course
Once a community station is up
and running new personnel can
often be given their basic training
by working with the already
competent staff learning by doing
supplemented with sessions to
cover aspects such as the philosophy
code of conduct and other
conceptual issues of community
radio
Refinement of Skills
Community broadcasters need to
take part in a continuous process of
learning Even veterans often learn
something new from others from
reading or from some reaction in
the community to a programme
they have produced In addition
new technology is being intro-
duced all the time
Refinement of skills to a certain
extent comes naturally through
learning-by-doing but this is not
enough There are several ways that
broadcasters can be helped to
improve their performance
Listening is all important listening to feedback listening to opinions listening togood music and to onersquos own singing At the Childrenrsquos Center in Olongapo
Philippines Shirley listens to a recording for the morning show
Phot
o C
A A
rnal
do
Formal Training Courses EitherOn-site or In-country Usingnational or international trainersshort training workshops can beorganized on specific aspects ofbroadcasting and programme pro-duction
This type of training is most effec-tive and economical if traineesfrom several different communityradio stations can be broughttogether This has the additionalbenefit of opening doors forfuture contacts cooperation andinterchange between various stations For example it is veryuseful to have staff from one community radio help to evaluatethe programming and work of another Their outsider percep-tions can be invaluable and at thesame time they learn from theexperience
Training Attachments toOther Radio Stations It is oftenpossible to come to an arrange-ment with another more experi-enced community radio or public-service station to send trainees fora period of work with them Insome countries notably SouthAfrica the station that pioneeredcommunity radio has become atraining centre for other stationswith less experience This has several advantages particularly in
terms of low costs and sharing ofexperience If the attachment is toanother community radio and toa successful one the trainees mayalso learn how certain problemshave been solved and how innova-tive and creative ideas are beingapplied in programming
Care should be taken aboutattachments to commercial stations Their philosophy is so different from that of communityradio that even if a trainee learnssome technical aspects of programme production heshewill learn nothing about using radioas part of social development
Overseas Fellowships Many ofthe worldrsquos major broadcastingorganizations run training coursesin their home country Amongthese are Radio Netherlands theB B C a n d D e u t s ch e We l l e Governments and developmentagencies are sometimes willing toprovide fellowships for communitybroadcasters to follow a course atone of these training centres Thiswill certainly give the trainees avaluable learning experience in allaspects of radio production butthere may be certain disadvantagesas explained in the next section
On-Site In-Country or OverseasTraining
There are pros and cons to each ofthe above
On-site training in the communitywhere the radio station operatesprovides the most realistic possibletraining venue the group oftrainees work with the equipmentwith the people and in the circumstances of their futureactivities It also saves the cost oftravel and subsistence for thetrainees
The main disadvantage of on-sitetraining is that the trainees part ofwhose motivation may well becareer prospects may feel that thisis ldquosecond-classrdquo training compared to going say to thecapital city for a course or to acourse in another country Thusthey may feel less motivated
In-country training in a courserun in a location other than theirown community has more prestigevalue to the trainees as does atraining attachment with anotherradio station Other advantagesare the contacts and interchangethat can develop for the futurefrom a period of working withother professionals in the samefield
ldquoMost people think of radio as a lsquoone-to-onersquo
medium reaching out to a single anonymous
mass public This concept is reflected in early
communication research on air-dropping
leaflets lsquoinjectingrsquo information into what is
considered a population basically characterized
by its sameness
And yet at the other end of radio transmission at each
listening set there are usually only two or three individual
people real persons And sometimes our ears are captured
by the natural talent of interpersonal communication
voices addressing each individual in a large audience ndash
politicians religious leaders a person-oriented
disc-jockey or even an outstanding news announcer
They speak with natural charm a built-in capacity
to hold an audience a charisma to catch even
non-believers in their spell They speak from a inner core
of conviction and draw others to them by appealing to
their inner core of questioning of doubt and of hesitation
One might say that theses broadcasters are successful
because they defy the conventional rules of media
They do not read scripts they read meaning the script
acting only as a prompt to the deeper significance of their
messages The microphone is only an electronic
intermediary between them and the persons in the
mass audience
They speak not to the microphone but through the
microphone to people with people They use media
despite media to reach people This is a very particular
sense of interpersonal media that seems to have
been lost todayrdquo
Carlos A Arnaldo
73
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Overseas Training is the mostprestigious and expensive of alland it will almost certainly opencareer opportunities beyond theradio station of the traineersquos community This is precisely one ofthe disadvantages of overseastraining in terms of staff stabilityBut there are other disadvantagestoo notably that the technical andworking conditions of an overseassituation may cause the trainee tobecome dissatisfied when heshereturns to the simpler community
station at home increasing theprobability that heshe will acceptan offer from a mainstream stationFinally overseas training howevertechnically rewarding is outsidethe traineersquos normal cultural context and this may reduce itsapplied value
Financing of Training
There are a variety of sources offunding for training of communitybroadcasters When internationaldevelopment agencies or NGOshelp to finance the initial equip-ment for a station they usuallyinclude a training component inthe project This will normallycover at the very least the introduc-tory training for the start-up phasebut it may also include refinementof skills over a longer period oftime
Development agencies and NGOsmay also grant fellowships to com-munity broadcasters Some ofthese may be for overseas trainingbut many are also for in-countrytraining courses or for assignmentsthat are part of a training experi-ence
Specific development projectswithin a country may be anothersource For example when a pro-ject - say one for environmentalprotection or health - wants support from radio programmesthe funding agency may wellfinance the training of broadcastersso they will make the best possibleprogrammes on that project
Whatever the sources and types oftraining in a given country themanagement of a community radio
should be constantly alert to thetraining needs of the staff On theone hand increased competenceleads to increased job satisfactionand tends to enhance staff stabilityOn the other hand there willalmost inevitably be high staffturnover in a situation where mostof the staff are unemployed volun-teers The management musttherefore be ready to arrange forthe fairly constant training ofreplacements
1 Tambuli Project Management Community Broadcasters -Code of Conduct UNESCO-DANIDA Tambuli Project(Manila 1998)
2 Op cit
3 Op cit
4 Quote Zane Ibrahim and Ms Adams Bush Radio 985 FMSouth Africa (See Case Study 4)
5 Quote Bruce Girard Radio Chaguarurco(See Case Study 5)
6 Martin Allard Technologiacutea Adaptada InteRadio Volume 9No1 1997 AMARC (Montreal 1997)
7 See the Case Study 4 Bush Radio 895 FM
Phot
o U
nesc
o
Homa Bay UNESCO project fixing the transmitter
Chapter 8Case Studies
75
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T he following section contains five casestudies of community radio stations inAsia (Philippines and Nepal) Africa
(Ghana and South Africa) and Latin America(Ecuador) Their authors are all intimatelyconnected with the stations and provide inter-esting insights into how they set up their oper-ations how they handled the problems theyencountered and what the results have beenFor this reason they are important to anyoneinvolved - or who wants to become involved - incommunity radio
The case studies were edited by the authors ofthe main body of the handbook They were for-ced to reduce their length considerably whilemaintaining their original structure They hopeto have left the essential information intactCertain parts especially of an anecdotal naturewere taken out of the original case studies andput into the main body of the handbook
Olutanga an Unlikely Community for a RadioStation
In the 1970s the island of Olutanga in MindanaoProvince was the scene of frequent heavy fightingbetween warring Muslims and Christians Towncentres were razed to the ground following onesuch encounter
However two decades after the bloody conflictsMuslims and Christians now live peacefullytogether on the island The minority Muslims areconcentrated in the north-east and southern sec-tions The island has a sparse population ofapproximately 35000 people mainly concentra-ted in three towns
Despite todayrsquos relative calm however a heritageof past instability and danger still shows mosthouses are built of light materials as if no one isreally happy to settle permanently on the islandThe 18-kilometre dusty or muddy road dependingon the season of the year stretches the length of theisland and is used only by a few four-wheelvehicles Carabao-drawn sleds tricycles horsesand travellers on-foot share the thoroughfare
Most of the residents of Olutanga eke out a livingfrom non-irrigated agriculture and marginal fishcapture in the over-exploited marine grounds
A few traders have established businesses by catering to what the majority of poor people canproduce or buy
There are two high schools both run by religiousmissionaries The one that serves the northerntowns of Mabuhay and Talusan is attended by lessthan 300 students Another high school in thetown of Suba-Nipa at the southern end of theisland also has limited enrolment There are no tertiary or vocational schools Very few parentscan afford the high cost of sending their childrenfor tertiary to metropolitan centres on the largersurrounding islands
Government services in education health lawenforcement etc are minimal No bank operateson the island and there are very poor communica-tion facilities except for numerous hand-held veryhigh frequency (VHF) transceivers
Visitors to the island are therefore astonished tofind that this island eight hours away by boat fromthe city of Zamboanga operates a radio stationThe islanders themselves were incredulous whenthe facility was proposed to them in 1993 by theTambuli Project They became even more doubtfulwhen full control of the station were also offeredto them
RADIO IN FOR ABOUT AND BY THE COMMUNITY IN THE PHILIPPINES
by Louie N Tabing
Olutanga - a Perfect Location for a Tambuli RadioStation
The first community radio station in Mindanao wasinitially recommended by some local Catholic leadersto be in Ipil not in Olutanga But Ipil did not meetTambulirsquos criteria it was too prosperous and it wasalready a centre of economic growth
Tambuli was looking for communities that were infor-mation-poor economically depressed conducive toFM signal propagation with good prospective coope-rators and where a community radio station wouldmake the most impact Olutanga 40 kilometres outto sea met those criteria perfectly It was certainlyimpoverished and isolated It was also relatively flatso signal propagation for a low-power FM transmitterwould not be a problem One thing however wouldbe missing - a local cooperating institution Onewould have to be developed
Initial Visit and First Meetings
A first consultative conference held at the Catholicconvent was a hurriedly arranged by VHF radio Lessthan ten leaders attended Several of them weremunicipal officials including the vice-mayor of thetown the parish priest and others who expressedtheir suspicions of the project They were quick topoint out that only a month before somebody fromManila had collected money from people allegedlyfor theatre training The stranger had then left withthe money and was never heard of again I had to assurethem that no person equipment or money would leaveOlutanga during the proposed radio project
What is really your objective then They asked Areyou selling the equipment Will you be selling radio
sets If you are really from UNESCOwhy dont you build schools for usWhere is the catch
Such questions were freely aired after we told thelocals that Tambuli would like to help them set up acommunity radio station Nevertheless the prospectof having the facility and operating it was inviting tocommunity leaders The municipality could use it fordissemination of information The station could be aconvenient vehicle for public service The youngpeople could use it for requests and dedications
During the one-and-a-half-hour meeting somecopies of our Tambuli Primer an illustrated comic-likepublication explaining the project were passedaround and the radio idea was discussed further Wemanaged to arouse the interest of the locals and atthe same time we heard some salient information onthe political and social dynamics of the area I was notworried by the people who questioned the genuine-ness of our intentions It is understandable for animpoverished community to be wary and suspiciouswhen something is offered for nothing
It was agreed that before the next meeting each ofthe sectors represented at the first would consult witha wider number of people And they might submit aresolution reflecting the views and feelings of theirsectors The interim period would give them time toconsult with their constituencies It would give themtime to check on our true identity and objectives as well
Some 25 key sectoral leaders attended the secondmeeting a few weeks later Educators farmers fisher-men women people from different religious groupstricycle operators and motorcycle drivers cameContending political parties were also presentSurprisingly the early doubts about the project haddisappeared Many leaders brought resolutions welcoming the setting up of the radio station
Succeeding meetings established a core group of leaders who would handle the affairs of the project
An interim body was constituted from among thosepresent The leaders elected a set of officers andthese were eventually registered as the OlutangaIslanders Media Development Foundation (OIMDF) A dynamic municipal councilwoman Meriam Aranasheaded it
One of the first decisions to be made by theFoundation was the location of the station Followingthe recommendation that a community radio stationshould be free from the control of political parties andreligious groups the local leaders decided that thestation should not be housed in the convent Norshould it be located in the municipal building whichwas perceived as a political place The offer by muni-cipal officials to accommodate the station would onlybe accepted if a building or a lot were donatedwithout strings attached In order to accept dona-tions enter into agreements employ personnel andadminister the station the organization needed to bea juridical entity It was therefore decided that OIMDFwould need to be registered with the Securities andExchange Commission
Soon a new group emerged from among theFoundation members It was pointed out that theTambuli Primer states that there can be a CommunityMedia Council (CMC) - separate from the formallyregistered organization - to make decisions about theradio and its operations They contended that theFoundation members were permanent whether theywere performing well or not whereas the Councilmembers could be replaced yearly if they did not per-form well Hence a CMC of about 11 members wasalso formed It was headed by Napoleon Aboc a businessman who was also a retired policeman
It soon became evident that the CMC and theFoundation were contending factions polarizedtowards either Aboc or Aranas who were each identi-fied with a distinct political grouping Tambuli Project76
Management recognized that instead of workingharmoniously together frictions would divide the leaders as a result Re-uniting the leadership thusbecame a long and delicate process
Locating and Setting up the Technical Facility
During the initial stage of the project there was someobvious lobbying from certain leaders of Suba-Nipato have the station placed in that southern town Theycontended that Suba-Nipa had the biggest populationof the three towns
The Tambuli Project Management provided criteriafor the selection of the studio site including accessi-bility to participants and community members secu-rity of the equipment low rental or expenses eg forrenovation technical factors related to signal propa-gation availability of power proximity to an elevatedsite for the antenna and neutrality such that no particular groups could monopolize or dominate nordeter the participation of other groups
Long and agitated discussions took place on wherethe station should be located Since the majority ofthe participants were from Mabuhay and Talusanthese prevailed The station would be in the northernpart of the island A 20-watt transmitter in Mabuhaywould provide the best coverage of the island Anauxiliary station might later be considered for Suba-Nipa
With the leaders of the Catholic Church as the projects initial contacts our main host in the islandbecame the parish priest of Mabuhay He consentedto our using the convent as a temporary project siteThe parish priest and later his successor both took anactive role in the project while at the same timeadopting an unassuming stance The involvement ofthe clergy added status and dignity to the project and
helped to dissipate speculations that it was politicallymotivated
The station became operational in June 1993 its provisional studio being located in the convent Someof the leaders close to the Catholic Church hoped thatthe convent would become the permanent studiosite Others contending that there were certain publicissues on which the Church held manifest positionsexpressed reservations on using the convent perma-nently Religious leaders of other denominations theysaid would have second thoughts about participatingin broadcasts
After drawn-out discussions it was decided that thestation would temporarily be operated at the premises of the Catholic Church However it wouldeventually relocate to a neutral permanent site
Installation of Equipment
The Project engineer Romy Carballo personally installed the equipment About five local techniciansto whom he gave orientation and training assistedhim The equipment was basically the same as that listed in Box 4 in Chapter 4
The radio station was operating on a test-broadcastbasis in time for a training course on community radioprogramming and production to be held It coveredapproximately a 10-kilometre radius reaching all corners of the island although the signal reaching thetown of Suba-Nipa was rather weak The engineerassured the residents that the signal would reach further when the station was transferred to a newbuilding where the antenna could be raised to about100 feet
Training Islanders to be Broadcasters
It was agreed that some 15 broadcast volunteerswould be trained for three weeks A set of criteriafor the selection of trainees was agreed betweenthe CMC the Foundation and Tambuli The localleaders - the Foundation and the CMC - wouldscreen the applicants If possible there would a bereasonable balance between women and menethnic groupings religious denominations andpolitical affiliations
Of the 35 people who applied for the trainingcourse only 15 were selected Three of those notchosen offered to attend the course as observersFarmers fishermen women Muslims and youngpeople were represented Two elementary schoolteachers a para-military soldier and the electionregistrar were also in the group
Two of the participants had to walk seven kilo-metres daily to the training site and sometimesthey had to be at the radio station at five am inorder to start the programme of test-broadcastsMost of the other trainees walked at least a fewkilometres
The training team was led by an instructor fromthe University of the Philippines Institute ofDevelopment Communication who works withradio DZLB of Los Bantildeos Laguna He was supportedby the Project staff The course consisted of lectures practical work evaluation and actualbroadcasts The training subjects included radiotalks voice performance scriptwriting newsgathering writing and delivery magazine programme production production of radiospots jingles public-service announce-ments participatory productions in the community radio laws and ethics basic
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77
communication theories and practices and program-ming for a community radio station A one-day exposure visit was made to existing radio stations inPagadian City
The trainees were given the chance to recommendprogramming formats and broadcast hours for theradio station as well as to choose their leader ValToto Samonte who was elected station manager wasa seemingly unlikely choice as a member of the para-military unit in the area We in the TambuliManagement could not see that a soldier would besuitable to run a community radio station But it turned out that Toto was the right choice for he hadleadership qualities with a balanced social outlookHe proved dedicated volunteer
Building the Studio
Recognizing the potential importance of the stationin the community the local government of Mabuhaydonated a 400 sq m plot to the Foundation for a proper studio to be built
A drive to raise money for the construction of the stu-dio building was launched The fact that the radio sta-tion was already going on air helped to convince com-munity members to contribute Initially a Piso-piso(one peso per person) campaign was conductedMany were happy to give not one but five or tenpesos each
A raffle was also organized Tickets were distributedto local residents and visitors as well as to the nearbytowns Each ticket in booklets of twenty tickets wassold for 100 pesos (US$ 350) Among the prizes werea cow sacks of rice and home appliances In spite of
hopes for bigger proceeds the drawnetted only around P50000 (US$1500) for the Foundation
With contributions from the provincial governmentand from the Tambuli Project a 25-square meter studio building and 100-foot antenna tower wereerected in May 1994 Carpenters as well as volunteerstaff and other residents helped construct the bungalow-type concrete building
This was partitioned into an announcers booth technicians post and receiving-working area Withoutadequate ventilation the announcers booth becametoo hot during the day and particularly in the summermonths So a local politician pledged an air-conditioningunit It took more than two years however for thepromise to materialize
As well as providing a new home for the studio thebuilding accorded the radio station an independentstatus It also served as testimony to the communityrsquosenthusiastic participation in the project Moreover itgave every Olutangan a rightful claim to ownership ofthe station
Eventually a 20-watt relay station had to be installedto cover the portion of Suba-Nipa that was not recei-ving the Mabuhay transmissions properly But therewere also occasions when the second station genera-ted its own programmes using a karaoke player-recorder to cater to the people of Suba-Nipa Thetransmitter was installed in the house of the localyouth leader
An Island that Survives on Radio
One astonishing discovery was that despite thepoverty of the island many people owned portableVHF amateur transceivers In the coverage area of theOlutanga station there were about 100 of thesetransceivers known generically as Icoms thecommonest brand name Some had been distributedby the government to Barangay leaders but amazingly
many were privately owned Many of them were not properly licenced and is not clear where they all camefrom Some may have been illegally smuggled inwhile others may belong to informers for rebel orMuslim secessionist groups in the region
Regardless of whether or not they were covered bygovernment permit the VHF receivers were soon putto a good purpose Toto Samonte seizing the oppor-tunity to organize a radio club among VHF radioowners More than 50 people attended the first callfor an organizational meeting where officers wereelected In 1995 I conducted a two-day workshop onhow the radio club members could participate in thebroadcasts
Today the Icom owners make up a wide network ofnews gatherers information feeders and regular participants in the programmes of the station(Tambuli supplied the radio station with a VHF base unit)
These VHF radio owners have multiplied the capacityof ordinary citizens to access the station by makingtheir equipment available to everybody in the neigh-bourhood either for serious information or for simplesocializing purposes such as song dedications andgreetings The radio station has served as the nervecentre for this regular and dynamic interaction
By incorporating the VHF transceivers the station hasstimulated the participation of hundreds of people onthe island in a similar way to using the telephone inthe big cities The portable transceivers allow a variety of people from all corners of the communityto discuss individual and community problems on aircovering everything from romance to politics or theeconomy78
Programming the Voice of Olutanga
Tingog sa Olutanga (The Voice of Olutanga) goes on theair daily on broken schedule from 0500 to 0700 h1100 to a 1300 and 1800 to 2000 hours
The station runs mainly news and public-affairs pro-grammes anchored by a main personality Other pro-ducers and reporters join in with features news tipsand regular programme segments
Field reports coming from residents who own VHFtransceivers make up most of the news and public-affairs programmes The volunteer reporters havebeen instrumental in bringing more timely informa-tion news and public service to the islandersCredited to the radio reporters are news of delaysand cancellations of ferry services information on theavailability of fruit tree seedlings piglets or otherfarm inputs for farmers information about agricultu-ral meetings details on lost items and help for thesick On one occasion a jail escapee was quickly recap-tured thanks to the radio
A popular programme is the weekly Baranggayan saKahanginan This features items produced in the vil-lages using the karaoke or song playbackrecordingmachine Thus ordinary people with absolutely notraining in radio organize programmes in their ownneighbourhood the taped programme consisting ofsongs panel discussions interviews homemakingtips poetry etc While programme elements aremainly entertainment and cultural community pro-blems are also discussed openly The taped program-me is then sent to the station for immediate airingFreely ventilated opinions and criticisms keep leadersand government officials constantly on the alert Andthey find an opportunity to respond to peoplesviews
Since people have been conditioned by commercialradio to want entertainment listeners demand that
the station air music programmes Some evening slotsare therefore devoted to music requests and dedica-tions which include valuable life thoughts for reflectionReligious programmes find their place at weekendswhen the various denominations are given air timeThe Sunday Mass is broadcast live for the predomi-nantly Catholic community as are services by otherreligious leaders whether Muslims or Protestants As in other Tambuli stations the programming is proposed by the staff and approved by theCommunity Media Council
Volunteer Staff
There are some six people who regularly anchor thedaily programmes with about a dozen others contri-buting portions and materials All the anchors inclu-ding the station manager work on volunteer basisThey have other sources of livelihood such as fishingteaching farming tending a store or working in themunicipal government The main anchors receive asmall allowance to cover their transportation to andfrom the studio
Seven volunteer technicians who have received training both on production and equipment opera-tion take daily turns at the station One of them is alicenced radio communication operator Others areeither electricians or electronics repairmenAnnouncers and technicians who participate regularlyare given a small honorarium from the regular contri-butions received by the station from the community
In addition however most announcers and techni-cians are the beneficiaries of a livelihood loan grantedby Tambuli and administered by the OlutangaIslanders Media Development Foundation This liveli-hood project aims to help them become engaged in achosen livelihood project with a cost on average of
approximately P5000 (US$120) For this purposea workshop on entrepreneurship and micro-projectswas conducted by an expert from the University ofthe Philippines Institute for Small Scale Industries
Most of the recipient volunteers chose an activitywith which they were familiar and which wasappropriate to their situation such as duck raisingrice trading upholstery making operating amechanical repair shop fish farming pig raisingetc Ninety percent of the staff livelihood projectparticipants were successful in their endeavourand have expressed readiness to pay back theirloans
The rest of the participants in the radio projectincluding members of the Community MediaCouncil work on a purely voluntary basis Indeedas at most other Tambuli sites staff members donot receive any honorarium or allowance
Olutanga Dreaming
Olutanga will be the best island in the PhilippinesGreat optimism is present in Toto Val Samontersquosvoice every time he makes this statement over theradio But for some islanders the hope thatOlutanga will be able to extricate itself from economic and geographic disadvantage is still a dream
However Toto exudes confidence as he discusseshow self-help projects and perseverance can putthe islanders forward on the air The probability ofOlutanga becoming the most highly developed ofthe regionrsquos islands may still be smallbut I for one am an admirer of Toto forhis selfless dedication and tirelessefforts
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Political and Legislative Context
In 1990 Nepal changed from a monarchical non-partysystem to a parliamentary model A new constitutionenshrined the right to freedom of expression specifi-cally the right for citizens to demand and receiveinformation on any matter of public importance Thiswas followed by policy and practical guidelines in1992 a National Communications Policy in 1993 aNational Broadcasting Act and in 1995 BroadcastRegulations
Prior to 1995 radio broadcasting was the exclusivedomain of Radio Nepal the state broadcaster establi-shed in 1951 An attempt in 1984 to establish an independent station with support from UNESCO andGermany was not approved Even after 1990 theauthorities were slow to relinquish monopoly controlof broadcasting The first licence was granted in 1997four-and-a-half years after the initial application toRadio Sagarmatha Nepalrsquos first independent community-based public-interest radio
The Media Environment in Nepal
The mountainous nature of Nepal is ill suited to cover-age by electronic media or to the mass circulation ofprint media Access to all types of media is also limited bywidespread poverty low literacy levels - especially amongrural women - and a very low level of electrification
Until the coming of a democratic system in 1990 theelectronic media - Nepal Radio Nepal Television(established in 1984) and the official print media -two daily newspapers - were controlled by thegovernment Programmes and content mainly gene-rated in Kathmandu are considered largely irrelevantto the rural population who make up some 80 ofthe total Private media have increased in number butgenerally suffer the same limitations
The liberation of the airwaves from state controlbrought commercial radio to Nepal Initially RadioNepal established a FM frequency designed to generate revenue to subsidize its national AM serviceThe channel was sub-let to five commercial operatorsbroadcasting mainly pop music aimed at youngaffluent urban dwellers
Given the limitations and constraints of nationalmedia and the commercialized and non-indigenouscharacter of the new FM ventures many journalistsindependent media organizations and developmentagencies now envision small community-basedpublic-interest radios throughout the country as analternative Radio Sagarmatha is a start in this direc-tion (Sagarmatha is the Nepali name for Mt Everest)
The Long Battle for a Licence to Broadcast
The battle for the licence was long and hard The mainorganization in the campaign was the Nepal Forum ofEnvironmental Journalists (NEFEJ) joined later byother organizations committed to seeing some inno-
vation in the countryrsquos communication system toaddress the needs of the new democracy Theirstrategy was local FM radio and their goal becameRadio Sagarmatha (RS)
The main obstacles were an unstable political environment conservative politicians bureaucratsdisinclined to change and the monolithic presence ofRadio Nepal Drawn into the fight were figures ofnational prominence professional associationsNGOs the print media - including the government-owned dailies - foreign embassies and UN organiza-tions There were four changes of government duringthe struggle and with each new one the lobbying andpersuasion had to begin again
In 1993 there was an international symposium onCommunity Broadcasting in South Asia held inKathmandu The then Minister of Communicationswas a principle guest He was positively impressed andengaged NEFEJ in discussions about the next steps forlegislative guidelines and regulations But then theGovernment fell and his successor was less receptive
NEFEJ wrote an open letter concerning the situationand appealing for support from local groups as well asfrom foreign delegations to Nepal The strategy yielded results but just as the Minister seemed to becoming around the government again fell
While the struggle was in progress practical prepara-tions were being made to set up the radio stationUsing the resources and radio production experienceof NEFEJ and with financial support from UNESCOand others training and equipment acquisition was80
RADIO SAGARMATHA A CASE STUDY FROM NEPAL
by Ian Pringle
begun By the end of 1996 the foundations for a radiostation were soundly placed Only a licence was missing it was still not forthcoming despite the legislation in its favour
By early 1997 the battle had been carried into theinternational media The station had equipment andtrained staff but almost five years of struggle waitingand playing by the rules had brought no licence The key players were emboldened to take risks ofpunishment for unlicenced broadcasting one year injail and a heavy fine
In early April 1997 NEFEJ requested a temporarylicence to test its set-up The request was met withsilence Acting on legal advice NEFEJ decided tobegin five days of test broadcasts anyway The govern-ment was confused as to who was transmitting untilon the third day RSrsquos programme director deliberate-ly informed the authorities After a few hours a letterarrived from the Ministry of Communicationsdemanding who had provided permission for thebroadcasts The government threatened strongaction reminding the station that their transmissionswere illegal
These events made news Local and internationalmedia publicized the confrontation The two govern-ment-owned dailies even published sympathetic stories on their front page With the offer of free legalcosts NEFEJ was prepared to take the case to court
During the controversial test broadcasts the stationannounced that it would begin full broadcasting withor without a licence on 22 May 1997 the LordBuddharsquos birthday a day of peace The governmentwas informed that if legal action was taken against thestation public and media support would be usedagainst it in the upcoming local elections
Three days later four-and-a-half years after the appli-cation the licence finally came As the Government
official handed it over he said lsquoYou have won thewarrsquo To which the RS programme director repliedlsquoLately you have obeyed the lawrsquo
The licence that had taken so long to come had 14conditions and restrictions including no commercialprogrammes no political commentary or news onpolitical events broadcasting for only two hours perday and submission of a weekly report to theMinistry Nevertheless Radio Sagarmatha beganbroadcasting as promised on 22 May 1997 the firstindependent station in South Asia
Organizational Establishment
NEFEJ the driving force behind RS focuses onenvironmental development and human rightsissues working in a variety of media In the late 1980sNEFEJ began producing a weekly radio programmeon environment and development that was aired onRadio Nepal Space for a radio studio was includedwhen NEFEJ moved to a new location in the early1990s but there was almost no equipment and thebulk of radio programme production was done at thestudios of Radio Nepal
In 1993 after the international symposium onCommunity Broadcasting in South Asia held inKathmandu a UNESCO mission to Nepal conducteda one-week course for journalists from NEFEJ andparallel organizations in basic radio production skillsThough operating with a minimum of equipment thetraining was successful in focusing skills and promo-ting the idea of the station
Both the symposium and the UNESCO mission solidi-fied local and regional support for the project drawing in other media organizations and producing a
more detailed proposal for the station than thatcontained in the application submitted the pre-vious year
The studio equipment for RS began to arrive in1994 For the first time NEFEJ was able to produceprogrammes in their own studio Though consideredto be without a licence RS was producing programmes In early 1997 when the transmissionequipment arrived it began moving its operationsto a more technically suitable and clandestine sitethe house of one of the key players
Relations with the Government Since theLicence
Despite the innumerable difficulties in obtaining alicence subsequent official relations have beennon-interventionist and productive
By late 1998 the Minister of Communications wassympathetic to community radio and many pen-ding and new applications had been approved RShad its licence extended to 13 and then to 24hours per day it was granted permission to acceptcommercial advertising and to rebroadcast theBBC Nepali Service and BBC World Service inEnglish and it was licenced to provide a mobileservice to be broadcast anywhere in the country
Training and Recruitment
These have been integrated in the sense that per-formance during training courses and fellowshipshas been used to select staff Most ofthe current staff and volunteers comefrom a journalistic background
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Following the first UNESCO-supported training course (1)
in 1993 further courses and fellowships were organizedin 1994 and 1995 NEFEJ and the Nepal Press Instituteworked with UNESCO Panos (London) DANICOMand Worldview International Foundation for theseactivities The fellowships provided opportunities fortrainees to produce radio programmes on specifictopics Thus there was an integrated plan for trainingfellowships programme production andselection for employment
Further training in 1996 and 1997 was supported byODA (Great Britain) and Deutsche Welle (Germany)The former required programmes on communityforestry The partnership included training in inter-viewing skills producing issue-based radio programmeassemblage and production Deutsche Welle supporteda training course for less experienced staff from RSand from other FM stations on basic radio production
In October 1997 a small focused on-the-job trainingprogramme was organized for RS production staffwith the assistance of a Danish journalist working inNepal The three weeks of training honed traineespractical all-round skills The programme was moreindividually-oriented than previous courses had beenand it involved instruction assignment of tasks andcritique
A second such course which included more womenwas conducted six months later for ten new recruitsIn addition another group of Panos fellowships wasprovided to produce programmes on AIDSHIV
Other support comes from Radio Netherlands whoprovided a fellowship in 1998 for a person to go totheir training centre in Holland for four months The
Centre for International Studies andCooperation a Canadian NGO supports RS with a general adviser
Future Training and Recruitment The station hasyet to implement systematic training for volunteersbut it has prioritized this in plans for 1999 DeutscheWelle has confirmed its support for an in-house on-the-job workshop There will also be regular locally-driven training courses with or without external fund-ing or resources Developing RS as a training resourcefor Nepal and for other countries in the region is astated objective
Organizational Structure
NEFEJ is the organizational umbrella for RS thoughthe station has officially become a partnership of fourNepali NGOs NEFEJ Himal Association WorldviewNepal and the Nepal Press Institute
The station is headed by a seven-member autono-mous Board of Directors constituted by NEFEJ TheBoard has representation from all four partner NGOsand meets monthly to review and plan activities setpolicy and provide broad direction for the station
RS is headed by a station managerprogramme directorHe sits on the Board of Directors as a membersecre-tary and is responsible for all day-to-day operations
Staff
RS has the following staff station managerprogrammedirector six full-time producers two technicians amusic librarian an engineer (on retainer) an accountsofficer and a station helper There are some 26 volun-teers who are an increasingly important part of RSsprogramming and operations A significant number ofthem are reimbursed for expenses or paid a smallhonorarium
Womens Participation
RSs informal policy is to develop the capacity andconfidence of women within the organization provideopportunities to women and through broadcasts toinfluence change in the orientation of womens rolesBut despite this policy the cultural bias in Nepal haskept womenrsquos participation low though there havebeen recent improvements Women make up about afifth of the production staff and a third of volunteers
Audience
There has been much audience feedback in the formof letters phone calls and drop-in visits from whichsome picture of the stations listening audience can bedrawn There are listeners among societys decision-making elite as well as in the shops of small mer-chants There are listeners in rural sectors of the Valleyas well as in urbanized households of the capital Itappears that listeners are mostly in the over 25 agerange and that they possess some higher educationinterest in events and issues in the public domain orin local music and culture
Some programmes on RS have targeted specificaudiences including children and parents as well asthe Tamang (a minority language) community andwomen working in the home
Listenership and audience are difficult if not impos-sible to estimate without a comprehensive survey Butwhat is already clear is that RS has a strong profile asa serious broadcaster and one whose programming isall-Nepali and in the public interest - the thinking persons radio82
Community Access and Participation
Community participation has been limited comparedto community stations in other parts of the worldThe mainstays of production are paid journalists andprogramming is centrally planned organized anddirected In many respects RS sees itself as a publicrather than community broadcaster a responsiblepublic spokesperson and facilitator as opposed to avehicle for open community participation
Nevertheless RSs programming has given hundredsperhaps thousands the opportunity to have theirvoices and opinions heard in a public forum On adaily basis the station takes its listeners to the streetsand into locations of everyday life as lived by realpeople
The stations daily public-affairs magazine alsoincludes two regular access spots the first featuringcomments from listeners who phone in and recordtheir feedback onto an answering machine thesecond is a vox-pop segment in which producersrecord opinions on a particular topic from people inthe streets
In a daily segment called Its My Turn Now differentmembers of the community speak their mind on atopic of their choice The segment is pre-recorded andbroadcast without editing To date the platform hasbeen shared by people from a variety of backgroundsand occupations
Interactive phone-in programming has been delayedby the lack of a hybrid system to interface phone lineswith the studio RS expected to introduce this in 1999
Community access exists in co-productions with localgroups Community groups and local NGOs produceweeklymonthly programmes with technical and production assistance from the station This is animportant source of programmes as well as a link todifferent segments of the community
Technical Considerations
The Kathmandu Valley an almost level basin of some25 by 30 kilometres framed by hills is an ideal loca-tion for FM broadcasting The historical economicand political capital and centre of the country is hometo the largest concentration of people 15-2 million
The test broadcasts in April 1997 used a locally madeantenna and were from a low elevation as were thefirst proper broadcasts beginning a month later InNovember 1997 the station began looking for a newsite which at a higher elevation could improve recep-tion The one selected after several tests is on the sideof a hill overlooking Kathmandu it has line of sight tomost areas of the 25 x 30-kilometre basin A housewas rented and a new studio built
Since it first went on air officially the station hasbroadcast daily even during moves to new sitesexcept in early 1998 when the transmitter a 500-wattAllard model caught fire and was damaged The sta-tion went off the air for 40 days until a 20-wattChinese-made transmitter and a 100-watt amplifierarrived through UNESCO from the Tambuli project inthe Philippines
The studio and its equipment are essentially the sameas when RS began apart from some small items and asatellite dish with a tunerdecoder Upgrading thebroadcast studio and establishing a production facilitywith digital components is now a priority
Programming
From the outset Radio Sagarmatha has worked topresent listeners with a combination of issues andentertainment social discussions and music as well asbeing a conduit for the variety of voices and opinionspreviously unheard on Nepals radio channels
For the daily two hours initially accorded under itslicence the new station chose 0700-0900 hoursRS introduced itself to the valleys listeners withtwo hours of Nepali music from rare folk recordings to contemporary popular selectionsinterspersed with short messages and stationannouncements
Public Interest Public-affairs broadcasting iscentral to RSrsquos mission for a more responsiblemedia and a more pluralistic society Using fellow-ships RS early on produced a series of programmes about environmental conditions cultural and social aspects of different regions ofthe country AIDSHIV community forestry drinking water democracy in Nepal etc Sinceautumn 1997 RS has been broadcasting a dailymagazine programme called Haamro Khaldo (OurValley) which covers topical issues and brings invoices from a broad cross-section of society Someof the issues covered have been meter tamperingby taxi drivers thieves and pickpockets prostitu-tion AIDS leprosy TB increasingly declining airand water quality child labour abortion andchanging gender roles
In addition there is a weekly discussion of socialcultural and development issues called Dabali(Community Meeting Place) a blend of the tradition-al Nepali medium and space for public dialogue anddiscussion and the modern medium of radio
Recently RS has begun Safa Radio (Clean AirCampaign) Five days a week it broadcasts theresults of air pollution measurements in differentparts of the city Once a week the cumulativeresults are discussed on air
Music and Culture RS provides a clearalternative to commercial stationsplaying largely pop music it broadcasts
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almost entirely Nepali traditional folk and modernmusic with some classical music from other parts ofthe world It presents one daily and four weekly pro-grammes devoted exclusively to music A Tamangcommunity group also co-produces a programme inboth languages with Tamang music
The station has an impressive music collection withmany rare recordings and pieces of authentic nationalcultural and historical significance The collection hasbeen obtained free of cost with about half of itrecorded from the library of Radio Nepal and theother half from donors
Nepal has a long tradition of oral folk media Untilsome 50 years ago one source of news for communi-ties were artists who spread the word about eventsentertained and educated through specially com-posed songs RS utilizes these traditions in a dailyserial The station once invited a musical group from avillage to record some of their music in the studioThey recorded ten songs in the traditional style adaptedto contemporary issues While in Kathmandu theyrecorded a new song about an alarming aspect oftheir capital city the pollution
Co-productions Local interest groups produce programmes for a particular audience on a particulartopic The editorial responsibility for the programmeusually lies with the community group with RS provi-ding technical support and airtime In addition to helping to fill the stationrsquos broadcast schedule theseprogrammes are also an important element of community participation
Childrens Programming Sponsored by UNICEFRS commissioned and broadcast a ten-minute serial
an educational soap opera involving agrandfather tree and a baby parrotThey interact with children who play
and listen at the base of the tree It is produced by afamed Nepali comedy troupe The serial is presentedtogether with 20 minutes produced in-house of stories poetry discussion and participation by children themselves
Mobile Radio On the Road
In November 1998 RS received permission to run amobile radio service anywhere in Nepal using the sta-tions Kathmandu frequency 1024 FM The idea wasnot to extend RSs Kathmandu service but rather tobring the idea of local radio to some of the 80 ofNepals people who live in rural areas and in smallcommunities
In 1999 a vehicle with a small studio transmitter anda team of facilitators began to visit rural communitiesto do basic training and demystify radio so that localpeople could become interested in starting their ownstations RS has always been seen as a starting pointfor wider community-based radio services in NepalIndeed momentum is now building fast with severalcommunities outside the Kathmandu Valley alreadyon the way to starting stations
Funding and Costs
The facility set-up initial operations training and fel-lowships were financed with international supportUNESCO provided about US$ 65000 About half ofthis was for equipment DANIDA provided operatingfunds in the second year and as already noted manyother organizations have provided fellowships andtraining Self-reliance is a priority and after two yearson air RS was beginning to operate on locally earnedrevenues The main strategy for achieving sustainability
is building partnerships with local organizations thatwill provide support as sponsors and co-producers ofprogrammes The recent lifting of the initial restrictionon commercial advertising has also opened a potentialsource of revenue
In 1999 the operational budget was US$ 2750 permonth of which salaries absorbed about US$1300Revenue was estimated at US$ 1075 mainly from co-productions and sponsorship The balance of US$1675 was provided by an operating grant from DANIDA
1 For a complete view of this basic training and preparation for broadcast see Carlos A Arnaldo and Kjell Linder Establishment of a FM Community Radio (Nepal IPPC ndash 352 ndashNEP 01 Technical report) UNESCO (Paris 1994)
84
ldquoSagarmatha is the old Nepali name for Mount
Everest and literally means lsquohead in the heavensrsquo
This is what Radio Sagarmatha intends to be an
intelligence permeating community thinking on
issues of health environment education social
well-being and development of the community by
sharing ideas with all through the radio wavesrdquo
Carlos A Arnaldo
Introduction and Origins
Radio Ada is a rural community radio station in eastern Ghana The station started broadcasting on 1 February 1998 and it has won a loyal followingamong its predominantly illiterate audience
The origins of the station can be traced back to the1950s and 1960s when the founders got their start inbroadcasting one with a small radio station inMonrovia Liberia that has since been washed awayby the sea and the other with one of the very firstcommunity radio stations in the Philippines DZJOthat continues to operate today from its base inInfanta Quezon In 1982 one of the founders was instrumental in starting the first community radio inAfrica the ill-fated Homa Bay station in Kenya on theshores of Lake Victoria an experience that drovehome the risks of such a venture in a continent hostileto independent information
Indeed there had been an earlier brush with this hostility in 1974 when broadcasting in Ghana was agovernment monopoly Encouraged by private discussions with key officials in the Government thefounders of Radio Ada submitted a formal applicationfor what if approved would have preceded HomaBay as the first community radio in Africa The appli-cation was turned down
Legal Context
It took nearly two decades following this event toopen the way for independent media in Ghana In1992 constitutional government was restored andwith it the possibility of a new communicationsscene The new Constitution which came into effectin January 1993 states that ldquoThere shall be no impediments to the establishment of private press or media and in particular there shall be no law requiring any person to obtain a licence as a prerequisiteto the establishment or operation of a newspaperjournal or other media for mass communication orinformationrdquo
The process of establishing private broadcasting didnot however start until February 1995 That waswhen the Ghana Frequency Registration and ControlBoard (GFRCB) issued guidelines for the submissionof applications to operate private broadcasting stations
Frequency Allocation
The application for Radio Adarsquos frequency was submitted on 17 March 1995 by its legal entity GhanaCommunity Broadcasting Services previously registeredas a non-profit company However it was not until 16 April 1996 that the application for Radio Ada wasaccepted
A positive aspect of the delay was that in the interimperiod private broadcasting companies had negotiatedmajor reductions in the fees levied for the allocationof a frequency originally set at the equivalent of
about US$ 13000 for all stations In the eventRadio Ada as a community radio only had to paya tenth of this and on 3 May 1996 it was allocatedthe frequency 937 FM for a period of five yearsThis was later changed to 933 for reasons that willbe explained later
Main Factors Considered when Starting Radio Ada
The information in Radio Adas application to theGFRCB reflected the stationrsquos very specific sense ofidentity in accordance with the following elements
Objectives The key elements that make upRadio Adarsquos sense of identity are embodied in itsmission statement This was crystallized from theexpressed objectives and expectations of the stationrsquos volunteers and from other members ofthe community The mission statement includesthe following items
bull To support the development aspirations andobjectives of the Dangme people in every sphereof life
bull To give a voice to the voiceless in every contextand at all levels
bull To sustain the dynamic growth of Dangme culture within the national and the global polity
bull In all of this to encourage promoteand contribute to informed dialogueand reflective action
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RADIO ADA GHANA - A BLESSING ON THE DANGME PEOPLE
by Alex and Wilna Quarmyne
Coverage area and target audience The primarytarget audience of Radio Ada resides in the fourDangme-speaking districts of Ghana These are in theeastern sector of the country within 100 km of AccraLarge parts of them still lack or have only recentlyreceived such basic infrastructure as piped water andelectricity The estimated total population of thecoverage area is 600000 over 60 of whom areilliterate Poverty is widespread
Language Radio Ada broadcasts exclusively in thevernacular of its audience Dangme Dangme comprises five mutually intelligible languages - AdaGbugbla Klo Ningo and Se There are marked culturaldistinctions between the speakers of these languagesHowever the linguistic interface and the marginaliza-tion hitherto of the language in the national discoursegive them a special bond as a people In recent yearsthere has been an effort in the educational and reli-gious institutions to develop ldquostandard Dangmerdquo auniform version of the languages The policy at RadioAda however is to use Dangme in its various originaland native spoken forms
Location - base area The station is in Ada in theDangme East District Theoretically it could havebeen based anywhere in the coverage area but one ofthe founders is a native son of Ada which meant thatthe station started out with a reserve of trust thatfacilitated getting community support and localresources At the estuary of the Volta River Ada comprises two contiguous towns Big Ada and AdaFoah and their surrounding villages in a virtual cul-de-sac that gives residents a particularly intimate sense ofcommunity Most residents in the area are engaged infarming and fishing
Actual site The site of the station building was chosen because of its easy access to the surrounding
community It sits in full view on the mainfeeder road to the national highway atthe junction to Big Ada and Ada Foah
Name The stationrsquos on-air name Radio Ada isdrawn from its location although it is a radio stationfor the Dangme-speaking community as a whole notjust Ada Because of this it has often been suggestedthat the stationrsquos name should be ldquoDangme RadiordquoThe station has however retained the name RadioAda because while it promotes strong local culturesas a basis for sound national development it alsoguards against chauvinism
The building The Radio Ada building was purpose-designed and built It provides one on-air studio twoproduction studios with adjacent control rooms twooffices and a few small service rooms The decision toconstruct was taken after it was established thatconverting an existing building whether purchased orleased would not be cost-effective
The design tries to blend the essential elements of aprofessional broadcasting operation with the specialrequirements of a community radio station especiallythe need for access and the realities of working in arural area For example rather than being sealed offthe on-air studio looks out onto the main road allow-ing anyone who comes to the station to see theannouncer or even passers-by on the road to ex-change a wave with him The ceilings are lined with ldquotsatsardquo a local mat woven out of reeds which hasproven satisfactory acoustically while also giving thestudios a cool and indigenous feel
Equipment selection The equipment chosenreflects the stationrsquos dual character as a rural community-based yet professionally complete broad-casting operation The items of equipment are thebest options technologically for their price offeringhigh performance with ease of operation low energyconsumption and minimum maintenance
Transmitter The transmitter a 350-watt Mallard unithas performed exceedingly well in covering the target
area but it will soon be used only as a standby unit Itwill be replaced by a 1-KW transmitter to enable thestation to get a stronger signal into the nearby metro-politan areas where there are sizeable Dangme-spea-king populations thus expanding its market potential
Antenna Tower The tower stands 150 feet high rightnext to the station building It was built out of piecesof scrapped antennas after the cost of a shorter (100-foot) new tower proved prohibitive It was hoisted byprofessional riggers working during their own time
Studio equipment Two of the three studios are fullyequipped the third is expected to be equipped soonThe on-air studio equipment consists of two sets eachof professional compact disc players minidisc and cas-sette recordersplayers and a 12-channel audio mixerThe production studios have the same equipmentbut of a semi-professional standard The mix and performance of the equipment has proven entirelysatisfactory
Field recording equipment Radio Ada attaches greatimportance to field recording equipment because ofits emphasis on programmes originating in the community Currently it has four portable minidiscrecorders and two professional and one semi-professional audiocassette recorders After some initial resistance to the minidisc recorders becausethey seemed too high-tech staff now favour them fortheir greater portability recording quality precision ofoperation editing facility and efficient in-built rechar-geable batteries The high cost of minidiscs has lead toa policy of using them as masters with most programmes being dubbed on to audiocassette
Funding With long-term sustainability in mind itwas decided early that requests for donor fundingwould be limited to equipment Land and the buildingwere provided from the limited resources of the foun-86
ders For sentimental reasons Radio Ada first solicitedfunds for its equipment from UNESCO1 a pioneeragency in community radio UNESCO regarded therequest favourably but was able to meet less than halfthe cost The shortfall for the equipment except forone studio was covered by the Stem van AfrikaFoundation of the Netherlands and the WorldAssociation for Christian Communication
Major Elements in Running a Community Radio
At the heart of running this community radio stationare the following elements
Programmes Radio Ada broadcasts 17 hours a daybetween 0500-2200 hours The programmes can bebroadly divided into the following categories newsand current affairs socio-economic developmentlocal culture religious youth and general interestGuiding programming is the stationrsquos holistic viewthat regards every programme as a potential tool fordevelopment The main news offerings are three daily15-minute bulletins and a daily 110-minute newsmagazine programme The bulletins emphasize localnews especially stories filed by the stationrsquos volunteerstringers A 10-minute market report is also broadcaston market days
Programmes that are specifically development-orien-ted include four weekly half-hour programmes forfour key occupational groups - farmers (women andmen) fishermen fishmongers (ie fishsellers who arealso fish smokers) and drivers - as well as programmeson health the environment and on literacy and deve-lopment All these programmes are produced andrecorded in the field based on the participantsconcerns and interests and they typically include
discussions interviews and spontaneous perfor-mances of traditional worksongs or other music
The occupational as well as the literacy programmesapply the principle of ldquonarrowcastingrdquo and are sandwiched between general-interest programmesduring the optimum listening time for the targetgroup More occupational programmes are beingdeveloped eg for artisans traders and teachers withthe idea that every group in the coverage area shouldfeel it has a ldquopiece of the actionrdquo in the station Inaddition to its news and development-oriented programmes the station produces a weekly total ofapproximately 30 half-hour programmes in the othercategories Its programmes on local culture includestorytelling traditional cookery Dangme bookread-ing discussions on various aspects of culture and adaily half-hour of traditional music featuring localgroups recorded either at the studio or in the field
One development-oriented programme on the envi-ronment is designed as a travelogue with the producergoing from village to village each week highlightingits special features of interest and in the process calling attention to environmental problems Despitethe soft-sell approach the message seems to getthrough Arriving at a village one day the producernoticed a sudden flurry He had been recognized andchildren were sent scurrying by their elders to fetchbrooms and tidy up the area While this was flatteringconfirmation that the producerrsquos words were beingheard the ultimate objective of the station is thatprogrammes should lead to sustained communityaction This requires attractive contextual presenta-tions that build on peoplersquos knowledge and that areclosely integrated with interventions on the ground
Staff Radio Adarsquos staff consists of about 50 volun-
teers Fourteen work full-time Twenty producers operate mainly in the field and come tothe station at least once a week to discuss programmes edit recordings etc Ranging in agefrom the early 20s to the early 50s the volunteersinclude farmers teachers hairdressers masonscivil servants traders school leavers and extensionworkers Approximately a third are women Abouthalf of the volunteers have full-time jobs outsidethe radio station while the rest are self-employedor unemployed When resources permit theremuneration of a core group of staff will be consi-dered The founders of the station serve as itsvolunteer executive directors
Staff training Prior to their involvement withRadio Ada none of the staff had had any expe-rience or training in broadcasting Except for fivewho went for short-term courses in radio produc-tion in Kaduna Nigeria all received their entiretraining through courses organized by Radio AdaThis was for two reasons first conventional training courses do not emphasize a developmentphilosophy and community-based approachsecond conventional training normally requiresqualifications that are unnecessary or even irrele-vant for a community radio station The basic criteria for volunteers at Radio Ada are simple andinclusive commitment to the community willing-ness to work as a volunteer and ability to speakDangme and English - the latter because the majority of the trainers did not speak Dangme
All formal training was organized through a seriesof participatory workshops coveringparticipatory research tools basic pro-gramme production news production
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87
and announcing The workshops conducted by specialists who support Radio Adarsquos objectives started out with its development philosophy and thenecessary professional concepts and they offeredpractical hands-on experience Training organized invarious forms has continued as a permanent activityof the station
Management Much of the management of the station is done by a committee of seven of the moresenior volunteers This establishes implements andmonitors policy on all aspects of the station and alsomaintains the stationrsquos bank account A station coor-dinator is the acknowledged head but refers routinelyto the executive directors The decision-making of thecommittee is based on constant consultation witheach other and with other volunteers Team spirit andself-appraisal are fostered in monthly evaluationworkshops involving all the volunteers except for thenews stringers who are not resident in the immediatecatchment area
Community support access and participationPrior to its application for a licence the idea of settingup Radio Ada was discussed with and informallyendorsed by the appropriate traditional leaders andgovernment authorities in the intended host commu-nity With the allocation of its frequency the first taskwas to widen the process of building community support This was concentrated on the stationsimmediate catchment area from which it wouldnecessarily draw its main resources Built into the pro-cess was the recruitment and training of volunteers
A community survey was conducted by these volun-teers in July 1996 Its purpose was to introduce the
idea of a development-oriented ver-nacular station and solicit the ideas ofthe community on programming and
operations The survey involved over 1200 respon-dents in 42 villages who gave virtually unanimousalmost emotional support to the idea of the stationTypical responses from the survey during a communi-ty meeting were
ldquoYes FM in Ada will be helpful We do not hear aboutthings happening on the radio Anybody who rejectsthis idea must be jailed In the old days we never hadthis chance Now when it comes we must embrace itNow all of us can listen to our own voices We cannow listenin our own mother tongue It shouldcome now nowrdquo
The enthusiastic response of the community to theidea of the station has been sustained by the partici-patory character of its programming and operationsTo give yet another opportunity for community participation five minutes are set aside after the midday and evening news for a commentary wherelisteners may record their views on any subject withthe only proviso that they do not make slanderous orderogatory statements
One commentary involved the leader of an associa-tion of women fishmongers Traditionally it is onlythe men who fish and it is from them that their wivespurchase fish to smoke and sell The men sell at theirprice and the women keep any profits they make ontheir sales to consumers for the maintenance of theirhousehold
In her commentary the leader of the fishmongers bitterly criticized Radio Adarsquos market report and protested against the beating of some members ofher association by their husbands This is becausewhen Radio Ada started broadcasting the marketnews the husbands of the fishmongers angrily claimed that their wives were cheating them by sellingat far more than the price they had paid to them
In a presentation on Radio Ada it was explained thatthe market prices reflected the cost and time of the12 different processes involved or value added bet-ween the time of purchase and the time of sale of thefish The presentation elicited respect and calmed thesituation
Audience reaction Lacking the necessary resourcesRadio Ada has not been able to conduct a formal lis-tener survey However feedback is constant throughthe staffs interaction with listeners on their recordingtrips and the influx of letters and visits to the stationThe feedback is consistent in characterizing Radio Adaas a blessing on the Dangme community Lettersand comments from a variety of sources quote precise details indicating that listeners pay attentionmeticulously to programme content Many offerconstructive criticism and make suggestions for otherprogrammes As many letters as possible are respondedto in a weekly mailbag programme
Reports from the field indicate that whole sections oftowns and villages stop for certain programmes suchas the series of an indigenous street musician whoweaves local legend and moral tales into song Formany the station is clearly their only source of infor-mation of the outside world It has also become aplayer in the life of the community being called uponfrequently to establish the veracity of issues andmediate in disputes
Operational costs Radio Ada has not solicited anysubsidies for its operational costs These are intendedto be funded entirely from income from commercialadvertising and from low-priced social announce-ments (eg obituaries) Currently expenditure ismainly for utilities supplies and in the absence of astation vehicle transport allowances which are calculated88
at actual cost After nearly a year in operation andeven with an all-volunteer staff income is running atabout half of expenditure This is mainly because withthe many other tasks involved in establishing the stationnot enough attention was focused on marketing It isexpected that with more aggressive marketing thestation will at least break even by the end of its secondyear of operation
Problems and Difficulties Encountered
Problems There were delays in the arrival of mater-ials for the construction of the building but even so itwas completed in 13 months The transmission frequency was the most serious problem After RadioAdarsquos successful test broadcasts in August 1997 apowerful FM station in Lagos Nigeria began opera-ting on the same frequency effectively jammingRadio Ada and making it impossible to begin fullbroadcasting at Christmas 1997 as planned Radio Adahad to apply for a new frequency and 933 MHz wasgranted in mid-January 1998 postponing broadcast-ing until 1st February
Sixteen days later Radio Ada was surprised by suddenand severe electricity rationing For a while it tried tooperate with generators borrowed firstly from anNGO and later from a local government departmentbut neither provided enough power for full opera-tions The programme schedule was cut to 10 hours aday But listeners made impassioned pleas throughthe radio station to the local government authoritiesto provide it with a generator Without Radio Adarequesting it the Dangme East District Assemblydonated a generator to the station in recognition ofits vital services to the community The station nowoperates seamlessly through power cuts
Difficulties The management of a large corps ofvolunteers presents special difficulties These areaddressed through dialogue mentoring and self-criticism and evaluation However even with paidstaff there would be a shortage of the necessary qual-ities and skills At the same time there is a shortage oftrainers with participatory development experiencecompetence in radio programme production and relevant vernacular language skills
Another difficulty is that the development servicesare too weak to be able to support and follow up onradio programmes properly In the circumstances andsince the task is too important to be postponed thestation has to try to energize and facilitate those services Accessing resources to meet all these needs isa full-time job for several people - who do not at present exist
The station has not yet developed the marketing strategies required for accessing the advertisingpotential of the market There is a need to introducethe ldquoculture of advertisingrdquo to the small enterprisesand traders in the coverage area to generate revenuefor the station This advertising drive is a task that willrequire care to ensure that the objectives of the station are not compromised
Main Lessons Learnt
The first year of operation has been an important les-son in validation for the community that radio canplay an essential and developmental role in their day-to-day lives for the volunteers that they have thecapacity to run and maintain a broadcasting stationand for the station itself that it provides a vital andappreciated service
The main lesson learnt is that in the interests ofsustainability the commercial aspects should havebeen addressed from the very beginning Therewas so much pressure to get the station up andrunning that no staff were assigned to ldquosellrdquo thestationrsquos services
This is particularly urgent now because theachievements of Radio Ada have carried their ownmomentum Overnight the station outgrew itscapacities The community response has beensuch that the station is called upon for a greatervariety of outreach services than ever anticipatedThe necessary resources exist but the station mustnow help to mobilize them
The final lesson is more of a reminder in additionto material resources knowledge and skills itneeds faith and solidarity to carry an idea forward- as Radio Adarsquos volunteers have amply demon-strated Admonishing a fellow volunteer for hispriorities in giving more time to party politics thanto the station a volunteer said ldquoParty politics is forfour years Radio Ada will be here foreverrdquo
1 Alex Quarmyne worked with UNESCO for many years promoting community radioOn retirement he and his wife returned to his home community to start Radio Ada
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The Context for Community Radio
After years of broadcast monopoly by the (then)Apartheid states South African BroadcastingCorporation (SABC) the struggle to free the airwaves has been won SABC was restructured andin 1993 an Independent Broadcasting Authority (IBA)was established Since the first licences were issued in1995 South Africa now has more than 85 indepen-dent radio stations and community radio is here tostay (See Chapter 3 for details of South African legislation)
The presence of community radio has changed theface of broadcasting in South Africa It has recruited acountless number of volunteers and community workers who actively participate in their stations Inaddition the sector has managed to attract advertisersand in certain instances stations are generating a fairincome from selling airtime and promoting eventsHowever the stations that have achieved most interms of financial independence are in one sense victims of that success they are often seen as toocommercial to belong fully to the developmentalcommunity radio sector
The community radio sector has shown in its shortexistence a tremendous ability to survive Howeverthe need to continue developing training and mostimportantly to work toward self-sustainability is clear
Donor support has been excellentover the last few years especially forbroadcast equipment Some stations
also receive core funding for daily operations It seemsclear that for now donor funding remains one of thefew dependable options for start-up support Inmoving toward self-sufficiency many stations haveidentified other possible income sources the mostprominent of which apart from advertising aremembership fees and community fund-raisers
Getting Started
In the late 1980s a small group of people interestedin the development of an alternative audio communi-cation system formed an organization that recordedinformation on cassettes in radio format made dupli-cates and distributed them in and around Cape Town
The organization was called CASET (CassetteEducation Trust) located in a small office in Salt RiverIts objective was to inform and educate the poor onsubjects like literacy hygiene health and of courserelevant political issues Since its humble beginningsthe initiators of the project always knew that broad-casting would be integral to its long-term educationaland empowerment objectives CASET began to discuss the idea and its potential and eventually proposed establishing a community radio facility atthe University of the Western Cape (UWC) just outside Cape Town
After much deliberation however it became clearthat the UWC campus would not be a suitable location it was too far away to be accessible to theblack community as a whole In fact UWC had been
built in 1960 for coloured people a racial definitionthat defined persons of a hybrid origin The Collegelocated far from the city and surrounded by densebush soon became known as Bush College and its campus cafeteria radio station was known as Bush Radio
In due course CASET was dissolved and recreated asan aspirant community radio initiative Keeping theoriginal campus name Bush Radio was bornConstituted in 1992 as a Voluntary Associationowned and operated by its members it focused ongetting the community on air The objective was togive black people the opportunity to be broadcastersMoney was needed to keep the initiative afloat Manydonors were approached until finally the FriedrichEbert Stiftung (FES) a German foundation involved inbroadcasting training provided support
News of the FES support spread The concept of com-munity radio was exciting and applications for trainingfrom all over started to flood in Bush Radio soonestablished itself as a key trainer and lobbyist for theestablishment of community radio in South AfricaPressuring the government to grant it a licence tobroadcast and training fledgling stations across thecountry Bush Radio slowly established both itself andthe concept of community radio as a significant force
Defiance
After a number of licence applications were rejectedBush Radio decided to broadcast illegally In May1993 a group of volunteer activists took the stationrsquos90
BUSH RADIO 895 FM SOUTH AFRICA - PAST PRESENT AND FUTURE
by Zane Ibrahim and M Adams
equipment including its illegally obtained transmitterinto a room set it up and prepared to switch on Apress release was circulated a short programme sche-dule was designed and a song was composed After afew test runs Bush was ready Interspersing shortdrama talks short poems and comic turns BushRadio went on air
The broadcast lasted four hours before the authoritiesinvaded the premises and seized the equipment BushRadios two key members were charged on threecounts illegal broadcasting illegal possession ofbroadcast apparatus and obstructing the course ofjustice The case dragged on but friends and support-ers nationally and internationally understood whyBush Radio members would risk being jailed for theright to be heard After tremendous pressure fromindividuals and organizations world-wide the statedropped the charges eight months later
Training and Activism
During the next two years the country witnessedmassive political change and prepared for its firstdemocratic elections Meanwhile Bush Radio contin-ued its quest to get the community on air It pursuedand vigorously implemented its national training acti-vities It became the first South African communityradio initiative to join the World Association ofCommunity Radio Broadcasters (AMARC) and contin-ued to champion the cause for the establishment ofcommunity radio in South Africa
At the beginning of 1993 the FES donated a fullyequipped studio for the primary purpose of trainingIt was indeed a wonderful sight Bush Radio was starting to look like a real radio station
A full-time training co-ordinator was brought onboard The courses included introduction to commu-nity radio features and documentary productionwomen and technology and managing communityradio The activities were in essence the training oftrainers Participants were expected to return to theirstations and gradually train their volunteers Otherorganizations soon became involved and partner-ships and exchange programmes were establishedwith Deutsche Welle Radio France InternationaleUSIS and the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation
National institutions including the Institute for theAdvancement of Journalism and the Media TrainingCentre also started to offer radio courses So a resourceof basic radio production and management skills wasslowly established Radio training networking andlobbying were together sowing the seeds for todayscommunity radio movement in South Africa
To promote the cause of community radio further aNational Community Radio Forum (NCRF) was estab-lished in 1994 to lobby government and co-ordinateand guide the sector Initially operating from theoffices of Bush Radio the NCRF later raised its ownfunds and set-up an office in Gauteng By the end of1994 more than a hundred licence applications forcommunity stations had been submitted to the IBA
Licence at Last
In June 1995 exactly seven years after CASET madeits first commitment to get the people on air BushRadio received its licence But the IBA had to workwith an inherited frequency plan that could notaccommodate the flood of licence applications Andbecause of Cape Towns notorious Table Mountain
they offered Bush Radio a shared frequency a5050 split with a community station called C-Flat Although not perfect everyone was happyBush Radio broadcast daily from 1400 to 0200hours and C-Flat took over until 1400 hours andso on
Getting Ready to Broadcast
The mission to get a licence was achieved and thepeople now had to go on air Until that time BushRadio had three full-time staff a pool of trainedand enthusiastic volunteers and a well-equippedtraining studio
Activity now needed to be focused on successfulprogramming marketing and fund-raising for anoperational station In July 1995 Bush Radio helda strategic workshop to assess plan and establisha common vision for its future activities BushRadio membership had grown to 1000 and therewere about 100 active and trained volunteersCountless NGOs were also keen to support andget involved in the service of community radio
A schedule of programmes including both enter-tainment and education was debated with themembers Strong emphasis was placed on repre-senting the culture language and aspirations ofour local communities with honesty and prideThe three dominant languages in the Cape(Xhosa English and Afrikaans) were naturallyapproved as the broadcast languages for the sta-tion The motto we agreed was Its yours itsmine itrsquos ours
With a programme schedule agreed andwith less than eight weeks before going
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on air volunteers rushed to attend brush-up coursesprogramming meetings and other preparations TheSoros Open Society Foundation funded a state-of-the-art broadcast facility
Finally Bush Radio began broadcasting at 1400 hourson 1 September 1995 This is National Womens DayAs a mark of the importance the station gives towomen in the countryrsquos development the station haddeliberately chosen to start on that day
Bush Radio recently relocated to new and larger premises still in Salt River The 300 sqm location ontwo floors is twice as big as the previous one Thecomplex is a sophisticated analogue training produc-tion and broadcast facility probably the most techno-logically advanced community station in the country
Sound Management and Community Participation
Bush Radio was originally structured as a VolunteerAssociation guided by an appointed board of trusteesand an executive committee Once on air it was deci-ded that in order to move toward self-sufficiency anew structure was needed The Board opted to createnon-profit company and this has facilitated operatingthe station It also puts it in a position to attract spon-sorship and support from the business communitybecause a company has a better organizational base
One of the legal requirements is that a seven-memberboard of directors be set up to account for the assetsand operation of the company Bush Radios newlyappointed directors are both highly skilled and fullycommitted to the station Their portfolios include
fund raising programming market-ing staff etc The board comprisessome of Cape Towns top achievers
Community participation is at the core of BushRadios operations At the outset it was made clearthat the station is in existence for only one reason toserve the community Everyone from the communityis eligible for membership and training Through itsbroadcasts productions and training the stationmaintains contact with its target communities
In addition outside broadcasts held in these commu-nities give access for participation as well as maintain-ing and expanding the volunteer base which at present numbers about five hundred many have beena part of Bush Radio since its inception
Members come from all sectors of the communityrepresenting various interests cultures and languages They include students single mothers thedisabled gay activists the unemployed and therecently retired The members have direct access to allaspects of the station from administrative and financialmatters to programme content and training needsPolicy discussions and workshops are held once amonth and the community is invited to give theirinputs for running the station Community controland ownership is thus assured
Overview of Programming
The challenge is to offer identifiable voices and rolemodels on air Music programmes focus on non-mainstream music eg hip-hop reggae RampB jazzblues and jungle as well as on popular local musicThe music slots often include competitions call-insinterviews gig guides music charts and even comedyAn objective is to promote local artists and perfor-mers as well as genres of music not usually availableon commercial radio
While music is a vital component the station remainscommitted to tackling issues that engage and educatethe community It therefore prefers to host discus-sions and air features that facilitate informationexchange critical thought and debate In features andtalk shows Bush Radio makes available a broadcastplatform for members of the community who ascribeto the objective of true development Recently itlaunched a refugee programme run by refugees withthe aim of informing the public of their plight
Some specific regular programmes are
Backchat Representatives of various communityorganizations explain the role they play and how thecommunity can access their services From discussionsand calls during these programmes it appears thatnot enough has been done to inform the communityof the various organizations that can help themThese services include help for rape victims healthchildcare pensions for the aged etc
Community Law Produced by 4th and 5th year UWClaw students factual information that the generalpopulation seldom has explained to them is providedon a variety of issues Care is taken to carefully outlineeven the simplest of laws or human rights Phone-insegments of the show have proved to be extremelypopular while written requests for information arealso encouraged
Everyday People This daily 3-hour programme is inmusic magazine format It uses mainly local music andits emphasis is on township developments The musicis interspersed with public-service announcementsinformation bulletins notice-board news competi-tions and call-ins It has a high profile in the commu-nity and it is the only local youth programme thatreflects the dialect and personality of Cape TownrsquosXhosa speaking people92
TRC Report The Truth and Reconciliation
Commission (TRC) was established to help the nation
heal itself after Apartheid Bush Radio hosted a member
of the commission on a fortnightly basis The commis-
sioner would elaborate on the stationrsquos news report on
the TRC happenings of the week The discussions often
clarified and provided missing detail on the
Commissionrsquo hearings On several occasions the
stationrsquos guests were asked questions by callers that
they found to be important and worthy of further
investigation
TAXI TALK Minibus taxis are the only reliable means
of transport to and from the townships However
escalating rivalry amongst taxis have led to gun
battles where passengers are also shot and killed Bush
Radio and the Shell Oil Company joined forces and
produced Taxi Talk a programme where all involved
were invited to the station to discuss their grievances
The Federal Minister of Transport also played a major
role in mediating between the parties
Rape and Alcoholism Rape of women of all ages has
reached epidemic proportions Bush Radio has estab-
lished groups doing in-depth studies to find the best
way to develop programmes that will assist in helping
to reduce and even eliminate this social disease
Alcoholism plays a major part in it and for this reason
the station refuses to advertise alcoholic products
Similarly it does not carry tobacco advertising
for health reasons Once produced the rape and
alcoholism programmes will be offered to all other
community radio stations
A Training Station
As important as broadcasting is to Bush Radio the
station remains essentially a training centre Emphasis
is placed on developing potential broadcasters from
the community rather than on just filling airtime
Apart from the manager and administrator all of Bush
Radios staff are in-service trainees gaining valuable
on-the-job experience in areas like news music
features and programming
Each year the station receives hundreds of applica-
tions for training from communities nationally and in
some cases from initiatives abroad Much attention is
paid to the selection criteria for trainee candidates
and their future ability to pass on their skills Bush
Radio has developed training methodology and basic
curricula to suit traineesrsquo varied cultural linguistic and
educational backgrounds
During its first two years on air much of the activity of
the station was directed at building and maintaining
solid programming and management This meant that
training had to take a back seat Now that the station
is more settled in its broadcast ability and in response
to much demand from the sector it has returned to its
training focus In September 1998 Bush Radio laun-
ched a new fully equipped facility streamlined and
geared toward a comprehensive radio training
programme Training involves broadcast journalism
and technical and management skills These are
sophisticated fields of study and Bush Radio
continues to offer much-needed introductory level
training programmes in them
Overview of Courses
Introductory courses These cover differentforms of radio community radio and its role anintroduction to field recorders reel-to-reelmachines studios basic editing various programmeformats and the role of producers presentersreporters engineers etc At the end of the coursetrainees have enough knowledge to be able tofunction at a minimum level of competence
In-service trainees A practical one-year on-the-job experience structured to offer young graduates or others an opportunity to learn whileworking in the field of radio They work in the following areas
News In-service trainees are required to gatherinformation log edit and read the news live onair
Music The trainees are expected to ensure thatthe local content quota as stipulated by the IBA isadhered to They also help to maintain the musiclibrary develop links with record companies andensure that the station is offering a balanced variety of music on air
Production Apart from technical aspects of programme production trainees spend muchtime learning about the communitys develop-ment needs eg in health safety education etcThe amount of research is sometimes over-whelming but trainees gain essential skills for programme planning
Programme management Many stations haveproblems in the area of programmingexpertise The programme managementpart of the course assists the trainee in
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carefully assessing the needs of the station theresources available to it and the make up of the community The trainee is enabled to design implement and evaluate a comprehensive program-ming schedule
Prison Radio
Bush Radio was approached by the CriminologyDepartment of the University of Cape Town to develop a training programme for young prisoners tobe trained to operate a radio station After months ofnegotiations with prison officials a viable plan thatwould enable prisoners to operate a simple radio station within the facility was drawn up The enthusiasm shown by the participants convinced theauthorities that the therapeutic effect the programmehad on the inmates were beneficial to their rehabilita-tion The project continues and it is expected thatseveral other prisons will be receiving equipment aswell to duplicate the project
Lessons Learnt
Management and operation For the station tooperate efficiently there must be constant develop-ment through training and other professional activities Internal communication is essential Regularstaff meetings should be held to make sure that everyone has a clear understanding of where they fitinto the organization These meetings can also beused to encourage resource and idea sharing amongthe staff
Staff members should be encouragedto form strong contacts with thevolunteers In Bush Radio we have
learned that staff members tend to develop feelings
of superiority over the volunteers probably because
we are situated in an area with a high unemployment
rate To be employed at a radio station also has an
element of glamour
Marketing the station is also very important if the
station is to become self-sustaining
Volunteers Most of the volunteers at Bush Radio
come from deprived communities ie from the
stationrsquos target audience They often have limited
educational levels and most are unemployed The
communities that many of them have grown up in are
very tough They have a dire lack of role models
facilities and amenities Thus community radio often
is subjected to a high level of theft abuse resistance
to authority and change a lack of self-confidence
pride and commitment and an inherent apprehensive
attitude towards training and education Very few
volunteers understand the concept of volunteerism
its responsibilities and limitations In effect most of
the community radiorsquos target constituency simply
cannot afford to volunteer They are so poor
that some travel to the station on public transport
illegally
Nevertheless the commitment of some of the
volunteers is astounding but despite their energy and
vigour and even when they get on air it is difficult to
depend on their input Without compensation they
run out of steam and often just when programmes
have reached a steady following the volunteer
participants are drawn to job offers family commit-
ments or other more viable activities
Women in training and recruitment Women are
often excluded from areas that require technical
knowledge For this reason Bush Radio has a policy
that no training programme can begin unless at least
50 of the trainees are women
Community access and participation A commu-
nity radio station must be constantly trying to find
ways of providing the community with easier access
to it Apart from encouraging staff volunteers and
interested parties to come forward with ideas Radio
Bush encourages visits to the station However these
have had to be limited to certain days and hours If
not too many people hang around and disrupt
operations
Fund-raising The expectations of the donor and
those of the project have to be carefully discussed and
agreed upon before any funding takes place Many
projects suffer as a result of misunderstandings The
station must abide by its mission statement in any
application for funding Too often projects compromise
their mission statement in order to receive funds In
the long run this creates confusion
There are many different formats used for applying
for funding There is nothing wrong with contacting a
potential donor and asking what information is needed
whether there is a regular application form and so on
Many donors also expect to be kept informed on a
regular basis This should be done whether it is asked
for or not It is good to keep a donor or programme
sponsor up to date on developments at the station94
The Roots in Latin America
It was in Latin America that the worlds first communityradio experiences were initiated 50 years ago whentwo very distinct movements turned to radio as a wayof both increasing their influence and of contributingto community development These were RadioSutatenza in Colombia and the Minersrsquo Radios inBolivia (see boxes 1 and 2 in Chapter 1)
From these roots of rural Christian social develop-ment and militant trade unionism community radiohas grown to have significant presence in LatinAmerica church commercial university trade unionand indigenous peoples radio stations have combinedto make the regions radio the most dynamic anddiverse in the world
A Need to Communicate
Radio Chaguarurco located in a rural part ofEcuadors southern province of Azuay is a young station that continues in the tradition of LatinAmerican community radio The idea of setting it upstarted with a series of workshops in 1990 Thesewere organized by campesino organizations and bythe local churches in the counties of Santa Isabel andPucaraacute in the province of Azuay
The workshops were intended to organize the communities so that they might gain access to basicservices such as drinking water and electricity and toensure that human rights were being respected
A document written by the stations foundersexplains the process that launched the radio station
ldquoWe started to talk about what we needed first we mentioned electricity and drinking water but after that westarted talking about communication about being able toshare a common reality and being able to analyse it in orderto improve it That was how Radio Chaguarurco startedSome people who didnt live in the countryside asked why acommunity radio station was necessary when there were somany other priorities Isnt a radio station a luxury Sure there are lots of other needs health nutrition education day-care better agricultural techniques toimprove production But rather than patching things up tofulfil our needs temporarily its important to think aboutthe causes of the problems about the injustice andinequality that cause poverty and marginalizationrdquo
The director of the station says that the idea grew outof the need to communicate Because of RadioChaguarurcrsquos location it is very difficult to receiveradio stations from the region Few people haveaccess to television and even fewer to newspapersTelephones are still unavailable in many of the townsand they are not available at all in the countrysidewhere most people live
The communities are very scattered Some are only 30minutes from the county centres where the politicalstructures and the markets are located but others arebetween one and 12 hoursrsquo walk away with no roadsFor the population of such communities it is practi-cally impossible to be in daily or even weekly contactwith the centres
Communication began to be seen as a necessity bythe Church and campesino organizations in thearea The idea of a community radio station thuscaught on quickly and within a few months itbecame one of the main topics of discussionduring workshops People in rural areas were usedto being excluded from the media so they wereexcited about having their own radio station aplatform for talking about the necessities of theircommunities and about the problems in gettingbasic services
No doubt the idea of a radio station was a goodone but who would make it a reality A frequencyand government permission would be requiredEquipment would have to be bought Who wouldown the station Where would the station belocated Which communities would it serve
The local Church and the peasant organizationProyecto Norte quickly emerged as the two mainbackers of the project They had collaborated onprevious development projects and had participa-ted in the discussions about a radio station fromthe outset Helped by the areas representative inCongress they started laying plans
The first problem was obtaining a broadcast licenceIn 1992 Ecuadorrsquos law did not recognize commu-nity radio Getting a commercial licence involved acomplex process that even after years of waitingcould easily fail But there had been astation in Santa Isabel in the past Eventhough the man it belonged to had died
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RADIO CHAGUARURCO ECUADOR - NOW YOUrsquoRE NOT ALONE
by Bruce Girard
and the station had been off the air for many yearsthe commercial licence was still valid Buying a stationwith a licence still requires government permission aprocess almost as complicated as being assigned anew frequency But it was a definite possibility
With the process of legalizing the ownership of thefrequency underway the next step was decidingwhere the station should be located
Santa Isabel and Pucaraacute
Santa Isabel is a county capital with a population of3000 people It seemed the logical place for the station for it was the largest town in the region andan important market centre Apart from the Churchthe central plaza is ringed by banks doctors officesand shops It is less than two hours from the provincialcapital of Cuenca and because it has a telephone service it is an important communications centre forthe region At an altitude of 1500 metres it has a perfect climate for growing tomatoes onions andeven sugar cane products that are sold throughoutEcuador
The village of Pucaraacute also a county capital has apopulation of less than 1000 and is only 40 kilometres from Santa Isabel However the non-stopbus takes two hours to climb the unpaved road tomore than 3100 metres above sea level In the rainyseason the road can be closed for days at a timeThere are no telephones and when the road is closedthe village is incommunicado
Pucaraacute where the road ends has a single street in atear-shaped loop with a brightly pain-ted Church in the middle and a per-imeter of breath-taking mountains
and valleys This majestic view camouflages a harsherreality With an average annual temperature of only12 degrees and nights that drop to near zero Pucaraacutesclimate supports little more than subsistence agricul-ture - the staples of beans and potatoes - and a precarious living But Pucaraacute did have one importantadvantage for a possible radio station its altitude andmore central location meant that from a technicalperspective it was a better place to locate the transmitter than Santa Isabel In any event the townrsquosresidents only make up 20 of the total populationand the main target audience would be among therural 80
However the question of where to put the stationalso had a political dimension The community wherethe station was located would be more likely to haveits concerns broadcast its members on air and tobenefit most from it
The solution was to put the transmitter in Pucaraacute theadministrative centre in Santa Isabel and to put studios linked via microwave in both communitiesThus when Chaguarurcos director talks about theradio he says it is actually two stations sharing a singlefrequency and a single identity
Local information is gathered at both News programmes are also duplicated with two anchorsone in Pucaraacute and one in Santa Isabel Some inter-views are also duplicated with the interviewer in onecommunity and the person being interviewed in theother Some music programmes are produced only inPucaraacute and others only in Santa Isabel but many programmes are produced in both locations
At the time of writing a third studio was underconstruction in the village of Shaglly This has a population of only 250 but it is the nearest
community for 2500 rural dwellers There are plansto continue the decentralization process by establi-shing new studios in other communities
The Chaguarurco Foundation
The issue of ownership of the station was as importantas that of location From the beginning it was agreedthat it would not be owned by the local priest or bythe parish or by any single person It was to be ownedby the people In September 1992 the ChaguarurcoFoundation for Rural Development was establishedwith representatives from campesino organizations inthe two counties from the Catholic parishes andfrom the workers and volunteers of the radio stationThe radio is under the care and supervision of theFoundation ensuring that the people who in effectown it will always be in control and have access to it
The Chaguarurco Foundations board meets everythree months with extraordinary meetings held whennecessary The board receives reports from the stationdirector and makes the important programming andbudget decisions
By the time the Foundation was set up the dream ofthe radio station had been circulating for almost twoyears Nobody foresaw that they would have to waitanother two-and-a-half years to see how theFoundation would function obtain funding for theequipment get approval for a frequency and trainpeople for the station
Funding in the region is difficult and the project wasgoing to be an expensive one The areas geographiccharacteristics called for an AM transmitter whichwas substantially more expensive than an FM oneThe 5 kW Nautel transmitter including its antenna96
and installation was going to cost US$80000 morethan the community could ever put together on itsown Once the Foundation was established it startedthe slow process of getting the money together fromlocal and international sources However even thoughthey needed the money the community was not pre-pared to sacrifice the stations independence for it
Practically all new equipment was needed what wasavailable in the old station was not even good enoughto put in a museum The transmitter antenna and installation were donated by the Spanish aid agencyIntermon Caritas Manos Unidas some Spanishvolunteers and a solidarity group in Madrid also helped The Church in the provincial capital Cuencadonated a pickup truck
Donations were only sought for equipment and installation The Foundation was determined that thestation would pay its way and that is what has happened
Training the Community
While the process of legalizing the purchase of thefrequency crept slowly ahead a group of volunteersbegan training people from the community One problem was that nobody working on the project hadhad any experience in radio apart from two Spanishvolunteers who had a little experience in communityradio stations in Madrid
In essence those involved had to train themselvesfirst in order to be able to train others They read whatever books they could find and travelled to otherstations to see how these were run Experienced radiopeople were invited to speak and to give courses Inthe end a manual and a trainers package were produced based on what had been learned Then the
newly-trained trainers went out to start training thecommunity volunteers
Serious training started in December 1993 The ideawas that each community would look for a personthat they considered to be an appropriate correspon-dent In addition there was a general invitation toanyone who was interested to participate in thecourses
Four trainers divided the work between December1993 and October 1994 going to different communi-ties week by week There was no shortage of volun-teers Many of them walked four five or even sixhours to get to the place where the courses were heldThere was particular enthusiasm in one village wherethere had been many conflicts and much abuse ofpower by the authorities Some people had even beenkilled People believed that the radio would help themput an end to such abuses
In November 1994 the staff was selected fromamong those who had been trained In Decemberthey underwent a month of intensive and more specialized training The ongoing training and discus-sions about the radio kept the project moving forward and people involved However five years hadpassed since the project was first discussed and thewait had a cost Some people had got discouraged andhad left
However the station finally went on the air on 1 January 1995 As one participant remembers
ldquoIt was the most beautiful thing With lots of people listen-
ing We were crazy Greeting all the people Thanking the
ones who had been with us since the beginning those who
had taken courses with us the correspondents Making
calls to Cuenca to see if the signal reached the city There
were people who knew we were going to be on the air
and they called us We played lots of music and every
few minutes announced lsquoThis is Radio Chaguarurco
Were on the air Listen to us on 1550 kilohertz Tell
your neighbours to listenrsquo It was crazyrdquo
lsquoNow youre not alonersquo
After years of waiting peoples expectations werehigh They were not going to be satisfied with astation that sounded like all the rest They wantedto hear their own experiences and concerns toldin their own voices and in their own languageNow there was a communication medium wherepeople could talk say what they felt and denounceofficials who were giving them a hard time The phrase lsquoNow you are not alonersquo summed upthe sentiment produced by the station
To produce the kind of radio that the communitywanted called for a special kind of radio producerOnly four of the eight full-time staff and 20 volun-teers had ever formally studied journalism Theothers learned their skills in Chaguarurcos owncourses but all of them now work as journalistsand programme producers Five of the full-timestaff are based at the station in Santa Isabel andthe other three are based in Pucaraacute
The staff in the station are in fact almost volunteers Their salaries are not even the minimum that the law requires Howeveras the radios income rises their salarieswill also increase gradually
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Role of Volunteers
In addition to the paid staff there are some 20 volun-teer producers Six of them are correspondents in surrounding villages They gather the news in theirareas and periodically travel to the station with theirstories and tapes The station supplies them with taperecorders and rechargeable batteries Proceeds froman annual raffle are used to pay their bus fares
One volunteer produces a one-hour music programmesix days a week It features Ecuadorian music which isa special interest she developed at a time when thiswas unavailable on the radio She uses her personalcollection of records and tapes and says that the radioprogramme has collectivized it
Other volunteers produce a weekly market programmehosted simultaneously in Pucaraacute and Santa Isabel Thislooks at prices and trends in the areas markets It hasplayed an important role in controlling speculation
There is a constant turnover among the volunteersand for this reason the station continues to offerregular training courses to new ones
Participation and Programming
There are important characteristics that distinguishChaguarurco from other stations in the region Themost important is the priority the station gives tolocal voices language and culture Unlike radio stations in the city which have announcers who try tohide any regionalisms in their accents or their languageChaguarurcos announcers celebrate their own way ofspeaking Another important distinction is that the
station actively seeks the participationof people from the countryside invi-ting them to visit the station to tell
their stories to sing or just to greet their friends andfamily over the air
The station also plays an important role as a commu-nication channel at the service of the communities -a telephone service for those who do not have itWhen places in the radiorsquos coverage area are withoutroads and are difficult to reach the people who livethere listen to the station for information aboutimpending visitors so they can be ready for them
For example the community health project has amedical team which periodically visits remote communities Before the radio went on air this wouldtravel to a community and lose hours or even dayswaiting for the news of its arrival to get out to thepeople in the countryside and for the people to travelin to where the team was waiting to attend themNow the radio announces visits ahead of time andthe community is ready and waiting for them
Health matters are very important to the stationThey are covered for example in radio dramas thatthe station produces and broadcasts daily The dramashave characters that the people in the countryside canidentify with They chat with each other and tell stor-ies about health and related matters They talk abouttreating garbage vaccinations nutrition and aboutthe environment Some of the dramas also deal withpolitics culture and human rights These dramasacted by the stations own staff provide a valuableway of explaining complex issues in everyday languageand in a way that people can easily understand
A recent addition to the stationrsquos programming is theinclusion of news from Latin America and the worldthat the station gets from ALRED (Latin AmericanAssociation for Radio Education) and the Puacutelsar newsagency A satellite dish at the Pucaraacute station receives
ALREDs programmes and news from Puacutelsar arrivesvia the Internet
This information from other countries and conti-nents which people did not have before has met withfavourable comment ldquoWe see that there are people outthere just like us campesinos like us Were exchanginginformation with them In the same way we receive information here from other countries we also send newsfrom here to them And this is interesting to communicatelike brothersrdquo
A Minga for Chaguarurco
The way the Chaguarurco Foundation meets its objec-tive of covering the stationrsquos running costs is to keepcosts low using resources freely offered by the communities it serves In addition to the volunteerservices the studios in Pucaraacute and Santa Isabel are inspace provided free by the local churches When a studio needs a handyman or when a pot of soup isneeded for a minga (a day of volunteer labour for acommunity project) there are always people aroundto offer their skills or help Even so Chaguarurco hasto generate some US$2000 per month to cover itsoperational costs
The stations financial situation is healthy It managesto generate enough revenue to cover its fixed costs aswell as putting aside a few thousand dollars a year toimprove its equipment or cover unforeseen costsSources of revenue include advertising communitymessages production services and broadcasts of cultural events
Advertising which brings in about 20 of the stations revenue has always been a controversial subject Some people argued that commercials had no98
place in community radio Others said that the survivaland growth of the station was the most importantthing and that all advertisers should be welcome Thecompromise policy is to advertise only local goodsand services The philosophy is to promote what istraditional and local rather than the consumption ofimported products developed through high technologyand chemicals The message of the commercial radiosis seen as promoting these at the expense of homeproduce Thus the station does not give advertisingspace to carbonated drinks produced by multinationalsNor in the interests of health does it broadcast commercials for alcohol or tobacco
Political advertising is also controversial For most ofthe countrys radio stations elections are a bonanzaMore than a dozen parties buy airtime and it is customary for stations to put a surcharge of 20 to150 on it The temptation is strong During recentelections one party offered to buy time fromChaguarurco at a price that would have paid the billsfor months The offer was not accepted it was notthought beneficial to the community The station prefers to give equal possibilities to all political partiesrather than allowing the more powerful ones to gainfurther advantage through commercials
Community announcements and personal messagesaccount for about 40 of the stations revenue Yetanother source of income is the production of pro-grammes on health and other issues for local NGOsand government The station also continues to gethelp from the solidarity group in Spain organized byone of the volunteers who helped set up the stationThis raises funds through bingo sessions dinners andthe sale of handicrafts
Is Anyone Listening
Between June and November 1996 a team of students from Santa Isabel under the guidance of aDutch volunteer designed and conducted a survey of400 people in the stationrsquos coverage area The mainconclusions were
bull Radio is the most used medium In the towns 64also watch television especially in the evening Inthe countryside only 40 of people have access totelevision
bull Radio Chaguarurco is number one in terms ofaudience in both the towns and the countryside Itis however most popular in the countrysideamong adult listeners and among people with lesseducation
bull Forty percent of respondents from the villages claimto listen to Radio Chaguarurco everyday In thecountryside this rises to almost 50
bull The most popular programming is music followed bynews programmes and community announcements
The survey showed that the radio station was wellreceived by its audience but it also showed whereimprovements could be made by adjusting the sched-ule providing better training to the announcers andputting more agricultural information in the programming
In addition to the figures however the survey alsoshowed that after only four years on the air RadioChaguarurco has helped to make a number of important changes in community life It has improvedcommunication helped bring about more democracyand less abuse made a positive contribution by promoting the sharing of experiences and solutions toproblems and made people more aware of and proudof their own culture
How the Radio Station Has Helped theCommunity
The station has a system of announcements andcommuniqueacutes For three half-hour periods a day -morning noon and evening - people can send allkinds of messages concerning the situation ofpatients in hospital deaths lost animals invitationsto meetings etc The radio is thus the telephonefor those who do not have one
As a result of the stationrsquos existence the authoritiesinstitutions and merchants have become moredemocratic Before it was an everyday practice toabuse campesinos charge them more than theright price sell material that was intended forpublic-works projects and so on Now everybodyhears about such abuses on the radio and theyhave practically disappeared as a result
The radio has served to share experiences and problems For example a community that has succeeded in the struggle to obtain a service suchas electricity or drinking water explains on theradio how they went about it the procedures andwhat public offices they had to go to making itmuch easier for others to follow In addition solu-tions to everyday problems are shared eg ideasabout farming techniques or latrine building areexchanged
The radio is also helping to revalue the local culturemusic and way of speaking Songs that had practic-ally disappeared and that were only sung by theoldest people during family gatherings are onceagain heard on the radio Programmes containingsuch songs are among the most popular programmes on the radio and they aregenerating renewed pride in the localculture
Com
mun
ity
Rad
io H
andb
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- UN
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pter
8
99
COMMUNITY RADIO HANDBOOKThis Community Radio Handbook aims to show that ordinary people even non-technical rural folk
can plan set up manage and produce radio programmes by themselves with a minimum of depen-dence on outside help whether for technical advice and training or for funds and equipment Althoughquite a number of radio stations began with a big helping hand from outside many community stationsthat on the air today were lsquoself-start-upsrsquo They began with a minimum of equipment and technicalknowledge but a strong community organization and a group will to push ahead and succeed
The Handbook highlights the case-stories of several such stations including Homa Bay Radio inKenya Radio Apam in Ghana Minersrsquo Radio in Bolivia Radio Sagarmatha in the Kathmandu valleyNepal Tambuli Community Radio in the Philippines and several others in order to share these creativeexperiences with others preparing to set up similar radio stations
As a handy reference for planning management technical background group dynamics broadcas-ting legislation and radio production formats based on pioneering experiences this book is a basic yetcomprehensive and practical reader for communication students researchers and planners and a lsquomustrsquofor prospective community broadcasters
1rue Miollis 75732 Paris Cedex 15
Further information Tel (331)45684025 bull Fax (331)45685585
e-mail ipanevskaunescoorg
- Contents
-
Community Radio Handbook
Colin Fraser and Sonia Restrepo Estrada
copy UNESCO 2001
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the following people and organizations for their generous support and help Maria Victoria Polanco Sophie Ly and Elvira Truglia of the WorldAssociation of Community Broadcasters (AMARC) David Shanks of the World Association for Christian Communication (WACC) Martin Allard of Mallard Concepts LtdLawrie Hallet of the UK Community Media Association and the authors of the five case studies Louie N Tabing Ian Pringle Alex and Wilna Quarmyne Zane Ibrahimand Ms Adams and Bruce Girard Special thanks are due to Louie Tabing whose pioneering work in the concept and practice of true community radio and prolific writings on the subject have been aninspiration for much of the material in the handbook
Much research interest has been devoted to mass media In their findings communicationspecialists have always acknowledged that there are many sectors communities and minorities whose access to information and means of self-expression are not always guaranteed by mass channels They have recognized that more sharply focused customizedand essentially small and local media are crucial in filling this gap
During the last two decades UNESCO has commissioned a number of studies andpublished monographs on the theme of community media The first monograph published byUNESCO on the theme of community media was Access Some Western Models of CommunityMedia by Frances Berrigan which appeared in 1977 and in 1981 the enquiry was extendedto the developing countries in a study by the same author entitled CommunityCommunications ndash the Role of Community Media in Development (No 90 in the series ofReports and Papers on Mass Communication) A few years later Peter Lewis prepared theUNESCO study Media for People in Cities (1984) which brought together a number of case-studies and the conclusions of two research meetings on urban community media
During the ensuing years UNESCO began setting up community radio stations in Africa(Homa Bay 1982) and Asia (Mahaweli 1986 and Tambuli Community radios 1982) The growthof the community radio lsquomovementrsquo was covered in a section of the UNESCO WorldCommunication Report in 1997
UNESCO sees community radio as a medium that gives voice to the voiceless thatserves as the mouthpiece of the marginalized and is at the heart of communication anddemocratic processes within societies With community radio citizens have the means tomake their views known on decisions that concern them The notions of transparency andgood governance take on new dimensions and democracy is reinforced Community radiocatalyzes the development efforts of rural folk and the underprivileged segments of urbansocieties given its exceptional ability to share timely and relevant information on developmentissues opportunities experiences life skills and public interests Given the audiencersquos lowliteracy rate and radiorsquos ability to involve women and to treat them not only as objects ormerely as a target audience but as participating agents and as a valuable source communityradio becomes one of the most promising tools for community development This hasbeen demonstrated by the special UNESCO project Women Speaking to Women community radiostations for the empowerment of women
In the age of multimedia and online communication the potential of community radioto provide for effective outreach to discuss and create demand for the Internet has becomeeven greater The Kothmale Internet radio experiment in Sri Lanka has proven that radiostations can promote and use the Internet in rural communities overcoming language barriersand lack of infrastructure By using radio and browsing the Internet to respond to listenersrsquodirect queries by sharing information and knowledge derived from the Internet the wholecommunity is involved and empowered with new opportunities
Against this background of challenges I believe that this handbook can contributetowards helping different communication actors technicians operators and radio producersin community radio stations to make more efficient use of community media for communitydevelopment by getting people involved in clarifying issues and solving problems and intalking to each other
The handbook is based on the experience and innovative thinking of communicationexperts and practitioners whose contribution I would like especially to acknowledge thelate Jake Mills former Director of Engineering Ghana Broadcasting Corporation whodesigned the prototype sound mixer Martin Allard electronics engineer designer of theUNESCO prototype transmitter Alex Quarmyne former UNESCO RegionalCommunication Advisor in Africa and project manager for Homa Bay in Kenya the firstcommunity radio in Africa Carlos Arnaldo former Chief of Communication Policies andResearch Section at UNESCO as project manager of Mahaweli community radio GeorgesDupont-Henius engineer UNESCO Communication Development Division WijayanandaJayaweera UNESCO Regional Communication Advisor for Asia and creator of KothmaleInternet Radio project Kwame Boafo of UNESCO Communication and InformationSector Louie Tabing project manager of Tambuli community radios and creator of Village on the Air For the time they took in producing this book and for their valuablecomments I should also like to thank Sonia Restrepo Estrada and Colin Fraiser for compilingthese experiences and putting them together for publication
Claude OndoboDeputy Assistant Director-General
for Communication and Information and Director of Communication Development Division
PREFACE
iii
Preface helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip iii
Introduction helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 1Any Community Can Start its Own Radio Station helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 1
Chapter 1 Community Radio in the Broadcasting Scene helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 3
Community Radio in the Context of the Globalization of Media helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 5
The Evolution of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 6
An Important Initiative by UNESCO helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 8
Box 1 The Minersrsquo Radio in Bolivia helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 12
Box 2 Radio SutatenzaACPO in Colombia helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 13
Chapter 2 Features and Functions of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 15
Essential Features of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 15
Functions of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 18
Box 3 Involvement of Women helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 23
Chapter 3 Legal Aspects helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 25
Uneven and Haphazard Legislation helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 25
Most Progress in Africa helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 25
Asia and Indiarsquos Lengthy Debate on Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 27
Legislation in Some Latin American Countries helliphelliphelliphelliphellip 28
Some Examples from Western Europe helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 30
Convergence and Divergence in Legislation helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 31
Applying for a Licence helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 32
Chapter 4 Technical Aspects helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 33
Technical Background helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 33
Broadcasting Equipment helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 35
Reliability and Maintenance helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 39
Studio Premises helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 40
Spatial Relationship Between the Components of the Radio Station helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 40
Future Possibilities helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 41
Specialist Advice helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 43
Box 4 Basic Equipment for a UNESCO-supported Community Radio Station helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 44
Chapter 5 Getting Started helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 45
Legal Context helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 45
Preparatory Work in the Community helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 46
Importance of a Mission Statement helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 48
Role of the Religious Establishment helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49
Role of Local Educational Institutions helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49
Involvement of Politicians helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49
Choosing a Location in the Community helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49
Box 5 Involvement of Politicians helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 50
Choosing a Model helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 50
Power of the Transmitter helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 51
Ownership and Management helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 51
Programminghelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 51
Staff helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip52
Sustainability helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip52
Looking for Outside Funding for Start-up Costs helliphelliphelliphellip54
Box 6 Main Factors to Consider When Planning a Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip54
Chapter 6 Programme Policieshelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 57
Participatory Programmes helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 57
Community News helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 60
Balancing Views helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 60
Coverage of Religious and Cultural Events helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 61
Local Election Broadcasts helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 61
Educational Broadcasts helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 61
Audience Surveys helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 63
Chapter 7 The Community Broadcaster helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 65
Code of Conduct helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 65
A Prototype Code of Conduct helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 66
Selection of Community Broadcasters helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 71
Training of Community Broadcasters helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 71
Chapter 8 Case Studies helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 75
Radio Olutanga (Tambuli Project) Philippines helliphelliphelliphelliphellip 75
Radio Sagarmatha Nepal helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 80
Radio Ada Ghana helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 85
Bush Radio South Africa helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 90
Radio Chaguarurco Ecuador helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 95
Table of contents
Communities and Communication
ldquoPeople live in a community by virtue of the thingswhich they have in common and communication isthe way in which they come to possess things in commonrdquo 1
T here are more than 20000radio stations in the worldand more than 2 billion
radio receivers Any notion thatTV and other sophisticated communication technology willreplace radio is unfounded forradio is in constant expansion Itswaves reach almost every cornerof our planet It is the prime electronic medium of the poorbecause it leaps the barriers of isolation and illiteracy and it is themost affordable electronic mediumto broadcast and receive in
The last two decades have seen arapid expansion in the number andpopularity of community radiostations Among the reasons forthis are the democratization anddecentralization processes in manyparts of the world deregulation ofthe media and the relaxing ofbroadcasting monopolies by stateinstitutions and disaffection withcommercial radio channels
Furthermore awareness is growingof the social and economic benefitsthat can result when ordinarypeople have access to appropriateinformation And it is also evidentthat when people especially the
poor can participate incommunica-tion processesand consensusbuilding aboutissues thataffect theirlives it helpsthem to cast off their traditionalstate of apathy and stimulatesthem to mobilize and organize tohelp themselves
ANY COMMUNITY CANSTART ITS OWN RADIO STATION
To start a small radio station is notas complicated and expensive asmany people think There isenough experience in many countries to prove that it is withinthe reach of almost any community
Community Will is the Key
The primordial condition for acommunity to start its own radiostation is a sense of internal cohe-sion and community consciousnessThere must be willingness forcooperative work and to poolresources and enthusiastic consensus
that the people want their own radioin order to advance their community
As part of the consensus buildingthat leads to the decision to establisha community radio the communitymust analyze its communicationneeds and determine how radiocould help to resolve them Thetraditional approach to develop-ment is to provide support to agriculture health education andso on and a radio station may notnormally be seen as a priority Buta community that analyzes itsneeds in detail and thinks aboutthe causes of its problems andmarginalization will often cometo the conclusion that it needscommunication processes to helppeople share common understan-ding and common goals This is thefirst step towards a communitytaking action to establish its ownradio station
ldquoEveryone has the right to freedom of opinion andexpression this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek receiveand impart information and ideas through any mediaand regardless of frontiersrdquo
Right of information section Article 19 of theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights
ldquoCommunity radio is a social process or eventin which members of the community associatetogether to design programmes and produce andair them thus taking on the primary role of actorsin their own destiny whether this be for something as common as mending fences in theneighbourhood or a community-wide campaign on how to use clean water and keep it clean or agitation for theelection of new leaders The emphasis is on the ownership of democratic and development efforts by the members of the communitythemselves and the use of media in this case radio toachieve it In every sense this is participatory communication(not programmes made about them by somebody else) It is above all a process not a technology not merely ameans because the people are part of that means and sois the message and the audienceCommunity radio is most relevant to a group of peoplewho live and act as a community and this could be severalfamilies several neighbourhoods or even several villagesor communities but the important thing is that theyinteract That is why I think of community radio as the
community speaking to each other and acting together forcommon goalsrdquo
Carlos A Arnaldo
Introduction
A basic Community Radio Studio in Burkina Faso
1
Com
mun
ity
Rad
io H
andb
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- UN
ESC
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oduc
tion
Phot
o U
NES
CO
2
Producing Programmes does notneed Magical Skills
The professional tasks of managing astation and producing programmesare not beyond the reach of typicalcommunities Unfortunately expo-sure to commercial andor stateradio leaves many people with theimpression that such professionalstandards are the norm and theydo not realize that good and effec-tive radio broadcasting can bemuch less formalized Nor do theyrealize that the usefulness andimpact of any media productiondepends much more on its relevan-ce to the audience than on its for-mal quality
This is not to say that quality ofprogrammes in terms of theirstructure and their technical level isunimportant For example impro-per use of recording equipmentmay result in programmes of suchpoor sound quality that they aredifficult to understand Howeverexperience with community radioshows that when people are moti-vated and enthusiastic the mini-mum technical levels required forbroadcasting can be masteredduring only a few weeks of trainingAnd as they gain hands-on produc-tion experience their skills developmarkedly They quickly reach fullysatisfactory levels of performance
The Cost and Technologyare not Prohibitive
The equipment requiredfor community radio isrobust and easy to main-tain and it does not needsupport from broadcastingengineers beyond some ini-tial training Its cost isconstantly falling For atypical community radiostation the normal cost ofthe equipment is little morethan US$20000 For minimalbroadcasting there is even asuitcase available weighing 16 kgwhich contains a five-watt trans-mitter a six-channel audio mixertwo compact disc players two cas-sette taperecordersplayers and anantenna The total cost is aboutUS$3000
There are also FM radio receiverswith a solar strip that can eitherpower the radio or charge a batteryAt night the radio can be poweredby a dynamo winding up the radioby hand for two minutes provides30 minutes of listening time
The tendency among those produ-cing equipment for communityradio has been to focus on simplicityof installation use and maintenanceAnd local people often show extra-ordinary capacity to adapt andbuild for themselves For examplein Cape Verde UNESCO helpedlocal technicians to install a single
transmitter on one islandHowever the technicians were soeager and enterprising that after-wards they built two more trans-mitters so that they could have oneon each of the three main islandsThis was despite the fact that thecomponents originally made avai-lable were scarcely enough for onestation Furthermore they also linkedthe three stations over seeminglyimpossible distances to form a net-work that shares programmes in acomplicated schedule every day5
Media and Development
ldquoDeveloping communities are characterized by isolation from ideas and information as well as services At the simplest level before people canconsider a question they need to be fully aware of allthe facts the short-term effects and the long-termimplications ways in which decisions taken in onearea will affect future planning Communicationmedia could present this informationrdquo 2
Phot
o C
A A
rnal
do
The Judges are the Listeners
ldquoIt is unfortunate that the so-called radio professionals have set certain artistic productionstandards which could intimidate the regular villagepeople The irony is that the so-called professionalproductions cannot compete with programmes doneby the inexperienced village people The professionalsforget that the ultimate judge of a radio programmeis the listenerrdquo 4
Donrsquot be afraid of radio
ldquoNo one should be afraid to use radio I have been abroadcaster for almost a quarter of a century andI know nothing about the electronics side of radio
Even today I cannot explain how my voice in the studio is processed and passed on finally to the family radio maybe hundreds of kilometres awayrdquo 5
1 John Dewey (1916) cited by Elizabeth Blanks HindmanldquoCommunity Democracy and Neighbourhood NewsrdquoInternational Communication Association (1998)
2 Frances J Berrigan ldquoCommunity Communications - the role ofcommunity media in developmentrdquo Reports and Papers onMass Communication no 90 UNESCO (Paris 1981)
3 Louie Tabing Neighbourhood Radio ProductionUNESCODANIDA Tambuli Project Philippines
4 Martin AllardrdquoOn the AirhellipThe Development of CommunityRadiordquo UNESCO Sources no 21 (1990)
5 Louie Tabing Manager of the UNESCODANIDA TambuliProject Philippines
Mang Vicente of Ibahay on Aklan Island in Southern Philippines plays traditional melodies on a flute made from PVC plumbing pipe
Chapter 1Community Radio in the Broadcasting Scene
3
Com
mun
ity
Rad
io H
andb
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- UN
ESC
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Cha
pter
1
T his chapter describes the place of community radio in the broadcastingscene and explains the essential
difference in its approach compared to conventional public service or commercialbroadcasting A rationale is put forward for itsimportance in the scenario of increasing mediaglobalization
The evolution of community radio from itsfirst experiences some 50 years ago is tracedand set in the context of broadcast mediaownership patterns technical developmentsand the recent trends towards democratization and decentralization
The reader will acquire
bull An understanding of the special nature ofcommunity radio compared to other types ofradio broadcasting
bull An understanding of its place and importan-ce in the trend towards media globalization
bull Knowledge about its background specificfield experiences and the factors that havedetermined its evolution
This theoretical framework provides the long-term foundation for practical knowledge andskills to be gained in later chapters
Broadcasting can be divided into three general categories
bull Public-service broadcasting is generally conductedby a statutory entity which is usually - though notnecessarily ndash a state-supported or a state-ownedcorporation Its broadcasting policies and programmingare often controlled by a public body such as a councilor a legally constituted authority This body ensuresthat broadcasting operates to provide informationeducation and entertainment to the citizens andsociety in general and independently of governmentparty politics or other interests Much of the fundingfor the operation comes from licence fees that the listenersviewers pay for the receivers they have intheir homes
bull Commercial or private broadcasting providesprogrammes designed primarily for profit fromadvertising revenue and is owned and controlled byprivate individuals or by commercial enterprises
bull Community broadcasting is a non-profit servicethat is owned and managed by a particular communityusually through a trust foundation or association Itsaim is to serve and benefit that community It is ineffect a form of public-service broadcasting but itserves a community rather than the whole nation asis the usual form of public broadcasting describedabove Moreover it relies and must rely mainly on the resources of the community A community is considered to be a group of people who share
A Declaration of Principle
ldquoCommunity radio responds to the needs of the community it serves contributing to its developmentwithin progressive perspectives in favour of socialchange Community radio strives to democratizecommunication through community participation indifferent forms in accordance with each specificsocial contextrdquo
World Association of Community Broadcasters(AMARC) 1988
4
common characteristics andorinterests The commonality ofinterests may be based on
- The sharing of a single geographicallocation that is to say those livingin a specific town village orneighbourhood
- The sharing of economic and sociallife through trade marketingexchange of goods and services
Unfortunately this tidy classificationinto three categories of broadcastingis less than tidy in practice forthere can be combinations andoverlapping situations For examplea local commercial radio stationmay also broadcast some communityservice programmes a station ownedand managed by an NGO such as areligious institution may fill most ofits air time with such programmesand state-owned public-servicebroadcasting has increasingly beendecentralizing to the local level andproviding programming for thecommunities around it
Not surprisingly there is still nosingle definition or description ofcommunity radio And to complicatematters further there have beenvarious terms applied to small-scaleradio broadcasting such as lsquolocalrsquolsquoalternativersquo lsquoindependentrsquo or lsquofreersquoradio All of these lack precision Forexample the term lsquolocal radiorsquo
could also cover the decentralizedoperation through a local stationof a state-controlled broadcastingsystem or even a small commercialstation Terms such as lsquoalternativersquoand lsquofreersquo are also imprecise even ifin the context of radio they arenormally taken to mean alternativeto the mainstream mass media andfree from government ownershipand control Logically thereforethey include community radio butthey do not necessarily include it
The various definitions of communityradio that have been formulatedshare many common elements Thesimple and catchy phrase lsquoRadio bythe people and for the peoplersquo isoften used as a good summary Thisphrase captures well the essentialprinciple that must be in place for abroadcasting service to be consideredtrue community radio It must firstlybe managed by the communitysecondly be to serve that community
Strict application of these two principles would mean that a radiostation owned by a non-profitNGO and also managed by thatNGO would not necessarily qualifyas a true community radio even ifmuch of its programming wereaimed at community developmentThis is the case for many broadcastingservices run by religious organiza-tions and in practice the term
lsquocommunity radiorsquo is often used tocover this type of operation as wellOne example is Radio Maria whichbeginning from a single parish inNorthern Italy in 1983 now coversall of Italy and also has stations in21 other countries It is essentiallyan evangelical operation but it alsodoes a great deal in social servicesand community developmentusing volunteers and supported byspontaneous contributions fromlisteners
The somewhat confusing situationregarding what constitutes truecommunity radio can perhaps bestbe understood by considering thefollowing quotation this sums up aphilosophical approach that makescommunity radio different fromcommercial or public-service radio
ldquoCommunity radio emphasizes thatit is not commercial and does notshare what it would call the prescriptive and paternalistic attitude of public-service broadcas-tinghellip The key difference is thatwhile the commercial and public-service models both treat listenersas objects to be captured foradvertisers or to be improved andinformed community radio aspiresto treat its listeners as subjects andparticipantsrdquo 4
One Definition
ldquoA community radio station is characterized by itsownership and programming and the community it isauthorized to serve It is owned and controlled by anon-profit organization whose structure provides formembership management operation and programming primarily by members of the community at large Its programming should bebased on community access and participation andshould reflect the special interests and needs of thelistenership it is licenced to serverdquo 1
On Radio Work for Ordinary People - a Practitionerrsquos View
ldquoRadio is simply people talking with people The Tambuli stations have merely expanded theopportunity for people to talk more to a wideraudience and to listen to a more expansive array ofideas on matters that directly concern themrdquo 2
On Community Ownership and Management
ldquoTo qualify as a community radio the ownership and control of the station must rest squarely and unquestionably with the community it claimsto serverdquo 3
Commercial Media Antagonism Towards Community Media
ldquoMainstream commercial media continue to harbournegative feelings about community media and areconvinced that they are adequately able to servecommunity needs They have not yet come around toaccepting that the special character of communitymedia is complementary rather than antagonisticand mutually exclusiverdquo 5
This placing of both public andcommercial broadcasting into aprescriptive category treating listeners as objects is significantfor even when they broadcasttheir so-called community serviceprogrammes they usually remainin the same prescriptive modeThis is contrary to the participatoryessence of community radio programming
COMMUNITY RADIO IN THE CONTEXT OF THEGLOBALIZATION OFMEDIA
Recent years have seen a strongtrend towards the globalization ofmedia Colossal media enterprisesof a commercial nature have beenformed and increasingly span theglobe with their programmesCertain countries have also becomecentres of highly successful mediaproduction mainly of an enter-tainment character and sell theiroutput to TV channels worldwideObvious examples are soap operasfrom the USA However audienceresearch has shown that peopleprefer to watch programmes withtheir own cultural orientationsrather than those imported fromothers For this reason media productions from developing
countries such as Brazil ChinaEgypt India and Indonesia arenow gaining wider distribution inlarge-scale commercial media
While some people argue that theglobalization of the media disruptslocal cultures others state thatglobal media intensifies theconsciousness of the world as awhole and is therefore beneficialThey see global media and community media as complemen-tary each forming important functions that the other cannotAnd this is certainly the case
By definition global media arecommercial and need to attractlarge audiences for their adverti-sing content Thus they broadcastprogrammes that attempt to satisfya common thread of sensitivitiesamong large numbers of peopleusing well-tried and rather standardif not banal entertainment formatsThe lack of variety in programmeorientation is therefore generallyattributed to the lsquoself-censorshiprsquoof the market which uses entertainment as the sole criterionfor selection However it is alsotrue that governments tend to bemore comfortable with privatebroadcasters limiting themselvesto entertainment rather thanbecoming involved in the moreproblematic area of news and
current affairs For these reasonsthemes reflecting socio-politicalinterests are often insufficientlycovered or deliberately ignoredby private broadcasters
Clearly given their characteristicsand orientation commercial andglobal media can hardly meetsocio-economic and developmentneeds of the countries they coverThe excessive entertainment provided by commercial televisionhas often provoked a call for areappraisal of the potential ofpublic broadcasting stressing theneed for quality programmes anddemanding more possibilities ofchoice and access for audiences A logical step in this direction is toexpand the democratization ofmedia to the community levelespecially through communityradio in which accessibility is thenorm
Furthermore community radioworks in the cultural context ofthe community it serves it dealswith local issues in the local language or languages it is relevantto local problems and concernsand its aim is to help the commu-nity to develop socially culturallyand economically This is not onlyin contrast with global media operations it is also in contrastwith centralized urban-based 5
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ity
Rad
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Global Communication
ldquoGeorge Orwell in Nineteen Eighty-Four warned us ofa society controlled by Big Brother Is that what weare encountering today when we see so many peoplein poor communities tuning into western dominatedideals of the rich consumer society Orwell was veryconcerned about the socialist drives of the industrialage But perhaps he was also warning about the takeover of society by a democratic political power drivento degradation by these very industrial drives and bythe easy resort to globalization of mediardquo 6
The Power of the Local Approach
ldquoAn effective strategy for the community radiostation is to present what cannot be offered by any
other radio station that is local content with a localflavour The local radio station must dwell on itsstrongest reason for existence - local events issuesconcerns and personalities If a local station can doan exhaustive reportage of what goes on in its community on a regular basis there is no way aregional or national broadcast outfit could competefor listenership The element of proximity is the mostpotent quality that the community radio should capitalize on People will be enthusiastic to know ona daily or even hourly basis about the people andevents unfolding next to their place of aboderdquo 7
6
national media even of a publicservice nature for they are oftenremote from the realities of ruralcommunities and their needs
THE EVOLUTION OF COMMUNITY RADIO
The pioneering experiences fromwhich todayrsquos community radio hasevolved began some 50 years agoin Latin America Poverty and socialinjustice were the stimulus forthose first experiences one beginningin Bolivia in 1947 and known as theMinersrsquo radios and another inColombia in the same year knownas Radio SutatenzaAccioacutenCulturalPopular (See boxes 1 and 2 at the end of this Chapter for descriptions)
These experiences in Bolivia andColombia set a trend even iftodayrsquos concept of communityradio has evolved considerably Forexample the Minersrsquo radios inBolivia were working in thedecades of ideological clash between Marxism and capitalismThus their principal focus was tounite the community of miners tobattle for better and fairer workingconditions They were generallyconsidered to be trade unionradios even if the miners providedmuch of the finance for the purchase
of equipment and running costs
Radio SutatenzaACPO in Colombiaalthough inspired by the aim ofsupporting the community of peasants was not owned or directlymanaged by them There was muchfeedback from peasants - some50000 letters a year ndash and thesecertainly ensured the integration ofthe peasantsrsquo desires and needsinto the radiorsquos programming Butit was not truly lsquoradio by the peoplefor the peoplersquo which is todayrsquosaim
Even so this first systematic effortby Radio Sutatenza to educate byradio created a movement thatldquohellipspread and was later consolidatedthrough ALER the Latin AmericanEducational Radio BroadcastingAssociation This inter-linkage ofradio and education is basic to theidea of public service and markedthe birth of community media inLatin Americardquo 8
However even if the groundbreak-ing work was in Latin America itwas in Europe that communityradio first became a vital phenome-non an alternative to ndash or a critiqueof ndash mainstream broadcast mediaThe first challenges to state public-service broadcasting were in the1960s-70s when ldquoswashbucklingentrepreneurs boarded the airwavesillegally and seized as much of the
audience as they could carry awayfrom the treasure chest monopolycontrolled by the staterdquo 9 In theWest these pirate stations proved acatalyst in motivating governmentsand national broadcasting systemsto introduce legitimate local radio
In Africa the establishment ofcommunity radio became in abroad sense a social movementafter the demise of the apartheidregime in South Africa This wasfollowed by democratizationdecentralization and to someextent structural adjustmentelsewhere in that continent10
The pressure groups that have instigated community radio inmany parts of the world (egminers pirate radio operators missionaries and democracy movements) have been less presentin Asia In their place internationalagencies such as UNESCO andother external donors have oftentaken initiatives to help get community radio off the groundAnd in some cases it has been thenational broadcasting organizationthat has itself started communityradio services
Vision of Joaquiacuten Salcedo founder of RadioSutatenza and Accioacuten Cultural Popular
ldquoWithin weeks of arriving in Sutatenza Salcedo as ajunior priest had challenged the peasantry from thepulpit to take up arms against the poverty and backwardness that afflicted them and had offered hishand and vision in a partnership They respondedand so a pact was formed
Salcedo pioneered a concept known as lsquointegralfundamental educationrsquo similar to what today is
often called lsquolife educationrsquo The core of the conceptis that the educational process must be the development of the individual as a whole person and as a member of society
It became an ACPO slogan that lsquodevelopment is inthe mind of mankindrsquo And providing people witheducation in the broadest sense would enable themto make informed decisions and become proactivein taking control of their livesrdquo 11
The Influence of DifferentBroadcasting Ownership Systems
Latin America adopted the NorthAmerican system of mainly privateand commercial broadcastingwith multiple stations of variedpower and reach In this context itwas relatively easy for new stationsto start up And several thousandhave done so in Latin Americaoften initially as illegal or piratestations
In Western European countriesthe public-service state broadcastingmonopolies which had been setup when radio and later TV werefirst introduced usually had management mechanisms throughstatutory public bodies Thesecontrolling bodies ensured thatbroadcasting policies and programmes were as independentas possible of government partypolitical or other influences
European countries that adoptedthis public-service broadcastingapproach through state networksdid so because from the very firstdays of radio in the 1920s and TVsome 30 years later the electronicmedia were considered by leadingthinkers as marvellous instrumentsfor expanding culture educationand information and for improvingsocieties According to that thinkingthe mass media could not be
allowed to function principally ona commercial basis and as a vehicleto be taken over by the advertisingindustry to market products
Many countries in the developingworld especially in Africa and Asiawhere European countries hadheld influence as colonizers adoptedthe European model at least as faras the state monopoly on broad-casting was concerned Howeverthey did not always allow broad-casting policy to be controlled by astatutory and independent publicbody preferring complete controlby government of all aspects oftheir electronic media Thus manygovernments especially those ofcentrally planned economies usedtheir broadcasting networks tofurther their political aims and inparticular to consolidate theirpower base
In such circumstances and fullyrealizing that information ispower these governments withfully state-controlled broadcastingwere extremely reluctant to allowany electronic media to operateindependently This made it difficultfor community media initiatives toget started Only in the early 1980sdid some governments begin torelax their opposition to indepen-dent media but even today manygovernments still effectively oppose
the idea of relinquishing theirmonopolistic control of the broad-casting media
On the other hand it has becomeclear in the last decade or so thatattempts to control information ina society are doomed to fail The fax machine on a desk thecomputer connected to theInternet electronic mail andsatellite television are underminingall the efforts of repressiveregimes to control and conditionthe information that their peoplereceive This situation coupledwith the spread of democracy andfreedom of expression in mostparts of the world is opening thedoor to community media initiativesand particularly to communityradio And governments in countriesthat have already opened the doorare able to see for themselves thatcommunity radio has great potentialfor promoting and supportingd e ce n t ra l i ze d e n d o g e n o u sdevelopment
Technical Evolution
In addition to the political aspectsof decentralizing broadcastingthere are technical factors thathave played and continue to playa very important part in the evolu-tion of community radio 7
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Alternative Media as Antibodies
ldquoSome fifteen years ago I described alternative media as antibodies producedas a protection against the neglect insensitivity and insanity of the conventional mediardquo 12
8
Two important breakthroughs haveallowed major progress firstlycheap transistor receivers andsecondly low-powered and cheaptransmitters
Until the invention of the transistorin the mid-1950s radio receiversused valves and were expensive andcumbersome Until that time mostof the worldrsquos radio receivers weremanufactured in North Americaand Europe but the arrival of thetransistor paved the way to massiveradio ownership in developingco u n t r i e s Fo r e xa m p l e i n Sub-Saharan Africa India andChina the number of radio receiversexpanded from two million in 1956to 90 million in 1975 And the number of radios has continued toexpand dramatically worldwide tothe two billion or more of today
The availability of cheap receivershas played a key role in the evolu-tion of community radio with apush-pull effect in the sense thatonce a community station starts tobroadcast there is often a significantrise in radio ownership This is anindication that radio listening maybe as much a function of peoplersquosinterest in what is being broadcastas their ability to afford a radioreceiver For example in a poorrural area of Mali where a communityradio station began to function
radio ownership rapidly rose by 140 percent 13
The second technical breakthroughwas low-power transmitters using abroadcasting system known asFrequency Modulation (FM) Thesebecame increasingly available in the1970s and 1980s (See also Chapter4) Small companies in severalcountries began to produce equip-ment that was designed specificallyfor community radio operationsMuch of it was in kit form and sorobust and simple that it was idealfor use in the often harsh conditionsof developing countries
AN IMPORTANT INITIATIVE BY UNESCO
Among UNESCOrsquos missions areldquothe free exchange of ideas andknowledgerdquo and promoting ldquofreeflow of ideas by word and imagerdquoIn this context UNESCO launchedan initiative to support communityradio in 1980
The initiative began with discussionsin 1980 between UNESCO and theEconomic Commission for Africaon local radio broadcasting Thesehighlighted the fact that very fewAfrican countries had a commonlanguage that enabled nationalbroadcasting to effectively reachthe rural people who made up as
much as 80 percent of the popula-tion The best broadcasters coulddo was to select perhaps ten of themain local languages and broadcastdaily programmes in them on atime-sharing basis Thus no singlecommunity could listen to a languageit understood for more than a shortperiod each day
There were also problems of physi-cal and mental distance the centralbroadcasting facilities were oftentoo far away from their ruralaudiences for their broadcastsignals to be received intelligiblyand the urban-based programmeproducers were too far away mentally to know and understandtheir rural audiences properly
The discussions in those early daysand for many years afterwardsassumed that the state broadcastingsystems would be decentralized tolocal stations These would mainlyrelay the signal from the capital but would also originate some programmes locally This systemwould keep the local radio underthe control of the national broad-casters and as such it cannot beconsidered as an example of thecommunity broadcasting model oftoday
On the Potential of Community Broadcasting in Africa
ldquoCommunity-based radio broadcasting could be theleast costly mass medium for development in media-starved rural Africa It could promote positivecultural identity using local languages which areineffectively used on national broadcasting stationsand are usually accessible only to urban and eliteaudiencesrdquo 14
Big Boxes are More Impressive
ldquoIntegrated circuits and new componentsenable us to make smaller pieces of equipment but some manufacturers justlike to use big boxes open them up andthey are practically empty insiderdquo 15
Equipment Factor A first needwas for cheap and simple equip-ment quite different from the kindof equipment used by state orcommercial radio stations SoUNESCO organized a workshop atBrighton Polytechnic in 1980 thatbrought together British ChineseCuban French and Ghanaian engi-neers The purpose was to identifypriorities and outline designconcepts A first requirement wasa 10-watt FM transmitter thatcould run off a 12-volt car batteryor even solar panels and thesecond was for a simple and cheapaudio mixer similarly powered forbringing together sounds (voicesmusic and sound effects) into asingle programme for broadcast-ing The other necessary itemssuch as tape recorders and recordturntables could be purchased atreasonable prices in the market
The transmitter was designed andbuilt by Mallard Concepts inBritain and the six-channel audiomixer was designed and its pro-duction supervised by Jake Mills aGhanaian who was for many yearsthe technical director of GhanaBroadcasting Corporation
Based on integrated circuitry theMallard transmitter was onlyslightly larger than a home hi-fiamplifier It could be deliveredeither in kit form or fully assem-bled The largest component in theequipment was the transformer the
device for conver-ting power from110- or 220-voltalternating currentto 12-volt directcurrent
The cost of theMallard equipmentpackage was aroundUS$2000 comparedto about US$15000or more for com-mercial transmittersof similar power
Tests with theMallard transmittershowed that itssignal could beheard on a normalradio at a range ofup to 12-20 km Itwas so light androbust that it could easily be takenout into the countryside in a carPowered from the carrsquos batteryand with an antenna hoisted into atree an outside broadcast stationcould be set up
UNESCO also worked on solar-powered receivers and onproblems such as the cheapconversion of existing AM receiversso that they could also pick up FMbroadcasts Despite some promisingdesigns for solar-powered receiversit proved impossible to find amanufacturer that could mass-produce them on the scale necessaryto make them cheap enough for
Soldering circuits for 20-watt FM transmittersin Brixham UK
9
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of the FM community radiotransmitter designed byMallard ConceptsLtd UK forUNESCO
Phot
o C
A A
rnal
do
Phot
o W
Jay
awee
ra
10
even the very poor to buy Bothsolar and wind-up generator radiosets are manufactured today but atprices still prohibitive to most ruralfolk
Political Factors Solving thetechnical problems was often lessdifficult than overcoming the political ones in promoting thespread of community radioUNESCOrsquos push in the area of community radio was essentiallyradical based on concepts ofhuman rights and freedom ofexpression But the world of theearly 1980rsquos was still divided byideological conflict between Leftand Right and state monopolies onbroadcasting were the norm inmany developing countries
It is easy to think that governmentssimply wanted to repress all formsof self-expression that could pose athreat to their authority or to theirstable hold on power However closer consideration shows thatmany governments especially incountries with a multiplicity of ethnic groups and languages feltthat national identity and unitywould be strengthened throughhaving a single broadcasting voicefrom the centre and through promoting a national languageWhatever the reason for govern-ments to defend their broadcasting
monopolies UNESCO faced anoteworthy challenge in promotingcommunity radio
The First Community RadioStation in Africa
The government of Kenya was thefirst to open the door to UNESCOrsquosproposal for setting up a communityradio In May 1982 a Mallard 10-watt transmitter as well as anaudio mixer designed by Jake Millsand related broadcasting equipmentof a total value of less thanUS$25000 were supplied to thecommunity of Homa Bay on LakeVictoria This is a poor area withmany problems of underdevelop-ment Local people were givenbasic training in how to use theequipment and the station beganbroadcasting for two hours a day inLuo one of Kenyarsquos principle lan-guages but not that of the dominantethnic and political group
Homa Bay was successfully on airfor only two-and-a-half years beforethe government closed it down forit was said to be working contraryto the official policy of makingSwahili and English the nationallanguages Furthermore despite itsvery local coverage it was said tobe increasing tensions between different ethnic groups
Building on Homa Bay
Despite this political setback theHoma Bay experience proved that asmall community radio operationcould be effectively set up withequipment costs of less thanUS$25000 and that it could function in a low-technology environment without encounteringtechnical problems
UNESCOrsquos initiative in communityradio coincided with some worldtrends that favoured it The mostimportant of these was the growingawareness of the limitations of centrally planned economies leadingultimately to the collapse of theideology that had built them But innon-Marxist countries too demo-cratization decentralization andneo-liberal policies were on themarch and this was also leading toa greater willingness to decentralizenational broadcasting systems
In Sri Lanka the Sri LankaBroadcasting Corporation hadalready regionalized its services andthe notion of starting communityradio was a natural next step Thusin 1983 the second UNESCO community radio initiative wasbegun in the context of a largemulti-purpose irrigation schemethe Mahaweli DevelopmentProject About a million peoplewere being resettled on newly
Excerpt from 1988 Evaluation of MahaweliCommunity Radio
ldquoIt has animated settlers into participation in activities that not only encouraged self-actualizationbut also community identify and development Intandem with Mahaweli development workers it hasmotivated the settlers to try innovative practices inagriculture and health It has likewise motivatedlocal development workers to take the settlers andtheir problems more seriously ensuring a more palpable degree of service to the peoplerdquo
Some Achievements of Mahaweli Community Radio
ldquoIn one area we came across a group of teenagedelinquents who had no land and were desperately insearch of something to do Through our programmesand discussions we motivated them to clean up thevillage pond and set up an ornamental fish production enterprise In another village we arranged a mass wedding to solemnize the marriageof elderly couples who were living togetherTheir offspring had faced many hardships as theirparents were not legally married I produced manyprogrammes on gambling and alcoholism which helped the addicts to reflect upon themselves andgive up the vicerdquo 16
Bamako Declaration on Radio Pluralism(President Konareacute of Mali 1993)
ldquoRadio pluralism is an essential componentin the deepening of the democratic processnow under way it allows people greateraccess to a diversity of information andguarantees increased popular participation for sustainable human developmentAfrican statesmust speed up the ending of the monopoly over ofthe airwaves and give priority to national proponents of independent radio when allocatingbroadcasting frequenciesrdquo 20
irrigated land and these familiescame from various parts of thecountry Originally no media element was included among thevarious rural development inputsfor Mahaweli However it waslater realized that a communityradio service could help the sett-lers to integrate and to take initia-tives to improve their living stan-dards In effect they needed todevelop a sense of community aswell as learn more about improvedagricultural practices health andso on
Community radio offered greatpotential for this so with financialsupport from Danish InternationalDevelopment Assistance (DANIDA)and UNESCO the MahaweliCommunity Radio was set up Itsfirst station covered about 20000settlers in the major developmentregion surrounding the town ofGuirandurokotte but it was latercomplemented by several othersmall FM stations in the area
Although the Mahaweli CommunityStations were all under the controlof the Sri Lanka BroadcastingCorporation they used a truecommunity radio style This wasquite different from the style usedby the national broadcaster
One of the main thrusts ofMahaweli Radio in addition toproviding settlers with information
was to obtain feedback from themabout development activitiesthrough recordings made in thecommunities which were laterincluded in programmes orthrough having settlers come intothe studios to talk on air Withsuch participation in the radio programming and dealing as it didwith local problems and issues theradio became a vital andpersonalized link in the life of thecommunity
Community Radio Expanding ata Fast Pace
Riding on the flood tide of changethat has been sweeping the worldtowards democratization anddecentralization in the 1980rsquos and1990rsquos community radio has beenexpanding at a fast pace UNESCOfollowed its Kenyan and Sri Lankanexperience with support to otherstations in a wide variety of coun-tries among them Ghana TongaHaiti Cape Verde St LuciaTrinidad and Tobago SurinamJamaica Guyana the Philippinesand many others However UNESCO is now far from beingalone in promoting communityradio A wide range of internationaldevelopment agencies and nationaland international NGOs are involvedin many parts of the world
The rapidity of the spread of community radio is remarkableand Mali provides an interestingexample In 1991 after 23 years ofmilitary dictatorship severe socialdisturbances finally overthrew thegovernment and a multi-partydemocracy was formally establishedA transition government came topower pending democratic elections
Mali is a primarily rural society andthe transitional government orga-nized consultations with represen-tatives of the rural people It wasfound that after more than twodecades during which the nationalmedia had been the channel forissuing instructions and exhorta-tions and with government staffin rural areas equally distant thepeasantry was disaffected and alienated by the governmentrsquosimposed development programmesThey preferred to ignore them 17
The transitional government andthe elected one that took its placedecided to install with the help ofUNDP and the Food and AgriculuralOrganisation (FAO) a policy ofusing communication systemati-cally for Malirsquos development thefirst country in the world to do soMali also took a lead in media libe-ralization in Africa notablythrough organizing a crucial confe-rence in Bamako in September1993 called ldquoFreedom for AfricanRadiosrdquo 18 19 11
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12
Mali had itself just liberalized its state TV andradio which ever since they began had broadcastexclusively in French a language only understoodby the countryrsquos elite And with illiteracy levelsof about 70 percent the majority of the peoplehad had no access to media-based information
In the five years after Mali liberalized its mediamore than 60 independent radio stations beganto operate providing access in local languagesto people for the first time since the dawn ofradio broadcasting And many other countriesare becoming similarly involved with communityradio Much has happened to improve thesituation for community broadcasting since theHoma Bay community transmitter was closeddown by the government of Kenya some 15 yearsago And as an endnote Kenya today is also discussing legislation that would recognizecommunity radio as part of the countriesbroadcasting scene
The Bolivian experiencebegan with a radio servicecalled the lsquoVoice of the
Minerrsquo linked to the Siglo XXmine in the Department of PotosiacuteIn subsequent years 23 stationsin the various mining areas of thecountry were set up and came tobe known collectively as theMinersrsquo Radios
These radio stations were born asa trade union response to theappalling conditions of workersin the mines most of which wereowned and operated until 1952 bya few rapacious and fabulouslyrich families the lsquotin baronsrsquosuch as the Patintildeos who wereknown world-wide for their extra-vagant lifestyles Meanwhile theminers who were the source oftheir wealth and of the mainnational export were being inhu-manely exploited Living in primitive mining camps often inthe cold of very high altitudespoorly paid and suffering fromtypical minersrsquo afflictions such assilicosis they were already oldmen by the age of 40 Their lifeexpectancy was further reducedby the lack of safety precautionsin the mines and frequent accidents In 1952 the mineswere nationalized but little chan-ged for the miners becausegovernments lacked socialconscience
Unfortunately historical factsabout the Minersrsquo Radios remainsomewhat vague for the mainsource of information is the
memory of the people involvedHowever it is certain that theradios were a crucial element inhelping to lead the struggle ende-mic in Bolivia for many years - aconfrontation that saw massacresof miners and their families civilwar and revolution
The radios helped to unite theminers in the struggle and provided them with news andinformation that countered thenegative propaganda against theirinterests that was being put out bymost of the mainstream mediaThe importance of the MinersrsquoRadios is evident from the num-ber of times they were systemati-cally destroyed or their equip-ment confiscated by the militarysent in by one or other of the succession of governments thatruled the country
It was in fact the miners that initiated the massive strike in1981 that finally led to the end ofdictatorship in Bolivia As on allprevious occasions of seriousconfrontation with the authoritiesone of the principle demandsmade by the miners was thereturn of the equipment for theirradio stations or in cases wherethe equipment had been destroyed the right to start themup again with new equipmentThe miners usually contributedmost of the cost a further illustra-tion of the importance of theseradio stations in their lives
Although the main role of theMinersrsquo Radios was the defence
and promotion of minersrsquo rightsthey were also central to a widerange of cultural and educationalactivities They promoted andbroadcast festivals of minersrsquopoetry discussions about theaesthetic value of popular songsand other art forms and discus-sions about education issueseven including a discussion ofwhether minersrsquo children shouldlearn to play chess
The miners themselves contributedto the costs of establishing andrunning their radio stations but inmost cases the management andprogramming policy was in thehands of their unions And therewas little participation by minersin the kind of radio programmesthat would be promoted by com-munity radio today However theintegration of the radio stationsinto the mining community wasto a great extent ensured by theirphysical location close to themine they served and peoplecould generally visit the studioand say their piece if they wanted
Most Minersrsquo Radios were set upin the second half of the 1950sbut their most flourishing yearswere between 1963 and 1983After that world tin prices beganto drop and in 1985 a neo-liberalgovernment passed a decree tolsquorelocatersquo miners throwing about20000 of them out of miningwork forever This cut the groundfrom under the feet of their radiosSome were passed to peasantgroups but today less than tenare still operating
BOX 1 The Minersrsquo Radio in Bolivia
BOX 2 Radio SutatenzaAccioacuten Cultural Popular in Colombia
This initiative was launchedin 1947 by a priest JoaquiacutenSalcedo in an Andean
village called Sutatenza It beganusing a home-made transmitterwith a range of two to three kmbut from this Radio Sutatenzagrew into Colombiarsquos mostpowerful broadcasting network
Salcedo an atypical priest wasmore concerned about the socialand economic status of Colombiarsquospeasants than about conventionalChurch matters Driven by his mission to bring education to peasants to help them develop herealized that radio could reacheven into the most isolated parts ofmountainous Colombia Thus theidea of the Radio Schools ofSutatenza was born and from thatAccioacuten Cultural Popular (ACPO)
The educational broadcasts byRadio Sutatenza expanded untilthey covered a wide range oftopics including literacy numeracyhealth farm production housingimprovements family and personalrelationships sport and leisureand - crucially as it turned out - theresponsibilities of parenthood andpractising responsible procreation
People listened to these programmes in informal RadioSchools - in effect small groupswho came together each eveningThe groups were assisted by moni-tors people with more knowledge
and experience than the group Atany one time there was usually anenrolment of some 200000 peasants in about 20000 RadioSchools
To complement the radio programmes ACPO produced arange of textbooks and a PeasantrsquosLibrary of 100 books on topics forrural communities And a weeklymagazine with an estimated readership of 600000 people waspublished Furthermore trainingof peasant leaders and technicaltraining courses in communitieswere a part of the activities
The Roman Catholic Church supported the operation from thebeginning mainly with funds fromCatholic groups in Europe butACPO also attracted world-wideattention and many internationalagencies also became involved infinancing it
Ultimately Radio Sutatenza wasthe victim of its own successW h e n i t i n t r o d u c e d i t s programmes on lsquoresponsible procreationrsquo the Church begansystematically to undermine itSalcedo declared that the problemwas to convince the masses that itwas not sinful to discuss these matters and that it was difficult toeducate people for human dignityand for responsible maternity in acountry dominated by religiousrules ACPO held no position on
chemical or physical methods ofbirth control Its task was only tocreate the basis on which indivi-duals could take their own respon-sible decisions
This position infuriated the Churchhierarchy in Colombia which heldthat the only purpose of humansexual intercourse was procreationof the species So it convinced theEuropean Catholic groups to with-draw their support HoweverACPO continued to function withother international funding passedthrough the government
The operation struggled on usingmainly borrowed funds until 1985when its powerful and valuableradio infrastructure was sold to acommercial network In 1987 after40 years successfully dedicated tohelping peasants develop theirminds knowledge and life skills itfinally folded completely Itsassets which included a publi-shing house a plant for pressingmusical records a 14-storey officeblock in the capital as well as peasant training centres were soldto meet its debts
13
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mun
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pter
1
1 Independent Radio and Television Commission of Ireland1988
2 Quote Louie Tabing Manager of the UNESCODANIDATambuli Project Philippines
3 Zane Ibrahim and Ms Adams Bush Radio 895 FM (See CaseStudy)
4 P M Lewis and J Booth The Invisible Medium PublicCommercial and Community Radio MacMillan (London 1989)
5 Jocelyn Josiah Presentation on Media for Community Buildingin the Caribbean during Roundtable on Communication forDevelopment Brazil (Bahia 1998)
6 Carlos A Arnaldo Localism and the Displacement of Politics Placebased Communication Development (Globalism and the Politicsof Place) Vol 41 No 2 1998 Sage Publications and SID (Rome June 1998)
7 Louie N Tabing Programming Tips for a Community Radio StationUNESCO-DANIDA Tambuli Project (Manila 1998)
8 Rafael Roncaglio lo Public Service Broadcasting ndash Cultural andEducational Dimensions UNESCO (Paris 1995)
9 T McCain and F Lowe Localism in Western EuropeanBroadcasting Journal of Communication Vol 40-1 (1990)
10 Moncef M Bouhafa Child Survival and Broadcasting ndashOpportunities and Challenges paper presented at internationalconference on Broadcasting for Child Survival Voice ofAmericaUSAID (Washington April 1998)
11 Colin Fraser and Sonia Restrepo-Estrada Communicating forDevelopment - Human Change for Survival IB Tauris (LondonNew York 1998)
12 Peter Lewis in Alternative Media Linking Global and LocalReports and Papers on Mass Communication No 107 UNESCO (Paris 1993)
13 Mary Myers The Promotion of Democracy at the Grass-roots The Example of Radio in Mali Frank Cass Journal Vol 5 No 2 (London 1998)
14 Jake Mills of Ghana the designer of the cheap 6-channelaudio mixer (1990)
15 Martin Allard designer of a simple and cheap FM transmitter
16 Interview Sunil Wijesinghe broadcaster of MahaweliCommunity Radio (1999)
17 Colin Fraser and Sonia Restrepo-Estrada op cit
18 Moncef M Bouhafa Grassroots Media and CommunityEmpowerment in West Africa paper presented to theInternational Conference on Media and Politics CatholicUniversity of Brussels Belgium 1997 (revised 1998)
19 Mary Myers op cit
20 Ibid
14
In Barbados after running the experimental UNESCO community radio for the 1995 World Environmental Conference students took over the radio station and continued programmes ever since from the Barbados Community College as Radio GED
Phot
o U
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CO
Kin
gsto
n
Chapter 2Features and Functions of Community Radio
15
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2
T his chapter describes the special featuresand programming approach of communityradio in terms of public access and partici-
pation ownership management funding editorial independence and credibility as wellas its representation of different groups andinterests in the community and its inclusion ofmarginalized and minority groups
The section on functions covers the role of community radio in reflecting local identity andculture in providing a diversity of voices opinionsprogrammes and content on air and in promotingdemocratic process social change developmentcivil society and good governance Its functionas a lsquopeoplersquos telephonersquo and its contribution tothe training of human resources for the broad-casting industry are also touched on
After absorbing the content the reader will
bull Have a clear picture of the many features andfunctions of community radio
bull Be able to act as a resource personleaderduring discussions in a community about the possibility of setting up a radio stationproviding the necessary background informa-tion for decisions on ownership manage-ment programming policies and the benefitsthat can be expected from a communityradio
ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF COMMUNITY RADIO
The Audience asProtagonists
While community radio is a form of public-servicebroadcasting it has anapproach that is differentfrom conventional broad-casting Its specific focus isto make its audience themain protagonists by theirinvolvement in all aspects of its management and programme productionand by providing them withprogramming that will helpthem in the developmentand social advancement oftheir community
A Special Slant on News Entertainment and Education
News on a community station unlike that on the mains-tream media is not an isolated story or event alone ratherit aims to be part of an ongoing and future process whichsupports change and development in the community
Special Sunday treat for Radio Ibahay - actress Chin ChinGutierrez visits the station during the childrenrsquos programme
and sings a song in Aklanon
Phot
o C
A A
rnal
do
16
Entertainment is provided in aform that is a collective culturalexpression rather than a featuringof refined performers It is morelike singing Karaoke than listeningto a professional artist
Education is more the sharing ofexperiences and learning from othersin the community than listening toan expert or teacher talking
Principles of Public Access andParticipation
Citizens have a democratic right toreliable accurate and timely infor-mation Based on this right it is apublic interest of broadcasting thatit should incorporate the principlesof access and participation
Access implies the availability ofbroadcasting services to all citizensparticipation implies that the publicis actively involved in planning andmanagement and also providesproducers and performers
In concrete terms for communityradio these concepts mean that
bull A community radiorsquos broadcastpattern reaches all members ofthe community it aims to serve
bull The community participates informulating plans and policies forthe radio service and in definingits objectives its principles ofmanagement and its program-ming
bull The community participates indecisions concerning programmecontent duration and schedulesPeople se lect the types ofprogrammes they want ratherthan having them prescribed bythe producers
bull The community is free to commentand criticize
bull There is continuous interactionbetween producers and receiversof messages The radio itself actsas a principal channel for thisinteraction but there are alsomechanisms that allow easycontact between the communitythe programme producers and themanagement of the radio station
bull There are unrestricted opportu-nities for members of the com-munity as individuals or groupsto produce programmes and behelped by the radio station staffusing the technical productionfacilities available
bull The community participates inthe establishment managementadministration and financing ofthe radio station
Ownership
The facilities of community radioare almost invariably owned by thecommunity through a trust founda-tion cooperative or some similarvehicle However there could becases where formal ownership wasin the hands of a body external tothe community but which has passedthe facility to the community for itsindependent and exclusive use
Management
Irrespective of formal ownershipthe stationrsquos policies managementand programming must be the responsibility of the community inorder for it to be considered a truecommunity radio There will usual-ly be a representative communitycommittee or Board of Directors toset overall policies while day-to-day
Radio quickly and easily becomes he link in society between poor and rich between rural and urban groups between agricultural routine and city leisure At Radyo Ibahay one of the smallest Tambuli stations film and TV actress Chin Chin Gutierrez share her ideas on development in an interview for the Sunday programme
Phot
o C
A A
rnal
do
administrative andoperational decisionsare left to a stationmanager selected by thecommunity
Funding
A community radio service is set up and run asa non-profit organization Itrelies on financial supportfrom a diversity of sourceswhich may include donationsgrants membersh ip fees sponsorsh ip or advert i s ing A combination of these is themost desirable in order to ensureindependence Many communityradios also organize fund-raisingevents among their audience Theoverall aim is always to reach astate of financial self-sufficiency
Editorial Independence andCredibility
Community radio is editoriallyindependent of central and localgovernment of political partiesand of commercial and religiousinstitutions in determining its policies and programming Overallpolicy is set by the aforementionedrepresentative community-levelcommittee but with day-to-day
operational decisionsabout programming taken by thestation manager hisher role as acredible and non-partisan personbecoming crucial
Representation of DifferentGroups and Interests in theCommunity
Communities are inevitably madeup of different groups and inter-ests Community radio broadcastsprogrammes that cater to theseand also encourages them toexpress themselves on air Clearlyhowever programme and timeallocation are approximately pro-portional to the size of any parti-cular group or interest in the com-munity taking into account anyspecial circumstances or needs
Inclusion ofMinority and MarginalizedGroups
Community radio includes minorityand marginalized groups on equalterms rather than giving them an
17
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mun
ity
Rad
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- UN
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2
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o C
A A
rnal
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Even the smallest children haveaccess to the radio on the
Radio Ibahay Sunday childrenrsquosprogramme
Carol Singing for a Tape Recorder
Community radio stations often organize communityevents such as community fairs cultural eveningsand other fund-raising activities One Tambuli community radio station in the Philippines organizeddoor-to-door carol singing at Christmas to raisefunds to buy a new tape recorder
18
occasional voice as in the case of many public broadcasters Its programming ensures a wide diversity of voices and views frommarginalized groups such aswomen and youth and it promotesand protects the interests cultureand linguistic diversity of ethnicminorities in the community
FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNITY RADIO
Community radio aims to fulfil thefollowing functions
Reflect and Promote LocalIdentity Character and Culture
Co m m u n i t y ra d i o p ro v i d e s programming that is particular toits communityrsquos identity and character Thus it relies principallyon local content It includes outsidenews and events that have a specialinterest or implications for itsaudience
It also focuses on local cultureCulture is what a community saysto itself and what it says to othersIt is how the people the individualmembers of a community expresstheir dreams and hopes and howthey talk about their past and theirfuture It is what they care aboutLike life itself culture is infinitelyvariable and constantly evolving Itis the result of a process not of
definitions And that is why indemocracies governments areexpected only to establish broadframeworks for cultural expressionby the people Governments mustnot get involved in content or style 1
Community culture is also of courseartistic expression through localmusic dance poetry theatre storytelling and so on and these arefeatured strongly by most commu-nity radios Local performers areencouraged to go on air uninhibitedby considerations of the lsquoprofessionalstandardsrsquo they may have acquiredfrom mainstream media The valueof content and lsquolocalnessrsquo usuallyoutweighs formal quality and lsquoprofessionalismrsquo though thisshould not be used as an excuse forsub-standard technical production
Culture is also Language Locallanguages and expressions are theraw material that feeds communityradios They are the cement of cultural diversity which is as important for the successful futureof humanity as biological diversityThere are some 6700 languages inthe world and 63 percent of theseare in Africa and Asia Nationalbroadcasting and media globaliza-tion combined with other factorssuch as urban migration threatenhalf of the worldrsquos languages with extinction during the nextgeneration And with them will go
their cultures Community radio is aprime defence against this gravetrend towards the impoverishmentof cultural diversity 2
Create a Diversity of Voices andOpinions on the Air
Community radio through itsopenness to participation to all sectors and people in a communitycreates a diversity of voices andopinions on the air
Some discord is present in all communities they are not the peaceful harmonious groupingsthat outsiders may idealisticallyimagine Discord may be caused bydiffering interests by differing ethnic linguistic or religious backgrounds or even by someancient feud The acknowledgementof conflict is necessary for democracyand for democratic communitiesThrough an understanding of whyconflict exists communities canunderstand themselves better andpave the way to resolve conflicts A function of community radio is totry objectively to air all sides of a dis-cussion without itself taking sides
Main Functions of Community Radio as Formulatedin South Africa
Community radio stations should
bull Promote and reflect local culture character andidentity
bull Assist in creating a diversity of voices and opinionsand encourage individual expression
bull Increase access to a diversity of voices on air
bull Assist in creating a diversity in broadcastingownership
bull Be responsive to the needs of their community
bull Contribute to human resources development forbroadcasting and where appropriate to job creation
bull Encourage members of the relevant community toparticipate in programming and production matters
bull Encourage innovation and experimentation in programming 3
Preserving Linguistic Diversity in IndustrializedCountries too
Community radio stations in New York broadcast inWolof on Sundays for people of the Senegalese community Two other stations broadcast in Koreanwhile in France the Arab population has demandedthe right to set up media channels that meet its specific needs 4
Provide a Diversity ofProgrammes and Content
Community radio provides a diversity of programmes in a varie-ty of formats and styles Forexample roundtable discussionsreportage interviews talks call-inprogrammes live broadcasts ofmeetings in the community etcAudience preferences are takeninto account in deciding what formats are most suitable
Content also covers a wide rangeof topics again in accordance withthe expressed desires and needs ofthe audience Content is mainlydetermined by the lifestyles andlivelihood of the community andby the problems it faces In ruralareas themes such as health farming fishing environmentcredit marketing of producesmall-scale enterprises etc usuallyfeature prominently but always setin the context of the communityrsquosactual situation
News broadcasts may also focuson different types of contentThey may cover only local eventsand issues or they may includenational items that have local relevance or they may evenbroadcast national and internatio-nal news per se in the case of aremote community with no accessto other media channels
Encourage Open Dialogue andDemocratic Process
The ancient Greeks who inventeddemocracy conducted their politi-cal debate in public All those whowished could be present at themeetings to listen and voice theirviews Sheer numbers of peoplemake this impossible today andfor this reason democratic processhas become distant from ordinarycitizens Typically once politiciansare elected their contact withtheir electorates is limited andthey go about their tasks withoutmuch further consultation ordebate with them
It is a function of community radioto provide an independent platformfor interactive discussion aboutmatters and decisions of importanceto its community This is in keepingwith the decentralization processesnow being implemented in manycountries a purpose of which is tobring democratic decision-makingcloser to the people concerned
However for social and economicprogress to take place democraticprocesses cannot start and finish inthe community They must reachinto the government and privateinstitutions operating in the community as well as to policymakers and authorities at thelocal regional and even nationallevel
The public debates aired by thecommunity radio will certainlybe heard by locally-basedstaff of government andprivate institutions and theradiorsquos content should berelayed by them to theirsuperiors This lays the foun-dation for development initia-tives that are responsive to thecommunityrsquos felt needs andpossibilities In additionrecordings by the communityradio service can be used inmeetings or even broadcast byother stations to make betterknown what is happening at thegrassroots level
In sum the core of democraticprocess is the ability of people tohear and make themselves heardCommunity radio provides theforum for that to happen
Promote Development andSocial Change
People in poor communities tendto be fatalistic about their situationThey will all have individual perceptions but developmentcannot take place on the basis ofthese What is needed is a collectiveperception of the local reality andof the options for improving itThis can only be achieved throughinternal discussions within the
Connections
ldquoLocal radio stations have the responsibility toconnect people with people people with peoplersquosorganizations and people with officials and govern-ment functionariesrdquo 5
19
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While group listening is not the norm among radio audience radioachieves a certain level of similarity among people living in rural areasProblem-solving becomes easier when there is ldquocommonnessrdquo in knowledge perceptions aspirations goals and processes
20
community about its situation thecauses and possible actions forimprovement
Community radio provides the perfect platform for these internaldiscussions and for reaching a collective perception of the situationSpecific problems can be analyzedremedies discussed and thosemost affected - or who can helpwith the solution - mobilized tocollective action
Anti-social behaviour by minoritiesin a community can also be modifiedby exerting pressure from themajority through community radioprogrammes
Promote Civil Society
Civil society is that multiplicity ofsocial institutions that allows asociety to live in harmoniouscoexistence It creates its own stan-dards and values for individual andgroup behaviour rather thanhaving them imposed from above
Especially in countries that haverecently adopted democratic systems after decades of single-party or authoritarian rule theyounger generations have littleidea about what democracy entailsor about the civil society thatmakes democracies function
Some community radios focus onexplaining the implications ofdemocracy and civil society raisingawareness about peoplersquos rightsbut also about their obligationsThey work to explain how a civicsense is needed if new-found freedoms are to result in harmonyand social progress
Promote Good Governance
In poor communit ies loca l authorities and politicians can easily take advantage of citizenseither individually or as a group inpart because the marginalized andoppressed have no way to complain Community radio helpspeople to obtain their just rights bygiving them a platform to air theirgrievances And through playing acommunity watchdog role it makeslocal authorities and politiciansmore conscious of their public responsibilities
Broadcasting of discussions orquestions and answers betweenmembers of the community andlocal authorities about some issuethat i s exerc i s ing them i s a technique that is often usedAnother technique is to broadcastlive the discussions of local government meetings
This function of community radiois not always easy to fulfil In veryremote communities and wherepower has been held by a few familiesfor generations the people may bereluctant to speak their mindbecause they all have a debt of onesort or another to those familiesAnd equally the powerful familiesmay be unwilling to take criticism
Encourage Participation Sharingof Information and Innovation
Participation is a key word in development circles but it is notalways appreciated that participationand communication are two sidesof the same coin for when peoplecommunicate about their situationand about options for improving itthey are in effect participating Andthey are also laying the foundationfor collective action in which theywill participate Community radioencourages participation by providing a platform for debateanalysis and the exchange of ideasand opinions
In addition community radioallows for the sharing of informationand innovation For example onefamily or group in a communitymay have solved some problemthat is common to many otherpeople such as obtaining farm
Some of the Social and Development Benefits ofTambuli Community Radio Stations in thePhilippines
bull There is a new vibrancy and will to change in thecommunities
bull Men gave up their passionate pastime of gamblingafter a series of discussions over the radio clearlyshowed its negative economic impact on their fami-lies and on the community
bull Butchers were prohibited from bringing live ani-mals to the market and slaughtering them there
bull A large poultry farm was cleaned up to reduce itssmell and pollution
bull Creeks were dredged to reduce risks of flooding
bull A footbridge and extra lighting were installed
bull A day care centre for children was created by thelocal authorities
bull Illegal logging and fishing were stopped as a resultof community pressure 6
A Statement by the Programme Director of the Independent Radio Bamakan in Mali
ldquoThere are a lot of aspects of democracy that peopledonrsquot know about and we are obliged to raise awa-reness to explain that democracy is not anarchythat democracy involves rights and obligations Wehave the right to demand but we also have obliga-tions to the Staterdquo 7
credit from a new bank in the
nearest city A broadcast account
by them explaining how they went
about it and the procedures required
would be the stimulus for other
families to do the same Another
example might be providing infor-
mation about a farmer in the area
who had multiplied seed of an
improved vegetable variety and
was willing to sell it
Give Voices to the Voiceless
In many traditional societies
women and youth and ethnic and
linguistic minorities are virtually
ignored in community affairs But
no community can change and
develop equitably and satisfactori-
ly without the active and informed
participation of its women youth
and minority groups (See Box 3 at
the end of this Chapter)
Therefore community radio gives
voice to the voiceless in the
community This of course is in
addition to giving the community
in general a voice after years of
having been inert recipients of
state or commercial broadcasts
Provide a Social Service asa Replacement for theTelephone
In poor rural areas where
telephones hardly exist
community radio replaces
them to an important extent
by broadcasting messages
For example a family living
in a remote part of the
community can be informed
that a relative living in the
main agglomeration has
been taken ill and would they
please come to visit Or a
farmer with an animal he
wants to sell can have the
fact announced over the radio
replacing the series of calls he
would make if telephones were
available Again a person looking
for temporary labour to help with
some farm task could alert those
people who were interested to
offer their services through a
broadcast announcement
The efficiency of government ser-
vices say in health is improved by
broadcasting the schedule for field
visits ahead of time so that people
will be waiting for these on arrival
Contribute to Diversity inBroadcasting Ownership
Community commercial andnational or state broadcasting allhave roles in society though com-munity broadcasting is the onethat has generally lagged behindthe others Community radio helpsto redress this and provides thebalance of broadcast informationsources needed by democraticsocieties for their advancement
In Benin children participate directly in literacy courses on the air
21
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mun
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In October 1992 Bhutan Broadcasting Corporation was transformed from a statebroadcaster to a public corporation with a much decreased subsidy Above at thenew Punaka market a broadcast trainee talks with the people about prices travelalong country roads quality of the harvest and news of the village This project was financed by DANIDA
Phot
o U
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CO
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o C
A A
rnal
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Difficulties in Achieving Transparency - a Case Studyfrom the Philippines
The more remote the community the more hesitantpeople are to speak out People rely on their leadersfor the smallest problems and they all owe a debt tothe few political families To criticise them wouldseem ungrateful
The local council told the community radio to acceptcalls from listeners with queries or comments duringlive broadcasts of the weekly council sessions Butwhen the calls began to come in the council toldthem to stop accepting them The council also beganto chose which portions of the sessions could bebroadcast and told the radio team to leave the roomwhen budget discussions were under way 8
22
Contribute to theDevelopment of HumanResources for theBroadcasting Industry
Community radio arguablydemystifies the broadcasterrsquosprofession by taking communitymembers as message producersIt is also a school for fledglingbroadcasters where they ofcourse acquire valuable technicalskills
But there is another factor that makes people trained in community radio particularlyvaluable They are broadcasterswho live among their listenersshare many of the same problemsand get constant feedback ndash positive and negative - on the formats of their programmes andon their interest and usefulnessThis gives them unique insightsinto the broadcaster audiencerelationship and into radio as a toolfor change and development It isnot uncommon therefore forcommunity broadcasters go on tojoin the staff of mainstream broadcasting
lsquoThe Peoplersquos Telephonersquo in Haiti
ldquoWhen the bandits sped off on their motorcycle leaving a cloud of dust a dead body and a distressedvillage in their wake they thought they were on theroad to freedom They hadnrsquot heard about the villagersquos radio station Radyo Flanbo In Haiti community radio stations such as Flanbo are knownas lsquothe peoplersquos telephonersquo and as the bandits prepared to terrorize the next village Flanborsquos newsreader broadcast a warning of their imminentarrival The bandits might as well have drivenstraight to the police stationrdquo 10
Phot
o U
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CO
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gsto
n
Radio Muye the first community radio run bywomen in the Caribbeanunder the UNESCO specialproject lsquoWomen Speaking toWomenrsquo
One of the youngest womenrecruits of the community
radio station in CuyoPalawan DYMC Radio
1 Adapted from Pierre Juneau GeneralIntroduction Public ServiceBroadcasting - the Challenge of the21st Century Reports and Papers on Mass Communication No 111 UNESCO (Paris 1997)
2 Sophie K Ly El Recuerdo delConocimiento Perdido InteRadio Vol 9 No 2 AMARC (Montreal 1997)
3 Triple Enquiry Report IndependentBroadcasting Authority Republic ofSouth Africa (1995)
4 Ibid
5 B S S Rao during the Consultationon Media Policy and Community RadioBangalore India (1996)
6 Colin FraserSonia Restrepo-Estrada Communicating forDevelopment - Human Change for Survival IB Tauris (LondonNew York) 1998
7 Mary Myers The Promotion ofDemocracy at the Grass-roots The Example of Radio in Mali FrankCass Journal Vol 5 No 2 (London Summer 1998)
8 Adapted from Cecile Balgos The Sounds of Silence UNESCOSources No 89 UNESCO(Paris 1997)
9 Felix Librero in Communication forPeople Power Ed Maslog NavarroTabing Teodoro UNESCOTambuliProject Institute of DevelopmentCommunication College of MassCommunication UNESCO NationalCommission Philippines (Manila 1997)
10 David Shanks Voices for the VoicelessA feature prepared by WorldAssociation for ChristianCommunication (WACC) (London March 1999)
Information as a Commodity for Decisions
ldquoThe appropriate use of community broadcasting isto satisfy community and social needs In the processof doing so people are able to access the very important commodity called information on whichthey base their day-to-day decisionsrdquo 9
Phot
o L
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ing
23
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mun
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Filipino women - particularly
those in the countryside
where socialization has been
limited by poverty and inadequate
educational attainment - are often
shy reserved and timid In addition
rural families are often resistant to
changing the traditional position of
women as housekeepers and
women would generally prefer that
their husbands participate in
community projects
It is very evident that the issue of
collectively pursuing womens rights
and empowerment has been relegated
to the lowest priority among rural
people So it often takes cajoling and
reassurances before women will
come out of their shells
However increased readiness to
participate in community projects
can be seen among those who have
been exposed to mass media culture
and our initial talks in communities
regarding special radio programmes
for about and by women were met
with much eagerness I attribute this
to the fact that some family and
social institutions that had been
trying to promote womenrsquos activities
in the community felt threatened and
welcomed the support that radio
could provide
Once involved women are highly
dependable They adhere to rules
Compared to men they are more
meticulous They are less subject
to anomalous behaviour and
malfeasance They are consistently
enthusiastic And where the women
are mixed with men the men also
become more enthusiastic if not to
say better performers
Meriam Aranas the president of
the Olutanga Islanders Media
Development Foundation was a
strong-willed leader of an active
womens group promoting livelihood
and conservation projects She
registered the association and led the
drive to erect a building for the radio
station
A schoolteacher Rosario Gozos was
appointed as station manager in
Partido Camarines Sur She is
single-handedly running a family
because her husband works abroad
She spearheaded the
successful drive against illegal
gambling in the district Among
other things she has initiated an
all-women Saturday programme
Her infectious dedication
has inspired all the other
volunteers in her radio
station In less than three
years the station became
an institutional power in
the community It has
contributed greatly to
the progress and well
being of Partido
Lyn Villasis a soft-
spoken beautician has
been running a story-
telling program for
children for years and has become
one of the most popular personalities
in the station in Banga Aklan
Malou Angolluan is a youthful
college graduate who has taken
voluntary activity as a vocation Her
exemplary work and dedication to
service have earned her profuse
admiration from her listeners She
has turned down several offers to
work in bigger commercial radio
stations
BOX 3 Involvement of Women
In Ibahay Aklan province PhilippinesAte Meds rushes from Sunday mass tothe Studio for her weekly childrenrsquosprogramme
Phot
o C
A A
rnal
do
24
In Pastapur Hyderabad India women discuss local problems for airing on a regional radio station of All India Radio They are also advocating for new legislationto enable them to broadcast on their own antenna
Phot
o J
im B
entl
ey
25
Chapter 3Legal Aspects
T his chapter gives an overview of the legis-lation governing community radio in avariety of countries world-wide Special
attention is given to South Africa wherebroadcasting legislation is in many ways exem-plary and could be used as a model by othercountries The main common factors and themain differences that exist in national commu-nity radio legislation are described as are typi-cal requirements for obtaining a licence
The reader will gain
bull An awareness of the wide variations in legisla-tion and of the obstacles that communityradio may face in some parts of the world
bull An understanding of the need to examine clo-sely the existing legislation before embarkingon a community radio project
bull Knowledge of the likely information andconditions that the authorities will requirebefore issuing a community radio licence
UNEVEN AND HAPHAZARD LEGISLATION
The airwaves or the frequencies for broadcastingare a public asset It is therefore incumbent uponnational administrations in line with the decisionsof the administrative planning conferences organizedby the International Telecommunications Union(ITU) to regulate and allocate their use with thepublic interest in mind as well as with fairness andtransparency And general national media policiesshould meet the same criteria
Unfortunately this does not always happen andthe legislation governing community radio is veryuneven In several regions of the world communityradio suffers because current legislation is eithernon-existent inconsistent or basically hostile Thishandbook is not the place for an exhaustive description of the legislation country-by-countrybut a brief overview of the situation in a few countries world-wide will give a feel for the situation
MOST PROGRESS IN AFRICA
Many countries in Africa have made good progress inlegislating for community radio This is particularlyinteresting because at first sight it would appearto be a paradox on the one hand communityradio certainly has a natural role to play in cateringto the information needs and interests of the wide
ethnic cultural and linguistic diversity present inmost African countries but on the other handgovernments fear that freedom of ethnic and linguistic expression might undermine nationalunity It will be remembered that this was partlywhat brought the Homa Bay community radioexperience in Kenya to a premature end in 1984
However it seems that the lesson has now beenlearned about authoritarian suppression of diverselinguistic and cultural expression within a countryThis ultimately produces strong resentment andtensions in society Indeed even in industrializedcountries the last two decades have seen a changeof heart by governments that now try to preservethe traditional linguistic and cultural identity of theirminority groups They have realized that a pluralisticsociety can also achieve national identity and unity
This is the case in many parts of Africa too Sincethe early 1990s countries such as Mali BurkinaFaso Namibia and South Africa have all embarkedon a course of freeing their airwaves and promo-ting community radio as part of the nationalbroadcasting spectrum backing the policy withappropriate legislation in most cases
South Africarsquos progress towards new broadcastingpolicies and community radio legislation is consideredexemplary Some countries have already copied itand many others could also find it a useful modelIt is therefore outlined in the next section
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Broadcasting Legislation inSouth Africa ndash an ExemplaryCase
The government of post-apartheidSouth Africa realized that the countryrsquos media could help toresolve many socio-economicdevelopment needs and at thesame time help to build a democraticand pluralistic society But newbroadcasting policies and opera-tions would be needed
An Independent BroadcastingAuthority
The first step taken in 1993 wasthe creation of an IndependentBroadcasting Authority (IBA) ajuridical body to formulate broad-casting policy plan the use of thefrequency spectrum issue licencesadjudicate in the case of com-plaints and in general regulate thebroadcasting industry It functionsindependently of the State and ofgovernmental and political partyinfluences It is a non-profit entitythat is financed partly by the Stateand partly from fees that itreceives
The IBA is run by a Council madeup of seven people appointed bythe State President They arepeople with expertise in fields thatinclude broadcasting policy media
law marketing journalism enter-tainment and education They arealso selected on the basis of theircommitment to fairness freedomof expression the right of thepublic to be informed opennessand accountability
Overall Objectives of theBroadcasting Legislation
Among the main objectives ofSouth Africarsquos broadcasting legisla-tion are the following
bull Promote the provision of a diverserange of broadcasting services ona national regional and local levelwhich cater for all language andcultural groups and provideentertainment education andinformation
bull Promote the development ofpublic private and communitybroadcasting services which areresponsive to the needs of thepublic
bull Develop and protect a nationaland regional identity culture andcharacter
bull Encourage ownership andcontrol of broadcasting servicesby persons from historicallydisadvantaged groups
bull Ensure that private and commu-nity broadcasting licences are
Western Media Models a Disservice toDevelopment
ldquoBroadcasting media have developed into aone-way model in Third World countrieswith information news and massive dosesof entertainment flowing from large urbancentres The uniform prescription designed by theaffluent minority at decision-making level does notaddress the issues of development which require alocal perspective for each county and each community The concepts and use of the media as developed in industrialized societies have not proved conducive to the development needsof our countryrdquo 1
controlled by persons or groupsfrom a diverse range of commu-nities in the Republic
bull Ensure equitable treatment ofpolitical parties by all broadcas-ting licencees during any electionperiod
bull Ensure that broadcasting licenceesadhere to a code of conductacceptable to the IBA
Categories of Radio Broadcasting
The legislation foresees three categories of radio service
bull A public service ndash A serviceprovided by the South AfricanBroadcasting Corporation or byany other statutory body or person that receives revenuefrom licence fees paid by listenersfor their receivers
bull A private service - Operatedfor profit and controlled by aperson who is not a publicbroadcasting licencee
bull A community service - A broadcasting service which
Is fully controlled by a non-profit entity and carried onfor non- profitable purposes
Serves a particular commu-nity
Encourages members of thecommunity served by it orpersons associated with orpromoting the interest ofsuch community to partici-pate in the selection andprovision of programmes tobe broadcast
May be funded by dona-tions grants sponsorshipadvertising or membershipfees or by any combinationof these
The term lsquocommunityrsquo includes ageographically founded communityor any group of persons or sectorof the public having a specific andascertainable common interest
South African LicencingArrangements
In keeping with the general andcommunity radio policies outlinedabove the legislation providesdetailed requirements that mustbe met by applicants for commu-nity radio licences It also laysdown the procedures to be follo-wed These are complex anddemanding in terms of the detai-led information that is called forCommunity radio licences areawarded for four-year periodsalthough shorter temporarylicences can also be issued
Licences are not granted to anyparty movement organizationbody or alliance which is of a politi-cal nature
Readers may wish to browse theIBArsquos website (httpibaorgza)for more details on South Africancommunity radio policy legislationand licencing
ASIA AND INDIArsquoSLENGTHY DEBATE ON
COMMUNITY RADIO
The situation in Asia is far lessfavourable than in Africa andIndia provides a good illustration ofthe problems Nepal and Sri Lankashow ways of solving problems
All India Radio (AIR) was establishedas a state broadcasting monopolyin 1935 in line with the Britishmodel the BBC The debate aboutbreaking that monopoly beganmore than 30 years ago with theChanda Committee reportSubsequent committees have spe-cifically recommended decentrali-zing broadcasting to institutionalizethe process of participation and tomeet peoplersquos fundamental rightto information The SupremeCourt passed a landmark judge-ment in 1995 declaring that theairwaves were a lsquopublic goodrsquo andstressing the importance of main- 27
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28
taining a balance in broadcastingbetween market (commercial)forces government monopoly andmeeting the peoplersquos needs andrights to receive and impart infor-mation This judgement openedthe door to the granting of licencesto local stations for public partici-pation and territorialsectoralbroadcasts but the legislationnecessary to allow this to happenhas still not been passed It seemshowever that it is under prepara-tion at the time of writing
The main results so far of thedecades of debate on the subjecthas been some decentralization byAIR to lsquolocalrsquo stations and a recentand rapid expansion of commercialstations using FM frequenciesbelonging to AIR that have beenleased to private operators Someof the AIR lsquolocalrsquo stations try to getcloser to the community and usecommunity radio styles But for themost part these lsquolocalrsquo stationsmerely relay urban-oriented pro-grammes from the national or fromregional capitals rather than pro-ducing locally relevant materials
Commercial broadcasting is onlyallowed to provide entertainmentNews and current affairs and evensex education are banned Thusthe private FM stations which havebeen expanding in response to mar-
ket forces have created a profile aslsquoelectronic discosrsquo for urban youth 1
A consultation session attended bymore than 60 broadcasters legalspecialists university staff anddevelopment communicators metin Bangalore India in September1996 and signed the BangaloreDeclaration urging the governmentto take steps to legitimatize andpromote community radio Sopressure has been building andthere appears to be light at the endof the tunnel
In Nepal the Government-ownedradio service was the only onebroadcasting until May 1997 whenRadio Sagarmatha came on air (SeeCase Study 2) Present govern-ment policy on broadcasting whichgoes back to legislation passed in1993 favours a mix of governmentcommercial and communitybroadcasting but even so it tookfrom 1994 to 1997 before the firstcommunity radio licence was awar-ded to Radio Sagarmatha Its successhas been such that community radiois now set to expand in the country
In Sri Lanka another country witha government-owned broadcastingservice it was this service itself thatbegan community broadcasting in1983 with Mahaweli Radio asdescribed in Chapter 1 It laterexpanded community radio to
cover other parts of Sri Lankamainly in support of rural develop-ment However in mid-1997 aSupreme Court ruling put an end tothe government monopoly of theairwaves and a parliamentary committee was established to pre-pare a new broadcasting bill Thiswill certainly recognize and promotecommunity radio for it is a branchof broadcasting that has becomewell entrenched in Sri Lanka basedon the long experience ofMahaweli Community Radio
In Asian countries that have essen-tially followed the North Americanpattern of commercial broadcas-ting such as the Philippines com-munity radio stations often func-tion without licences
LEGISLATION IN SOMELATIN AMERICAN COUNTRIES
Despite Latin Americarsquos pioneeringrole in community radio todayrsquoslegislation leaves much to be desiredThere are about 6000 registeredradio stations on the ContinentAbout 85 per cent of these are privatecommercial about 7 percentare governmental and the remain-der are in the hands of the ChurchSome of the latter consider them-
Nepalrsquos National Broadcasting Act (1993) Prioritiesfor Programming Should Include These Themes
bull Development oriented programmes agricultureeducation industry commerce science and technology health family planning forest andenvironmental protection
bull Harmony among all classes languages castes religions and religious groups equality and goodwill among all
bull Growth of different languages and cultures inNepal
bull Growth of national interests and unity
bull Growth of moral and national awakening
bull Awakening of social awareness
bull Non-detrimental influence on Nepalrsquos relation withneighbouring and friendly countries
bull Foreign policy pursued by the nation
bull Growth of folksongs folklore and culture
bull Important activities on national and internationallevels
Success Breeds Success in Nepal
In less than a year of operations the value of RadioSagarmatha in improving information flow and creating a forum for democratic dialogue among stakeholders in development issues was so evidentthat the government which had initially restrictedhours of broadcast to only two per day increased itto 13 and then to 24 hours daily The initial andtotal ban on advertising was also lifted the licencewas expanded to include mobile broadcasting and itsfrequency was reserved for its exclusive use throughout the whole country
selves to be community radios In addition there are very largenumbers of unregistered stationsthat have been in existence foryears many of them communityradios which are in formal senseillegal
It was only in the mid-1990s thatsome Latin American countriesbegan to pass legislation on com-munity radio and that legislationis often unfavourable
For example Brazilrsquos very recentlegislation limits the power ofcommunity stations to five wattsseldom enough to cover a typicalpoor peri-urban settlement of 10-20000 people It also makescommunity radio impossible inscattered rural communities ofwhich there are many in Brazilrsquosvast interior Nor is any advertisingpermitted which makes sustaininga community radio even more difficult than it is usually
In Ecuador community radio wasnot legally acknowledged until1996 Most community radios arelicenced as commercial or culturalstations The law in 1996 finallyrecognized community radio as adistinct part of the broadcastingscene but the legislation imposedrestrictions on the power of transmitters that could be used -500 watts at the antenna - andprior approval from the army was
required Any commercial activitywas prohibited as in Brazil
T h e n a t i o n a l o rg a n i z a t i o nrepresenting community radio inEcuador brought a constitutionalchallenge to the law and managedto remove the clause requiring theprior approval of the army but thelimits on transmitter power andcommercial activities remain inforce As late as early 1999 therewere still no community radiostations operating under the newlegislation they all had commercialor cultural licences
After its leadership role in communi-ty radio there is now a paradoxicalsituation in Bolivia In 1995 a lawwas passed under which licenceswould be granted in future only toradio and television stations of acommercial nature that werepublic or private limited compa-nies in accordance with the coun-tryrsquos commercial code Among themore than 500 radio stations inBolivia there are a number ofwell-established educational radioservices that will be allowed tocontinue operating for 20 yearsunder the new law but scores ofcommunity and peasant radiosbecame illegal in 1996 If closeddown their frequencies are sold tothe highest bidder
The contradictory aspect of all ofthis is that it occurred shortly afterthe passing of another law that on
Popular ParticipationThis in effect is part of adecentralization processwhich delegates deci-sions to the local leveland provides funds to implement themCommunity radio couldevidently have enor-mous potential for assis-ting the decentralizationprocess by arousinginterest and participa-tion in local policy anddevelopment decisionsHowever this will not bepossible under the newlegislation which discri-minates against commu-nity radio
In Argentina a situa-tion somewhat similar tothat in Bolivia exists De facto there have beennumerous community popularcultural and university radios stations in existence for manyyears But in 1998 a governmentdecree on broadcasting frequen-cies was issued and a NationalFrequency Plan approved Anarticle in the decree stipulated theimmediate closure of radio stations that were not officiallyrecognized Furthermore theNational Frequency Plan did nottake into account the frequenciesalready being used by many small
Radio Sagarmatha in Kathmandu Nepal led a five year legal battle to obtain itsauthorisation to broadcast It began in 1990 with a communication policy lsquowhitepaperrsquo wich eventually led in 1994 to a new broadcasting act which opened the airwaves to non-governmental organisations or private individualsand organisations for the purposes of education and culture
29
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30
radios that had been working foryears throughout the country
Most serious of all however wasthe fact that the overall broadcast-ing legislation the context for frequency applications remainedunchanged and this is legislationthat goes back to the days of thedictatorships that used to rule thecountry The legislation excludesany form of social organizationfrom having a broadcasting frequency and specifies that onlycommercial organizations canapply for them
In 1996 a decree modified thato lder leg i s lat ion for i t was recognized as unconstitutional anddiscriminatory But this correctivedecree of 1996 was cancelledwithin days of its publication Thusby default the old legislation fromthe days of the dictatorships wasleft in force
This situation threatens the wholesector of community and popularradios in the country At the time ofwriting the community and not-for-profit broadcasting sectoris fighting tooth and nail for newlegislation that recognizes its rightto exist and its role in democraticsociety
SOME EXAMPLES FROMWESTERN EUROPE
For the purposes of comparisonthe situation in Europe is worthexamining Western Europeancountries were all models of nationalpublic-service broadcasting untilsome of them began to allow inde-pendent and commercial radio andtelevision channels to operate inthe 1960s However even thengovernments applied regulationsto the operations of those channelsThen in the early 1980s there wasa general deregulation of broadcast-ing in most of Western Europewhich resulted in a free-for-all inmany countries Privately ownedcommercial radio expanded likewildfire but so did communityradio in many countries
The Scandinavian countries parti-cularly Sweden were among thelast in Europe to bow to pressurefrom the commercial media firm intheir belief that their nationalpublic broadcasting systems werebest for their societies - societiesthat are world famous for theirdemocracy and strong civic senseBut even if it proved impossible toresist the commercialization andprivatization of the electronicmedia in Scandinavia the door wasopened at the same time to a vastexpansion of community radio
There are more than 2000 commu-nity radios in Sweden the majoritycatering to special-interest commu-nities
In Denmark the 300 or so com-munity radios provide access to 96percent of the population Many ofthese community radios even ifthey have been allowed to broad-cast commercials and receive sponsorship since the late 1980swork in financially difficult circum-stances Most also receive supportfrom various sources such as membership fees bingo listenerdonations and contributions fromorganizations such as trade unionsreligious groups or the local municipality Community radio isseen as a cultural activity that iscomparable with other culturalactivities It has even been suggestedthat a government fund be createdto subsidize community radio likeother cultural areas
In Ireland the 1988 Radio andTelevision Act included licencingprocedures for community radiobut the Act did not go into anygreat detail on the subject In theearly 1990s the issue of broadcas-ting policy attracted much attentionand in 1995 a Government PolicyPaper on Broadcasting was published
Democracy without Communication
ldquoWithout democratic communication democracy is not possible The broadcasting spectrum must beregulated and normalized [in Argentina] but thiscannot be done using criteria from the days of dictatorshiprdquo 3
As part of the general concernabout achieving suitable broadcast-ing policies for Ireland theIndependent Radio and TelevisionCommission launched an 18-month community radio pilot pro-ject It began operating in 1995and it was designed to explore andevaluate the potential of commu-nity radio in the country Animportant element favouring theproject was the surge in communi-ty and voluntary activity in Irelandthat had resulted from increasingnational and international concernabout issues such as poverty andunemployment
Eleven community stations wereestablished under the project tooperate until the end of 1996 Thisexperience showed that communi-ty radio stations could developinto a viable and distinct strand inIrish broadcasting Certain difficul-ties were encountered during theproject and realizing the potentialof community radio will call for asubstantial level of ongoing com-mitment from support agenciesand from the communities servedHowever there can be little doubtthat community radio will developand assume its appropriate role inthe Irish broadcasting scene in thefuture 4
CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCE IN LEGISLATION
National community radio legisla-tion where it exists usually sharessome common factors but thereare also significant differences between countries
Main Common Factors
bull Community radio must beowned and controlled by a non-profit entity
bull It must be run as a non-profitoperation
bull It must serve the interests of aparticular community whichmay be a geographical commu-nity or a community of peoplewith common interests
bull It should provide programmingthat promotes socio-economicand cultural development forthe different sectors in the community at the same timefostering civic integration andsolidarity
Factors that Vary in CommunityRadio Legislation
Power of the TransmitterSome countries place an upperlimit on the power of the transmitter
that may be used by a communityradio usually in the range of five to500 watts Such limitations couldbe unrealistic in mountainousareas where transmission over difficult terrain can require higherpower
Creation of Networks Somecountries specifically forbid thecreation of networks betweencommunity radios even if theyallow occasional link-ups for special events of interest to thecommunities involved
Advertising andor SponsorshipRegulations about this vary consi-derably Some countries forbid allcommercial advertising on orsponsorship of community radioswhile others allow it but put a limiton the minutes in an hour that canbe devoted to it This usuallyranges from six minutes to up to15 minutes per hour
In some cases there are restrictionson the type of advertising that maybe broadcast When this is casethe usual tendency is to limit thescope to matters directly linked tothe community served by theradio for example local workopportunities events that are totake place and business and services that are carried out in thatarea Even when legislation doesnot specify such restrictions about
the type of advertising some com-munity radios impose it them-selves They may for examplerefuse to advertise items that aredamaging to health such as alcoholand tobacco
Some legislation specifies a ceilingon the proportion of total stationrevenue that can be derived fromadvertising usually setting it at 50percent
Other Sources of FundingMembership fees from listenerscontributions from individualsorganizations or local authoritiesand charges for personal announ-cements are other sources of funding but in keeping with theCharter of the World Associationof Community Radio (AMARC)some legislation specifies that nosingle source should provide morethan 50 percent of a stationrsquosrevenue Funding from politicalparties or from other special interestgroups is forbidden in some legislation
Political Broadcasts These areforbidden at all times in somelegislation while in others they areallowed in designated pre-electionperiods When they are allowedthe principle of lsquoequal time andequal opportunityrsquo for all parties isusually stipulated In some casescommunity radios have to report
31
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to the nationrsquos independent broadcasting authority any politicalspeech that lasts for more thanthree minutes providing the actual duration date and time of broad-cast and the name of the politicalparty concerned
APPLYING FOR A LICENCE
Anyone anywhere who hasserious intentions of starting acommunity radio should ascertainwhat existing legislation is in forcebeginning with licence require-ments Some countries apply quitesevere sanctions to punish illegalbroadcasters heavy fines andorconfiscation of the equipment arethe commonest
The procedures for applying for alicence vary between countries butin any event entities that apply willusually be expected to provideinformation about the followingwith supporting documentation asappropriate
bull The juridical and non-profit sta-tus of the entity making theapplication
bull The probity of the individualsmanaging the entity
bull The community to be served andthe size of the potential audience
bull An explanation of how the com-munity could benefit from aradio service
bull The demand in the communityfor such a service
bull The technical features of the proposed radio station and theheight and location of its antenna
bull The community managementstructures and the personnel thatwill be put in place to run the service
bull The type of programming thatwill be featured the productionarrangements foreseen and howcommunity participation will beensured
Some countries that have recentlyintroduced legislation that coverscommunity radio have drawn uplists of available FM frequencies ineach of the smallest administrativeareas of the country such as muni-cipalities or counties In somecountries especially in LatinAmerica periodic announcementsof the frequencies that are availablefor community radio are made bythe broadcasting authorities andrequests for their use are solicitedIf there is an excess of requests forthe available frequencies the win-ners are adjudicated on the basis ofthe quality of their proposals theexperience of the applicant in
community development work theradio programming planned andthe size of the community
Licencees normally pay a one-offfee for the frequency they are allocated and a much smallerannual fee thereafter For examplein Colombia which introduced itscommunity broadcasting legisla-tion in 1995 the typical one-off feefor the frequency ranges from theequivalent of about US$900 toUS$2000 depending on the size ofthe potential audience The annualfee averages about US$150
1 Report of Consultation on Media Policy and Community Radioorganized by VOICES (Bangalore India 1996)
2 Ibid (Intervention by Hasmukh Baradi)
3 From statement issued by the not-for-profit broadcasting sector in Argentina demanding new legislation (1999)
4 Independent Radio and Television Commission IRTC Policyon Community Radio Broadcasting IRTC (Dublin 1998)
5 Personal communication from Alida Becerra Director of the Social Development Department Ministry ofCommunications (Colombia 1999)
Community Misconceptions about Costs
ldquoQuite a lot of the applicants who have been grantedcommunity radio licences here in Colombia since 1995could not find the funds to pay for the frequencyOthers thought that the Ministry of Communicationwould provide them with the equipment These aresome of the reasons why of the 560 licences we havegranted only about 150 community radios areactually functioning Of course we have had to revoke many of the licences because they were notput to use within the prescribed time periodrdquo 5
Chapter 4Technical Aspects
33
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T his chapter opens with a brief explanation of the scientific principles underlying radio
broadcasting including the differences between AM and FM propagation It then describes
the range of equipment required for FM broadcasting under four categories transmitters
antennas studio programme production equipment and field programme production equipment
It explains the role of each The practical implications of the lsquoline-of-sightrsquo characteristics of FM
broadcasting are discussed
A section covers issues of reliability maintenance and precautions to reduce the risk of damage
The requirements for a community radio studio (size layout soundproofing acoustical balance etc)
and suitable spatial arrangements for the various components of the radio station are described
A section on future possibilities discusses the role of computers in programme production merging
community radio with the Internet and new technologies
A box provides a basic list of equipment required for a community radio service and its cost
In the main the reader will
bull Learn about the basic technicalities of broadcasting and the equipment needed for an FM service
bull Be able to make an initial assessment of the technical suitability of a specific area for setting
up a community radio service
bull Know about the technical requirements for the siting of the components of the broadcasting
system and be able to consider how best to meet them in given circumstances
bull Know the approximate investment required for equipment
Nevertheless the knowledge gained will not necessarily eliminate the need for early advice from a
technical specialist nor hands-on or formal training
TECHNICAL BACKGROUND
Radio broadcasting creates electro-magnetic waves that travel in anapproximately straight line and at thespeed of light about 300000 km persecond
A radio wave that is being propagatedoscillates each side of the straight lineHow far these oscillations go beforereturning to the centre line and movingout to the other side of it is known asthe amplitude of the wave The distancefrom the crest of one wave to the crestof the next is known as the wavelength
How long the cycle of each oscillationtakes is known as the frequency It isexpressed in Hertz named afterHeinrich Hertz a German radio pioneerA cycle time of one second is one Hertz(1Hz) a thousand cycles in a second isa kiloHertz (kHz) and a million cyclesin a second is a megaHertz (mHz)
Radio waves are propagated from thetransmitterrsquos antenna system like theripples in a pond when a stone is drop-ped into it Waves from a broadcastingstation are known as carrier wavesbecause they are carrying information
34
that has been attached to themThe process of attaching informa-tion to the wave is achieved bymodulating or varying one of itscharacteristics either its amplitudeor its frequency Hence the termsAmplitude Modulation (AM) andFrequency Modulation (FM) for thetwo methods of wave transmission
Radio broadcasting uses four frequency bands Their names derive from whether their wavelengths are measured in kilometres hundreds of metrestens of metres or metres
bull The kilometric band ndash long waves(Frequency 150-280 kHz)
bull The hectometric band ndash mediumwaves (Frequency 525-1600 kHz)
bull The decametric band ndash short waves(High Frequency 6-25 MHz)
bull The metric band (Very HighFrequency 875 ndash 108 MHz)
AM Broadcasting
For the first three bands the signalis attached to the wave by amplitudemodification (AM) AM signals travel great distances For examplelong waves can be propagated forup to about 1000 km before fadingout and medium waves travel several hundred kilometres
Short waves even if limited by thecurvature of the earth can travelenormous distances because theybounce off the ionosphere an invisible layer of electrically charged particles at the outer edgeof our atmosphere from wherethey return to earth far from thetransmitter
The main layer of the ionosphereresponsible for long distance communications is the ldquoF layerrdquoAfter dark this layer is a singledense one about 250 km above theearth and it reflects short wavesignals very effectively But duringthe day the ldquoF layerrdquo splits into twothin layers ldquoF1rdquo about 200 kmabove the earth and ldquoF2rdquo about350 km above the earth Thesetwo layers are less effective inreflecting radio signals and that iswhy reception of short wave broad-casts is better after darkWorldwide radio services like RadioFrance Internationale the BritishBroadcasting Corporation or theVoice of America use short wave toobtain the geographic coveragethey require It can also be particu-larly useful in mountainous countries
AM broadcasting is subject tomuch atmospheric interferenceand distortion and it is thereforeunsuitable for stereo services It
also requires a considerable inputof electrical power and otherinvestments For example thewhole mast of the antenna of anAM medium wave station is chargedwith current and therefore it has tobe insulated from the ground
FM Broadcasting
The fourth frequency band themetric band uses FrequencyModulation (FM) to attach thesignal to the carrier wave This system varies the frequency - speedof oscillations of the waves - butkeeps their amplitude or breadthconstant
FM was invented in 1933 in theUSA and the first station to use itwas built in 1939 It has advantagesover AM especially in its freedomfrom distortion and interference Itrequired different broadcastingtransmitters and radio receivers tothe ones in general use in the 1930sand 1940s and so it was slow toexpand Indeed it really only beganto take off in the 1950s and 1960sin industrialized countries and inthe 1970s and 1980s in developingcountries ndash and even as late as the1990s in some of these
FM broadcasting requires muchless electrical power than AM anduses a very simple antenna The
Frequency modulation (FM)
Amplitude modulation (AM)
wavelength
ampl
itud
e
The Inventor of Frequency Modulation
Edwin Armstrong an American scientistresponsible for much of the earliest technical development of radio broadcasting in the first two decades of the20th century made the FM breakthroughin 1933 Born in 1890 he was enthused as a boy by the exploits of Guglielmo Marconi who in 1901had managed to send the first radio signal across the Atlantic At the age of 14 Armstrong decided to become an inventor
In 1939 he financed the first ever FM station fromhis own pocket at a cost of $300000 to prove itsworth Sadly Armstrong was forced to spend much ofhis life in litigation to protect his inventions and infighting the established radio industry which did notwant to embark on his new FM system Finally in1954 with most of his wealth gone in the battle forFM he took his own life
quality of the signal is excellentand it can be mono or stereo
However FM signals reach muchshorter distances than AM signalsbecause FM follows the line ofsight In other words the antennaand the radio receiver must beable to lsquoseersquo each other with noobstructions in the path - such ashills or high buildings - whichinterrupt the signal in the sameway as they interrupt sight Buteven with the transmitter andreceiver in line of sight the distancebetween them is important becau-se with radio signals each time thedistance is doubled the signalstrength is reduced to a quarter ofwhat it was Put another way inorder to reach twice the distancefour times the power is needed
BROADCASTING EQUIPMENT 1
In general terms the equipmentrequired for broadcasting falls intofour categories
bull The transmitter that generatesthe signal to be broadcast
bull The antenna through which thetransmitterrsquos signal is radiated
bull The studio equipment used toproduce the programmes
bull The equipment required for programme production in thefield and for linking outside locations to the studio eg forfield reporting
A complete list of equipment withcosts for a typical UNESCO-
supported community radio
project is provided in Box 4 at the
end of this chapter Reading the
following section in conjunction
with that equipment list and with
diagrams should provide an
appreciation of the role and
function of each part of the
system
Transmission Equipment
The power output of a transmitter
is measured in watts Community
radio relies mainly on low-power
FM transmitters with typically an
output of between 20 and 500
watts usually in the range of
20-100 watts However a
distinction must be made between
the power of the transmitter itself
and the power that actually leaves
the antenna which is known as the
Effective Radiated Power (ERP)
The design of the antenna affects
the ERP So-called lsquohigh-gainrsquo
antennas can result in considerably
more watts of ERP than the out-
put watts of the transmitter itself
A low power FM transmitter
35
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Mal
lard
Con
cept
s Ltd
U
K fo
r UN
ESCO
Met
ric
wav
es
Dec
amet
ric
band
(sho
rt w
aves
)
Hec
tom
etri
c ba
nd(m
ediu
m w
aves
)
Kilo
met
ric
band
(lon
g w
aves
)
100
MH
z
875
MH
z
25 M
Hz
6 M
Hz
1600
kH
z
525
kHz
280
kHz
150
kHz
Frequency modulation A m p l i t u d e m o d u l a t i o n
The four radio frequency
36
Several companies around theworld now produce cheap FMtransmitters for community radiousing frequencies between 875 and108 mHz the usual band for FMbroadcasting They range in pricefrom a little over US$ 500 to some$ 2000 and they are about the sizeof a thick paperback novel Not allof the models available especiallythose from the US are built withthe possible harsh conditions ofdeveloping countries in mind
The technology of FM transmittersis now so simple and well knownthat it is not beyond the capacity ofcompetent engineers in developingcountries to build them Usinglocally available materials the DANIDAUNESCO Tambuli community radio project in thePhilippines locally produced its firsttransmitter and successfully put itto work in 1998 though most ofTambulirsquos stations still use British orChinese transmitters The experi-ence of Cape Verde where localtechnicians built their own transmitters was mentioned in theIntroduction
Low-power transmitters may alsohave an amplifier or booster atta-ched to them to increase theirpower output Many of the UNESCO-supported communityradios have 20-watt transmitters
with a 100-watt booster Thistransmission equipment especiallythe booster generates considerableheat and so it is always accompan-ied by a cooling fan and it needs tobe installed in a well-ventilatedplace
Nearly all FM transmitters built forcommunity radio require a 12-voltDC power supply Thus they can berun either off an electrical mainsource with a transformer thatconverts this into a 12-volt DCoutput or a vehicle battery or solarpanels
It is important to keep the audiosignal from an FM transmitter atthe right level If the signal is overmodulated distortion will resultand possible interference withnearby stations A device called alimitercompressor is thereforeincluded in the audio chain to keepthe signal at its pre-set level
In a few cases community radiosuse AM broadcasting Setting upand running costs are generallymuch higher than they are for FMHowever the ability of AM toextend over a wider broadcast areaeven if one of lower sound qualitymay make it desirable in certain circumstances In some cases particularly in large towns wherethe competition for FM frequen-cies is very high obtaining one at
reasonable cost may be impossibleand therefore some communityradios have found it easier to rentor buy an existing AM frequencyThis will probably have a commer-cial licence but the communityradio management can lay down itsown policy in respect of advertising
The Antenna
The height position and adjust-ment of the antenna play a primor-dial role in achieving high qualityand the furthest possible reach ofan FM broadcast signal This isbecause as already noted FMsignals travel in a more or lessstraight line and follow the line ofsight The antenna that propagatesthe signal must therefore be as highas possible and there should befew obstructions that will block thesignal The higher the antenna isthe further its signal will reacharound the natural curvature of theearth
FM Problems in Hilly Areas FMhas limitations in hilly areas becau-se even if the antenna is placed ontop of a peak there may be areas ofsignal shadow in the valleys Theonly solution for using FM in hillyareas may be to install one or morerelay transmitters to cover theareas in shadow
Martin Allard explains Broadcast Coverage Patternin Relation to Watts and Antenna Height
All of the differing figures given for the coverageradius of FM are reasonable in their own way It is farfrom being an exact science however and opinionsvary considerably as to what is an acceptable signalstrength that is sufficient for a normal listener
The basic facts to understand are these
The Effective Radiated Power (ERP) of an FM stationis approximately the power of the transmitter multiplied by the number of elements in the antennaThere are practical limits as to how big an antennacan be and above a certain size losses in the cablesbecome significant
Of course VHF signals do not go far beyond the optical horizon They do bend around hills to a smallextent but otherwise they behave much like lightThe distance to the horizon depends on the height ofthe antenna and must take into account any largeobstructions
For an acceptable stereo signal you need 3-4 timesthe power of a mono transmission We have foundthat upgrading some of the early low-power stationswith a modern high-gain antenna and low-loss feedercable produces a good stereo signal over the samerange without an increase in transmitter power
Some typical range figures based on stereo transmission in a flat area with an antenna 25metres high would be
20 watts ERP - 5 km
100 watts ERP - 12 km
1200 watts ERP - 30 km
But each case is different We have one example of astation running 1200 watts ERP with regular listeners 80 km away 2
The height of the antenna willdepend on the terrain and on anyobstacles that the signal must passHowever it is usually at least 20-30 metres above the ground evenin flat terrain The antenna may beplaced on a building or hilltop togain the necessary height or amast may be constructed for it
Constructing the Mast Antennamasts can be built locally usingsteel uprights and lathes to createa lattice construction However asimpler and cheaper version canbe built using galvanized steelwater pipes Steps are welded tothem so that the broadcastingantenna itself fitted high on themast can be reached for adjust-ments and repairs
Both types of mast must be firmlyanchored in a concrete block in theground and they must be heldvertical by guy wires also anchoredin concrete
The Two Categories ofAntenna There are two broadcategories of antenna omnidirec-tional which as its name impliesradiates the signal in all directionsthrough 360 degrees around itselfand directional which radiates thesignal towards one segment of thecircle around it Almost all com-munity radio stations use an omni-directional antenna but there are
situations where a directionalantenna is better One example iswhere an antenna is placed on theside of a mountain overlookingthe community to be reached Adirectional antenna beaming thesignal only over the communitywould give added power compar-ed to using an omnidirectionalantenna that wasted part of itssignal against the mountainsidebehind it
Antenna Design Manufactureand Tuning FM antennas comein a variety of designs and thechoice and tuning of the antennato get the best signal is the work ofa specialist Antennas can bebought ready made but for mostcommunity radios they are fabri-cated on the spot by a metal worker using materials that canusually be bought in a local hard-ware shop such as copper piping 37
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Typical Antenna Mast Made from Water Pipes
and aluminium or PVC piping allheld together by hose-clamps and solder
Fine-tuning of the antenna to getthe best signal is done with an instrument called a power metrewhich measures the StandingWave Ratio (SWR) It costs lessthan US$ 100 This costs less thanUS$ 100 It is connected betweenthe transmitter and the antenna to
38
measure the ratio between thepower coming from the transmitterand the power being reflected backfrom the antenna If a lot of poweris being reflected back by theantenna it is not properly tunedand broadcast power is being lostThe specialist adjusts the lengthand position of the moveableradiating elements on the antennauntil the SWR meter shows thatthere is little or almost no powerbeing reflected back from theantenna Many modern transmit-ters incorporate an SWR powermetre
Studio Equipment
Recording and Playback Mostof the equipment used in a radiostudio would be familiar to any onewho had ever used home musicalequipment It consists in the mainof cassette recordersplayers andother tape recorders record turntables and compact discplayers However the quality of thisequipment in a radio studio ishigher than that of the commonrange of home equipment This isbecause firstly high-quality soundis needed so that even after theinevitable degradation of thesound between the studio and thelistenerrsquos ear the quality will still beof an acceptable level Secondly
studio equipment must withstandmuch heavier and more constantuse than its equivalent in the home
Some small community radios inindustrialized countries prefer tobuy cheap consumer electronicitems such as CD players and sim-ply replace them when they wearout This is seldom a suitableapproach in developing countrieswhere it is usually easier to obtainfunding for initial costs than it is forrecurrent costs Furthermore suchcheap consumer electronic itemsmay be less available here than theyare in industrialized countries
Control ConsoleMixer Themain unfamiliar item to mostpeople entering a radio studio forthe first time is the control consoleand mixer unit This allows the programme producer or his techni-cian to select the sound sourceswanted during the programme forexample a cassette or compact diskplayer or one or more of themicrophones in the studio It alsoallows him to raise and lower thevolume of each source graduallyand to superimpose one or moreover another as in the case of avoice with background music orsound effects This is calledlsquomixingrsquo the sound channels Theconsolemixer has sockets for head-phones through which the producer
can listen to the various channelshe has available or to the final mixedversion for broadcast An output linefrom the consolemixer goes to thetransmitter
All the studio equipment is power-ed from a local electricity sourcewhich should pass through anautomatic voltage regulator Thisreduces power fluctuations thatchange the speed of voices or music
Programme Production andNews GatheringEditing in theField
Remote Microphone Mixer Inthe simplest operations in the fielda single tape recorder can be usedto gather material or a microphonecan be connected by a long line tothe studio console for nearbyoutside coverage But any more elaborate programme productionoutside the studio when severalmicrophones and sound inputs arerequired needs a remote micro-phone mixer sometimes alsoknown as an auxiliary microphonemixer This functions in much thesame way as the studio mixer but itis smaller and usually runs off bat-teries In the field it is used toselect andor mix the varioussound inputs required for the programme that is being recorded
Linking Reporters and Othersto the Studio A second aspect ofoutside broadcasting is linking thefield reporter to the studio for livelyand interesting eyewitness reportson events and for news in outlyingparts of the community
In industrialized countries and inmajor towns in developing coun-tries the telephone is the mostcommon way of making this linkAll that is required is a device calleda telephone adaptor to patch theincoming phone call into the studioconsole from where it can bebroadcast or recorded for later use
However in rural areas of the devel-oping world where telephones arescarce other means must be usedto connect an outside reporter tothe studio Very High Frequency(VHF) or Ultra High Frequency(UHF) transceivers (lsquowalkie-talkiesrsquo)are one method Some countriesset aside certain frequencies in the200 mHz range - where the qualityof the sound is good - especially forconnections between outsidereporters and their studios Thisrequires a base station in the studioand handsets for the reporters inthe field
Cellular mobile phones for outsidereporters are another solutionwhen there are no fixed telephonelines
Mobilizing People with VHF Transceivers
In some deprived areas where there is notelephone service amateur VHF transceiversare abundant in fact they are a statussymbol This is the case in a remote islandin the Philippines where a community radioof the Tambuli project has managed to mobilizenumerous people with VHF transceivers to participatepersonally as reporters in radio programmes and alsoto lend their transceivers to others to do the sameThus without any investment from the communityradio a volunteer network of outside reporters hasbeen set up (See Case Study 1- Putting CommunityPeople in Charge)
Telephone Call-Ins Some com-munity radios especially in townswhere telephones are availableinstall a special telephone mixersystem which allows them to receivemultiple and simultaneous callsput them on hold in the order inwhich the calls came in and thenpass them in turn to the consolemixer to go on air at the commandof the programme producer Thissystem which of course can alsobe used by outside reporters phoning in is relatively expensiveand may not be justifiable in atypical rural area of a developingcountry In some developingcountries local technicians havedesigned their own telephonepatch system The cheapest way ofputting a telephone call on air is tohave a telephone with a speaker inthe studio and put a microphonenext to it but the quality of theresulting signal is not very good
RELIABILITY AND MAINTENANCE
Most of the equipment outlinedabove is inherently robust andreliable and is generally quitesimple to maintain by someonewith appropriate knowledge andtraining However certain simpleprecautions need to be taken toprevent accidental damage
Precautions against LightningExperience has shown that light-ning striking the antenna duringthunderstorms is a common causeof damage to transmitters It istherefore vital to weld a lightningconductor to the top of the antennamast And if the antenna is fixed ona roof an earthing wire of braidedcopper should be welded to it rundown the side of the building andfixed to an iron bar driven deepenough into the ground to findmoist soil
Handling Precautions Otherprecautions concern handling ofthe equipment Any radio trans-mitter that is switched on withoutbeing connected to its antenna
or to an equivalent load will be permanently damaged Thuswhen a transmitter has been disconnected from the antennasay for testing or repair a dummyload of the same resistance as theantenna must be attached to itLoad resistors as they are calledcan be purchased ready-made andcome with a variety of resistancesor they can be rigged up by using anormal electrical light bulb of theappropriate watts
Another handling issue of obviousimportance is always to take parti-cular care to respect the polarity -the positive and negative terminals -when connecting equipment Amistake here can burn it out
In Kothmale Sri Lanka the nationalgovernment providedland tower and antennas These madeit possible to set upmicrowave transception telephone twenty-fourhour link to Internetand FM transmission
39
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Block Diagram of Studio Equipment
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40
STUDIO PREMISES
Size A simple radio studio can beset up in any existing house orroom having a minimum of ninesqm available This is needed toinstall the equipment and to givespace for the operators to use itHowever it is much more practical toaim for premises of at least 25 sqmwith 50 sqm or more as the ideal
The minimum practical size for anannouncerrsquos booth is about 12sqm If one can count on a total ofsome 50 sqm about half of thiscan be devoted to the announcerrsquosbooth which will then be bigenough for roundtable discussionssmall groups of performing musi-cians and the like The remainingfloor space in the building can betaken up by a technicianrsquos cubicleand receiving and working areas
Announcerrsquos Booth andTechnicians Cubicle Theannouncerrsquos booth is often separa-ted from the technicianrsquos cubicle bya window with carefully fitteddouble glass panes to prevent out-side noise reaching the micro-phones in the booth This arrange-ment means that the announceronly has to worry about the micro-phone in front of him or her whilethe technician works the consoleand the sound channels such astape recorders and record players
However not all community radiosseparate the announcerrsquos booth
from the technician and some-times the announcer likes to dohisher own production handlingthe equipment and talking into themicrophone as a lsquoone-personshowrsquo So there can be flexibility indesigning the studio layout
Soundproofing and AcousticalBalance The announcerrsquos boothmust be soundproof because themicrophones in it will pick up anyexternal noise that reaches themPartitions made of light board suchas plywood usually need to be dou-bled with a space in between thatcan be filled with sound-deadeningmaterial and spaces around doorsneed to be sealed with rubberstrips
The acoustical balance in theannouncerrsquos booth must be care-fully adjusted Sound bounces andreverberates off hard walls and pro-duces an echo or lsquocathedral effectrsquowhen picked up by the micropho-ne To avoid this parts of the wallsshould be covered with soft mate-rials While acoustic tiles are avai-lable commercially for this purpo-se the same effects can be achie-ved with simpler and cheapermaterials such as egg trays cur-tains mats or cardboard Howeverif too much of the wall space iscovered with these sound-absor-bing materials the lack of resonan-ce will make all programmes soundas if they are coming from an openfield
Air Conditioning If air condition-ing is to be installed it should be ofthe silent split type with the com-pressor in a place apart from therecording studio and where its humwill not be picked up by the micro-phones in the announcerrsquos boothCold air should be blown into theannouncerrsquos booth through a ductand a silent extractor fan shouldalso be fitted in the booth
SPATIAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COMPONENTS OF THE RADIO STATION
The transmitter is connected to theantenna by a coaxial cable Thiscable absorbs a considerableamount of the power coming fromthe transmitter and therefore thelength of the cable should be asshort as possible With the relative-ly cheap types of coaxial cable normally used for communityradio the distance between thetransmitter and its antenna shouldnot exceed about 30 metres
Ideally the transmitter and studiowill be in the same building withthe antenna close to it or on theroof However the transmitter isbest put in a room separate fromthe studio equipment because if itis too close radio frequency emis-sions from the transmitter canaffect the studio equipment andcause noise and hum
A commercialy available load resistor
Typical studio layoutPh
oto
M A
llard
There will be occasions howeverwhen the site chosen for theantenna will be unsuitable for thestudio because of height consider-ations it is possible in the circum-stances to place the antenna on ahilltop with the transmitter nextto it and have the studio some distance away in a more favourablelocation All that is required is apower line up to the transmitterand a second line that carries theoutput from the studio to thetransmitter This programme lineas it is called should not be longerthan 1000 metres The ideal material for this line is telephonecable which is designed to carryvoice communication and to resistexposure to weather But evenhousehold electrical wire can beused though this is not designedfor outdoor use and will need tobe checked regularly
FUTURE POSSIBILITIES
A Studio in a Computer
Computers have long been used inradio studios for simple tasks suchas word processing of scripts andindexing and cataloguing recor-dings Radio studios accumulatelarge numbers of recordings overtime and it becomes difficult tofind specific items say parts ofpast coverage of a certain subject
required for a new programme ifrelying on human memory aloneComputerized index and catalogueon the other hand can provide a listand short description of all thematerial on that subject with thenumbers of the tapes and the location of each
Computerized ProgrammeProduction In recent years digi-tal technology has opened up newvistas for radio production It isnow possible to store all of thematerial for radio programmes -talks music sound effects jinglesetc - on the hard disk of a compu-ter whereas before these had to bestored on tape
Computer software now existsthat allows programme producers- as many as 15 at a time workingat separate terminals simulta-neously - to select the materialthey want from the hard disk andmix and edit it into a programmeWith the completed programmerecorded on its hard disk the computer can then be instructed
to put the programme or even aseries of programmes on air atpredetermined times without further intervention from studiostaff
This type of computerized produc-tion can replace the function ofmuch of the equipment in a tradi-tional studio and it is certainlyhighly efficient for programmeproduction In practice howevernot all of the traditional equip-ment is likely to disappear in thenear future for example audioequipment for recording materialand transferring it to the hard diskof the computer later will certainlycontinue And for outside programme production the remotemicrophone mixer described earlieris cheap and convenient even iffinal production in the studio iscomputerized
In addition it should be rememb-ered that good community radioalso relies on participation fromthe audience in live on-air sessionsin the studio rather than on
The Pastapur community in India built their own radio studio using locally firedclay bricks The tower is a professionally fitted self-standing mast with an omni-directional antenna crafted under the guidance of a profesional broadcasting technician Adjacent are five school rooms for lsquolearning withoutfrontiersrsquo also built from the same kind of bricks
41
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Maximum Distance from the Studio to the Transmitter is 1000 M
pre-recorded productions only Forlive programmes in the studiosuch traditional equipment is stillthe most practical
Community Radio and theInternet
The Internet holds enormouspotential for development especial-ly in rural areas For example infor-mation about health agriculture or
42
the environment can be down-loaded from it it can be used toconnect health workers agriculturalextensionists or ordinary villagerswith technical experts to discusssome particular problem and it canbe used to put communities incontact with each other for on-linediscussions and debates aboutissues that affect them or aboutproblems and their solutions
The Village Trail and theInformation SuperhighwayUnfortunately in most developingcountries up to now Internetaccess and the valuable informationit can provide have been availableonly to a relatively small and privi-leged minority For example inAfrica less than 15 percent of thepopulation had Internet access atthe end of 1998 And nowhere arethe rural poor a part of that privile-ged Internet-using minority Theproblem can be summed up in thequestion How can poor ruralpeople living along the village trailbe connected to the informationsuperhighway
Integrating community radio pro-gramming with the Internet is oneway to reach out to villagers If theradio station has a computer withInternet access programme produ-cers can call on an enormous spectrum of information on sub-
jects of general concern to theiraudience as well as being able tolook for replies to specific queriesraised by members of the comm-unity Broadcasting such informationcan effectively bring the Internetinto any home even into thosewhere the family could never aspireto having a telephone withoutmentioning the computer to gowith it
The Internet and ProgrammeProduction The Internet can bevery useful for programme produc-tion A station can obtain a vastquantity and range of informationfrom it For example material frommajor news agencies is available onthe Internet as is information fromdevelopment agencies non-governmental and governmentalorganizations universities and thelike In addition more and more
audio programmes can be down-loaded from the Internet for re-broadcast The themes of theseproductions often cover issues ofgreat importance to communityradios such as health educationwomenrsquos rights and so on
The Internet is also a forum for the exchange of programmesServices such as OneWorldGlobalRadioService and A-Infosallow producers to deposit programmes for other producers to pick up and broadcast and vice-versa
A community radio may also wantto offer information about itself toother Internet users It can open asite on the World Wide Web todescribe its organization program-ming staff etc in as much detail asit wants 3
Bringing the Internet to Rural People in Sri Lanka
Kothmale is a constituency covering a cluster of ruralcommunities with a total population of about150000 Its community radio station is the basis foran innovative experiment to use radio as an effectiveinterface between local people and the Internet
Each day the radio station airs a programme calledlsquoRadiobrowsing the Internetrsquo during which communitybroadcasters discuss and interpret the informationon selected Internet sites The local language is usedmaking the information easily accessible to peoplewho understand no English and would be unable touse the Internet directly
Listeners can request information on specific topicsOf particular benefit is information on markettrends agriculture life skills for poverty alleviationformal and informal educational materials healthand medicine
This UNESCOGovernment of Sri Lanka pilot projectis also providing free Internet access through in anInternet Cafeacute and two terminals in community librariesfor people who wish to browse in person
In addition the radio station is developing a community database of the information frequentlyrequested by listeners Much of this is in the locallanguage and is particularly suited to local develop-ment interests and needs This is important becausepackaged information on the Internet is seldom suitable
Kothmale lsquoradio browsingrsquothe on-air announcerbrowses the Internet inEnglish and simultaneouslyreports her findings inSinghala She can alsorespond to questions in the studio or from livephone calls
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Rural Multi-Purpose Telecentres
Speculation about the use ofmicrochips and satellite communi-cation as tools in rural develop-ment goes back to the early 1980sOne of the ideas that has beenmaturing since then is that of ruralmultipurpose telecentres whichhave also been called lsquorural infor-mation shopsrsquo
The basic principle is to create aplace where villagers can go forinformation - either free or for afee - on agriculture health familyplanning and other developmentalor social topics In its fullest andmost logical form a communityradio station would form thenucleus for a rural telecentre providing a variety of services
This telecentre would of coursehave an Internet connection toprovide the services outlined inthe previous section related toaccessing databanks and sourcesof expertise and connecting com-munities to each other In additionit could offer other functions suchas public telephone and fax as wellas building libraries of videosaudio-visual materials books andpublications In one of the formsproposed for India under a WorldBank programme the centreswould sell records and cassetteshire out videos and audio-visualequipment and provide servicessuch as desktop publishing and
photocopying These serviceswould aim to help the centresbecome self-sufficient
In Bangladesh it is highly signifi-cant that the Grameen Bankfamous for its imaginative micro-credit programmes for the ruralpoor especially women startedGrameen Telecom in 1996 Thisprovides loans for women to buycellular phones and set up a publicservice and it also providesInternet connections in majorcities It plans to put telephoneservices into all of Bangladeshrsquos50000 villages and also to expandits Internet-access services This isa first step along the path towardsrural multi-purpose telecentresHowever it is sad that broadcast-ing in Bangladesh is still a govern-ment monopoly and there is nosign that community radio will beallowed to begin any time soon
Digital Technology
Digital technology has steadilytransformed the way in which pro-grammes are made and distribu-ted in recent years Many broad-casters have already invested indigital systems for contributionand production Now the switchfrom analogue to digital is movingalong the broadcasting chain intotransmission At the same timethe digital developments are draw-ing together the broadcasting
telecommunications and compu-ter industries in a process ofconvergence For all broadcastersthis is leading to a new and chal-lenging business environment inwhich they are searching for a clearlsquomultimediarsquo role The InternationalTelecommunications Union (ITU) isediting a publication on this subject
SPECIALIST ADVICE
This chapter has provided an over-all guide to the technical aspects ofsetting up a community radio ser-vice Nevertheless anyone embar-king on such a project should seekspecialist advice on the technical
In Kothmale Sri Lanka Buddhist monks surf the net for religious texts at the Kothmale Community Radio on the Internet and on the air
43
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aspects of the particular circum-stances before going ahead withthe investment Such advice canusually be obtained from the tech-nical staff in a nearby state or com-mercial radio station and it neednot be costly 1 Much of the material in these sections is based on
Community Radio Station - A Technical Manual by staff ofthe UNESCODANIDA supported Tambuli CommunityMedia Project Philippines That manual provides moretechnical detail than can be included in this more general handbook
2 Martin Allard in a personal communication (1999)
3 Philippe Beacutechamp The ABCs of ICTs InteRadioVol10No 2 (Montreal December 1998)
4 Colin Fraser and Sonia Restrepo-Estrada Communicatingfor Development - Human Change for Survival 1B Tauris(LondonNew York 1998)
5 Laurie Hallett provided the following information onDAB in a personal communication (1999)
44
BOX 4 Basic Equipment for a UNESCO-supported Community Radio Station (Prices in US Dollars)
Item No Description Unit price Total
TRANSMISSION EQUIPMENT
1 2 FM Stereo Transmitters 100 Watt
Note one as a standby transmitter 800 1600
2 1 Wide-band Omni-directional Antenna (four layer with splitter set for the allotted FM Frequency of the station) 1200 1200
3 1 Heliax antenna cable (50 Meter) and connectors 550 550
4 1 A1000 Two channel compressor and limiter 545 545
5 1 Locally fabricated antenna mast and anchors 1200 1200
Transmission equipment total US$ 5095
STUDIO AND FIELD EQUIPMENT
6 1 Professional Studio Console with built in telephone hybrid 10+10 watt amplifier for studio monitors stereo monitor output for cue talkback microphone VCA feeders with a total of 7 mono inputs9 stereo inputs 3 mono outputs8 stereo outputs 2000 2000
7 2 PMC Studio Monitor Speakers ( Power ouput 150 watts) 515 1030
8 2 Dual Auto Reverse Cassette Deck 570 1140
9 1 CD Changer 900 900
10 4 Headphones 100 400
11 5 Dynamic Microphones with Windshields 390 1950
12 2 Utility Mixer with XLR input 400 800
13 3 Microphone stand with swinging arm 55 165
14 2 Microphone desk stand (flexible) 115 230
15 5 Portable cassette recorders with XLR mic inputs and carrying case 515 2575
16 5 Dynamic Microphones for portable casette recorders 170 850
17 2 Quartz Clock Diameter 25 cm hoursminsseconds 25 50
18 40 XLRMF Canon connectors (20 Male and 20 Female) 10 400
19 20 Phono connectors Male 3 60
20 20 Phono connectors Female 3 60
21 25 RCA connectors 1 25
Item No Description Unit price Total
22 1 MIC cable (100 m role) 260 260
23 1 Audio cable (100 m role) 150 150
24 4 Automatic voltage regulators 50 200
25 1 Multi-tester + assorted repair equipment set 50 50
Total Studio and Field Equipment US$ 13295
COMMUNITY RADIO BASIC EQUIPMENT TOTAL US$ 18390
Additional Costs Support to community fo building remuneration and studiofabrication - US$ 2500(Consumables and costs for energy source not included)
Item No Description Unit price Total
OPTIONAL (Computer based Audio and news processing)
1 2 Digital Audio Computer Workstation PIII-700 with 20 GBHDDCD-R Drive (SCSI) USB port Speakers and a Sound Card (Sound Blaster) with Windows 982000 1500 3000
2 2 USB Interface controller with two XLR inputs two balanced 14rdquo TRS inputstwo unbalanced 14rdquo inputs and SPDIF IO Four channels of audio in and two out simultaneously via USB 600 1200
3 1 Editing software package 400 400
4 100 CD-R Media (CD re-writeble) 3 300
5 1 Internet ready Computer withWindows 98 + MS-WORD 1100 1100
6 1 Laser Printer 750 750
Total Optional Computer Equipment US$ 6750
Chapter 5Getting Started
45
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T his chapter sets out the various practical steps involved in setting up a community radio service
beginning with ascertaining the legislative context and conducting a proper consultation and
analysis process in the community A qualitative research method based on Focus Group
Discussions is outlined for this process
The value of drawing up a Mission Statement for the radio station is explained and the involvement
of religious authorities local educational institutions and politicians is discussed
The technical and social criteria for choosing the site in the community for the studio and the
transmitter and antenna are outlined Alternative models including loudspeaker systems are
described as are the main factors governing the choice of power of the transmitter
Later sections deal with ownership and management staff sustainability and looking for outside
funding The issue of advertising and its implications where permitted are discussed in some
detail
Box 6 at the end of the Chapter provides a checklist of questions to which answers are required for
the successful setting up of a community radio
Reading this Chapter will enable the reader to
bull Obtain a good grasp of the various steps involved in setting up a community radio service
bull Appreciate the need for the careful consideration of social factors and relationships in the
community as well as for a full analysis and consultation in the community of its needs and
expectations in respect of a community radio
bull Assume a leadership role or participate in ensuring that all of the necessary preparations are
properly conducted and that informed decisions are taken by the community
Proper research and planning areessential for starting a communityradio service The process should beginwith the gathering of information fromvarious sources but in particular fromthe community itself
A series of questions that need answersis provided in Box 6 at the end of theChapter The sections that follow hereexpand on those questions and areintended as guidance for in-countrypeople groups or organizations thatare planning a community radio
LEGAL CONTEXT
A first step for setting up a communityradio is to find out what the nationalbroadcasting legislation sets out for thelicencing of independent radio stationsIf there is no mention of non-profitcommunity broadcasting there may beother avenues to explore For examplethe provisions for commercial radiomay also apply to a community serviceand in some countries many communityradios have commercial licenses Thisshould not however lead to a situationwhere profit is the main or sole motiva-
46
tion of the station There may alsobe licences for cultural radio Insome cases people simply proceedwithout a licence However care isneeded because this can have penalconsequences (See Chapter 3 forthis and for more informationabout applying for licences) Wherecommunity radio is still forbiddenthere may be other options that donot involve radio transmission (Seethe section below on models)
PREPARATORY WORK INTHE COMMUNITY
Answering the questions laid out inBox 6 will call for much ground-work in the community Thisgroundwork consists of consulta-tion processes within the commu-nity to analyze its situation existingmedia access how a communityradio might usefully serve theinterests of the community in whatways and so on
Clearly the leaders of the commu-nity - which include the elected andthe religious authorities as well theinformal but also influential opin-ion leaders - must be part of theconsultation process
But equally if not more importantis a consultation process thatinvolves the community at largeGroup discussions with the various
sectors in the community areessential These could include forexample farmers fishermen shopowners teachers artisans etc It isalso crucial to consult women andyouth who are traditionally margi-nalized in many rural societies Norshould any minority cultural andlinguistic groups be left outPeoplersquos attitudes towards the exist-ing situation towards the desirabi-lity and possibility of change anddevelopment and towards the pos-sible role of a community radio ser-vice must be ascertained and hope-fully confirmed This is the realbasis of community radio socialwill not technical equipment
Experience has shown that in some
cases merely holding participatoryworkshops to discuss the situationof the community and exploreways of improving access to basicservices may lead spontaneously tothe idea that better communica-tion within the community couldbe a first prerequisite for changeand development A communityradio may then emerge naturally asthe most appropriate communica-tion medium
Preliminary Results The initialconsultation process should indicate
bull The level of enthusiasm for andcommitment to the notion ofhaving a community radio service
Phot
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rd
On Defining the Future Radio Station
ldquoIt must be decided what the station will be and forwhom Will it be a tool to be used by a selected fewor by only one sector of the community talking downto the many Will it be monopolised by disc jockeysOr will its main function be to empower the community as a whole to learn more about issuesthat directly affect its members such as primaryhealth care religious tolerance basic education teenage pregnancy etcrdquo 1
Before doing the technical work of setting up radio in Western Nepal it is essential to encourage the community to discusstheir idea of radio and their aspirations in focus group discussions
Faith in the capacity of all people
ldquoCommunication is a vital process for everyone concernedwith development It is a process not an end It is a meansto sustainable development The role of communication in the development process is to make people consciousof the reality of their situation and make them aware thatthey have the power to change their social realities It assumes that people are equal that they have a right toknowledge and culture and that they can criticize theirsituation and act on it It also implies having faith in thecapacity of all people including the illiterate to discusssocial issues intelligentlyrdquo
Ed Moyo
bull What its overall objectivesshould be especially in terms ofchange and development
bull How in general terms it shouldoperate
If no broad consensus on theseissues can be reached the future ofthe idea may be compromised orthere could be a need for more andbroader discussion
As the consultation processescontinue answers to the moredetailed issues laid out in Box 6should be sought
Contacts will also need to be madewith people and institutions outsidethe community who could have abearing on the project These willinclude among others any state orcommercial radio channels thatalso reach into the communitydevelopment institutions NGOsconcerned with communitydevelopment and local officials ofgovernment services in healthagriculture education and thelike
A Method for Conducting theConsultations
Among the most powerfulmethods for researching peoplersquosopinions and ideas are FocusGroup Discussions (FGDs) and
this technique can be successfullyused for the community consulta-tions being described hereOriginally used for market researchFGDs have more recently beenapplied with outstanding results indevelopment work when qualitativeinformation about peoplersquos opinions perceptions ideas andaspirations is required 2
What is an FGD An FGD bringstogether from six to12 people whoare homogeneous in terms of theireducation life-style and economicstatus and who therefore sharesimilar problems They need to behomogeneous to reduce the chancethat one or more persons of a levelthat the rest perceive as beingsuperior dominate the discussionThere should not be less than sixpeople in the group or it will bedifficult to get a dynamic discus-sion going and to gain a meaning-ful consensus and there shouldnot be more than twelve so thateveryone will have a chance to speak but also to avoid the formation of sub-groups and sub-discussions
These community consultationscould also include groups of sayunemployed youths or motherswith small children or small farmers
The Facilitator The group discussion is run by a facilitatorwhose principal task is toget members of the grouptalking among themselvesabout the subject in ques-tion This might for examplebe what types of radioprogrammes would beuseful to help youngmothers safeguard andimprove their infantsrsquohealth
The facilitator adopts a lowprofile and a very informal stan-ce so that the group feels relaxedHeshe also uses special tech-niques to encourage members ofthe group to talk among them-selves and not to respond tohimher directly The facilitatorguides the discussions with pre-pared open-ended questions thatbegin with words such as lsquoWhatdo you think aboutrsquo or lsquoHowwould you suggest that wersquo iequestions that cannot be answeredwith a simple lsquoyesrsquo or lsquonorsquo
Stimulating In-depth AnalysisA further key function of the facili-tator is to stimulate the group intodeeper analysis of the issues beingdiscussed For example heshemust never let a statement ofopinion by a member of the grouppass without probing it to find out
what lies behind that statement A group member might say some-thing like lsquoI really like that pro-gramme and I never miss itrsquo Or agroup member might say the exactopposite to the effect that heshethoroughly disliked the program-me In either case the facilitatorshould immediately say - but in amild manner ndash something likelsquoThatrsquos an interesting opinion Tellus why you think thatrsquo In factquestions using lsquoWhyrsquo are the keyfor provoking deeper analysis andreaching a fuller understanding ofthe issues at stake as the groupsees them
The Observer While the FGD isin progress an observer is sitting
The participation oflocal institutions whether government or nongovernmentcontributes to makingthe stationrsquos programming relevantand dynamic
47
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48
quietly taking notes of the mainpoints that are being made Whenthe discussion is finished it is agood idea for the observer to takeover the proceedings and to readthe main points back to the groupIt is very important that hesheseeks their confirmation of eachpoint in order to ensure that it hasbeen correctly noted This leadsmore easily to a broad consensus
Effectiveness of FGDs Especiallywith people of low educational sta-tus FGDs are remarkably effectiveThe group feels at ease becausethey are talking with their peersand because the facilitator deliber-ately creates a totally informalatmosphere Once the members ofthe group start discussing among
themselves they spark reactionsideas and opinions off each otherin a way that provides true insightsinto what is in their minds andhearts FGDs are generally far moreeffective for gaining these insightsthan are one-on-one interviews forall too often the interviewee herewill say what he or she thinks theinterviewer wants to hear At theother extreme general and mixedgroup discussions can easily bedominated by a few people - not tomention that women and youthhardly ever speak out freely at suchgatherings The facilitator shouldbe aware of this guard against itand encourage the less outspokento air their feelings without embar-rassing them
Some FGDs with different sectorsof the community backed up withkey informant interviews withopinion leaders local authoritiesand the like will normally providethe desired information with whichto plan a community radio serviceBut whatever methods are used forthe consultation within the com-munity and with other interestedparties the process should neverbe rushed Mistakes or misunder-standings that are not put right orclarified in the early stages maycome back to haunt the communi-ty radio operation later on
Furthermore during the planningphases and indeed at all stagesone must be very alert to the possi-
bility that special interest groupsmight have hidden agendas that inthe end could result in their high-jacking the radio service for theirown interests
IMPORTANCE OF A MISSION STATEMENT
It is important to begin drafting a short and concise mission statement about the objectives ofthe planned community radio ser-vice at an early stage This providesa basis for discussion and it can bemodified and refined during theconsultation phase
Once a final version of the missionstatement is agreed by the variousstakeholders this constitutes abasis for common understandingand a platform on which to buildThis is not to say that the missionstatement is carved in stone it mayneed modification in the light ofexperience but any changes shouldalways be the result of a communi-ty consultation process
What the station does once opera-ting to adhere to its mission state-ment will depend largely on theindividuals chosen to direct andmanage it There must be regularassessments perhaps by a specialcommittee within the communityof how the operations are fulfillingthe stationrsquos mission
In Senegal women are very active in disussing issues of the daythey make for anatural forum face-to-face or on the air
Phot
o C
Fra
ser
On the Mission Statement
ldquoThe mission [statement] of a radio station definesits aims it is the map that provides directiontowards the achievements of its objectives it is theinstrument to measure its success it is thefoundation on which everything else is built it is the star that guides us The entire programming must be based on the principles established by the missionrdquo 3
ROLE OF THE RELIGIOUSESTABLISHMENT
Special consideration should begiven to the role of the religiousauthorities in the community Innumerous communities they havebeen crucial in helping to start andrun a radio service Their commit-ment to genuine community parti-cipation and to ensuring that theradio is run in the best interests ofthe people is often outstanding
However it should not necessarilybe assumed that all religiousauthorities are free from influencepeddling or political interests Soeven if the religious establishmentcan often be of pivotal importancein starting and running a commu-nity radio service detailed discus-sions are necessary to establish itsposition and its perceptions beforeautomatically seeking a partner-ship with it
ROLE OF LOCAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
The staff of local schools may havea particular interest in communityradio and help to get it started For example they may see it as away of increasing the involvementof parents in the education of theirchildren
In addition schoolteachers canplay a major role as volunteerbroadcasters They often broad-cast a daily programme to remindchildren about their homeworkand assist them with it And insome communities the operationof the radio station is handed overto schoolchildren once a week
INVOLVEMENT OF POLITICIANS
There are varying points of viewabout the role of politicians incommunity radio or whether theyshould have one at all (See Box 5for the opinion of an experiencedcommunity radio broadcaster)
CHOOSING A LOCATION IN THE COMMUNITY
Technical and social considerationsdetermine the appropriate loca-tion of the radio infrastructure in acommunity
Technical Criteria
Position of the antenna and transmitter
bull Given the line of sight character-istics of FM radio waves theantenna should be as high aspossible on an elevated site oron a mast not less than 30metres high and not obstructedby tall buildings
bull The transmitter and antennashould not be close to high-tension power lines
bull There should be an availablepower source
bull The transmitter and antennashould be as close as possible toeach other and not more than30 metres apart
Position of the antenna and transmitter relative to the studio
bull The studio may be up to 1000m from the antenna and trans-mitter but it must be connectedto them by a cable ndash the pro-gramme line Alternatively theprogramme could be fed fromthe studio to the transmitter sitevia a small power link VHF trans-mitter
Position of the studio
bull The studio must have an available power source
bull It should be away from uncon-trollable sources of noise
Social Criteria
bull The studio should be as close aspossible to the centre of popula-tion
bull It should be in a site easily accessibleto members of the community
bull It should have low or no rentalcharges
bull It should be in a site that is freeof vested interests
bull It should be secure from vandalsand pilferers 49
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A Comment on the ReligiousEstablishment and Community Radio inthe Philippines
ldquoThe religious establishments are not
expected to have political or business
interests A majority of them are genuinely dedicated
missionaries who have a deep understanding of the
problems of the poor It is a shame however that
some individual members of the clergy overtly carry
their own personal idiosyncrasies and social biases
and in some cases political partiality into the com-
munity
In [a] community where we actually set up a radio
station the priest happened to be named
chairperson of the Community Media Council
Unfortunately he had never shown fondness
in getting the people to participate in decision
making He distrusted local leadership motives
He ran the station management by himself and
conferred involvement to his minions
When the election campaign period came
the priest threw his support behind the candidate
whom he deemed the peoplersquos favourite
As the station was conveniently located in the
convent the priest took the occasion to use
the programmes to build up the favoured candidate
and downsize the opponentrdquo 4
ldquoAfter 22 years as a broadcast journalist I have a
generally sceptical attitude towards politicians
Whenever I listen to a politician speaking
I try to figure out what is at the back of his mind but
often in vain
The question in the project was whether we should deal
with politicians or leave them out totally After numer-
ous discussions in our team as well as consultations
with professional sociologists the conclusion was that
politicians needed to participate in operating the radio
station After all politicians are inescapable elements
of community life They could be influential cogs in the
development of the community
The project cannot totally do away with politicians
even if the opportunist ones are quick to see the poten-
tial of a community-wide medium to get them votes
and public admiration Our approach is to place the
politicians role in logical perspective If for instance
partisan politicians agree to be involved in the
Community Media Council all the important political
parties must be represented
Certain politicians may publicly manifest a desire to
keep their hands off the project while some may
volunteer resources and heavy personal involvement
However even among those who ostentatiously adopt a
hands-off policy they could have lackeys in key
positions in the station - perhaps either as a generous
benefactor an intellectual or a domineering station
manager Thus the extension of his personality and
interests could creep into sensitive station decision-
making
Some politiciansrsquo pronouncements may indicate
unconditional concern for the masses and they may
well include a candid pledge of non-interference in the
stationrsquos affairs However few make good their
promises Some will ostensibly adhere to their public
commitment particularly when the project manage-
ment makes its presence felt But the shrewd politician
may intervene surreptitiously
Quite often the saying lsquoHe who has honey in his
mouth has a sting in his tailrsquo is confirmed This may
apply not only to the typical impassioned politician
but also to certain other eloquent members of the
community
However I grant that these are general observations
and there are certainly exceptions to them
The way programmers and broadcasters respond to
political manoeuvres will be determined by their
ethical foundation and trainingrdquo
Louie Tabing Manager of the UNESCODANIDATambuli Project Philippines
BOX 5 Involvement of Politicians in Community Radio
50
CHOOSING A MODEL
Most community radios aspire tohaving their own broadcasting facilities and frequency but this isnot always possible due to the prevailing legislation or to a lack ofeconomic resources The alterna-tives at least initially are
bull To obtain airtime for communityprogrammes from an existinggovernment or commercial sta-tion that covers the area
bull Rent an existing frequency butthis solution is normally confinedto urban areas
bull To install a lsquocommunity radiorsquo sys-tem that uses loudspeakersconnected to the studio and situa-ted to cover the communityrather than broadcasting by atransmitter
Whatever model is used it is generally a good idea to start withonly a limited number of hours aweek of broadcasting and then tobuild up slowly In this way therewill be time to plan and prepare thebroadcasts properly As experienceis gained and as the programmeproducers and other staff becomeaccustomed to their roles thehours of broadcasting can beexpanded
Loudspeaker Systems
Community radios often begin by usingloudspeakers and some even remain withthat system because of unfavourable legislation Loudspeaker systems have twodrawbacks firstly the sound quality is notgood and secondly people are compelled to listenwhether they want to or not This can produce tensions in the community
Part-Time Broadcasting
ldquoIt is usually thought that radio must operate on adaily basis but this is purely a presumption derivedfrom mainstream media Given the usual staffingand resource problems of daily operations in a ruralcommunity it could be more effective for its radioservice to operate on a limited but regular basisHistorically the socio-political programming of alternative media has not been continuous Regular intervals between programming increaseaudience loyalty and attention They also give broadcasters the time they need to plan and producemore relevant programmesrdquo 5
One good strategy for the start-upperiod is to broadcast at weekendsonly This will make it easier to findvolunteers who have weekendtime available However theaudience must be informed andreminded that the station will beon air only each weekend Thisshould be done through weeklypublicity efforts using means suchas a mobile loudspeaker announce-ments by the religious establish-ment posters etc
POWER OF THE TRANSMITTER
A broadcast pattern that coverstoo wide a physical area compli-cates the operations of a commu-nity radio and may make it difficultto concentrate on the immediatecommunity that is to be servedGiven that community radiodepends to a large extent onvolunteer participation a largetarget area may result in workloads that are difficult to maintainlsquoSmall is beautifulrsquo in communityradio too and it is often better tohave more small transmitterscovering specific communitiesthan one more powerful one thatspreads its signal widely
In rural areas a 20-watt transmit-ter should normally provide suffi-
cient power but there may be jus-tification for an amplifier to boostthe output to 100 watts In a citywhere there is competition fromother stations transmitters maygo up to 300-500 watts
It is important to ensure that thebroadcast pattern covers a com-munity having between 5000 and25000 potential listeners To besuccessful a community radiomust be able to rely on variousforms of support from its listenersless than 5000 may not providethe critical mass that will allow theradio to sustain itself and muchmore than 25000 means that theradio begins to become imperson-al and difficult to manage with aresultant loss in the communitycharacter of the service
OWNERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT
These are crucial issues that needcareful thought Even if the overallconcept is that the communityowns the radio there usuallyneeds to be some body such as afoundation or association whichrepresents the communityrsquos inter-ests and also provides the juridicalentity to apply for the licence andto hold it In some cases it may bepossible to plan for a community
media cooperative This couldallow each member of the com-munity to buy a share
With regard to management theconcept of community radio isthat the community itself shouldbe in overall control Obviouslyhowever the whole communitycannot be involved all the timeand therefore some sort of manage-ment body needs to be formedthat represents the different sec-tors in the community In manycases a community media com-mittee is created to assume themanagement role Whatever thebody is called its members mustrealize that they are accountableto the community at large and tothe particular sector they repre-sent Their decisions regarding therunning of the station and its programming must be democraticand transparent
PROGRAMMING
Programming policies are coveredin the next chapter Howeveranyone planning a communityradio should give early thought toprogramming issues especiallywith regard to mechanisms that willensure the maximum possible com-munity access and participation 51
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Reach of the Station
ldquoHow far the station reaches is less important than where the station reaches A station with atransmitter that has a long reach may be situated ina sparsely populated region whereas a station situated in a densely populated region may have atransmitter that doesnt reach very farrdquo 6
52
As a tactic for starting communityradio programming it is useful tofind out what people enjoy andappreciate about other radio pro-grammes they listen to and whythey like them Focus GroupDiscussions would be an idealmethod for obtaining this qualitativeinformation
STAFF
Few if any community radio sta-tions can afford to pay staffbeyond perhaps the station mana-ger if they are lucky Thus mostcommunity radios rely extensivelyon volunteers as programme pro-ducers reporters and studio tech-nicians However the use of volun-teers is not simply to get cheaplabour for a poorly funded opera-tion On the contrary volunteersgive a special and positive characterto community radio creating animage of goodwill commitmentand service for the common goodThose same characteristics arerequired in the community at largefor it to change and develop alongdemocratic lines
SUSTAINABILITY
Generating Income
While many community radios indeveloping countries are launched
with support fromsome outside donor -national or interna-tional - anyone plan-ning and promoting acommunity radioshould bear in mindfrom the very begin-ning how to sustainthe service once it isup and running
There are severaloptions for raisingrevenue to cover run-ning costs as follows
bull Commercial adverti-sing when this is allowed underexisting national legislation
bull Sponsorship which may also bedebarred by national legislation
bull Donations
bull Fees for private announcementsmade over the radio as lsquothe peoplersquos telephonersquo
bull Membership fees paid by listeners
The Advertising Issue In manycountries that have recently intro-duced legislation for non-profitcommunity radio the commercialmedia are so strong and influentialthat they have succeeded in ensur-ing that community radio is prohi-bited from accepting advertisingthus preventing it from infringing
on their lucrative domain But des-pite the revenue problem that thismay present it may have someadvantages for the image and cre-dibility of community radio forcommunity radio is essentiallypublic-service broadcasting and itshould be seen to be free fromcommercial interests andinfluences
Thus even where advertising isallowed careful thought should begiven to the type of advertisers thatwould be acceptable within thecharacter of a community radioservice These would normally onlybe local providers of goods and ser-vices the multinational soft drinksindustry and goods that are dama-ging to health such as tobacco andalcohol should be avoided
A Conversation with the Manager of a CommunityRadio about Sustainability
During the preparation of this handbook theauthors telephoned the manager of a successful community radio station in one of the poorest partsof Colombia Towards the end of a long conversationabout the radiorsquos character and operations theauthors asked lsquoHow do you sustain the radio How does it survive
The lady burst out laughing and then said cheerfullylsquoBy miracle or rather by one miracle after anotherrsquo
This same manager had the clever idea when theradio was started to organize a party to whichpeople were asked to bring cassette tapes or recordsof their favourite music These were played at theparty She then asked to borrow then so that shecould make copies for use by the radio In this wayshe started the stationrsquos collection of popular music7
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On the Government of Ecuadorrsquos Ban on Advertisingby Community Radio
ldquoWe are not for profit but we are not for bankruptcyeitherrdquo 8
The carabo or water buffalo as it is known in most parts of Southeat Asia is a preciousanimal It ploughs the field it transports goods it provides music and community
programmes through the radio strapped to its horns Some people call this lsquocar-abao stereorsquo
On Keeping Staff - the Case of CrispinZarate a Liability Turned to an Asset in thePhilippines
ldquoCrispin was a farmerrsquos son an unem-ployed school dropout Pinny as he wasfamiliarly called could usually be seenhanging around in his neighbourhood bar He wouldinvariably go home drunk His lifestyle and drinkinghabits hardly made him an eligible bachelor Norcould anyone consider him handsome The only talentthat Pinny exhibited was playing the guitar well
When the training for volunteers for the radio sta-tion was announced Pinny was among those to signup Since he was jobless he fitted the criterion thattrainees should be available for a three-week crashcourse
Pinny was an ardent trainee and became a dedicatedvolunteer broadcaster People expressed admirationfor his voice Indeed he had a knack for radio and hisinnate good nature came to the surface
His friends would tease him alluding to his lookslsquoYou sound like a real human being when you go onthe air Pinnyrsquo He would take the teasing with aproud smile
Everybody was struck dumb when they heard thatPinny was getting married and even more so whenthey learned that it was to one of the most amiableteachers on the island
I was delighted about Pinny Radio work had turneda derelict into one of the most appreciated and lovedpersons in the community
Then I received the bad news he had left the non-paying job in the station to find work in a construc-tion project on the mainland His wife was expectinga child so he could not afford to be jobless
But perhaps the loss to the station was a gain to thecommunity We had converted a liability into a usefulfamily manrdquo 9
Conflicts of Interest Sponsorshipcan also be plagued by problemsrelated to conflicts of interestsespecially when the sponsors arecommercial organizations
On the other hand sponsorshipfrom community-based associa-tions say of women farmers orfishermen can be extremelyimportant and so can sponsorshipfrom development organizationsand NGOs The same applies todonations from similar associa-tions or organizations
In the long term however relianceon outsiders will always put sustain-ability at risk Thus sustainabilityshould be seen as the ultimate res-ponsibility of the communityitself and the challenge to themanager of the station and to histeam of producers reporters andtechnicians is to make the serviceso enjoyable useful and valuableto its listeners that they will bewilling to support it through sub-scription fees voluntary donationsin cash or kind and the like
Keeping Staff
Sustainability is not only related tofunding the sustainability of staffis equally important Most person-nel working with a communityradio are volunteers and the men
volunteers are usually unemployedand looking for a paid job Thushigh staff turnover is a constantconcern Training which givespeople job satisfaction and careerprospects is one inducement (Forvolunteer work on a communityradio see Chapter 7 on training)Having women on staff may alsohelp reduce turnover because theyare less likely to be looking for jobsoutside the community
An innovative idea used in theUNESCODANIDA-supportedTambuli project in the Philippineswas to include livelihood-genera-ting activities for the staff of theradio stations The principle was to
provide small credits that wouldallow staff to start some commer-cial activity to support themselveswhile they continued to work asvolunteers with the radio In somestations this idea has worked wellbut in others it has been more dif-ficult to put into practice
53
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The radio station is excepted to address withintegrity and fairness the main issues andproblems in the community Sponsors and
donors with vested interests may potentially draw away the
station from its avowed directions or undulysway its programming decisions
54
LOOKING FOR OUTSIDE FUNDING FOR START-UPCOSTS
Community radios often manageto obtain funding from outsidedonors - such as national or inter-national NGOs or bilateral or multilateral development agencies- for the investment required forthe initial purchase of equipmentand to train staff The mission statement of the proposed com-munity radio is an essential ele-ment in any request for externalfunding It is also useful to puttogether a brief dossier that detailsall the important points about theproposed station in order toencourage a donor to invest in itCare is needed however not toproduce an over-glossy presenta-tion that could give the wrongimpression
Donors do not part easily withtheir funds and they will scrutinizethe proposed community radioproject with care They will want tosee how the points raised in Box 6have been answered and they willcertainly conduct their own on-siteenquiries
It should by now be clear that starting a community radio stationthough not particularly complica-ted does require a considerableamount of preparation and hardwork For the initiative to succeedit is vital not to skimp any of it
1 Legislation
bull What is the current legal situation for non-profit com-munity radio
bull If it is provided for in the legislation what are the termsfor obtaining a licence and the necessary qualificationsof the applicant
bull Is the cost of the licence affordable how long will ittake to obtain and what will be the terms for renewal
bull Can the transmitter be purchased and installed withouta licence or will prior approval of the telecommunica-tion authorities be needed
bull If community radio is not allowed for in the legislationwhat other avenues exist For example are the sameconditions for private commercial radio stations appli-cable to non-profit community stations Are there pro-visions for culturaleducational channels
bull If it is not possible to set up a proper radio station coulda community loudspeaker system be used instead
2 Location Criteria
bull Does the area planned for the broadcast pattern - 10-15km in radius - have a large enough population to sustaina community radio say from 5000 to 25000 people
bull Is the terrain suitable for low-power line-of-sight FMbroadcasting or is it too hilly
bull What mainstream commercial or state radios reach thecommunity If many do it may be difficult to sustain acommunity radio service Alternatively are there anymainstream media that could support or be linked intothe proposed community radio service
bull What cooperation and support can be mobilized fromlocal institutions and organizations eg local councilsgovernmental and non-governmental organizations
bull Is the site selected for the station centrally placed andeasily accessible to the community
3 Characteristics and Capabilities of Promoters ofCommunity Radio
bull What is the credibility level and the previous experienceof the people promoting the project
bull Are they generally acceptable to the stakeholders in theproject
bull What is their capacity to mobilize human and financialresources to sustain the operations of a communityradio
bull What is the level of democracy in their decision-making processes
bull Have they been accepted as credible and non-partisanactivists in the community with a reputation for integrityand transparency in their dealings
bull What are the constraints and opportunities for organizinga representative community radio council (Board ofDirectors) or a cooperative society for communitycommunication
4 Context for Setting the Objectives and Drafting a Mission Statement
bull How does the community perceive its situation and theneed for change and development Are people unhappywith the present circumstances and if so to what extentdo they see change as good and also as possible
bull What are the principle obstacles to those changes inattitude and behaviour that could help to promotedevelopment
bull What are the traditional decision-making processes inthe community and how might these be affected byopening a democratic forum for discussion in the shapeof a community radio
bull Who are the formal and informal opinion-leaders in thecommunity and are there any that hold explicit orimplicit leadership roles in relation to the proposedcommunity radio
BOX 6 Main Factors to Consider When Planning a Community Radio
1 Quote Zane Ibrahim and Ms Adams Bush Radio 895 FM(See Case Study 4)
2 Colin FraserSonia Restrepo-Estrada Focus Group Discussions inDevelopment Work Some Field Experiences and Lessons Learned Journal of Development Communication Number One Volume Nine(Kuala Lumpur June 1998) This article provides details of this subjectand technique for which there is only space for an outline here
3 Quote Bill Siemering US public radio activist (1997)
4 Quote Louie Tabing Manager of the UNESCODANIDA TambuliProject Philippines (1999)
5 Based on a written statement by W Jayaweera UNESCO Project Officer(1999)
6 Comment Zane Ibrahim and Ms Adams Radio by Bush Radio South Africa(See Case Study 4)
7 Personal communication Cilia Mosquera Manager of Radio CanaleteIstmina Colombia (1999)
8 Comment community broadcaster in Ecuador (See Case Study 5)
9 Quote Louie Tabing Manager of UNESCODANIDA Tambuli ProjectPhilippines (1999) 55
Com
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bull What points of resistance - either from individuals orgroups - might the community radio be expected toencounter in pursuing its declared objectives
bull Why and how could a community radio service help tobring about change and development In particularwhat impact could it have in mobilizing local resourcesfor development and in increasing community partici-pation for good governance
5 Technical Aspects
bull What is the situation regarding an electricity source forthe studio and for the transmitter
bull What transmission power is likely to be needed to coverthe community
bull Can the antenna be installed at least 30 m above theground firmly anchored to prevent wind damage andwith a lightning conductor
bull Can the antenna and transmitter be installed next toeach other - not more than 30 m apart
bull Can the studio and transmitter be installed far enoughapart to prevent radio frequency emissions from gettinginto the studio equipment
bull Is the place selected for the studio - as well as beingcentrally located and easily accessible to the population -free of uncontrollable noise and free of vested interests
6 Ownership and Management
bull What type of ownership structure can be envisaged
bull How is the community to be involved in managementand programming
bull To what extent do the plans for the community radiointegrate the traditionally vulnerable and marginalizedgroups - ie women youth and ethniclinguistic minorities - in the management and operations of theproposed community radio
7 Programming for the Community Radio Service
bull As an initial guide what programmes do people listento now which do they like most and why
bull What mechanisms can be set up to ensure regularconsultation and feedback with the community to ensurethat programmes meet their likes and needs
bull What special measures will be necessary to ensure thatprogramme producers respect the desires of theiraudience
bull Are there any particular programme formats that arelikely to be especially favourable or unfavourable inhelping to meet the objectives of the radio service
bull What mechanisms can be set up to identify individualsor groups that could produce their own programmes forbroadcast and how will they need to be encouraged andhelped
8 Staffing and other Resources
bull Is there enough interest and enthusiasm to be able tomobilize human and material resources to start and runthe station
bull Who can assume the task of the day-to-day manage-ment of the radio station
bull Is the proposed manager of the station acceptable to allsegments of the community and does heshe have thenecessary managerial and interpersonal communicationskills
bull What will the role of volunteers be in running the operation
bull What resources can be mobilized to ensure the start upof the community radio
bull What resources can be mobilized to sustain the com-munity radio over time
56
The church as a major institution of society has a major role to play
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Moneky Bay Radio Station
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Chapter 6Programme Policies
57
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T his chapter stresses the need for participation of the audience in establishing programmingneeds and preferences in programme production (as presenters and performers) and in evaluation
It describes the crucial role of community news as part of an ongoing process of change and development discusses the ethical standards required by journalists and goes on to emphasize theimportance of balancing views in all programming
Later sections deal with policies for coverage of religiouscultural events local election broadcastsand educational broadcasts
The final section is on the importance of audience surveys and outlines how to conduct them
After absorbing the Chapter the reader will
bull Be able to establish programming policies and operations that will achieve maximum partici-pation of the community and its various sectors at all stages
bull Be able to set up mechanisms to ensure that programming meets audience needs and wishes
bull Know the ethical principles for news gathering and reporting and for maintaining a balance ofviews in a programme
bull Be aware of the possible legal conditions surrounding coverage of local elections and knowhow to handle coverage fairly and objectively
bull Gain insights into the use of radio as an educational medium and know the requirements tomake it effective
PARTICIPATORY PROGRAMMES
Any successful radio station mustappeal to the interests tastes anddesires of its audience What makesprogrammes for a community radiodifferent is that in addition to pleasingentertaining and perhaps providingsome general enlightenment for itsaudience they also seek to facilitatechange social progress and betterliving conditions in the community thatthe radio serves
It needs high numbers of listeners andaudience loyalty to achieve this but theunique advantage that communityradio has over any other type of broad-casting in winning audience is its abilityto be specifically relevant to the particular needs interests and desiresof its relatively small audienceHowever it can only reach this level ofrelevance through the constant invol-vement and participation of thataudience in the planning operationand evaluation of its programming
58
Participation in AscertainingNeeds and Preferences
A consultation process is requiredto establish certain things abouteach of the main audience sectors(eg women men youth farmerscooperative members etc) Themain points to be ascertained are
bull Listenersrsquo needs
bull Listenersrsquo preferences
bull Listening habits (ie times of daywhen people mainly tune in)
This information is the basis fordeciding on programme contentformat and the scheduling of pro-grammes at times that best suit thevarious segments of the audience
Participation in ProducingProgrammes
Everything possible should be doneto encourage individuals andgroups to participate in program-me production In this contextgroups might also be NGOs working in the community or staffof government services The principle role of the station staffapart from encouragement shouldbe to provide technical support andfacilities to the producers
In the Philippines an interestingp ro g ra m m e fo r m a t c a l l e dBaranggayan sa Himpapawid
roughly lsquoVillage on the Airrsquo hasbeen developed by the UNESCO-DANIDA supported Tambuli ProjectThe programme is produced in adifferent village each week in thearea covered by the communityradiorsquos broadcast pattern
In essence it is a variety show inwhich the villagers take the lead assingers musicians humorists poetsinterviewers and interviewees panelmembers and so on Althoughmost of the programme consists oflocal culture and entertainment italso contains a section that givesthe community the chance to discuss relevant issues and villageconcerns in public with local leaderscalled on to respond and maketheir opinions and position clearThis often gives rise to a debate onthe subject
A k a r a o k e s y s t e m - t h erecorderplayback lsquosing-alongrsquomachine which is very well knowneven in Philippine villages - usuallyserves as the outside recording studio Its familiarity to the villagershelps to reduce possible inhibitions
The programme is normally broad-cast the day after it is recorded andit is enormously popular even if thevillagers who produced it had noprevious experience of talking orsinging in front of a microphone
Participation of Individuals andGroups as Presenters orPerformers
Obviously programme formats like lsquoVillage on the Airrsquo in thePhilippines provide occasions forordinary people to present and perform in front of a microphoneBut even without such a program-me format it is important to solicitand support performances thatinvolve ordinary people These cantake a variety of forms includingfor example musical presentationsreadings of poetry comic skits orquite simply interviews round-tables or discussions in whichpeople present their ideas and opinions about any issue that is ofinterest to the communityProgramme formats that inviteparticipation from people in thecommunity should be a regular feature of the stationrsquos broadcasts
Every effort should also be made tohave the radio station seen as afocal point in the communitywhere people are free to come andtalk to the staff and discuss ideasfor programmes in which theycould be involved
An Overview of Programming
Programming decisions are among the most sensitiveand challenging tasks in a station This activity isnecessary when starting a radio station or whenmodifications are called for Periodic evaluation exercises usually trigger a programming revamp
Long hours of consultation and brainstorming sessions are devoted to programme planning A cunning programme manager serves to facilitate aparticipatory deliberation ndash rather than dictateideas - to determine the thrust format content andphilosophies By participating the staff [too] becomeenthusiastic implementers of the programme planIndeed participation makes the station a genuinecommunity radio 1
This graph shows the time avilability of various target groups for radio listening Different localities may show slightly varying trends from this
hypothetical illustration To determine the time slots of programmes designed for specific groups the programmers must at least figure
out if not make a formal research on the habits of their target listeners
Time Availability Chart
BROADCAST TIME
Participation in Evaluation ofProgramming
Community radio stations normallyreceive considerable numbers ofletters andor telephone callsfrom listeners These often providefeedback from the audience aboutthe stationrsquos programmes Thisprocess is very useful to the stationpersonnel and the audience shouldtherefore be encouraged by theannouncers and presenters towrite or call with their comments orsuggestions
However in addition to this routinefeedback a community radioshould conduct periodic evalua-tions of its programming with theparticipation of members of itsvarious audience sectors TheFocus Group Discussion techniqueoutlined earlier is an excellentmethod for eliciting peoplersquos opin-ions about existing programmestheir effects on community lifeand their ideas as to how programmes could be improved
Individual programmes may alsobe evaluated in conjunction withthe audience Programmes arenormally analyzed from two basicviewpoints
bull The formal structure of the programme including its technicalquality (the sound effects used
performance of the announcersand other participants controlof extraneous noise etc)
bull The content of the programmewith specific relation to
Information sources - were theywell selected credible and suffi-cient in number
Context - were the themes of theprogramme pertinent to the specific situation and needs of theaudience
Timeliness - were the themes ofthe programme pertinent in thesense of covering an actual orongoing situation
Actors and roles - did the physicalactors (persons) and the non-physical actors (institutions) eachplay their appropriate role in theprogramme
Communication approach ndash wasthe programme one-way or participatory Did it lead to anycritical analysis by the audience
bull Message formulation - did thecentral message come out clearlyWas there a good balance bet-ween rational emotional andaffective elements Was the format suitably matched withthe content
It is vital that a community radiomanager and his or her staff realize from the beginning thatprogramming decisions must bepart of a dynamic processFeedback and evaluations shouldbe constantly driving the processof improving and adapting theprogramming to meet the needsand preferences of the listenersAnd it must be remembered thatthese are not necessarily constantTo fall into a programming routineand to assume that listeners aresatisfied with what is on offer isthe short road to listeners desert-ing the frequency And that in turnis the short road to the death ofthe community radio
Peoplersquos views and opinions are important for strenghtheningdemocratic practice and for arriving at a cooperative approach tocommunity development Hence in Olutanga a small island in thesouthern part of Zamboanga Philippines the Village on the Airprogramme is the most popular of all It exemplifies the key themeof community radio- participation of the people
59
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COMMUNITY NEWS
Community news is a unique feature and a prime strength thatgives a community radio station theinside track in competing againstlarger commercial or government stations However it must beremembered that the news provided by community radio incontrast to that of the mainstreammedia is not an isolated story orevent alone rather it should bepart of an ongoing and future process that is supporting progressand development in the communityRegular local news broadcasts inthe context of a process are thereforethe lifeblood of a community radioProgramming policies and opera-tions need to give them maximumimportance
Gathering local news is not alwayseasy especially when limitedresources make transportation andmobility for station personnel diffi-cult The idea of lsquopopular reportersrsquo- essentially a few volunteers scat-tered in the community - whoreport in to the studio by telephonecellular phone or VHF radio isalways worth pursuing
However journalistic ethics are justas important in community newsgathering and reporting as they arefor any major news organization
Indeed these ethics can be evenmore important in a communityradio For given the more intimaterelationship that exists betweenthe radio and its audience and thefact that the audience is also inter-related because it is part of a com-munity incorrect or tendentiousreporting or misrepresentation ofan event or issue can have moreimmediate and damaging effectsthan they would in a larger and lessinvolved audience
Thus a community radiorsquos programming policy with regard tocommunity news needs to be basedon having personnel and outsidereporters who have been properlyinitiated into the ethics of journa-lism These cover such aspects ashonesty fairness and objectivityand verification of sources beforeissuing a news item It is difficultnot to make the occasional mistakebut if it does happen an immediateacknowledgement and correctionshould be broadcast (See also the Code of Conduct in the next chapter)
Many community radios also pre-sent news bulletins that includeregional national and internationalitems The source for these is usuallythe mainstream media ndash newspapersradio and TV It is sometimes possible to arrange a link up with a
state or commercial radio stationand re-broadcast its news bulletinto the community Some communityradios make a point of having newsitems discussed on air by listenerseither through telephone calls orby 2-3 member panels in the studio
Whatever approach is used for out-side news the overall policy shouldbe to present or comment on it in away that makes it accessible andmeaningful to the communityaudience
BALANCING VIEWS
The main thrust of a communityradio should be to try to promotefair discussion and debate that canlead to resolution of conflictingviewpoints and to democraticconsensus The personnel of thestation and the way they work arefundamental in achieving this (Theterm lsquopersonnelrsquo of course includesvolunteers)
The staff of the radio station mustof course appear to be neutral Thisis not to say that they will not havetheir own personal points of viewbut they must on no account lettheir opinions influence the waythey stimulate and conduct any dis-cussions or make presentations onair A station manager should bewatchful for any manifestations of
DECLARATION OF PRINCIPLES ON THE CONDUCTOF JOURNALISTS
Adopted by the Second World Congress of theInternational Federation of Journalists at Bordeaux25-28 April 1954 and amended by the 18th IFJ WorldCongress in Helsingoumlr 2-6 June 1986 This interna-tional declaration is proclaimed as a standard of pro-fessional conduct for journalists engaged in gathe-ring transmitting disseminating and commentingon news and information and in describing events
1 Respect for truth and for the right of the public to truthis the first duty of the journalist
2 In pursuance of this duty the journalist shall at all timesdefend the principles of freedom in the honest collectionand publication of news and of the right of fair commentand criticism
3 The journalist shall report only in accordance with factsof which heshe knows the origin The journalist shallnot suppress essential information or falsify documents
4 The journalist shall use only fair methods to obtainnews photographs and documents
5 The journalist shall do the utmost to rectify any publishedinformation which is found to be harmfully inaccurate
6 The journalist shall observe professional secrecy regardingthe source of information obtained in confidence
7 The journalist shall be aware of the danger of discrimination being furthered by the media and shalldo the utmost to avoid facilitating such discriminationbased on among other things race sex sexual orientationlanguage religion political or other opinions and national or social origins
8 The journalist shall regard as grave professional offencesthe following plagiarism malicious misrepresentationcalumny slander libel unfounded accusations theacceptance of a bribe in any form in consideration ofeither publication or suppression
9 Journalists worthy of that name shall deem it their dutyto observe faithfully the principles stated above Withinthe general law of each country the journalist shall recognize in professional matters the jurisdiction of colleagues only to the exclusion of every kind of interference by government or others
bias by his staff while on air as wellas in hisher normal socialcontacts for if any staff are knownto have a strong position on somesubject and express it openly insocial conversations it will bemore difficult for them to presenta position of neutrality while onair Furthermore station managersshould take seriously and lookinto any complaints from listenersabout bias or manipulation ofinformation in the work of the stationrsquos personnel
The balancing of views also callsfor equal opportunity and time toallow different viewpoints to beexpressed on air The managementshould have a rigid policy thatensures this
It must always be rememberedthat the credibility and integrity ofthe service and of the personnelwho run it are crucial to its successand sustainability
COVERAGE OF RELIGIOUSAND CULTURAL EVENTS
Religious functions in a communi-ty are often cultural events as wellAdequate coverage of these occa-sions has to be included in theradio stationrsquos programme In amulti-religious community theradio station should take the
necessary steps to ensure reason-able access to all the different reli-gious institutions and denomina-tions To achieve this it is oftengood to have a committee of differ-ent religious leaders to agree onand advise the station on airtimeallocation for different religiousprogrammes The basic thrust ofreligious programming should betowards promoting religious harmony in the community deni-gration of other peoplersquos religiousbeliefs must be avoided at all costs
LOCAL ELECTION BROADCASTS
Some countriesrsquo legislation specifi-cally forbids community radio tobecome involved in any way withpolitical campaigning Othersallow campaigning under strictlycontrolled conditions only duringspecified election periods Themanagement of a communityradio should examine carefully theparticular legal situation withregard to electioneering
If a community radio is involved inpolitical campaigns it is essentialthat no party or candidate derivesundue advantage or suffers unduedisadvantage A transparent sys-tem of providing equal opportuni-ty and equal time to duly register-ed political parties and candidates
must be established The conceptof equality in opportunity andtime must take into account thelength of the broadcast the qualityof presentation and any advantagesthat might accrue from the timeand day of the broadcast If noagreement can be reached betweenthose concerned drawing of lotsor some similar system may beused
Any programme of a politicalnature which is sponsored or paidfor with the intention of influen-cing voters in a certain directionmust be properly identified as suchat the beginning at regular intervalsduring the programme and againat the end (See also the section onpolitical broadcasts in the Code ofConduct in Chapter 7)
Community radio can effectivelymonitor and ensure good conductof elections and thus support thisvital democratic process
EDUCATIONAL BROADCASTS (School on the Air)
In the 1960s and 1970s when ruralbroadcasting was being widelypromoted by development agen-cies there was much emphasisgiven to the educational possibilitiesoffered by radio a strategy
Everywhere religion plays a major role in the lives of people Community radiobroadcasters must also learn to appreciate this role while keeping radio free
from undue religious influences
61
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rd
62
pioneered by Radio Sutatenza inColombia However experienceshows that as an educationmedium radio alone is weak itneeds to be supported by othermedia such as printed materials aswell as by inter-personal contactsto form a complete educationalpackage
A community radio may well decidethat part of its programmingshould consist of educationalbroadcasts for example for farmerson agricultural techniques or formothers on childcare and nutritionIf such a policy decision is takenthe best results will be achievedwhen it is based on proper adulteducation methodology Thisbegins with careful structuring of
the educational content of thebroadcasts in accordance with thetraineesrsquo circumstances needs andcapacities It should also involvesome sort of enrolment and recog-nition award for successful comple-tion of a course in order to enhancepeoplersquos sense of commitmentAnd the radio programmes shouldbe supported by other materialsgroup discussions and inter-personalfollow-up
Setting up a programme of educa-tional broadcasts can be a veryworthwhile objective for a commu-nity radio but it needs to be care-fully thought out planned andwork in conjunction with theappropriate services in say healthor agriculture Advice and support
from an adult education specialist
can help to ensure successful
programmes
Whether or not a community radio
decides to broadcast educational
programmes per se its policy
should take into account that edu-
cation in the broad sense of the
word and in the context of helping
people to improve their lives is one
of the fundamental objectives of
community radio Thus educa-
tional content will always be present
though it may be built into a variety
of formats including reportage
interviews panel questionanswer
sessions or discussions entertaining
drama etc
School on the Air ndash Girandurukotte CommunityRadio Sri Lanka
ldquoThe School on the Air was an action-oriented programme whose primary objective was to provideinstructional education in a manner that would leadto action It also attempted to develop a coordinatedapproach in which all those concerned with thedevelopment of the area could work together We
believed that such an approach would pave the wayfor our listeners to put into practice the instructionsthey received through radio and other channels ofcommunication
The radio producer in charge of agricultural pro-grammes worked with the agricultural extension officers in the area and with the committee thatadvised on the farming programme of the School onthe Air to develop an agricultural calendar and toidentify on-farm activities and their technicalcontent for the coming season
The calendar with the relevant technical informationwas produced and circulated among 115 farmers whoenrolled in the agricultural programme of the Schoolon the Air These farmers were asked to listen to theradio programme and to make notes in the blankspace provided in the calendar itself
A question was asked at the end of each programmeto which the farmers sent in their reply either bymail or during a visit to the radio stationThe programme received an average of 200-250replies many of which were from farmers not enrolled in the programme
The correct answers were discussed in the follow- upprogramme and those who had provided correct answers received marks
A seasonal course usually lasted 2-3 months and atthe end of the course farmers who had collected anaggregate of pass marks were awarded a School onthe Air certificaterdquo 3
Phot
o C
A A
rnal
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In Laurel Batangas a police officer runs the lsquoTraffic and Good Behaviourrsquo programmeThe studio is an abandoned classroom at the local high school
Phot
o L
Tab
ing
Some stations like Radio Voice of Manduyog in Banga Aklan Province are fortunate tobe linked to an educational institution In this instance the Aklan State College ofAgriculture serves its community with agricultural and technical programmes as well aspublic service womenrsquos programmes children stories good behaviour Students volunteerfor station duty as researchers or announcers
AUDIENCE SURVEYSA community radio that has goodfeedback from its audiencethrough letters telephone callsand visits to the studio and whichregularly conducts participatoryevaluations of its work as describedearlier will have access to muchqualitative information Howeverthis may not be enough to providea full picture of a radio stationrsquosperformance and standing Theindependence of an outside surveyteam is required to obtain reliableanswers to questions such as
bull Does the station have credibilityamong its listeners
bull Is the station seen as a reliablesource of information
bull What image and status do thestaff have in the eyes of the community
bull To what extent does the com-munity depend on the stationfor information and develop-ment materials
bull What do listeners do with theinformation they gain Do theyuse it store it pass it on toothers or look for additionalinformation
bull What impact is the radio havingin the community Whatchanges can be essentially attributed to the radio
In addition some quantitativedata may be needed about howmany people listen to the station
and when compared to other stations and how many listen toparticular programmes This infor-mation provides a picture of howthe community radio stands inrelation to other media channelsavailable to the audience
The type of information mentionedabove is often difficult to obtainThere are specialized companiesthat conduct audience researchusually for large commercial stations They have a natural tendency to inflate the listeningfigures so that the radio stationthat contracted the survey can usehigh ratings as a basis for chargingmore for advertising time In addition the experience of thesecompanies is mainly urban
Unfortunately the gadgetry usedby mainstream media to electronic-ally record the number of receiverstuned into a programme and evenwhen the channel is changed isbeyond the reach of communityradio stations So other methodsneed to be used to obtain thequantitative data
The commonest method is to takea sample of the audience - specialsampling techniques exist for theselection - and have them answer aquestionnaire either by mail orduring an interview The resultsare extrapolated to give a picturefor the whole community
The radio station itself canuse certain techniques totry to determine listeningpatterns One of these isto invite the audience tosend in entries to acontest or to make contri-butions to a communitycampaign The announce-ment is systematicallyrepeated throughout thedayrsquos programming andthe respondents are askedto say at what time ortimes they heard theannouncement
In most countries one candiscard the use of com-mercial media research organiza-tions for community radio It isbetter to enlist the help of NGOsuniversity students or volunteerswho are unknown in the commu-nity to conduct surveys and inter-views (If interviewers are knownin the community respondentsmay feel conditioned in the waythey answer) What is ideal is toget help from the staff of anothercommunity radio station for suchan outsider view They also learnfrom the experience
However difficult it may be toarrange surveys by outsiders fromtime to time are important to beable to gauge the way a communi-ty radio is functioning and thestanding it enjoys among itsaudience
Bus stops provide unique opportunities to gain feedback from audience and conduct interestinginterviews In Punka the Chief of Programmes of Bhutan Radio interviews an expectant passenger While waiting for the bus his handy radio helps pass the time
63
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1 Louie Tabing Programming Tips for a Community Radio Station UNESCO-DANIDA Tambuli Project (Manila 1998)
2 Louie Tabing et al Neighbourhood Radio Production UNESCO-DANIDATambuli Project Manila undated
3 Based on MJR David Mahaweli Community Radio A Field ProducerrsquosNotebook Institute of Development Communication Laguna(Philippines 1993)
Interviewing for Agricultural School on the Air Sri Lanka Recordingtraditional songs for transplanting rice
Phot
o W
Jay
awee
ra
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rnal
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64
Homa Bay Radio Station
Phot
o U
nesc
o
Chapter 7The Community Broadcaster
Com
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T his chapter provides a prototype code of conduct for community broadcasters A community
radio service could use it as it stands or it could modify it according to any special local needs
or conditions It includes sections on programme production and on ethics conduct and
teamwork during operations and in the studio on the care of equipment and on the general conduct of
broadcasters in their normal life in the community
Other sections deal with conduct related to financial matters and provide details of how these can
be handled Appropriate policies and conduct for political broadcasts and for advertising
and sponsorship are also covered
Sections on the selection and training of community broadcasters give advice on selection criteria
on the content and categories of training required and describe various types of training modalities
There is a discussion of the pros and cons of on-site in-country and overseas training and a final
section on the financing of training
The reader can expect to
bull Gain an understanding of the need for and content of a code of conduct for community
broadcasters
bull Have a model code of conduct to apply as it stands or to modify to suit local circumstances
bull Learn about the different types and content of training needed by community broadcasters
and have guidelines for the general planning and organizing of training activities
CODE OF CONDUCT
The conduct of the personnel whowork with a community radio is centralto achieving the levels of efficiencyintegrity and positive image requiredfor its success Some national broadcasting legislations that includecommunity radio also provide a codeof conduct for broadcasters In additionthe UNESCODANIDA supportedTambuli Project in the Philippines hasdrawn up a code of its own 1
Although most codes of conduct arealmost identical in their generalapproach there may also be a need forspecial points to cover aspects that arespecific to a certain country For exam-ple where community radios areallowed to accept advertising or becomeinvolved in political campaigns theproper ethical conduct of these willneed to be included in the code
It is a useful idea therefore for community broadcasters in a countryto form associations and agree on acommon code of conduct appropriateto their circumstances In essence the 65
66
code of conduct should be a professional instrument for self-regulation and not a law or regula-tion enforced by government Thecommunity being served by thestation should also be informed ofthe code being applied
The code of conduct which followsbelow brings together elementsfrom several sources but it is basedon the structure of the Tambulidocument It is provided as a proto-type which community radios mayuse or modify as they wish
A PROTOTYPE CODE OF CONDUCT
Preparing and ConductingBroadcasts
General
bull Programmes should be well pre-pared in order to present newideas new information and newpoints of view
bull Broadcasters should obtain infor-mation from reliable sources andorganize their programmesproperly before going on air
bull A good balance should be main-tained between news entertain-ment and public-service programmes
bull Programming should maintain abalance that properly reflects the
differing interests of the variousmajority and minority sectors inthe community
Research
bull Broadcasters should actively andconstantly be researching newinteresting and comprehensiveinformation The most persistentresearchers and enquirers willultimately be the most reliablesources of information for otherpeople
Decency and Good Taste
bull Programmes should excludematerial that is indecent obsceneor offensive to public morals orto the religious convictions of anysector of the community
bull Programmes should promotegood relationships between differ-ent sectors of the community andshould most certainly avoid pre-judicing them
bull Justifiable material that relates tobrutality violence atrocitiesdrug abuse and obscenity shouldbe presented with due care andsensitivity and always in contextnot gratuitously Special care isnecessary when children are likelyto hear the programme
bull Broadcasters should rememberthat listeners especially children
and youth may make radioannouncers and presenters theirrole model and therefore theyshould behave accordingly
Respect for Privacy
bull Broadcasters should use care andconsideration in matters involv-ing the private lives and concernsof individuals The interest andeven the right to know of a com-munity is not a licence to invade apersonrsquos privacy But there can becases of exceptional overridingand legitimate public interestthat waive the right to privacy
bull Information provided by an inter-viewee as off-the-record shouldbe treated as such by a reporter
Preference for a Positive andConstructive Approach
bull Broadcasters should stronglyavoid the temptation to includerumours gossip slurs criticismsconflicts and indirect propagan-da in their programmes
bull Where the public interest is atstake and a controversy must bediscussed on air the broadcastersshould do everything in theirpower to present all sides of thestory
Responsibilities
ldquoLike every bestowed opportunity the privilege touse radio carries with it responsibilities - towards theinstitution and more than this towards society It isthe responsibility of anyone using the power of communication to uphold the dignity of the stationand his co-workers Radio is a powerful tool withwhich one person can manifest care for the community dependent on him for fair honest andtruthful communication rather than serve selfishmotives It is easy to detect whether a broadcaster isrepresenting his interest or that of the communitywhere he belongsrdquo 2
lsquoHate Radiorsquo A Warning
The former Director-General of UNESCO AmadouMahtar MrsquoBow stated ldquoBecause radio can be verypowerful it may sometimes be detrimental to thepeople it aims to serve We saw in Rwanda that aradio station Radio Mille Collines contributedgreatly and criminally to the tragedy that hit thatcountry To avoid human rights abuses even minorones community media practitioners and humanrights activists are trying to rally internationallyaround a Peoples Communication Charter that pro-vides guiding principles to prevent such potentialabuses Inter alia the Charter states that ldquorestrictions on access to information should be permissible only for good and compelling reasons as when prescribed by international human rightsstandards or necessary for the protection of a democratic society or the basic rights of othersrdquo
A Real Emergency is the Only Valid Excuse
ldquoIt is only in emergency cases that an announcer maybe allowed to absent himself without previous noticeThis would need to be on the level of a deathof a member of his household or the need tobring to the hospital a member of the familywho is running a fever of 40 degreesrdquo 3
bull Broadcasters should emphasizeinteresting and useful informa-tion rather than dwell onunsavoury conflicts
bull When dealing with a problemrather than bemoaning it thestress should be placed on dis-cussing it in the positive light ofwhat possible actions could betaken and by whom to solve it
Conduct During Operations
Teamwork
bull The personnel of a communityradio are all part of a team andshould act and work as such Thismeans among other thingsbeing willing to help a colleaguewho is in difficulty for any reasonand co-operating by providinginformation contacts andmaterials to colleagues who mayneed them
bull Individuals should participate inevaluations and discussions andencourage their colleagues toassess and criticize their work
bull Individuals should be willing toaccept and act upon evaluationcritiques
bull Broadcasters should be willing tomake announcements that promote other programmes inthe stationrsquos schedule
bull In live programmes it should benormal practice for a broadcasterto stand in for the programmefollowing hishers if the nextbroadcaster should be delayedThe broadcast should never beleft unattended
Respect for Management
bull Personnel should respect themanagement and comply fullywith the administrative andoperational procedures it hasput in place
bull Any disagreements betweenstaff member(s) and the man-agement should be first discussed with the station manager If the problem cannotbe resolved at that level thematter should be referred to themanagement body of the community radio whose decisionshould be final Respect fromboth sides and a democraticprocess should be observed inthese discussions with the inter-ests of the radio station and thecommunity it serves as the dominating criterion
Punctuality and Reliability
bull Personnel who are to go on airmust be punctual leaving suffi-cient lead-time to prepare them-selves and their materials and to
confer with the station manageror with guests or interviewees asnecessary An absolute mini-mum of ten minutes beforebroadcast time should beobserved though consider-ably longer lead-time isusually advisable
bull If an individual anticipates notbeing able to fulfil a broadcastcommitment heshe shouldinform the station manager atleast one day before so that areplacement can be appointedand have time to prepare properly
Conduct in the Studio Premises
bull No personnel should be allowedto bring firearms into the studioeven if they are members of thepolice or military
bull Drinking or taking of illicit drugsin the studio premises should betreated as a violation of the sta-tionrsquos standing and integrity Soshould coming to the stationintoxicated or under the influenceof drugs
bull Broadcasters should not inviteguests and relatives to the studiopremises without briefing themon proper behaviour especiallywith regard to orderliness andsilence 67
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mun
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Broadcasters mustbecome a reliablesource of information for people
In no case should the announcer cometo the sudio less than10 minutes
before broadcast time
68
bull Guests should not be allowed todistract broadcasters disruptactivities or tamper with or pilferstation equipment and property
bull Children visiting the stationshould always be accompanied by aparent or other responsible adult
Care of Studio Equipment
bull Every member of the stationrsquos staffshould participate in preserving itsequipment and property
bull The operation of studio equip-ment should only be by peoplewho have been trained qualifiedand authorized to use it
bull All equipment not in use shouldbe switched off All personnelshould be obliged to clean recapcover and store equipment theyhave used in their proper place
bull No piece of equipment should betaken out of the studio premiseswithout the prior approval of thestation manager or the person towhom heshe has delegated con-trol of such matters Ideally thisapproval should be in writing
bull Any equipment taken out of thestudio premises should bereturned promptly after use
bull Systems of usage and borrowingshould be set up A userrsquos log anda borrowerrsquos log should be kept
bull Broadcasters should immediatelyreport to the station manager orothers in authority any malfunc-tion loss or damage to equip-ment they were using noting thetime and circumstances in whichit happened
bull Based on the points outlinedabove the station manager inconjunction with the rest of themanagement body of the com-munity radio should establishregulations for the use of itsequipment and ensure that allpersonnel are aware of them
Conduct of Personnel Outsidethe Radio Station
bull Community broadcasters arereformers and agents of positivechange and development Theircomportment in their social andfamily life and in their life in gen-eral in the community shouldmatch the image they project asstaff of the community radio
bull Any member of the staff shouldbe automatically dismissed iffound guilty of any criminal orillicit activity The managementof a community radio shouldhave the constitutional right tosuspend or dismiss any such person especially when it isdeemed that keeping himher
would prejudice the image andstanding of the station
bull No member of the staff shoulddivulge classified information
Solicitation of FundsAdvertising or Sponsorship
bull Only personnel who have beenspecifically designated to do soby the management should beallowed to solicit or receive donations grants sponsorship orany other form of financial support for the community radioor for specific programmes Theauthorization to solicit or collectfunds should be in writing
bull No radio station should acceptfunds from any illegal source orfrom any source whose activitieshave a negative effect on thecommunity society or the countryeg gambling rings smugglersdrug traffickers producers orpurveyors of tobacco and alcoholconcerns that are damaging orpolluting the environment etc
bull No funds should be acceptedfrom political parties or otherinterest groups that could latercompromise the stationrsquos editorialindependence
Caution with Record Companies
ldquoCommunity stations can end up playingmusic all day The music industry makes iteasy to lsquospin discsrsquo instead of providing thecommunity with the programming it needsWhen a record company gives a station freemusic the station becomes a record sales outlet for the only place people hear new music is on radioIn South Africa record sales increased dramaticallywhen community radio began Another problem isthe gifts and unsolicited attention that many recordcompanies lavish on the individual who is responsiblefor the lsquoplay listrsquo of tunes that are broadcast to givethe station its identityrdquo 4
Management of FinancialResources
bull The community radio shoulddesignate a treasurer whoshould open a bank account forthe safekeeping and disbursementof its financial resources Thechoice of bank should be madein conjunction with the manage-ment body of the radio
bull Two signatures should berequired for withdrawal of fundsfrom the bank account
bull All funds grants earnings collections and other incomeshould be remitted to the desig-nated treasurer as soon as possibleand never later than 24 hoursafter being received Any personnel who keep funds forlonger should be considered tohave misappropriated them andbe disciplined accordingly
bull The treasurer should keep arecord of all receipts and payments This should be avail-able for inspection at any timeby any member of the manage-ment or by the authorities
bull Only after income has beengiven to the treasurer and itsreceipt duly recorded should itbecome expendable No staffshould be permitted to use
unrecorded incomeeven to reim-burse legitimateexpenses theym a y h a v ei n c u r r e d
bull The stationm a n a g e rshould haveaccess to ap e t t y c a s hf u n d T h i ss h o u l d b ereplenished bythe treasurer whenever it fallsbelow a predetermined amountFull records of the petty cashexpenditures and replenish-ments should be kept
bull The community should be keptinformed at regular intervals ofthe financial state of their radiostation and also have the rightto ask for related information atany time
Political Broadcasts (where allowed)
bull The community radio manage-ment should ascertain in detailany provisions in the nationalbroadcasting legislation con-cerning radio coverage duringpolitical campaigns and abide bythem scrupulously
bull bull
bull Broadcasters should not giveundue advantage or disadvan-tage to any political party orcandidate
bull Equal opportunity and equaltime should be accorded to dulyregistered political parties andcandidates Equality in this con-text takes into account thelength of the broadcast thequality of presentation and anypossible advantages from thetime and day of the broadcast
bull If no agreement on such equalitycan be reached between thoseconcerned drawing of lots orsome similar system may beused
bull News and other informationprogrammes should be edited 69
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for strictly factual informationand should avoid bias in favour oragainst any political party or candidate
bull Any personnel of a communi-ty radio including the man-agement body should resigntheir post and refrain fromany regular activity as a broad-caster before or at the time ofdeclaring their intention ofbecoming involved in any politicalor partisan activity
Advertising and Sponsorship(where allowed)
bull The management body shoulddecide whether advertisingwhen allowed under the existinglegislation is compatible with the aims and objectives of the community radio
bull If it is decided to accept advertisingthe management body shouldestablish criteria for the types ofcommercial interests whose publicity will be broadcast
bull Preference should be given toevents goods and services beingorganized or offered by commer-cial concerns within the area inwhich the community radio is situated
bull Advertising should not be accepted
from concerns offering goods thatare harmful to individuals to thecommunity or to society especiallyin terms of health or behaviour(eg tobacco and alcohol) Norshould advertising be accepted foritems that are generally detrimentalto the socio-economic welfare ofthe poor (eg junk food carbonat-ed drinks and other items that are low in nutritional value and relatively high in cost)
bull In respect of sponsorship - whereallowed - and advertising careshould be taken to ensure thatthere is no potential conflict ofinterest between the sponsor oradvertiser and the change anddevelopment objectives of theradio station
Advertisements by PoliticalParties and Candidates
Advertising by political interestsduring election campaigns - asdistinct from party politicalbroadcasts - presents a specialproblem The communityradio management body
should take one of three possible decisions
bull Apply the principle of equaltime and opportunity to politicaladvertisements as in the caseof party political broadcasts
bull Allow each party the freedom tobuy as much air time as it wantsand can afford
bull Not accept advertisements frompolitical parties or candidates
Some community radios chargehigher rates for political advertise-ments than they do for commercialones and it is tempting to solvemany of the sustainability problemsthat afflict all community radios byselling air time willy-nilly to all thepolitical interests that want it andcan pay for it Nevertheless it isdubious whether a communityradio should help the alreadystrong parties to get strongeragainst the weaker alternative par-ties that might bring greater socialprogress From an ethical view-point it is probably better to apply
Some Typical Examples of Potential Conflicts ofInterest between Advertising Revenue and theGeneral Good
bull Revenue from infant formula producers or retailersversus promoting the healthier practice of breast-feeding
bull Revenue from farm pesticide manufacturers versusthe need to promote integrated pest management
bull Revenue from international bottlers of carbonateddrinks versus promoting the use of locally grownfruit-based drinks
bull Sponsorship for a farming programme fromcommercial dealers or outlets of farm produce ver-sus support to farmers to obtain better prices
bull Sponsorship from a mining company with localoperations versus the need to reduce its negativeenvironmental impact
The Commercial Radio Viewpoint
After a series of elections in Ecuador spread over a short time the owner of a commercial stationin Cuenca said only half joking These politically unstable times have saved half of us frombankruptcy 5
Training Experience at Radio Sagarmatha Nepal
Two types of training have been conducted the firstfocusing on broad concepts and techniques has successfully upgraded general skills and brought people into the fold the second has been integratedinto the stations specific needs and context workingwith producers and developing new programmes
The first type has been done with foreign resourcesgenerally the training centres of international broadcasters This training was important for identifying and developing human resources While Nepal has excellent media resources of its ownthe expertise of these international broadcasters hasbeen extremely beneficial
The second type has used local resources and integrated the needs of the station and of thetrainees into the planning and conducting of trainingcourses using a more hands-on on-the-job approachThis has proved appropriate to the overall development of the station and to existing and available technologies This training has beenconducted by station personnel and internationaltechnical advisers working locally It has concentrat-ed on existing station staff rather than new recruits
the equality principle or not toaccept any political advertisingeven if this means loss of revenue
SELECTION OF COMMUNITY BROADCASTERS
Some community radios arestaffed by people chosen mainlyfor their commitment to the wel-fare and improvement of theirown community and for theirinterest in radio as an instrumentfor social progress Other commu-nity radios are able to draw onpeople who have some experienceor training in the area of commu-nication or journalism but whomay be outsiders to the communi-ty Although they may have a bet-ter education and more skills thanordinary members of a communi-ty they may well be at an initialdisadvantage until they havegained full insight into how thecommunity functions
When selecting people from thecommunity it is usual to apply certain other criteria besidesthese peoplersquos sense of commit-ment They should be residents ofthe community with no immediateintention of migrating away fromit they should have good oralcommunication skills they shouldbe of good moral standing and
have leadership potential theyshould be representative of anyethnic and religious groupings andof political affiliations in the com-munity and they should have timeavailable for the initial training andfor a volunteer job
The balance between women andmen is particularly important Inmany countries it is usually mainlymen who come forward whentraining is being offered but it isessential that women be integratedinto the operation in balance withmen Quite apart from fundamentalissues of gender equity most com-munity radios have high numbersof listeners among women whoneed information that is best supplied by other women Womenon the air will also help others toassume an equitable and respectedrole in the affairs of the communi-ty and its development Staff sustainability will usually beimproved by having womenbecause they are less likely to leavethe community in search of work
In one community radio in SouthAfrica which provides training forbroadcasters no training course isallowed to go ahead unless at leasthalf of the participants arewomen (See Case Study 4) Insome countries it may be difficultfor cultural reasons to insist on this
condition immediately but itshould certainly be a target every-where
TRAINING OF COMMUNITY BROADCASTERS
Community radio stations veryoften begin with people who havenever been inside a radio studionever held a microphone andnever had any involvement withthe world of media or journalismTraining such people presents anoteworthy challenge but experi-ence has shown that it is not as difficult as one might expect
Content of Training
Many skills are involved in broad-casting The principal ones thatstaff collectively of a station needto have fall into three main types
Technical - use of equipment andsimple repairs
Programme production - coveringelements such as radio talk voiceperformance script writing inter-view techniques news gatheringwriting and delivery magazineprogramme production produc-tion of radio spots jingles andpublic-service announcementsproduction of participatory pro-grammes in the community basic
Martin Allard on Technical TrainingldquoI think that the future of community radio is theelimination of the role of the technician as aseparate activity and the inclusion of a limitedamount of technical training in the functions ofstation managers and programme producersrdquo 6
71
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c o m m u n i c a t i o ntheory and practice
Management andOperations ndashincluding manage-ment skills overallprogramming for acommunity radiomarketing the station audienceresearch methodsradio laws andethics
In addition every-one working with acommunity radiomust be well
versed in the Code of Conductbeing applied
Categories and Phases ofTraining
The training required for broad-casters falls into two broad categories
bull Introductory training needed forthem to able to function at theminimum level of competencerequired
bull Refinement of their skills untilthey become fully competent inone or more broadcasting roleeg programme producerannouncer reporter studio
technician etc In many smallcommunity radio stations peoplehave to learn to function in any orall of these roles
Introductory Training
This should cover three basic typesof content
bull The philosophy of communityradio and its role in news enter-tainment and education andparticularly in change and development
bull The principle factors in the codeof conduct for community broadcasters
bull The use of broadcasting equip-ment and basic programme production
Some community radios manage toprovide this basic training in anintensive introductory course lasting about three weeks and heldin the community The courseshould include a large amount ofhands-on training as indeed shouldall types of broadcaster training
The introductory training providedwhen starting a community radioservice will of course need outsidesupport both in terms of trainersand funding The trainers can comefrom other well-established com-munity or public-service broadcast-ing stations in the country
The introductory training can be
used to help the selection process
for staff It is useful to include more
trainees than the staff actually
needed and to select the best of
them at the end of the course
Once a community station is up
and running new personnel can
often be given their basic training
by working with the already
competent staff learning by doing
supplemented with sessions to
cover aspects such as the philosophy
code of conduct and other
conceptual issues of community
radio
Refinement of Skills
Community broadcasters need to
take part in a continuous process of
learning Even veterans often learn
something new from others from
reading or from some reaction in
the community to a programme
they have produced In addition
new technology is being intro-
duced all the time
Refinement of skills to a certain
extent comes naturally through
learning-by-doing but this is not
enough There are several ways that
broadcasters can be helped to
improve their performance
Listening is all important listening to feedback listening to opinions listening togood music and to onersquos own singing At the Childrenrsquos Center in Olongapo
Philippines Shirley listens to a recording for the morning show
Phot
o C
A A
rnal
do
Formal Training Courses EitherOn-site or In-country Usingnational or international trainersshort training workshops can beorganized on specific aspects ofbroadcasting and programme pro-duction
This type of training is most effec-tive and economical if traineesfrom several different communityradio stations can be broughttogether This has the additionalbenefit of opening doors forfuture contacts cooperation andinterchange between various stations For example it is veryuseful to have staff from one community radio help to evaluatethe programming and work of another Their outsider percep-tions can be invaluable and at thesame time they learn from theexperience
Training Attachments toOther Radio Stations It is oftenpossible to come to an arrange-ment with another more experi-enced community radio or public-service station to send trainees fora period of work with them Insome countries notably SouthAfrica the station that pioneeredcommunity radio has become atraining centre for other stationswith less experience This has several advantages particularly in
terms of low costs and sharing ofexperience If the attachment is toanother community radio and toa successful one the trainees mayalso learn how certain problemshave been solved and how innova-tive and creative ideas are beingapplied in programming
Care should be taken aboutattachments to commercial stations Their philosophy is so different from that of communityradio that even if a trainee learnssome technical aspects of programme production heshewill learn nothing about using radioas part of social development
Overseas Fellowships Many ofthe worldrsquos major broadcastingorganizations run training coursesin their home country Amongthese are Radio Netherlands theB B C a n d D e u t s ch e We l l e Governments and developmentagencies are sometimes willing toprovide fellowships for communitybroadcasters to follow a course atone of these training centres Thiswill certainly give the trainees avaluable learning experience in allaspects of radio production butthere may be certain disadvantagesas explained in the next section
On-Site In-Country or OverseasTraining
There are pros and cons to each ofthe above
On-site training in the communitywhere the radio station operatesprovides the most realistic possibletraining venue the group oftrainees work with the equipmentwith the people and in the circumstances of their futureactivities It also saves the cost oftravel and subsistence for thetrainees
The main disadvantage of on-sitetraining is that the trainees part ofwhose motivation may well becareer prospects may feel that thisis ldquosecond-classrdquo training compared to going say to thecapital city for a course or to acourse in another country Thusthey may feel less motivated
In-country training in a courserun in a location other than theirown community has more prestigevalue to the trainees as does atraining attachment with anotherradio station Other advantagesare the contacts and interchangethat can develop for the futurefrom a period of working withother professionals in the samefield
ldquoMost people think of radio as a lsquoone-to-onersquo
medium reaching out to a single anonymous
mass public This concept is reflected in early
communication research on air-dropping
leaflets lsquoinjectingrsquo information into what is
considered a population basically characterized
by its sameness
And yet at the other end of radio transmission at each
listening set there are usually only two or three individual
people real persons And sometimes our ears are captured
by the natural talent of interpersonal communication
voices addressing each individual in a large audience ndash
politicians religious leaders a person-oriented
disc-jockey or even an outstanding news announcer
They speak with natural charm a built-in capacity
to hold an audience a charisma to catch even
non-believers in their spell They speak from a inner core
of conviction and draw others to them by appealing to
their inner core of questioning of doubt and of hesitation
One might say that theses broadcasters are successful
because they defy the conventional rules of media
They do not read scripts they read meaning the script
acting only as a prompt to the deeper significance of their
messages The microphone is only an electronic
intermediary between them and the persons in the
mass audience
They speak not to the microphone but through the
microphone to people with people They use media
despite media to reach people This is a very particular
sense of interpersonal media that seems to have
been lost todayrdquo
Carlos A Arnaldo
73
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Overseas Training is the mostprestigious and expensive of alland it will almost certainly opencareer opportunities beyond theradio station of the traineersquos community This is precisely one ofthe disadvantages of overseastraining in terms of staff stabilityBut there are other disadvantagestoo notably that the technical andworking conditions of an overseassituation may cause the trainee tobecome dissatisfied when heshereturns to the simpler community
station at home increasing theprobability that heshe will acceptan offer from a mainstream stationFinally overseas training howevertechnically rewarding is outsidethe traineersquos normal cultural context and this may reduce itsapplied value
Financing of Training
There are a variety of sources offunding for training of communitybroadcasters When internationaldevelopment agencies or NGOshelp to finance the initial equip-ment for a station they usuallyinclude a training component inthe project This will normallycover at the very least the introduc-tory training for the start-up phasebut it may also include refinementof skills over a longer period oftime
Development agencies and NGOsmay also grant fellowships to com-munity broadcasters Some ofthese may be for overseas trainingbut many are also for in-countrytraining courses or for assignmentsthat are part of a training experi-ence
Specific development projectswithin a country may be anothersource For example when a pro-ject - say one for environmentalprotection or health - wants support from radio programmesthe funding agency may wellfinance the training of broadcastersso they will make the best possibleprogrammes on that project
Whatever the sources and types oftraining in a given country themanagement of a community radio
should be constantly alert to thetraining needs of the staff On theone hand increased competenceleads to increased job satisfactionand tends to enhance staff stabilityOn the other hand there willalmost inevitably be high staffturnover in a situation where mostof the staff are unemployed volun-teers The management musttherefore be ready to arrange forthe fairly constant training ofreplacements
1 Tambuli Project Management Community Broadcasters -Code of Conduct UNESCO-DANIDA Tambuli Project(Manila 1998)
2 Op cit
3 Op cit
4 Quote Zane Ibrahim and Ms Adams Bush Radio 985 FMSouth Africa (See Case Study 4)
5 Quote Bruce Girard Radio Chaguarurco(See Case Study 5)
6 Martin Allard Technologiacutea Adaptada InteRadio Volume 9No1 1997 AMARC (Montreal 1997)
7 See the Case Study 4 Bush Radio 895 FM
Phot
o U
nesc
o
Homa Bay UNESCO project fixing the transmitter
Chapter 8Case Studies
75
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T he following section contains five casestudies of community radio stations inAsia (Philippines and Nepal) Africa
(Ghana and South Africa) and Latin America(Ecuador) Their authors are all intimatelyconnected with the stations and provide inter-esting insights into how they set up their oper-ations how they handled the problems theyencountered and what the results have beenFor this reason they are important to anyoneinvolved - or who wants to become involved - incommunity radio
The case studies were edited by the authors ofthe main body of the handbook They were for-ced to reduce their length considerably whilemaintaining their original structure They hopeto have left the essential information intactCertain parts especially of an anecdotal naturewere taken out of the original case studies andput into the main body of the handbook
Olutanga an Unlikely Community for a RadioStation
In the 1970s the island of Olutanga in MindanaoProvince was the scene of frequent heavy fightingbetween warring Muslims and Christians Towncentres were razed to the ground following onesuch encounter
However two decades after the bloody conflictsMuslims and Christians now live peacefullytogether on the island The minority Muslims areconcentrated in the north-east and southern sec-tions The island has a sparse population ofapproximately 35000 people mainly concentra-ted in three towns
Despite todayrsquos relative calm however a heritageof past instability and danger still shows mosthouses are built of light materials as if no one isreally happy to settle permanently on the islandThe 18-kilometre dusty or muddy road dependingon the season of the year stretches the length of theisland and is used only by a few four-wheelvehicles Carabao-drawn sleds tricycles horsesand travellers on-foot share the thoroughfare
Most of the residents of Olutanga eke out a livingfrom non-irrigated agriculture and marginal fishcapture in the over-exploited marine grounds
A few traders have established businesses by catering to what the majority of poor people canproduce or buy
There are two high schools both run by religiousmissionaries The one that serves the northerntowns of Mabuhay and Talusan is attended by lessthan 300 students Another high school in thetown of Suba-Nipa at the southern end of theisland also has limited enrolment There are no tertiary or vocational schools Very few parentscan afford the high cost of sending their childrenfor tertiary to metropolitan centres on the largersurrounding islands
Government services in education health lawenforcement etc are minimal No bank operateson the island and there are very poor communica-tion facilities except for numerous hand-held veryhigh frequency (VHF) transceivers
Visitors to the island are therefore astonished tofind that this island eight hours away by boat fromthe city of Zamboanga operates a radio stationThe islanders themselves were incredulous whenthe facility was proposed to them in 1993 by theTambuli Project They became even more doubtfulwhen full control of the station were also offeredto them
RADIO IN FOR ABOUT AND BY THE COMMUNITY IN THE PHILIPPINES
by Louie N Tabing
Olutanga - a Perfect Location for a Tambuli RadioStation
The first community radio station in Mindanao wasinitially recommended by some local Catholic leadersto be in Ipil not in Olutanga But Ipil did not meetTambulirsquos criteria it was too prosperous and it wasalready a centre of economic growth
Tambuli was looking for communities that were infor-mation-poor economically depressed conducive toFM signal propagation with good prospective coope-rators and where a community radio station wouldmake the most impact Olutanga 40 kilometres outto sea met those criteria perfectly It was certainlyimpoverished and isolated It was also relatively flatso signal propagation for a low-power FM transmitterwould not be a problem One thing however wouldbe missing - a local cooperating institution Onewould have to be developed
Initial Visit and First Meetings
A first consultative conference held at the Catholicconvent was a hurriedly arranged by VHF radio Lessthan ten leaders attended Several of them weremunicipal officials including the vice-mayor of thetown the parish priest and others who expressedtheir suspicions of the project They were quick topoint out that only a month before somebody fromManila had collected money from people allegedlyfor theatre training The stranger had then left withthe money and was never heard of again I had to assurethem that no person equipment or money would leaveOlutanga during the proposed radio project
What is really your objective then They asked Areyou selling the equipment Will you be selling radio
sets If you are really from UNESCOwhy dont you build schools for usWhere is the catch
Such questions were freely aired after we told thelocals that Tambuli would like to help them set up acommunity radio station Nevertheless the prospectof having the facility and operating it was inviting tocommunity leaders The municipality could use it fordissemination of information The station could be aconvenient vehicle for public service The youngpeople could use it for requests and dedications
During the one-and-a-half-hour meeting somecopies of our Tambuli Primer an illustrated comic-likepublication explaining the project were passedaround and the radio idea was discussed further Wemanaged to arouse the interest of the locals and atthe same time we heard some salient information onthe political and social dynamics of the area I was notworried by the people who questioned the genuine-ness of our intentions It is understandable for animpoverished community to be wary and suspiciouswhen something is offered for nothing
It was agreed that before the next meeting each ofthe sectors represented at the first would consult witha wider number of people And they might submit aresolution reflecting the views and feelings of theirsectors The interim period would give them time toconsult with their constituencies It would give themtime to check on our true identity and objectives as well
Some 25 key sectoral leaders attended the secondmeeting a few weeks later Educators farmers fisher-men women people from different religious groupstricycle operators and motorcycle drivers cameContending political parties were also presentSurprisingly the early doubts about the project haddisappeared Many leaders brought resolutions welcoming the setting up of the radio station
Succeeding meetings established a core group of leaders who would handle the affairs of the project
An interim body was constituted from among thosepresent The leaders elected a set of officers andthese were eventually registered as the OlutangaIslanders Media Development Foundation (OIMDF) A dynamic municipal councilwoman Meriam Aranasheaded it
One of the first decisions to be made by theFoundation was the location of the station Followingthe recommendation that a community radio stationshould be free from the control of political parties andreligious groups the local leaders decided that thestation should not be housed in the convent Norshould it be located in the municipal building whichwas perceived as a political place The offer by muni-cipal officials to accommodate the station would onlybe accepted if a building or a lot were donatedwithout strings attached In order to accept dona-tions enter into agreements employ personnel andadminister the station the organization needed to bea juridical entity It was therefore decided that OIMDFwould need to be registered with the Securities andExchange Commission
Soon a new group emerged from among theFoundation members It was pointed out that theTambuli Primer states that there can be a CommunityMedia Council (CMC) - separate from the formallyregistered organization - to make decisions about theradio and its operations They contended that theFoundation members were permanent whether theywere performing well or not whereas the Councilmembers could be replaced yearly if they did not per-form well Hence a CMC of about 11 members wasalso formed It was headed by Napoleon Aboc a businessman who was also a retired policeman
It soon became evident that the CMC and theFoundation were contending factions polarizedtowards either Aboc or Aranas who were each identi-fied with a distinct political grouping Tambuli Project76
Management recognized that instead of workingharmoniously together frictions would divide the leaders as a result Re-uniting the leadership thusbecame a long and delicate process
Locating and Setting up the Technical Facility
During the initial stage of the project there was someobvious lobbying from certain leaders of Suba-Nipato have the station placed in that southern town Theycontended that Suba-Nipa had the biggest populationof the three towns
The Tambuli Project Management provided criteriafor the selection of the studio site including accessi-bility to participants and community members secu-rity of the equipment low rental or expenses eg forrenovation technical factors related to signal propa-gation availability of power proximity to an elevatedsite for the antenna and neutrality such that no particular groups could monopolize or dominate nordeter the participation of other groups
Long and agitated discussions took place on wherethe station should be located Since the majority ofthe participants were from Mabuhay and Talusanthese prevailed The station would be in the northernpart of the island A 20-watt transmitter in Mabuhaywould provide the best coverage of the island Anauxiliary station might later be considered for Suba-Nipa
With the leaders of the Catholic Church as the projects initial contacts our main host in the islandbecame the parish priest of Mabuhay He consentedto our using the convent as a temporary project siteThe parish priest and later his successor both took anactive role in the project while at the same timeadopting an unassuming stance The involvement ofthe clergy added status and dignity to the project and
helped to dissipate speculations that it was politicallymotivated
The station became operational in June 1993 its provisional studio being located in the convent Someof the leaders close to the Catholic Church hoped thatthe convent would become the permanent studiosite Others contending that there were certain publicissues on which the Church held manifest positionsexpressed reservations on using the convent perma-nently Religious leaders of other denominations theysaid would have second thoughts about participatingin broadcasts
After drawn-out discussions it was decided that thestation would temporarily be operated at the premises of the Catholic Church However it wouldeventually relocate to a neutral permanent site
Installation of Equipment
The Project engineer Romy Carballo personally installed the equipment About five local techniciansto whom he gave orientation and training assistedhim The equipment was basically the same as that listed in Box 4 in Chapter 4
The radio station was operating on a test-broadcastbasis in time for a training course on community radioprogramming and production to be held It coveredapproximately a 10-kilometre radius reaching all corners of the island although the signal reaching thetown of Suba-Nipa was rather weak The engineerassured the residents that the signal would reach further when the station was transferred to a newbuilding where the antenna could be raised to about100 feet
Training Islanders to be Broadcasters
It was agreed that some 15 broadcast volunteerswould be trained for three weeks A set of criteriafor the selection of trainees was agreed betweenthe CMC the Foundation and Tambuli The localleaders - the Foundation and the CMC - wouldscreen the applicants If possible there would a bereasonable balance between women and menethnic groupings religious denominations andpolitical affiliations
Of the 35 people who applied for the trainingcourse only 15 were selected Three of those notchosen offered to attend the course as observersFarmers fishermen women Muslims and youngpeople were represented Two elementary schoolteachers a para-military soldier and the electionregistrar were also in the group
Two of the participants had to walk seven kilo-metres daily to the training site and sometimesthey had to be at the radio station at five am inorder to start the programme of test-broadcastsMost of the other trainees walked at least a fewkilometres
The training team was led by an instructor fromthe University of the Philippines Institute ofDevelopment Communication who works withradio DZLB of Los Bantildeos Laguna He was supportedby the Project staff The course consisted of lectures practical work evaluation and actualbroadcasts The training subjects included radiotalks voice performance scriptwriting newsgathering writing and delivery magazine programme production production of radiospots jingles public-service announce-ments participatory productions in the community radio laws and ethics basic
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77
communication theories and practices and program-ming for a community radio station A one-day exposure visit was made to existing radio stations inPagadian City
The trainees were given the chance to recommendprogramming formats and broadcast hours for theradio station as well as to choose their leader ValToto Samonte who was elected station manager wasa seemingly unlikely choice as a member of the para-military unit in the area We in the TambuliManagement could not see that a soldier would besuitable to run a community radio station But it turned out that Toto was the right choice for he hadleadership qualities with a balanced social outlookHe proved dedicated volunteer
Building the Studio
Recognizing the potential importance of the stationin the community the local government of Mabuhaydonated a 400 sq m plot to the Foundation for a proper studio to be built
A drive to raise money for the construction of the stu-dio building was launched The fact that the radio sta-tion was already going on air helped to convince com-munity members to contribute Initially a Piso-piso(one peso per person) campaign was conductedMany were happy to give not one but five or tenpesos each
A raffle was also organized Tickets were distributedto local residents and visitors as well as to the nearbytowns Each ticket in booklets of twenty tickets wassold for 100 pesos (US$ 350) Among the prizes werea cow sacks of rice and home appliances In spite of
hopes for bigger proceeds the drawnetted only around P50000 (US$1500) for the Foundation
With contributions from the provincial governmentand from the Tambuli Project a 25-square meter studio building and 100-foot antenna tower wereerected in May 1994 Carpenters as well as volunteerstaff and other residents helped construct the bungalow-type concrete building
This was partitioned into an announcers booth technicians post and receiving-working area Withoutadequate ventilation the announcers booth becametoo hot during the day and particularly in the summermonths So a local politician pledged an air-conditioningunit It took more than two years however for thepromise to materialize
As well as providing a new home for the studio thebuilding accorded the radio station an independentstatus It also served as testimony to the communityrsquosenthusiastic participation in the project Moreover itgave every Olutangan a rightful claim to ownership ofthe station
Eventually a 20-watt relay station had to be installedto cover the portion of Suba-Nipa that was not recei-ving the Mabuhay transmissions properly But therewere also occasions when the second station genera-ted its own programmes using a karaoke player-recorder to cater to the people of Suba-Nipa Thetransmitter was installed in the house of the localyouth leader
An Island that Survives on Radio
One astonishing discovery was that despite thepoverty of the island many people owned portableVHF amateur transceivers In the coverage area of theOlutanga station there were about 100 of thesetransceivers known generically as Icoms thecommonest brand name Some had been distributedby the government to Barangay leaders but amazingly
many were privately owned Many of them were not properly licenced and is not clear where they all camefrom Some may have been illegally smuggled inwhile others may belong to informers for rebel orMuslim secessionist groups in the region
Regardless of whether or not they were covered bygovernment permit the VHF receivers were soon putto a good purpose Toto Samonte seizing the oppor-tunity to organize a radio club among VHF radioowners More than 50 people attended the first callfor an organizational meeting where officers wereelected In 1995 I conducted a two-day workshop onhow the radio club members could participate in thebroadcasts
Today the Icom owners make up a wide network ofnews gatherers information feeders and regular participants in the programmes of the station(Tambuli supplied the radio station with a VHF base unit)
These VHF radio owners have multiplied the capacityof ordinary citizens to access the station by makingtheir equipment available to everybody in the neigh-bourhood either for serious information or for simplesocializing purposes such as song dedications andgreetings The radio station has served as the nervecentre for this regular and dynamic interaction
By incorporating the VHF transceivers the station hasstimulated the participation of hundreds of people onthe island in a similar way to using the telephone inthe big cities The portable transceivers allow a variety of people from all corners of the communityto discuss individual and community problems on aircovering everything from romance to politics or theeconomy78
Programming the Voice of Olutanga
Tingog sa Olutanga (The Voice of Olutanga) goes on theair daily on broken schedule from 0500 to 0700 h1100 to a 1300 and 1800 to 2000 hours
The station runs mainly news and public-affairs pro-grammes anchored by a main personality Other pro-ducers and reporters join in with features news tipsand regular programme segments
Field reports coming from residents who own VHFtransceivers make up most of the news and public-affairs programmes The volunteer reporters havebeen instrumental in bringing more timely informa-tion news and public service to the islandersCredited to the radio reporters are news of delaysand cancellations of ferry services information on theavailability of fruit tree seedlings piglets or otherfarm inputs for farmers information about agricultu-ral meetings details on lost items and help for thesick On one occasion a jail escapee was quickly recap-tured thanks to the radio
A popular programme is the weekly Baranggayan saKahanginan This features items produced in the vil-lages using the karaoke or song playbackrecordingmachine Thus ordinary people with absolutely notraining in radio organize programmes in their ownneighbourhood the taped programme consisting ofsongs panel discussions interviews homemakingtips poetry etc While programme elements aremainly entertainment and cultural community pro-blems are also discussed openly The taped program-me is then sent to the station for immediate airingFreely ventilated opinions and criticisms keep leadersand government officials constantly on the alert Andthey find an opportunity to respond to peoplesviews
Since people have been conditioned by commercialradio to want entertainment listeners demand that
the station air music programmes Some evening slotsare therefore devoted to music requests and dedica-tions which include valuable life thoughts for reflectionReligious programmes find their place at weekendswhen the various denominations are given air timeThe Sunday Mass is broadcast live for the predomi-nantly Catholic community as are services by otherreligious leaders whether Muslims or Protestants As in other Tambuli stations the programming is proposed by the staff and approved by theCommunity Media Council
Volunteer Staff
There are some six people who regularly anchor thedaily programmes with about a dozen others contri-buting portions and materials All the anchors inclu-ding the station manager work on volunteer basisThey have other sources of livelihood such as fishingteaching farming tending a store or working in themunicipal government The main anchors receive asmall allowance to cover their transportation to andfrom the studio
Seven volunteer technicians who have received training both on production and equipment opera-tion take daily turns at the station One of them is alicenced radio communication operator Others areeither electricians or electronics repairmenAnnouncers and technicians who participate regularlyare given a small honorarium from the regular contri-butions received by the station from the community
In addition however most announcers and techni-cians are the beneficiaries of a livelihood loan grantedby Tambuli and administered by the OlutangaIslanders Media Development Foundation This liveli-hood project aims to help them become engaged in achosen livelihood project with a cost on average of
approximately P5000 (US$120) For this purposea workshop on entrepreneurship and micro-projectswas conducted by an expert from the University ofthe Philippines Institute for Small Scale Industries
Most of the recipient volunteers chose an activitywith which they were familiar and which wasappropriate to their situation such as duck raisingrice trading upholstery making operating amechanical repair shop fish farming pig raisingetc Ninety percent of the staff livelihood projectparticipants were successful in their endeavourand have expressed readiness to pay back theirloans
The rest of the participants in the radio projectincluding members of the Community MediaCouncil work on a purely voluntary basis Indeedas at most other Tambuli sites staff members donot receive any honorarium or allowance
Olutanga Dreaming
Olutanga will be the best island in the PhilippinesGreat optimism is present in Toto Val Samontersquosvoice every time he makes this statement over theradio But for some islanders the hope thatOlutanga will be able to extricate itself from economic and geographic disadvantage is still a dream
However Toto exudes confidence as he discusseshow self-help projects and perseverance can putthe islanders forward on the air The probability ofOlutanga becoming the most highly developed ofthe regionrsquos islands may still be smallbut I for one am an admirer of Toto forhis selfless dedication and tirelessefforts
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79
Political and Legislative Context
In 1990 Nepal changed from a monarchical non-partysystem to a parliamentary model A new constitutionenshrined the right to freedom of expression specifi-cally the right for citizens to demand and receiveinformation on any matter of public importance Thiswas followed by policy and practical guidelines in1992 a National Communications Policy in 1993 aNational Broadcasting Act and in 1995 BroadcastRegulations
Prior to 1995 radio broadcasting was the exclusivedomain of Radio Nepal the state broadcaster establi-shed in 1951 An attempt in 1984 to establish an independent station with support from UNESCO andGermany was not approved Even after 1990 theauthorities were slow to relinquish monopoly controlof broadcasting The first licence was granted in 1997four-and-a-half years after the initial application toRadio Sagarmatha Nepalrsquos first independent community-based public-interest radio
The Media Environment in Nepal
The mountainous nature of Nepal is ill suited to cover-age by electronic media or to the mass circulation ofprint media Access to all types of media is also limited bywidespread poverty low literacy levels - especially amongrural women - and a very low level of electrification
Until the coming of a democratic system in 1990 theelectronic media - Nepal Radio Nepal Television(established in 1984) and the official print media -two daily newspapers - were controlled by thegovernment Programmes and content mainly gene-rated in Kathmandu are considered largely irrelevantto the rural population who make up some 80 ofthe total Private media have increased in number butgenerally suffer the same limitations
The liberation of the airwaves from state controlbrought commercial radio to Nepal Initially RadioNepal established a FM frequency designed to generate revenue to subsidize its national AM serviceThe channel was sub-let to five commercial operatorsbroadcasting mainly pop music aimed at youngaffluent urban dwellers
Given the limitations and constraints of nationalmedia and the commercialized and non-indigenouscharacter of the new FM ventures many journalistsindependent media organizations and developmentagencies now envision small community-basedpublic-interest radios throughout the country as analternative Radio Sagarmatha is a start in this direc-tion (Sagarmatha is the Nepali name for Mt Everest)
The Long Battle for a Licence to Broadcast
The battle for the licence was long and hard The mainorganization in the campaign was the Nepal Forum ofEnvironmental Journalists (NEFEJ) joined later byother organizations committed to seeing some inno-
vation in the countryrsquos communication system toaddress the needs of the new democracy Theirstrategy was local FM radio and their goal becameRadio Sagarmatha (RS)
The main obstacles were an unstable political environment conservative politicians bureaucratsdisinclined to change and the monolithic presence ofRadio Nepal Drawn into the fight were figures ofnational prominence professional associationsNGOs the print media - including the government-owned dailies - foreign embassies and UN organiza-tions There were four changes of government duringthe struggle and with each new one the lobbying andpersuasion had to begin again
In 1993 there was an international symposium onCommunity Broadcasting in South Asia held inKathmandu The then Minister of Communicationswas a principle guest He was positively impressed andengaged NEFEJ in discussions about the next steps forlegislative guidelines and regulations But then theGovernment fell and his successor was less receptive
NEFEJ wrote an open letter concerning the situationand appealing for support from local groups as well asfrom foreign delegations to Nepal The strategy yielded results but just as the Minister seemed to becoming around the government again fell
While the struggle was in progress practical prepara-tions were being made to set up the radio stationUsing the resources and radio production experienceof NEFEJ and with financial support from UNESCOand others training and equipment acquisition was80
RADIO SAGARMATHA A CASE STUDY FROM NEPAL
by Ian Pringle
begun By the end of 1996 the foundations for a radiostation were soundly placed Only a licence was missing it was still not forthcoming despite the legislation in its favour
By early 1997 the battle had been carried into theinternational media The station had equipment andtrained staff but almost five years of struggle waitingand playing by the rules had brought no licence The key players were emboldened to take risks ofpunishment for unlicenced broadcasting one year injail and a heavy fine
In early April 1997 NEFEJ requested a temporarylicence to test its set-up The request was met withsilence Acting on legal advice NEFEJ decided tobegin five days of test broadcasts anyway The govern-ment was confused as to who was transmitting untilon the third day RSrsquos programme director deliberate-ly informed the authorities After a few hours a letterarrived from the Ministry of Communicationsdemanding who had provided permission for thebroadcasts The government threatened strongaction reminding the station that their transmissionswere illegal
These events made news Local and internationalmedia publicized the confrontation The two govern-ment-owned dailies even published sympathetic stories on their front page With the offer of free legalcosts NEFEJ was prepared to take the case to court
During the controversial test broadcasts the stationannounced that it would begin full broadcasting withor without a licence on 22 May 1997 the LordBuddharsquos birthday a day of peace The governmentwas informed that if legal action was taken against thestation public and media support would be usedagainst it in the upcoming local elections
Three days later four-and-a-half years after the appli-cation the licence finally came As the Government
official handed it over he said lsquoYou have won thewarrsquo To which the RS programme director repliedlsquoLately you have obeyed the lawrsquo
The licence that had taken so long to come had 14conditions and restrictions including no commercialprogrammes no political commentary or news onpolitical events broadcasting for only two hours perday and submission of a weekly report to theMinistry Nevertheless Radio Sagarmatha beganbroadcasting as promised on 22 May 1997 the firstindependent station in South Asia
Organizational Establishment
NEFEJ the driving force behind RS focuses onenvironmental development and human rightsissues working in a variety of media In the late 1980sNEFEJ began producing a weekly radio programmeon environment and development that was aired onRadio Nepal Space for a radio studio was includedwhen NEFEJ moved to a new location in the early1990s but there was almost no equipment and thebulk of radio programme production was done at thestudios of Radio Nepal
In 1993 after the international symposium onCommunity Broadcasting in South Asia held inKathmandu a UNESCO mission to Nepal conducteda one-week course for journalists from NEFEJ andparallel organizations in basic radio production skillsThough operating with a minimum of equipment thetraining was successful in focusing skills and promo-ting the idea of the station
Both the symposium and the UNESCO mission solidi-fied local and regional support for the project drawing in other media organizations and producing a
more detailed proposal for the station than thatcontained in the application submitted the pre-vious year
The studio equipment for RS began to arrive in1994 For the first time NEFEJ was able to produceprogrammes in their own studio Though consideredto be without a licence RS was producing programmes In early 1997 when the transmissionequipment arrived it began moving its operationsto a more technically suitable and clandestine sitethe house of one of the key players
Relations with the Government Since theLicence
Despite the innumerable difficulties in obtaining alicence subsequent official relations have beennon-interventionist and productive
By late 1998 the Minister of Communications wassympathetic to community radio and many pen-ding and new applications had been approved RShad its licence extended to 13 and then to 24hours per day it was granted permission to acceptcommercial advertising and to rebroadcast theBBC Nepali Service and BBC World Service inEnglish and it was licenced to provide a mobileservice to be broadcast anywhere in the country
Training and Recruitment
These have been integrated in the sense that per-formance during training courses and fellowshipshas been used to select staff Most ofthe current staff and volunteers comefrom a journalistic background
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Following the first UNESCO-supported training course (1)
in 1993 further courses and fellowships were organizedin 1994 and 1995 NEFEJ and the Nepal Press Instituteworked with UNESCO Panos (London) DANICOMand Worldview International Foundation for theseactivities The fellowships provided opportunities fortrainees to produce radio programmes on specifictopics Thus there was an integrated plan for trainingfellowships programme production andselection for employment
Further training in 1996 and 1997 was supported byODA (Great Britain) and Deutsche Welle (Germany)The former required programmes on communityforestry The partnership included training in inter-viewing skills producing issue-based radio programmeassemblage and production Deutsche Welle supporteda training course for less experienced staff from RSand from other FM stations on basic radio production
In October 1997 a small focused on-the-job trainingprogramme was organized for RS production staffwith the assistance of a Danish journalist working inNepal The three weeks of training honed traineespractical all-round skills The programme was moreindividually-oriented than previous courses had beenand it involved instruction assignment of tasks andcritique
A second such course which included more womenwas conducted six months later for ten new recruitsIn addition another group of Panos fellowships wasprovided to produce programmes on AIDSHIV
Other support comes from Radio Netherlands whoprovided a fellowship in 1998 for a person to go totheir training centre in Holland for four months The
Centre for International Studies andCooperation a Canadian NGO supports RS with a general adviser
Future Training and Recruitment The station hasyet to implement systematic training for volunteersbut it has prioritized this in plans for 1999 DeutscheWelle has confirmed its support for an in-house on-the-job workshop There will also be regular locally-driven training courses with or without external fund-ing or resources Developing RS as a training resourcefor Nepal and for other countries in the region is astated objective
Organizational Structure
NEFEJ is the organizational umbrella for RS thoughthe station has officially become a partnership of fourNepali NGOs NEFEJ Himal Association WorldviewNepal and the Nepal Press Institute
The station is headed by a seven-member autono-mous Board of Directors constituted by NEFEJ TheBoard has representation from all four partner NGOsand meets monthly to review and plan activities setpolicy and provide broad direction for the station
RS is headed by a station managerprogramme directorHe sits on the Board of Directors as a membersecre-tary and is responsible for all day-to-day operations
Staff
RS has the following staff station managerprogrammedirector six full-time producers two technicians amusic librarian an engineer (on retainer) an accountsofficer and a station helper There are some 26 volun-teers who are an increasingly important part of RSsprogramming and operations A significant number ofthem are reimbursed for expenses or paid a smallhonorarium
Womens Participation
RSs informal policy is to develop the capacity andconfidence of women within the organization provideopportunities to women and through broadcasts toinfluence change in the orientation of womens rolesBut despite this policy the cultural bias in Nepal haskept womenrsquos participation low though there havebeen recent improvements Women make up about afifth of the production staff and a third of volunteers
Audience
There has been much audience feedback in the formof letters phone calls and drop-in visits from whichsome picture of the stations listening audience can bedrawn There are listeners among societys decision-making elite as well as in the shops of small mer-chants There are listeners in rural sectors of the Valleyas well as in urbanized households of the capital Itappears that listeners are mostly in the over 25 agerange and that they possess some higher educationinterest in events and issues in the public domain orin local music and culture
Some programmes on RS have targeted specificaudiences including children and parents as well asthe Tamang (a minority language) community andwomen working in the home
Listenership and audience are difficult if not impos-sible to estimate without a comprehensive survey Butwhat is already clear is that RS has a strong profile asa serious broadcaster and one whose programming isall-Nepali and in the public interest - the thinking persons radio82
Community Access and Participation
Community participation has been limited comparedto community stations in other parts of the worldThe mainstays of production are paid journalists andprogramming is centrally planned organized anddirected In many respects RS sees itself as a publicrather than community broadcaster a responsiblepublic spokesperson and facilitator as opposed to avehicle for open community participation
Nevertheless RSs programming has given hundredsperhaps thousands the opportunity to have theirvoices and opinions heard in a public forum On adaily basis the station takes its listeners to the streetsand into locations of everyday life as lived by realpeople
The stations daily public-affairs magazine alsoincludes two regular access spots the first featuringcomments from listeners who phone in and recordtheir feedback onto an answering machine thesecond is a vox-pop segment in which producersrecord opinions on a particular topic from people inthe streets
In a daily segment called Its My Turn Now differentmembers of the community speak their mind on atopic of their choice The segment is pre-recorded andbroadcast without editing To date the platform hasbeen shared by people from a variety of backgroundsand occupations
Interactive phone-in programming has been delayedby the lack of a hybrid system to interface phone lineswith the studio RS expected to introduce this in 1999
Community access exists in co-productions with localgroups Community groups and local NGOs produceweeklymonthly programmes with technical and production assistance from the station This is animportant source of programmes as well as a link todifferent segments of the community
Technical Considerations
The Kathmandu Valley an almost level basin of some25 by 30 kilometres framed by hills is an ideal loca-tion for FM broadcasting The historical economicand political capital and centre of the country is hometo the largest concentration of people 15-2 million
The test broadcasts in April 1997 used a locally madeantenna and were from a low elevation as were thefirst proper broadcasts beginning a month later InNovember 1997 the station began looking for a newsite which at a higher elevation could improve recep-tion The one selected after several tests is on the sideof a hill overlooking Kathmandu it has line of sight tomost areas of the 25 x 30-kilometre basin A housewas rented and a new studio built
Since it first went on air officially the station hasbroadcast daily even during moves to new sitesexcept in early 1998 when the transmitter a 500-wattAllard model caught fire and was damaged The sta-tion went off the air for 40 days until a 20-wattChinese-made transmitter and a 100-watt amplifierarrived through UNESCO from the Tambuli project inthe Philippines
The studio and its equipment are essentially the sameas when RS began apart from some small items and asatellite dish with a tunerdecoder Upgrading thebroadcast studio and establishing a production facilitywith digital components is now a priority
Programming
From the outset Radio Sagarmatha has worked topresent listeners with a combination of issues andentertainment social discussions and music as well asbeing a conduit for the variety of voices and opinionspreviously unheard on Nepals radio channels
For the daily two hours initially accorded under itslicence the new station chose 0700-0900 hoursRS introduced itself to the valleys listeners withtwo hours of Nepali music from rare folk recordings to contemporary popular selectionsinterspersed with short messages and stationannouncements
Public Interest Public-affairs broadcasting iscentral to RSrsquos mission for a more responsiblemedia and a more pluralistic society Using fellow-ships RS early on produced a series of programmes about environmental conditions cultural and social aspects of different regions ofthe country AIDSHIV community forestry drinking water democracy in Nepal etc Sinceautumn 1997 RS has been broadcasting a dailymagazine programme called Haamro Khaldo (OurValley) which covers topical issues and brings invoices from a broad cross-section of society Someof the issues covered have been meter tamperingby taxi drivers thieves and pickpockets prostitu-tion AIDS leprosy TB increasingly declining airand water quality child labour abortion andchanging gender roles
In addition there is a weekly discussion of socialcultural and development issues called Dabali(Community Meeting Place) a blend of the tradition-al Nepali medium and space for public dialogue anddiscussion and the modern medium of radio
Recently RS has begun Safa Radio (Clean AirCampaign) Five days a week it broadcasts theresults of air pollution measurements in differentparts of the city Once a week the cumulativeresults are discussed on air
Music and Culture RS provides a clearalternative to commercial stationsplaying largely pop music it broadcasts
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83
almost entirely Nepali traditional folk and modernmusic with some classical music from other parts ofthe world It presents one daily and four weekly pro-grammes devoted exclusively to music A Tamangcommunity group also co-produces a programme inboth languages with Tamang music
The station has an impressive music collection withmany rare recordings and pieces of authentic nationalcultural and historical significance The collection hasbeen obtained free of cost with about half of itrecorded from the library of Radio Nepal and theother half from donors
Nepal has a long tradition of oral folk media Untilsome 50 years ago one source of news for communi-ties were artists who spread the word about eventsentertained and educated through specially com-posed songs RS utilizes these traditions in a dailyserial The station once invited a musical group from avillage to record some of their music in the studioThey recorded ten songs in the traditional style adaptedto contemporary issues While in Kathmandu theyrecorded a new song about an alarming aspect oftheir capital city the pollution
Co-productions Local interest groups produce programmes for a particular audience on a particulartopic The editorial responsibility for the programmeusually lies with the community group with RS provi-ding technical support and airtime In addition to helping to fill the stationrsquos broadcast schedule theseprogrammes are also an important element of community participation
Childrens Programming Sponsored by UNICEFRS commissioned and broadcast a ten-minute serial
an educational soap opera involving agrandfather tree and a baby parrotThey interact with children who play
and listen at the base of the tree It is produced by afamed Nepali comedy troupe The serial is presentedtogether with 20 minutes produced in-house of stories poetry discussion and participation by children themselves
Mobile Radio On the Road
In November 1998 RS received permission to run amobile radio service anywhere in Nepal using the sta-tions Kathmandu frequency 1024 FM The idea wasnot to extend RSs Kathmandu service but rather tobring the idea of local radio to some of the 80 ofNepals people who live in rural areas and in smallcommunities
In 1999 a vehicle with a small studio transmitter anda team of facilitators began to visit rural communitiesto do basic training and demystify radio so that localpeople could become interested in starting their ownstations RS has always been seen as a starting pointfor wider community-based radio services in NepalIndeed momentum is now building fast with severalcommunities outside the Kathmandu Valley alreadyon the way to starting stations
Funding and Costs
The facility set-up initial operations training and fel-lowships were financed with international supportUNESCO provided about US$ 65000 About half ofthis was for equipment DANIDA provided operatingfunds in the second year and as already noted manyother organizations have provided fellowships andtraining Self-reliance is a priority and after two yearson air RS was beginning to operate on locally earnedrevenues The main strategy for achieving sustainability
is building partnerships with local organizations thatwill provide support as sponsors and co-producers ofprogrammes The recent lifting of the initial restrictionon commercial advertising has also opened a potentialsource of revenue
In 1999 the operational budget was US$ 2750 permonth of which salaries absorbed about US$1300Revenue was estimated at US$ 1075 mainly from co-productions and sponsorship The balance of US$1675 was provided by an operating grant from DANIDA
1 For a complete view of this basic training and preparation for broadcast see Carlos A Arnaldo and Kjell Linder Establishment of a FM Community Radio (Nepal IPPC ndash 352 ndashNEP 01 Technical report) UNESCO (Paris 1994)
84
ldquoSagarmatha is the old Nepali name for Mount
Everest and literally means lsquohead in the heavensrsquo
This is what Radio Sagarmatha intends to be an
intelligence permeating community thinking on
issues of health environment education social
well-being and development of the community by
sharing ideas with all through the radio wavesrdquo
Carlos A Arnaldo
Introduction and Origins
Radio Ada is a rural community radio station in eastern Ghana The station started broadcasting on 1 February 1998 and it has won a loyal followingamong its predominantly illiterate audience
The origins of the station can be traced back to the1950s and 1960s when the founders got their start inbroadcasting one with a small radio station inMonrovia Liberia that has since been washed awayby the sea and the other with one of the very firstcommunity radio stations in the Philippines DZJOthat continues to operate today from its base inInfanta Quezon In 1982 one of the founders was instrumental in starting the first community radio inAfrica the ill-fated Homa Bay station in Kenya on theshores of Lake Victoria an experience that drovehome the risks of such a venture in a continent hostileto independent information
Indeed there had been an earlier brush with this hostility in 1974 when broadcasting in Ghana was agovernment monopoly Encouraged by private discussions with key officials in the Government thefounders of Radio Ada submitted a formal applicationfor what if approved would have preceded HomaBay as the first community radio in Africa The appli-cation was turned down
Legal Context
It took nearly two decades following this event toopen the way for independent media in Ghana In1992 constitutional government was restored andwith it the possibility of a new communicationsscene The new Constitution which came into effectin January 1993 states that ldquoThere shall be no impediments to the establishment of private press or media and in particular there shall be no law requiring any person to obtain a licence as a prerequisiteto the establishment or operation of a newspaperjournal or other media for mass communication orinformationrdquo
The process of establishing private broadcasting didnot however start until February 1995 That waswhen the Ghana Frequency Registration and ControlBoard (GFRCB) issued guidelines for the submissionof applications to operate private broadcasting stations
Frequency Allocation
The application for Radio Adarsquos frequency was submitted on 17 March 1995 by its legal entity GhanaCommunity Broadcasting Services previously registeredas a non-profit company However it was not until 16 April 1996 that the application for Radio Ada wasaccepted
A positive aspect of the delay was that in the interimperiod private broadcasting companies had negotiatedmajor reductions in the fees levied for the allocationof a frequency originally set at the equivalent of
about US$ 13000 for all stations In the eventRadio Ada as a community radio only had to paya tenth of this and on 3 May 1996 it was allocatedthe frequency 937 FM for a period of five yearsThis was later changed to 933 for reasons that willbe explained later
Main Factors Considered when Starting Radio Ada
The information in Radio Adas application to theGFRCB reflected the stationrsquos very specific sense ofidentity in accordance with the following elements
Objectives The key elements that make upRadio Adarsquos sense of identity are embodied in itsmission statement This was crystallized from theexpressed objectives and expectations of the stationrsquos volunteers and from other members ofthe community The mission statement includesthe following items
bull To support the development aspirations andobjectives of the Dangme people in every sphereof life
bull To give a voice to the voiceless in every contextand at all levels
bull To sustain the dynamic growth of Dangme culture within the national and the global polity
bull In all of this to encourage promoteand contribute to informed dialogueand reflective action
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85
RADIO ADA GHANA - A BLESSING ON THE DANGME PEOPLE
by Alex and Wilna Quarmyne
Coverage area and target audience The primarytarget audience of Radio Ada resides in the fourDangme-speaking districts of Ghana These are in theeastern sector of the country within 100 km of AccraLarge parts of them still lack or have only recentlyreceived such basic infrastructure as piped water andelectricity The estimated total population of thecoverage area is 600000 over 60 of whom areilliterate Poverty is widespread
Language Radio Ada broadcasts exclusively in thevernacular of its audience Dangme Dangme comprises five mutually intelligible languages - AdaGbugbla Klo Ningo and Se There are marked culturaldistinctions between the speakers of these languagesHowever the linguistic interface and the marginaliza-tion hitherto of the language in the national discoursegive them a special bond as a people In recent yearsthere has been an effort in the educational and reli-gious institutions to develop ldquostandard Dangmerdquo auniform version of the languages The policy at RadioAda however is to use Dangme in its various originaland native spoken forms
Location - base area The station is in Ada in theDangme East District Theoretically it could havebeen based anywhere in the coverage area but one ofthe founders is a native son of Ada which meant thatthe station started out with a reserve of trust thatfacilitated getting community support and localresources At the estuary of the Volta River Ada comprises two contiguous towns Big Ada and AdaFoah and their surrounding villages in a virtual cul-de-sac that gives residents a particularly intimate sense ofcommunity Most residents in the area are engaged infarming and fishing
Actual site The site of the station building was chosen because of its easy access to the surrounding
community It sits in full view on the mainfeeder road to the national highway atthe junction to Big Ada and Ada Foah
Name The stationrsquos on-air name Radio Ada isdrawn from its location although it is a radio stationfor the Dangme-speaking community as a whole notjust Ada Because of this it has often been suggestedthat the stationrsquos name should be ldquoDangme RadiordquoThe station has however retained the name RadioAda because while it promotes strong local culturesas a basis for sound national development it alsoguards against chauvinism
The building The Radio Ada building was purpose-designed and built It provides one on-air studio twoproduction studios with adjacent control rooms twooffices and a few small service rooms The decision toconstruct was taken after it was established thatconverting an existing building whether purchased orleased would not be cost-effective
The design tries to blend the essential elements of aprofessional broadcasting operation with the specialrequirements of a community radio station especiallythe need for access and the realities of working in arural area For example rather than being sealed offthe on-air studio looks out onto the main road allow-ing anyone who comes to the station to see theannouncer or even passers-by on the road to ex-change a wave with him The ceilings are lined with ldquotsatsardquo a local mat woven out of reeds which hasproven satisfactory acoustically while also giving thestudios a cool and indigenous feel
Equipment selection The equipment chosenreflects the stationrsquos dual character as a rural community-based yet professionally complete broad-casting operation The items of equipment are thebest options technologically for their price offeringhigh performance with ease of operation low energyconsumption and minimum maintenance
Transmitter The transmitter a 350-watt Mallard unithas performed exceedingly well in covering the target
area but it will soon be used only as a standby unit Itwill be replaced by a 1-KW transmitter to enable thestation to get a stronger signal into the nearby metro-politan areas where there are sizeable Dangme-spea-king populations thus expanding its market potential
Antenna Tower The tower stands 150 feet high rightnext to the station building It was built out of piecesof scrapped antennas after the cost of a shorter (100-foot) new tower proved prohibitive It was hoisted byprofessional riggers working during their own time
Studio equipment Two of the three studios are fullyequipped the third is expected to be equipped soonThe on-air studio equipment consists of two sets eachof professional compact disc players minidisc and cas-sette recordersplayers and a 12-channel audio mixerThe production studios have the same equipmentbut of a semi-professional standard The mix and performance of the equipment has proven entirelysatisfactory
Field recording equipment Radio Ada attaches greatimportance to field recording equipment because ofits emphasis on programmes originating in the community Currently it has four portable minidiscrecorders and two professional and one semi-professional audiocassette recorders After some initial resistance to the minidisc recorders becausethey seemed too high-tech staff now favour them fortheir greater portability recording quality precision ofoperation editing facility and efficient in-built rechar-geable batteries The high cost of minidiscs has lead toa policy of using them as masters with most programmes being dubbed on to audiocassette
Funding With long-term sustainability in mind itwas decided early that requests for donor fundingwould be limited to equipment Land and the buildingwere provided from the limited resources of the foun-86
ders For sentimental reasons Radio Ada first solicitedfunds for its equipment from UNESCO1 a pioneeragency in community radio UNESCO regarded therequest favourably but was able to meet less than halfthe cost The shortfall for the equipment except forone studio was covered by the Stem van AfrikaFoundation of the Netherlands and the WorldAssociation for Christian Communication
Major Elements in Running a Community Radio
At the heart of running this community radio stationare the following elements
Programmes Radio Ada broadcasts 17 hours a daybetween 0500-2200 hours The programmes can bebroadly divided into the following categories newsand current affairs socio-economic developmentlocal culture religious youth and general interestGuiding programming is the stationrsquos holistic viewthat regards every programme as a potential tool fordevelopment The main news offerings are three daily15-minute bulletins and a daily 110-minute newsmagazine programme The bulletins emphasize localnews especially stories filed by the stationrsquos volunteerstringers A 10-minute market report is also broadcaston market days
Programmes that are specifically development-orien-ted include four weekly half-hour programmes forfour key occupational groups - farmers (women andmen) fishermen fishmongers (ie fishsellers who arealso fish smokers) and drivers - as well as programmeson health the environment and on literacy and deve-lopment All these programmes are produced andrecorded in the field based on the participantsconcerns and interests and they typically include
discussions interviews and spontaneous perfor-mances of traditional worksongs or other music
The occupational as well as the literacy programmesapply the principle of ldquonarrowcastingrdquo and are sandwiched between general-interest programmesduring the optimum listening time for the targetgroup More occupational programmes are beingdeveloped eg for artisans traders and teachers withthe idea that every group in the coverage area shouldfeel it has a ldquopiece of the actionrdquo in the station Inaddition to its news and development-oriented programmes the station produces a weekly total ofapproximately 30 half-hour programmes in the othercategories Its programmes on local culture includestorytelling traditional cookery Dangme bookread-ing discussions on various aspects of culture and adaily half-hour of traditional music featuring localgroups recorded either at the studio or in the field
One development-oriented programme on the envi-ronment is designed as a travelogue with the producergoing from village to village each week highlightingits special features of interest and in the process calling attention to environmental problems Despitethe soft-sell approach the message seems to getthrough Arriving at a village one day the producernoticed a sudden flurry He had been recognized andchildren were sent scurrying by their elders to fetchbrooms and tidy up the area While this was flatteringconfirmation that the producerrsquos words were beingheard the ultimate objective of the station is thatprogrammes should lead to sustained communityaction This requires attractive contextual presenta-tions that build on peoplersquos knowledge and that areclosely integrated with interventions on the ground
Staff Radio Adarsquos staff consists of about 50 volun-
teers Fourteen work full-time Twenty producers operate mainly in the field and come tothe station at least once a week to discuss programmes edit recordings etc Ranging in agefrom the early 20s to the early 50s the volunteersinclude farmers teachers hairdressers masonscivil servants traders school leavers and extensionworkers Approximately a third are women Abouthalf of the volunteers have full-time jobs outsidethe radio station while the rest are self-employedor unemployed When resources permit theremuneration of a core group of staff will be consi-dered The founders of the station serve as itsvolunteer executive directors
Staff training Prior to their involvement withRadio Ada none of the staff had had any expe-rience or training in broadcasting Except for fivewho went for short-term courses in radio produc-tion in Kaduna Nigeria all received their entiretraining through courses organized by Radio AdaThis was for two reasons first conventional training courses do not emphasize a developmentphilosophy and community-based approachsecond conventional training normally requiresqualifications that are unnecessary or even irrele-vant for a community radio station The basic criteria for volunteers at Radio Ada are simple andinclusive commitment to the community willing-ness to work as a volunteer and ability to speakDangme and English - the latter because the majority of the trainers did not speak Dangme
All formal training was organized through a seriesof participatory workshops coveringparticipatory research tools basic pro-gramme production news production
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87
and announcing The workshops conducted by specialists who support Radio Adarsquos objectives started out with its development philosophy and thenecessary professional concepts and they offeredpractical hands-on experience Training organized invarious forms has continued as a permanent activityof the station
Management Much of the management of the station is done by a committee of seven of the moresenior volunteers This establishes implements andmonitors policy on all aspects of the station and alsomaintains the stationrsquos bank account A station coor-dinator is the acknowledged head but refers routinelyto the executive directors The decision-making of thecommittee is based on constant consultation witheach other and with other volunteers Team spirit andself-appraisal are fostered in monthly evaluationworkshops involving all the volunteers except for thenews stringers who are not resident in the immediatecatchment area
Community support access and participationPrior to its application for a licence the idea of settingup Radio Ada was discussed with and informallyendorsed by the appropriate traditional leaders andgovernment authorities in the intended host commu-nity With the allocation of its frequency the first taskwas to widen the process of building community support This was concentrated on the stationsimmediate catchment area from which it wouldnecessarily draw its main resources Built into the pro-cess was the recruitment and training of volunteers
A community survey was conducted by these volun-teers in July 1996 Its purpose was to introduce the
idea of a development-oriented ver-nacular station and solicit the ideas ofthe community on programming and
operations The survey involved over 1200 respon-dents in 42 villages who gave virtually unanimousalmost emotional support to the idea of the stationTypical responses from the survey during a communi-ty meeting were
ldquoYes FM in Ada will be helpful We do not hear aboutthings happening on the radio Anybody who rejectsthis idea must be jailed In the old days we never hadthis chance Now when it comes we must embrace itNow all of us can listen to our own voices We cannow listenin our own mother tongue It shouldcome now nowrdquo
The enthusiastic response of the community to theidea of the station has been sustained by the partici-patory character of its programming and operationsTo give yet another opportunity for community participation five minutes are set aside after the midday and evening news for a commentary wherelisteners may record their views on any subject withthe only proviso that they do not make slanderous orderogatory statements
One commentary involved the leader of an associa-tion of women fishmongers Traditionally it is onlythe men who fish and it is from them that their wivespurchase fish to smoke and sell The men sell at theirprice and the women keep any profits they make ontheir sales to consumers for the maintenance of theirhousehold
In her commentary the leader of the fishmongers bitterly criticized Radio Adarsquos market report and protested against the beating of some members ofher association by their husbands This is becausewhen Radio Ada started broadcasting the marketnews the husbands of the fishmongers angrily claimed that their wives were cheating them by sellingat far more than the price they had paid to them
In a presentation on Radio Ada it was explained thatthe market prices reflected the cost and time of the12 different processes involved or value added bet-ween the time of purchase and the time of sale of thefish The presentation elicited respect and calmed thesituation
Audience reaction Lacking the necessary resourcesRadio Ada has not been able to conduct a formal lis-tener survey However feedback is constant throughthe staffs interaction with listeners on their recordingtrips and the influx of letters and visits to the stationThe feedback is consistent in characterizing Radio Adaas a blessing on the Dangme community Lettersand comments from a variety of sources quote precise details indicating that listeners pay attentionmeticulously to programme content Many offerconstructive criticism and make suggestions for otherprogrammes As many letters as possible are respondedto in a weekly mailbag programme
Reports from the field indicate that whole sections oftowns and villages stop for certain programmes suchas the series of an indigenous street musician whoweaves local legend and moral tales into song Formany the station is clearly their only source of infor-mation of the outside world It has also become aplayer in the life of the community being called uponfrequently to establish the veracity of issues andmediate in disputes
Operational costs Radio Ada has not solicited anysubsidies for its operational costs These are intendedto be funded entirely from income from commercialadvertising and from low-priced social announce-ments (eg obituaries) Currently expenditure ismainly for utilities supplies and in the absence of astation vehicle transport allowances which are calculated88
at actual cost After nearly a year in operation andeven with an all-volunteer staff income is running atabout half of expenditure This is mainly because withthe many other tasks involved in establishing the stationnot enough attention was focused on marketing It isexpected that with more aggressive marketing thestation will at least break even by the end of its secondyear of operation
Problems and Difficulties Encountered
Problems There were delays in the arrival of mater-ials for the construction of the building but even so itwas completed in 13 months The transmission frequency was the most serious problem After RadioAdarsquos successful test broadcasts in August 1997 apowerful FM station in Lagos Nigeria began opera-ting on the same frequency effectively jammingRadio Ada and making it impossible to begin fullbroadcasting at Christmas 1997 as planned Radio Adahad to apply for a new frequency and 933 MHz wasgranted in mid-January 1998 postponing broadcast-ing until 1st February
Sixteen days later Radio Ada was surprised by suddenand severe electricity rationing For a while it tried tooperate with generators borrowed firstly from anNGO and later from a local government departmentbut neither provided enough power for full opera-tions The programme schedule was cut to 10 hours aday But listeners made impassioned pleas throughthe radio station to the local government authoritiesto provide it with a generator Without Radio Adarequesting it the Dangme East District Assemblydonated a generator to the station in recognition ofits vital services to the community The station nowoperates seamlessly through power cuts
Difficulties The management of a large corps ofvolunteers presents special difficulties These areaddressed through dialogue mentoring and self-criticism and evaluation However even with paidstaff there would be a shortage of the necessary qual-ities and skills At the same time there is a shortage oftrainers with participatory development experiencecompetence in radio programme production and relevant vernacular language skills
Another difficulty is that the development servicesare too weak to be able to support and follow up onradio programmes properly In the circumstances andsince the task is too important to be postponed thestation has to try to energize and facilitate those services Accessing resources to meet all these needs isa full-time job for several people - who do not at present exist
The station has not yet developed the marketing strategies required for accessing the advertisingpotential of the market There is a need to introducethe ldquoculture of advertisingrdquo to the small enterprisesand traders in the coverage area to generate revenuefor the station This advertising drive is a task that willrequire care to ensure that the objectives of the station are not compromised
Main Lessons Learnt
The first year of operation has been an important les-son in validation for the community that radio canplay an essential and developmental role in their day-to-day lives for the volunteers that they have thecapacity to run and maintain a broadcasting stationand for the station itself that it provides a vital andappreciated service
The main lesson learnt is that in the interests ofsustainability the commercial aspects should havebeen addressed from the very beginning Therewas so much pressure to get the station up andrunning that no staff were assigned to ldquosellrdquo thestationrsquos services
This is particularly urgent now because theachievements of Radio Ada have carried their ownmomentum Overnight the station outgrew itscapacities The community response has beensuch that the station is called upon for a greatervariety of outreach services than ever anticipatedThe necessary resources exist but the station mustnow help to mobilize them
The final lesson is more of a reminder in additionto material resources knowledge and skills itneeds faith and solidarity to carry an idea forward- as Radio Adarsquos volunteers have amply demon-strated Admonishing a fellow volunteer for hispriorities in giving more time to party politics thanto the station a volunteer said ldquoParty politics is forfour years Radio Ada will be here foreverrdquo
1 Alex Quarmyne worked with UNESCO for many years promoting community radioOn retirement he and his wife returned to his home community to start Radio Ada
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The Context for Community Radio
After years of broadcast monopoly by the (then)Apartheid states South African BroadcastingCorporation (SABC) the struggle to free the airwaves has been won SABC was restructured andin 1993 an Independent Broadcasting Authority (IBA)was established Since the first licences were issued in1995 South Africa now has more than 85 indepen-dent radio stations and community radio is here tostay (See Chapter 3 for details of South African legislation)
The presence of community radio has changed theface of broadcasting in South Africa It has recruited acountless number of volunteers and community workers who actively participate in their stations Inaddition the sector has managed to attract advertisersand in certain instances stations are generating a fairincome from selling airtime and promoting eventsHowever the stations that have achieved most interms of financial independence are in one sense victims of that success they are often seen as toocommercial to belong fully to the developmentalcommunity radio sector
The community radio sector has shown in its shortexistence a tremendous ability to survive Howeverthe need to continue developing training and mostimportantly to work toward self-sustainability is clear
Donor support has been excellentover the last few years especially forbroadcast equipment Some stations
also receive core funding for daily operations It seemsclear that for now donor funding remains one of thefew dependable options for start-up support Inmoving toward self-sufficiency many stations haveidentified other possible income sources the mostprominent of which apart from advertising aremembership fees and community fund-raisers
Getting Started
In the late 1980s a small group of people interestedin the development of an alternative audio communi-cation system formed an organization that recordedinformation on cassettes in radio format made dupli-cates and distributed them in and around Cape Town
The organization was called CASET (CassetteEducation Trust) located in a small office in Salt RiverIts objective was to inform and educate the poor onsubjects like literacy hygiene health and of courserelevant political issues Since its humble beginningsthe initiators of the project always knew that broad-casting would be integral to its long-term educationaland empowerment objectives CASET began to discuss the idea and its potential and eventually proposed establishing a community radio facility atthe University of the Western Cape (UWC) just outside Cape Town
After much deliberation however it became clearthat the UWC campus would not be a suitable location it was too far away to be accessible to theblack community as a whole In fact UWC had been
built in 1960 for coloured people a racial definitionthat defined persons of a hybrid origin The Collegelocated far from the city and surrounded by densebush soon became known as Bush College and its campus cafeteria radio station was known as Bush Radio
In due course CASET was dissolved and recreated asan aspirant community radio initiative Keeping theoriginal campus name Bush Radio was bornConstituted in 1992 as a Voluntary Associationowned and operated by its members it focused ongetting the community on air The objective was togive black people the opportunity to be broadcastersMoney was needed to keep the initiative afloat Manydonors were approached until finally the FriedrichEbert Stiftung (FES) a German foundation involved inbroadcasting training provided support
News of the FES support spread The concept of com-munity radio was exciting and applications for trainingfrom all over started to flood in Bush Radio soonestablished itself as a key trainer and lobbyist for theestablishment of community radio in South AfricaPressuring the government to grant it a licence tobroadcast and training fledgling stations across thecountry Bush Radio slowly established both itself andthe concept of community radio as a significant force
Defiance
After a number of licence applications were rejectedBush Radio decided to broadcast illegally In May1993 a group of volunteer activists took the stationrsquos90
BUSH RADIO 895 FM SOUTH AFRICA - PAST PRESENT AND FUTURE
by Zane Ibrahim and M Adams
equipment including its illegally obtained transmitterinto a room set it up and prepared to switch on Apress release was circulated a short programme sche-dule was designed and a song was composed After afew test runs Bush was ready Interspersing shortdrama talks short poems and comic turns BushRadio went on air
The broadcast lasted four hours before the authoritiesinvaded the premises and seized the equipment BushRadios two key members were charged on threecounts illegal broadcasting illegal possession ofbroadcast apparatus and obstructing the course ofjustice The case dragged on but friends and support-ers nationally and internationally understood whyBush Radio members would risk being jailed for theright to be heard After tremendous pressure fromindividuals and organizations world-wide the statedropped the charges eight months later
Training and Activism
During the next two years the country witnessedmassive political change and prepared for its firstdemocratic elections Meanwhile Bush Radio contin-ued its quest to get the community on air It pursuedand vigorously implemented its national training acti-vities It became the first South African communityradio initiative to join the World Association ofCommunity Radio Broadcasters (AMARC) and contin-ued to champion the cause for the establishment ofcommunity radio in South Africa
At the beginning of 1993 the FES donated a fullyequipped studio for the primary purpose of trainingIt was indeed a wonderful sight Bush Radio was starting to look like a real radio station
A full-time training co-ordinator was brought onboard The courses included introduction to commu-nity radio features and documentary productionwomen and technology and managing communityradio The activities were in essence the training oftrainers Participants were expected to return to theirstations and gradually train their volunteers Otherorganizations soon became involved and partner-ships and exchange programmes were establishedwith Deutsche Welle Radio France InternationaleUSIS and the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation
National institutions including the Institute for theAdvancement of Journalism and the Media TrainingCentre also started to offer radio courses So a resourceof basic radio production and management skills wasslowly established Radio training networking andlobbying were together sowing the seeds for todayscommunity radio movement in South Africa
To promote the cause of community radio further aNational Community Radio Forum (NCRF) was estab-lished in 1994 to lobby government and co-ordinateand guide the sector Initially operating from theoffices of Bush Radio the NCRF later raised its ownfunds and set-up an office in Gauteng By the end of1994 more than a hundred licence applications forcommunity stations had been submitted to the IBA
Licence at Last
In June 1995 exactly seven years after CASET madeits first commitment to get the people on air BushRadio received its licence But the IBA had to workwith an inherited frequency plan that could notaccommodate the flood of licence applications Andbecause of Cape Towns notorious Table Mountain
they offered Bush Radio a shared frequency a5050 split with a community station called C-Flat Although not perfect everyone was happyBush Radio broadcast daily from 1400 to 0200hours and C-Flat took over until 1400 hours andso on
Getting Ready to Broadcast
The mission to get a licence was achieved and thepeople now had to go on air Until that time BushRadio had three full-time staff a pool of trainedand enthusiastic volunteers and a well-equippedtraining studio
Activity now needed to be focused on successfulprogramming marketing and fund-raising for anoperational station In July 1995 Bush Radio helda strategic workshop to assess plan and establisha common vision for its future activities BushRadio membership had grown to 1000 and therewere about 100 active and trained volunteersCountless NGOs were also keen to support andget involved in the service of community radio
A schedule of programmes including both enter-tainment and education was debated with themembers Strong emphasis was placed on repre-senting the culture language and aspirations ofour local communities with honesty and prideThe three dominant languages in the Cape(Xhosa English and Afrikaans) were naturallyapproved as the broadcast languages for the sta-tion The motto we agreed was Its yours itsmine itrsquos ours
With a programme schedule agreed andwith less than eight weeks before going
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on air volunteers rushed to attend brush-up coursesprogramming meetings and other preparations TheSoros Open Society Foundation funded a state-of-the-art broadcast facility
Finally Bush Radio began broadcasting at 1400 hourson 1 September 1995 This is National Womens DayAs a mark of the importance the station gives towomen in the countryrsquos development the station haddeliberately chosen to start on that day
Bush Radio recently relocated to new and larger premises still in Salt River The 300 sqm location ontwo floors is twice as big as the previous one Thecomplex is a sophisticated analogue training produc-tion and broadcast facility probably the most techno-logically advanced community station in the country
Sound Management and Community Participation
Bush Radio was originally structured as a VolunteerAssociation guided by an appointed board of trusteesand an executive committee Once on air it was deci-ded that in order to move toward self-sufficiency anew structure was needed The Board opted to createnon-profit company and this has facilitated operatingthe station It also puts it in a position to attract spon-sorship and support from the business communitybecause a company has a better organizational base
One of the legal requirements is that a seven-memberboard of directors be set up to account for the assetsand operation of the company Bush Radios newlyappointed directors are both highly skilled and fullycommitted to the station Their portfolios include
fund raising programming market-ing staff etc The board comprisessome of Cape Towns top achievers
Community participation is at the core of BushRadios operations At the outset it was made clearthat the station is in existence for only one reason toserve the community Everyone from the communityis eligible for membership and training Through itsbroadcasts productions and training the stationmaintains contact with its target communities
In addition outside broadcasts held in these commu-nities give access for participation as well as maintain-ing and expanding the volunteer base which at present numbers about five hundred many have beena part of Bush Radio since its inception
Members come from all sectors of the communityrepresenting various interests cultures and languages They include students single mothers thedisabled gay activists the unemployed and therecently retired The members have direct access to allaspects of the station from administrative and financialmatters to programme content and training needsPolicy discussions and workshops are held once amonth and the community is invited to give theirinputs for running the station Community controland ownership is thus assured
Overview of Programming
The challenge is to offer identifiable voices and rolemodels on air Music programmes focus on non-mainstream music eg hip-hop reggae RampB jazzblues and jungle as well as on popular local musicThe music slots often include competitions call-insinterviews gig guides music charts and even comedyAn objective is to promote local artists and perfor-mers as well as genres of music not usually availableon commercial radio
While music is a vital component the station remainscommitted to tackling issues that engage and educatethe community It therefore prefers to host discus-sions and air features that facilitate informationexchange critical thought and debate In features andtalk shows Bush Radio makes available a broadcastplatform for members of the community who ascribeto the objective of true development Recently itlaunched a refugee programme run by refugees withthe aim of informing the public of their plight
Some specific regular programmes are
Backchat Representatives of various communityorganizations explain the role they play and how thecommunity can access their services From discussionsand calls during these programmes it appears thatnot enough has been done to inform the communityof the various organizations that can help themThese services include help for rape victims healthchildcare pensions for the aged etc
Community Law Produced by 4th and 5th year UWClaw students factual information that the generalpopulation seldom has explained to them is providedon a variety of issues Care is taken to carefully outlineeven the simplest of laws or human rights Phone-insegments of the show have proved to be extremelypopular while written requests for information arealso encouraged
Everyday People This daily 3-hour programme is inmusic magazine format It uses mainly local music andits emphasis is on township developments The musicis interspersed with public-service announcementsinformation bulletins notice-board news competi-tions and call-ins It has a high profile in the commu-nity and it is the only local youth programme thatreflects the dialect and personality of Cape TownrsquosXhosa speaking people92
TRC Report The Truth and Reconciliation
Commission (TRC) was established to help the nation
heal itself after Apartheid Bush Radio hosted a member
of the commission on a fortnightly basis The commis-
sioner would elaborate on the stationrsquos news report on
the TRC happenings of the week The discussions often
clarified and provided missing detail on the
Commissionrsquo hearings On several occasions the
stationrsquos guests were asked questions by callers that
they found to be important and worthy of further
investigation
TAXI TALK Minibus taxis are the only reliable means
of transport to and from the townships However
escalating rivalry amongst taxis have led to gun
battles where passengers are also shot and killed Bush
Radio and the Shell Oil Company joined forces and
produced Taxi Talk a programme where all involved
were invited to the station to discuss their grievances
The Federal Minister of Transport also played a major
role in mediating between the parties
Rape and Alcoholism Rape of women of all ages has
reached epidemic proportions Bush Radio has estab-
lished groups doing in-depth studies to find the best
way to develop programmes that will assist in helping
to reduce and even eliminate this social disease
Alcoholism plays a major part in it and for this reason
the station refuses to advertise alcoholic products
Similarly it does not carry tobacco advertising
for health reasons Once produced the rape and
alcoholism programmes will be offered to all other
community radio stations
A Training Station
As important as broadcasting is to Bush Radio the
station remains essentially a training centre Emphasis
is placed on developing potential broadcasters from
the community rather than on just filling airtime
Apart from the manager and administrator all of Bush
Radios staff are in-service trainees gaining valuable
on-the-job experience in areas like news music
features and programming
Each year the station receives hundreds of applica-
tions for training from communities nationally and in
some cases from initiatives abroad Much attention is
paid to the selection criteria for trainee candidates
and their future ability to pass on their skills Bush
Radio has developed training methodology and basic
curricula to suit traineesrsquo varied cultural linguistic and
educational backgrounds
During its first two years on air much of the activity of
the station was directed at building and maintaining
solid programming and management This meant that
training had to take a back seat Now that the station
is more settled in its broadcast ability and in response
to much demand from the sector it has returned to its
training focus In September 1998 Bush Radio laun-
ched a new fully equipped facility streamlined and
geared toward a comprehensive radio training
programme Training involves broadcast journalism
and technical and management skills These are
sophisticated fields of study and Bush Radio
continues to offer much-needed introductory level
training programmes in them
Overview of Courses
Introductory courses These cover differentforms of radio community radio and its role anintroduction to field recorders reel-to-reelmachines studios basic editing various programmeformats and the role of producers presentersreporters engineers etc At the end of the coursetrainees have enough knowledge to be able tofunction at a minimum level of competence
In-service trainees A practical one-year on-the-job experience structured to offer young graduates or others an opportunity to learn whileworking in the field of radio They work in the following areas
News In-service trainees are required to gatherinformation log edit and read the news live onair
Music The trainees are expected to ensure thatthe local content quota as stipulated by the IBA isadhered to They also help to maintain the musiclibrary develop links with record companies andensure that the station is offering a balanced variety of music on air
Production Apart from technical aspects of programme production trainees spend muchtime learning about the communitys develop-ment needs eg in health safety education etcThe amount of research is sometimes over-whelming but trainees gain essential skills for programme planning
Programme management Many stations haveproblems in the area of programmingexpertise The programme managementpart of the course assists the trainee in
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carefully assessing the needs of the station theresources available to it and the make up of the community The trainee is enabled to design implement and evaluate a comprehensive program-ming schedule
Prison Radio
Bush Radio was approached by the CriminologyDepartment of the University of Cape Town to develop a training programme for young prisoners tobe trained to operate a radio station After months ofnegotiations with prison officials a viable plan thatwould enable prisoners to operate a simple radio station within the facility was drawn up The enthusiasm shown by the participants convinced theauthorities that the therapeutic effect the programmehad on the inmates were beneficial to their rehabilita-tion The project continues and it is expected thatseveral other prisons will be receiving equipment aswell to duplicate the project
Lessons Learnt
Management and operation For the station tooperate efficiently there must be constant develop-ment through training and other professional activities Internal communication is essential Regularstaff meetings should be held to make sure that everyone has a clear understanding of where they fitinto the organization These meetings can also beused to encourage resource and idea sharing amongthe staff
Staff members should be encouragedto form strong contacts with thevolunteers In Bush Radio we have
learned that staff members tend to develop feelings
of superiority over the volunteers probably because
we are situated in an area with a high unemployment
rate To be employed at a radio station also has an
element of glamour
Marketing the station is also very important if the
station is to become self-sustaining
Volunteers Most of the volunteers at Bush Radio
come from deprived communities ie from the
stationrsquos target audience They often have limited
educational levels and most are unemployed The
communities that many of them have grown up in are
very tough They have a dire lack of role models
facilities and amenities Thus community radio often
is subjected to a high level of theft abuse resistance
to authority and change a lack of self-confidence
pride and commitment and an inherent apprehensive
attitude towards training and education Very few
volunteers understand the concept of volunteerism
its responsibilities and limitations In effect most of
the community radiorsquos target constituency simply
cannot afford to volunteer They are so poor
that some travel to the station on public transport
illegally
Nevertheless the commitment of some of the
volunteers is astounding but despite their energy and
vigour and even when they get on air it is difficult to
depend on their input Without compensation they
run out of steam and often just when programmes
have reached a steady following the volunteer
participants are drawn to job offers family commit-
ments or other more viable activities
Women in training and recruitment Women are
often excluded from areas that require technical
knowledge For this reason Bush Radio has a policy
that no training programme can begin unless at least
50 of the trainees are women
Community access and participation A commu-
nity radio station must be constantly trying to find
ways of providing the community with easier access
to it Apart from encouraging staff volunteers and
interested parties to come forward with ideas Radio
Bush encourages visits to the station However these
have had to be limited to certain days and hours If
not too many people hang around and disrupt
operations
Fund-raising The expectations of the donor and
those of the project have to be carefully discussed and
agreed upon before any funding takes place Many
projects suffer as a result of misunderstandings The
station must abide by its mission statement in any
application for funding Too often projects compromise
their mission statement in order to receive funds In
the long run this creates confusion
There are many different formats used for applying
for funding There is nothing wrong with contacting a
potential donor and asking what information is needed
whether there is a regular application form and so on
Many donors also expect to be kept informed on a
regular basis This should be done whether it is asked
for or not It is good to keep a donor or programme
sponsor up to date on developments at the station94
The Roots in Latin America
It was in Latin America that the worlds first communityradio experiences were initiated 50 years ago whentwo very distinct movements turned to radio as a wayof both increasing their influence and of contributingto community development These were RadioSutatenza in Colombia and the Minersrsquo Radios inBolivia (see boxes 1 and 2 in Chapter 1)
From these roots of rural Christian social develop-ment and militant trade unionism community radiohas grown to have significant presence in LatinAmerica church commercial university trade unionand indigenous peoples radio stations have combinedto make the regions radio the most dynamic anddiverse in the world
A Need to Communicate
Radio Chaguarurco located in a rural part ofEcuadors southern province of Azuay is a young station that continues in the tradition of LatinAmerican community radio The idea of setting it upstarted with a series of workshops in 1990 Thesewere organized by campesino organizations and bythe local churches in the counties of Santa Isabel andPucaraacute in the province of Azuay
The workshops were intended to organize the communities so that they might gain access to basicservices such as drinking water and electricity and toensure that human rights were being respected
A document written by the stations foundersexplains the process that launched the radio station
ldquoWe started to talk about what we needed first we mentioned electricity and drinking water but after that westarted talking about communication about being able toshare a common reality and being able to analyse it in orderto improve it That was how Radio Chaguarurco startedSome people who didnt live in the countryside asked why acommunity radio station was necessary when there were somany other priorities Isnt a radio station a luxury Sure there are lots of other needs health nutrition education day-care better agricultural techniques toimprove production But rather than patching things up tofulfil our needs temporarily its important to think aboutthe causes of the problems about the injustice andinequality that cause poverty and marginalizationrdquo
The director of the station says that the idea grew outof the need to communicate Because of RadioChaguarurcrsquos location it is very difficult to receiveradio stations from the region Few people haveaccess to television and even fewer to newspapersTelephones are still unavailable in many of the townsand they are not available at all in the countrysidewhere most people live
The communities are very scattered Some are only 30minutes from the county centres where the politicalstructures and the markets are located but others arebetween one and 12 hoursrsquo walk away with no roadsFor the population of such communities it is practi-cally impossible to be in daily or even weekly contactwith the centres
Communication began to be seen as a necessity bythe Church and campesino organizations in thearea The idea of a community radio station thuscaught on quickly and within a few months itbecame one of the main topics of discussionduring workshops People in rural areas were usedto being excluded from the media so they wereexcited about having their own radio station aplatform for talking about the necessities of theircommunities and about the problems in gettingbasic services
No doubt the idea of a radio station was a goodone but who would make it a reality A frequencyand government permission would be requiredEquipment would have to be bought Who wouldown the station Where would the station belocated Which communities would it serve
The local Church and the peasant organizationProyecto Norte quickly emerged as the two mainbackers of the project They had collaborated onprevious development projects and had participa-ted in the discussions about a radio station fromthe outset Helped by the areas representative inCongress they started laying plans
The first problem was obtaining a broadcast licenceIn 1992 Ecuadorrsquos law did not recognize commu-nity radio Getting a commercial licence involved acomplex process that even after years of waitingcould easily fail But there had been astation in Santa Isabel in the past Eventhough the man it belonged to had died
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95
RADIO CHAGUARURCO ECUADOR - NOW YOUrsquoRE NOT ALONE
by Bruce Girard
and the station had been off the air for many yearsthe commercial licence was still valid Buying a stationwith a licence still requires government permission aprocess almost as complicated as being assigned anew frequency But it was a definite possibility
With the process of legalizing the ownership of thefrequency underway the next step was decidingwhere the station should be located
Santa Isabel and Pucaraacute
Santa Isabel is a county capital with a population of3000 people It seemed the logical place for the station for it was the largest town in the region andan important market centre Apart from the Churchthe central plaza is ringed by banks doctors officesand shops It is less than two hours from the provincialcapital of Cuenca and because it has a telephone service it is an important communications centre forthe region At an altitude of 1500 metres it has a perfect climate for growing tomatoes onions andeven sugar cane products that are sold throughoutEcuador
The village of Pucaraacute also a county capital has apopulation of less than 1000 and is only 40 kilometres from Santa Isabel However the non-stopbus takes two hours to climb the unpaved road tomore than 3100 metres above sea level In the rainyseason the road can be closed for days at a timeThere are no telephones and when the road is closedthe village is incommunicado
Pucaraacute where the road ends has a single street in atear-shaped loop with a brightly pain-ted Church in the middle and a per-imeter of breath-taking mountains
and valleys This majestic view camouflages a harsherreality With an average annual temperature of only12 degrees and nights that drop to near zero Pucaraacutesclimate supports little more than subsistence agricul-ture - the staples of beans and potatoes - and a precarious living But Pucaraacute did have one importantadvantage for a possible radio station its altitude andmore central location meant that from a technicalperspective it was a better place to locate the transmitter than Santa Isabel In any event the townrsquosresidents only make up 20 of the total populationand the main target audience would be among therural 80
However the question of where to put the stationalso had a political dimension The community wherethe station was located would be more likely to haveits concerns broadcast its members on air and tobenefit most from it
The solution was to put the transmitter in Pucaraacute theadministrative centre in Santa Isabel and to put studios linked via microwave in both communitiesThus when Chaguarurcos director talks about theradio he says it is actually two stations sharing a singlefrequency and a single identity
Local information is gathered at both News programmes are also duplicated with two anchorsone in Pucaraacute and one in Santa Isabel Some inter-views are also duplicated with the interviewer in onecommunity and the person being interviewed in theother Some music programmes are produced only inPucaraacute and others only in Santa Isabel but many programmes are produced in both locations
At the time of writing a third studio was underconstruction in the village of Shaglly This has a population of only 250 but it is the nearest
community for 2500 rural dwellers There are plansto continue the decentralization process by establi-shing new studios in other communities
The Chaguarurco Foundation
The issue of ownership of the station was as importantas that of location From the beginning it was agreedthat it would not be owned by the local priest or bythe parish or by any single person It was to be ownedby the people In September 1992 the ChaguarurcoFoundation for Rural Development was establishedwith representatives from campesino organizations inthe two counties from the Catholic parishes andfrom the workers and volunteers of the radio stationThe radio is under the care and supervision of theFoundation ensuring that the people who in effectown it will always be in control and have access to it
The Chaguarurco Foundations board meets everythree months with extraordinary meetings held whennecessary The board receives reports from the stationdirector and makes the important programming andbudget decisions
By the time the Foundation was set up the dream ofthe radio station had been circulating for almost twoyears Nobody foresaw that they would have to waitanother two-and-a-half years to see how theFoundation would function obtain funding for theequipment get approval for a frequency and trainpeople for the station
Funding in the region is difficult and the project wasgoing to be an expensive one The areas geographiccharacteristics called for an AM transmitter whichwas substantially more expensive than an FM oneThe 5 kW Nautel transmitter including its antenna96
and installation was going to cost US$80000 morethan the community could ever put together on itsown Once the Foundation was established it startedthe slow process of getting the money together fromlocal and international sources However even thoughthey needed the money the community was not pre-pared to sacrifice the stations independence for it
Practically all new equipment was needed what wasavailable in the old station was not even good enoughto put in a museum The transmitter antenna and installation were donated by the Spanish aid agencyIntermon Caritas Manos Unidas some Spanishvolunteers and a solidarity group in Madrid also helped The Church in the provincial capital Cuencadonated a pickup truck
Donations were only sought for equipment and installation The Foundation was determined that thestation would pay its way and that is what has happened
Training the Community
While the process of legalizing the purchase of thefrequency crept slowly ahead a group of volunteersbegan training people from the community One problem was that nobody working on the project hadhad any experience in radio apart from two Spanishvolunteers who had a little experience in communityradio stations in Madrid
In essence those involved had to train themselvesfirst in order to be able to train others They read whatever books they could find and travelled to otherstations to see how these were run Experienced radiopeople were invited to speak and to give courses Inthe end a manual and a trainers package were produced based on what had been learned Then the
newly-trained trainers went out to start training thecommunity volunteers
Serious training started in December 1993 The ideawas that each community would look for a personthat they considered to be an appropriate correspon-dent In addition there was a general invitation toanyone who was interested to participate in thecourses
Four trainers divided the work between December1993 and October 1994 going to different communi-ties week by week There was no shortage of volun-teers Many of them walked four five or even sixhours to get to the place where the courses were heldThere was particular enthusiasm in one village wherethere had been many conflicts and much abuse ofpower by the authorities Some people had even beenkilled People believed that the radio would help themput an end to such abuses
In November 1994 the staff was selected fromamong those who had been trained In Decemberthey underwent a month of intensive and more specialized training The ongoing training and discus-sions about the radio kept the project moving forward and people involved However five years hadpassed since the project was first discussed and thewait had a cost Some people had got discouraged andhad left
However the station finally went on the air on 1 January 1995 As one participant remembers
ldquoIt was the most beautiful thing With lots of people listen-
ing We were crazy Greeting all the people Thanking the
ones who had been with us since the beginning those who
had taken courses with us the correspondents Making
calls to Cuenca to see if the signal reached the city There
were people who knew we were going to be on the air
and they called us We played lots of music and every
few minutes announced lsquoThis is Radio Chaguarurco
Were on the air Listen to us on 1550 kilohertz Tell
your neighbours to listenrsquo It was crazyrdquo
lsquoNow youre not alonersquo
After years of waiting peoples expectations werehigh They were not going to be satisfied with astation that sounded like all the rest They wantedto hear their own experiences and concerns toldin their own voices and in their own languageNow there was a communication medium wherepeople could talk say what they felt and denounceofficials who were giving them a hard time The phrase lsquoNow you are not alonersquo summed upthe sentiment produced by the station
To produce the kind of radio that the communitywanted called for a special kind of radio producerOnly four of the eight full-time staff and 20 volun-teers had ever formally studied journalism Theothers learned their skills in Chaguarurcos owncourses but all of them now work as journalistsand programme producers Five of the full-timestaff are based at the station in Santa Isabel andthe other three are based in Pucaraacute
The staff in the station are in fact almost volunteers Their salaries are not even the minimum that the law requires Howeveras the radios income rises their salarieswill also increase gradually
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97
Role of Volunteers
In addition to the paid staff there are some 20 volun-teer producers Six of them are correspondents in surrounding villages They gather the news in theirareas and periodically travel to the station with theirstories and tapes The station supplies them with taperecorders and rechargeable batteries Proceeds froman annual raffle are used to pay their bus fares
One volunteer produces a one-hour music programmesix days a week It features Ecuadorian music which isa special interest she developed at a time when thiswas unavailable on the radio She uses her personalcollection of records and tapes and says that the radioprogramme has collectivized it
Other volunteers produce a weekly market programmehosted simultaneously in Pucaraacute and Santa Isabel Thislooks at prices and trends in the areas markets It hasplayed an important role in controlling speculation
There is a constant turnover among the volunteersand for this reason the station continues to offerregular training courses to new ones
Participation and Programming
There are important characteristics that distinguishChaguarurco from other stations in the region Themost important is the priority the station gives tolocal voices language and culture Unlike radio stations in the city which have announcers who try tohide any regionalisms in their accents or their languageChaguarurcos announcers celebrate their own way ofspeaking Another important distinction is that the
station actively seeks the participationof people from the countryside invi-ting them to visit the station to tell
their stories to sing or just to greet their friends andfamily over the air
The station also plays an important role as a commu-nication channel at the service of the communities -a telephone service for those who do not have itWhen places in the radiorsquos coverage area are withoutroads and are difficult to reach the people who livethere listen to the station for information aboutimpending visitors so they can be ready for them
For example the community health project has amedical team which periodically visits remote communities Before the radio went on air this wouldtravel to a community and lose hours or even dayswaiting for the news of its arrival to get out to thepeople in the countryside and for the people to travelin to where the team was waiting to attend themNow the radio announces visits ahead of time andthe community is ready and waiting for them
Health matters are very important to the stationThey are covered for example in radio dramas thatthe station produces and broadcasts daily The dramashave characters that the people in the countryside canidentify with They chat with each other and tell stor-ies about health and related matters They talk abouttreating garbage vaccinations nutrition and aboutthe environment Some of the dramas also deal withpolitics culture and human rights These dramasacted by the stations own staff provide a valuableway of explaining complex issues in everyday languageand in a way that people can easily understand
A recent addition to the stationrsquos programming is theinclusion of news from Latin America and the worldthat the station gets from ALRED (Latin AmericanAssociation for Radio Education) and the Puacutelsar newsagency A satellite dish at the Pucaraacute station receives
ALREDs programmes and news from Puacutelsar arrivesvia the Internet
This information from other countries and conti-nents which people did not have before has met withfavourable comment ldquoWe see that there are people outthere just like us campesinos like us Were exchanginginformation with them In the same way we receive information here from other countries we also send newsfrom here to them And this is interesting to communicatelike brothersrdquo
A Minga for Chaguarurco
The way the Chaguarurco Foundation meets its objec-tive of covering the stationrsquos running costs is to keepcosts low using resources freely offered by the communities it serves In addition to the volunteerservices the studios in Pucaraacute and Santa Isabel are inspace provided free by the local churches When a studio needs a handyman or when a pot of soup isneeded for a minga (a day of volunteer labour for acommunity project) there are always people aroundto offer their skills or help Even so Chaguarurco hasto generate some US$2000 per month to cover itsoperational costs
The stations financial situation is healthy It managesto generate enough revenue to cover its fixed costs aswell as putting aside a few thousand dollars a year toimprove its equipment or cover unforeseen costsSources of revenue include advertising communitymessages production services and broadcasts of cultural events
Advertising which brings in about 20 of the stations revenue has always been a controversial subject Some people argued that commercials had no98
place in community radio Others said that the survivaland growth of the station was the most importantthing and that all advertisers should be welcome Thecompromise policy is to advertise only local goodsand services The philosophy is to promote what istraditional and local rather than the consumption ofimported products developed through high technologyand chemicals The message of the commercial radiosis seen as promoting these at the expense of homeproduce Thus the station does not give advertisingspace to carbonated drinks produced by multinationalsNor in the interests of health does it broadcast commercials for alcohol or tobacco
Political advertising is also controversial For most ofthe countrys radio stations elections are a bonanzaMore than a dozen parties buy airtime and it is customary for stations to put a surcharge of 20 to150 on it The temptation is strong During recentelections one party offered to buy time fromChaguarurco at a price that would have paid the billsfor months The offer was not accepted it was notthought beneficial to the community The station prefers to give equal possibilities to all political partiesrather than allowing the more powerful ones to gainfurther advantage through commercials
Community announcements and personal messagesaccount for about 40 of the stations revenue Yetanother source of income is the production of pro-grammes on health and other issues for local NGOsand government The station also continues to gethelp from the solidarity group in Spain organized byone of the volunteers who helped set up the stationThis raises funds through bingo sessions dinners andthe sale of handicrafts
Is Anyone Listening
Between June and November 1996 a team of students from Santa Isabel under the guidance of aDutch volunteer designed and conducted a survey of400 people in the stationrsquos coverage area The mainconclusions were
bull Radio is the most used medium In the towns 64also watch television especially in the evening Inthe countryside only 40 of people have access totelevision
bull Radio Chaguarurco is number one in terms ofaudience in both the towns and the countryside Itis however most popular in the countrysideamong adult listeners and among people with lesseducation
bull Forty percent of respondents from the villages claimto listen to Radio Chaguarurco everyday In thecountryside this rises to almost 50
bull The most popular programming is music followed bynews programmes and community announcements
The survey showed that the radio station was wellreceived by its audience but it also showed whereimprovements could be made by adjusting the sched-ule providing better training to the announcers andputting more agricultural information in the programming
In addition to the figures however the survey alsoshowed that after only four years on the air RadioChaguarurco has helped to make a number of important changes in community life It has improvedcommunication helped bring about more democracyand less abuse made a positive contribution by promoting the sharing of experiences and solutions toproblems and made people more aware of and proudof their own culture
How the Radio Station Has Helped theCommunity
The station has a system of announcements andcommuniqueacutes For three half-hour periods a day -morning noon and evening - people can send allkinds of messages concerning the situation ofpatients in hospital deaths lost animals invitationsto meetings etc The radio is thus the telephonefor those who do not have one
As a result of the stationrsquos existence the authoritiesinstitutions and merchants have become moredemocratic Before it was an everyday practice toabuse campesinos charge them more than theright price sell material that was intended forpublic-works projects and so on Now everybodyhears about such abuses on the radio and theyhave practically disappeared as a result
The radio has served to share experiences and problems For example a community that has succeeded in the struggle to obtain a service suchas electricity or drinking water explains on theradio how they went about it the procedures andwhat public offices they had to go to making itmuch easier for others to follow In addition solu-tions to everyday problems are shared eg ideasabout farming techniques or latrine building areexchanged
The radio is also helping to revalue the local culturemusic and way of speaking Songs that had practic-ally disappeared and that were only sung by theoldest people during family gatherings are onceagain heard on the radio Programmes containingsuch songs are among the most popular programmes on the radio and they aregenerating renewed pride in the localculture
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99
COMMUNITY RADIO HANDBOOKThis Community Radio Handbook aims to show that ordinary people even non-technical rural folk
can plan set up manage and produce radio programmes by themselves with a minimum of depen-dence on outside help whether for technical advice and training or for funds and equipment Althoughquite a number of radio stations began with a big helping hand from outside many community stationsthat on the air today were lsquoself-start-upsrsquo They began with a minimum of equipment and technicalknowledge but a strong community organization and a group will to push ahead and succeed
The Handbook highlights the case-stories of several such stations including Homa Bay Radio inKenya Radio Apam in Ghana Minersrsquo Radio in Bolivia Radio Sagarmatha in the Kathmandu valleyNepal Tambuli Community Radio in the Philippines and several others in order to share these creativeexperiences with others preparing to set up similar radio stations
As a handy reference for planning management technical background group dynamics broadcas-ting legislation and radio production formats based on pioneering experiences this book is a basic yetcomprehensive and practical reader for communication students researchers and planners and a lsquomustrsquofor prospective community broadcasters
1rue Miollis 75732 Paris Cedex 15
Further information Tel (331)45684025 bull Fax (331)45685585
e-mail ipanevskaunescoorg
- Contents
-
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the following people and organizations for their generous support and help Maria Victoria Polanco Sophie Ly and Elvira Truglia of the WorldAssociation of Community Broadcasters (AMARC) David Shanks of the World Association for Christian Communication (WACC) Martin Allard of Mallard Concepts LtdLawrie Hallet of the UK Community Media Association and the authors of the five case studies Louie N Tabing Ian Pringle Alex and Wilna Quarmyne Zane Ibrahimand Ms Adams and Bruce Girard Special thanks are due to Louie Tabing whose pioneering work in the concept and practice of true community radio and prolific writings on the subject have been aninspiration for much of the material in the handbook
Much research interest has been devoted to mass media In their findings communicationspecialists have always acknowledged that there are many sectors communities and minorities whose access to information and means of self-expression are not always guaranteed by mass channels They have recognized that more sharply focused customizedand essentially small and local media are crucial in filling this gap
During the last two decades UNESCO has commissioned a number of studies andpublished monographs on the theme of community media The first monograph published byUNESCO on the theme of community media was Access Some Western Models of CommunityMedia by Frances Berrigan which appeared in 1977 and in 1981 the enquiry was extendedto the developing countries in a study by the same author entitled CommunityCommunications ndash the Role of Community Media in Development (No 90 in the series ofReports and Papers on Mass Communication) A few years later Peter Lewis prepared theUNESCO study Media for People in Cities (1984) which brought together a number of case-studies and the conclusions of two research meetings on urban community media
During the ensuing years UNESCO began setting up community radio stations in Africa(Homa Bay 1982) and Asia (Mahaweli 1986 and Tambuli Community radios 1982) The growthof the community radio lsquomovementrsquo was covered in a section of the UNESCO WorldCommunication Report in 1997
UNESCO sees community radio as a medium that gives voice to the voiceless thatserves as the mouthpiece of the marginalized and is at the heart of communication anddemocratic processes within societies With community radio citizens have the means tomake their views known on decisions that concern them The notions of transparency andgood governance take on new dimensions and democracy is reinforced Community radiocatalyzes the development efforts of rural folk and the underprivileged segments of urbansocieties given its exceptional ability to share timely and relevant information on developmentissues opportunities experiences life skills and public interests Given the audiencersquos lowliteracy rate and radiorsquos ability to involve women and to treat them not only as objects ormerely as a target audience but as participating agents and as a valuable source communityradio becomes one of the most promising tools for community development This hasbeen demonstrated by the special UNESCO project Women Speaking to Women community radiostations for the empowerment of women
In the age of multimedia and online communication the potential of community radioto provide for effective outreach to discuss and create demand for the Internet has becomeeven greater The Kothmale Internet radio experiment in Sri Lanka has proven that radiostations can promote and use the Internet in rural communities overcoming language barriersand lack of infrastructure By using radio and browsing the Internet to respond to listenersrsquodirect queries by sharing information and knowledge derived from the Internet the wholecommunity is involved and empowered with new opportunities
Against this background of challenges I believe that this handbook can contributetowards helping different communication actors technicians operators and radio producersin community radio stations to make more efficient use of community media for communitydevelopment by getting people involved in clarifying issues and solving problems and intalking to each other
The handbook is based on the experience and innovative thinking of communicationexperts and practitioners whose contribution I would like especially to acknowledge thelate Jake Mills former Director of Engineering Ghana Broadcasting Corporation whodesigned the prototype sound mixer Martin Allard electronics engineer designer of theUNESCO prototype transmitter Alex Quarmyne former UNESCO RegionalCommunication Advisor in Africa and project manager for Homa Bay in Kenya the firstcommunity radio in Africa Carlos Arnaldo former Chief of Communication Policies andResearch Section at UNESCO as project manager of Mahaweli community radio GeorgesDupont-Henius engineer UNESCO Communication Development Division WijayanandaJayaweera UNESCO Regional Communication Advisor for Asia and creator of KothmaleInternet Radio project Kwame Boafo of UNESCO Communication and InformationSector Louie Tabing project manager of Tambuli community radios and creator of Village on the Air For the time they took in producing this book and for their valuablecomments I should also like to thank Sonia Restrepo Estrada and Colin Fraiser for compilingthese experiences and putting them together for publication
Claude OndoboDeputy Assistant Director-General
for Communication and Information and Director of Communication Development Division
PREFACE
iii
Preface helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip iii
Introduction helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 1Any Community Can Start its Own Radio Station helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 1
Chapter 1 Community Radio in the Broadcasting Scene helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 3
Community Radio in the Context of the Globalization of Media helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 5
The Evolution of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 6
An Important Initiative by UNESCO helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 8
Box 1 The Minersrsquo Radio in Bolivia helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 12
Box 2 Radio SutatenzaACPO in Colombia helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 13
Chapter 2 Features and Functions of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 15
Essential Features of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 15
Functions of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 18
Box 3 Involvement of Women helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 23
Chapter 3 Legal Aspects helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 25
Uneven and Haphazard Legislation helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 25
Most Progress in Africa helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 25
Asia and Indiarsquos Lengthy Debate on Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 27
Legislation in Some Latin American Countries helliphelliphelliphelliphellip 28
Some Examples from Western Europe helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 30
Convergence and Divergence in Legislation helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 31
Applying for a Licence helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 32
Chapter 4 Technical Aspects helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 33
Technical Background helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 33
Broadcasting Equipment helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 35
Reliability and Maintenance helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 39
Studio Premises helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 40
Spatial Relationship Between the Components of the Radio Station helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 40
Future Possibilities helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 41
Specialist Advice helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 43
Box 4 Basic Equipment for a UNESCO-supported Community Radio Station helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 44
Chapter 5 Getting Started helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 45
Legal Context helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 45
Preparatory Work in the Community helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 46
Importance of a Mission Statement helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 48
Role of the Religious Establishment helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49
Role of Local Educational Institutions helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49
Involvement of Politicians helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49
Choosing a Location in the Community helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49
Box 5 Involvement of Politicians helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 50
Choosing a Model helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 50
Power of the Transmitter helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 51
Ownership and Management helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 51
Programminghelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 51
Staff helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip52
Sustainability helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip52
Looking for Outside Funding for Start-up Costs helliphelliphelliphellip54
Box 6 Main Factors to Consider When Planning a Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip54
Chapter 6 Programme Policieshelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 57
Participatory Programmes helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 57
Community News helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 60
Balancing Views helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 60
Coverage of Religious and Cultural Events helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 61
Local Election Broadcasts helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 61
Educational Broadcasts helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 61
Audience Surveys helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 63
Chapter 7 The Community Broadcaster helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 65
Code of Conduct helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 65
A Prototype Code of Conduct helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 66
Selection of Community Broadcasters helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 71
Training of Community Broadcasters helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 71
Chapter 8 Case Studies helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 75
Radio Olutanga (Tambuli Project) Philippines helliphelliphelliphelliphellip 75
Radio Sagarmatha Nepal helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 80
Radio Ada Ghana helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 85
Bush Radio South Africa helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 90
Radio Chaguarurco Ecuador helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 95
Table of contents
Communities and Communication
ldquoPeople live in a community by virtue of the thingswhich they have in common and communication isthe way in which they come to possess things in commonrdquo 1
T here are more than 20000radio stations in the worldand more than 2 billion
radio receivers Any notion thatTV and other sophisticated communication technology willreplace radio is unfounded forradio is in constant expansion Itswaves reach almost every cornerof our planet It is the prime electronic medium of the poorbecause it leaps the barriers of isolation and illiteracy and it is themost affordable electronic mediumto broadcast and receive in
The last two decades have seen arapid expansion in the number andpopularity of community radiostations Among the reasons forthis are the democratization anddecentralization processes in manyparts of the world deregulation ofthe media and the relaxing ofbroadcasting monopolies by stateinstitutions and disaffection withcommercial radio channels
Furthermore awareness is growingof the social and economic benefitsthat can result when ordinarypeople have access to appropriateinformation And it is also evidentthat when people especially the
poor can participate incommunica-tion processesand consensusbuilding aboutissues thataffect theirlives it helpsthem to cast off their traditionalstate of apathy and stimulatesthem to mobilize and organize tohelp themselves
ANY COMMUNITY CANSTART ITS OWN RADIO STATION
To start a small radio station is notas complicated and expensive asmany people think There isenough experience in many countries to prove that it is withinthe reach of almost any community
Community Will is the Key
The primordial condition for acommunity to start its own radiostation is a sense of internal cohe-sion and community consciousnessThere must be willingness forcooperative work and to poolresources and enthusiastic consensus
that the people want their own radioin order to advance their community
As part of the consensus buildingthat leads to the decision to establisha community radio the communitymust analyze its communicationneeds and determine how radiocould help to resolve them Thetraditional approach to develop-ment is to provide support to agriculture health education andso on and a radio station may notnormally be seen as a priority Buta community that analyzes itsneeds in detail and thinks aboutthe causes of its problems andmarginalization will often cometo the conclusion that it needscommunication processes to helppeople share common understan-ding and common goals This is thefirst step towards a communitytaking action to establish its ownradio station
ldquoEveryone has the right to freedom of opinion andexpression this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek receiveand impart information and ideas through any mediaand regardless of frontiersrdquo
Right of information section Article 19 of theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights
ldquoCommunity radio is a social process or eventin which members of the community associatetogether to design programmes and produce andair them thus taking on the primary role of actorsin their own destiny whether this be for something as common as mending fences in theneighbourhood or a community-wide campaign on how to use clean water and keep it clean or agitation for theelection of new leaders The emphasis is on the ownership of democratic and development efforts by the members of the communitythemselves and the use of media in this case radio toachieve it In every sense this is participatory communication(not programmes made about them by somebody else) It is above all a process not a technology not merely ameans because the people are part of that means and sois the message and the audienceCommunity radio is most relevant to a group of peoplewho live and act as a community and this could be severalfamilies several neighbourhoods or even several villagesor communities but the important thing is that theyinteract That is why I think of community radio as the
community speaking to each other and acting together forcommon goalsrdquo
Carlos A Arnaldo
Introduction
A basic Community Radio Studio in Burkina Faso
1
Com
mun
ity
Rad
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oduc
tion
Phot
o U
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CO
2
Producing Programmes does notneed Magical Skills
The professional tasks of managing astation and producing programmesare not beyond the reach of typicalcommunities Unfortunately expo-sure to commercial andor stateradio leaves many people with theimpression that such professionalstandards are the norm and theydo not realize that good and effec-tive radio broadcasting can bemuch less formalized Nor do theyrealize that the usefulness andimpact of any media productiondepends much more on its relevan-ce to the audience than on its for-mal quality
This is not to say that quality ofprogrammes in terms of theirstructure and their technical level isunimportant For example impro-per use of recording equipmentmay result in programmes of suchpoor sound quality that they aredifficult to understand Howeverexperience with community radioshows that when people are moti-vated and enthusiastic the mini-mum technical levels required forbroadcasting can be masteredduring only a few weeks of trainingAnd as they gain hands-on produc-tion experience their skills developmarkedly They quickly reach fullysatisfactory levels of performance
The Cost and Technologyare not Prohibitive
The equipment requiredfor community radio isrobust and easy to main-tain and it does not needsupport from broadcastingengineers beyond some ini-tial training Its cost isconstantly falling For atypical community radiostation the normal cost ofthe equipment is little morethan US$20000 For minimalbroadcasting there is even asuitcase available weighing 16 kgwhich contains a five-watt trans-mitter a six-channel audio mixertwo compact disc players two cas-sette taperecordersplayers and anantenna The total cost is aboutUS$3000
There are also FM radio receiverswith a solar strip that can eitherpower the radio or charge a batteryAt night the radio can be poweredby a dynamo winding up the radioby hand for two minutes provides30 minutes of listening time
The tendency among those produ-cing equipment for communityradio has been to focus on simplicityof installation use and maintenanceAnd local people often show extra-ordinary capacity to adapt andbuild for themselves For examplein Cape Verde UNESCO helpedlocal technicians to install a single
transmitter on one islandHowever the technicians were soeager and enterprising that after-wards they built two more trans-mitters so that they could have oneon each of the three main islandsThis was despite the fact that thecomponents originally made avai-lable were scarcely enough for onestation Furthermore they also linkedthe three stations over seeminglyimpossible distances to form a net-work that shares programmes in acomplicated schedule every day5
Media and Development
ldquoDeveloping communities are characterized by isolation from ideas and information as well as services At the simplest level before people canconsider a question they need to be fully aware of allthe facts the short-term effects and the long-termimplications ways in which decisions taken in onearea will affect future planning Communicationmedia could present this informationrdquo 2
Phot
o C
A A
rnal
do
The Judges are the Listeners
ldquoIt is unfortunate that the so-called radio professionals have set certain artistic productionstandards which could intimidate the regular villagepeople The irony is that the so-called professionalproductions cannot compete with programmes doneby the inexperienced village people The professionalsforget that the ultimate judge of a radio programmeis the listenerrdquo 4
Donrsquot be afraid of radio
ldquoNo one should be afraid to use radio I have been abroadcaster for almost a quarter of a century andI know nothing about the electronics side of radio
Even today I cannot explain how my voice in the studio is processed and passed on finally to the family radio maybe hundreds of kilometres awayrdquo 5
1 John Dewey (1916) cited by Elizabeth Blanks HindmanldquoCommunity Democracy and Neighbourhood NewsrdquoInternational Communication Association (1998)
2 Frances J Berrigan ldquoCommunity Communications - the role ofcommunity media in developmentrdquo Reports and Papers onMass Communication no 90 UNESCO (Paris 1981)
3 Louie Tabing Neighbourhood Radio ProductionUNESCODANIDA Tambuli Project Philippines
4 Martin AllardrdquoOn the AirhellipThe Development of CommunityRadiordquo UNESCO Sources no 21 (1990)
5 Louie Tabing Manager of the UNESCODANIDA TambuliProject Philippines
Mang Vicente of Ibahay on Aklan Island in Southern Philippines plays traditional melodies on a flute made from PVC plumbing pipe
Chapter 1Community Radio in the Broadcasting Scene
3
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mun
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1
T his chapter describes the place of community radio in the broadcastingscene and explains the essential
difference in its approach compared to conventional public service or commercialbroadcasting A rationale is put forward for itsimportance in the scenario of increasing mediaglobalization
The evolution of community radio from itsfirst experiences some 50 years ago is tracedand set in the context of broadcast mediaownership patterns technical developmentsand the recent trends towards democratization and decentralization
The reader will acquire
bull An understanding of the special nature ofcommunity radio compared to other types ofradio broadcasting
bull An understanding of its place and importan-ce in the trend towards media globalization
bull Knowledge about its background specificfield experiences and the factors that havedetermined its evolution
This theoretical framework provides the long-term foundation for practical knowledge andskills to be gained in later chapters
Broadcasting can be divided into three general categories
bull Public-service broadcasting is generally conductedby a statutory entity which is usually - though notnecessarily ndash a state-supported or a state-ownedcorporation Its broadcasting policies and programmingare often controlled by a public body such as a councilor a legally constituted authority This body ensuresthat broadcasting operates to provide informationeducation and entertainment to the citizens andsociety in general and independently of governmentparty politics or other interests Much of the fundingfor the operation comes from licence fees that the listenersviewers pay for the receivers they have intheir homes
bull Commercial or private broadcasting providesprogrammes designed primarily for profit fromadvertising revenue and is owned and controlled byprivate individuals or by commercial enterprises
bull Community broadcasting is a non-profit servicethat is owned and managed by a particular communityusually through a trust foundation or association Itsaim is to serve and benefit that community It is ineffect a form of public-service broadcasting but itserves a community rather than the whole nation asis the usual form of public broadcasting describedabove Moreover it relies and must rely mainly on the resources of the community A community is considered to be a group of people who share
A Declaration of Principle
ldquoCommunity radio responds to the needs of the community it serves contributing to its developmentwithin progressive perspectives in favour of socialchange Community radio strives to democratizecommunication through community participation indifferent forms in accordance with each specificsocial contextrdquo
World Association of Community Broadcasters(AMARC) 1988
4
common characteristics andorinterests The commonality ofinterests may be based on
- The sharing of a single geographicallocation that is to say those livingin a specific town village orneighbourhood
- The sharing of economic and sociallife through trade marketingexchange of goods and services
Unfortunately this tidy classificationinto three categories of broadcastingis less than tidy in practice forthere can be combinations andoverlapping situations For examplea local commercial radio stationmay also broadcast some communityservice programmes a station ownedand managed by an NGO such as areligious institution may fill most ofits air time with such programmesand state-owned public-servicebroadcasting has increasingly beendecentralizing to the local level andproviding programming for thecommunities around it
Not surprisingly there is still nosingle definition or description ofcommunity radio And to complicatematters further there have beenvarious terms applied to small-scaleradio broadcasting such as lsquolocalrsquolsquoalternativersquo lsquoindependentrsquo or lsquofreersquoradio All of these lack precision Forexample the term lsquolocal radiorsquo
could also cover the decentralizedoperation through a local stationof a state-controlled broadcastingsystem or even a small commercialstation Terms such as lsquoalternativersquoand lsquofreersquo are also imprecise even ifin the context of radio they arenormally taken to mean alternativeto the mainstream mass media andfree from government ownershipand control Logically thereforethey include community radio butthey do not necessarily include it
The various definitions of communityradio that have been formulatedshare many common elements Thesimple and catchy phrase lsquoRadio bythe people and for the peoplersquo isoften used as a good summary Thisphrase captures well the essentialprinciple that must be in place for abroadcasting service to be consideredtrue community radio It must firstlybe managed by the communitysecondly be to serve that community
Strict application of these two principles would mean that a radiostation owned by a non-profitNGO and also managed by thatNGO would not necessarily qualifyas a true community radio even ifmuch of its programming wereaimed at community developmentThis is the case for many broadcastingservices run by religious organiza-tions and in practice the term
lsquocommunity radiorsquo is often used tocover this type of operation as wellOne example is Radio Maria whichbeginning from a single parish inNorthern Italy in 1983 now coversall of Italy and also has stations in21 other countries It is essentiallyan evangelical operation but it alsodoes a great deal in social servicesand community developmentusing volunteers and supported byspontaneous contributions fromlisteners
The somewhat confusing situationregarding what constitutes truecommunity radio can perhaps bestbe understood by considering thefollowing quotation this sums up aphilosophical approach that makescommunity radio different fromcommercial or public-service radio
ldquoCommunity radio emphasizes thatit is not commercial and does notshare what it would call the prescriptive and paternalistic attitude of public-service broadcas-tinghellip The key difference is thatwhile the commercial and public-service models both treat listenersas objects to be captured foradvertisers or to be improved andinformed community radio aspiresto treat its listeners as subjects andparticipantsrdquo 4
One Definition
ldquoA community radio station is characterized by itsownership and programming and the community it isauthorized to serve It is owned and controlled by anon-profit organization whose structure provides formembership management operation and programming primarily by members of the community at large Its programming should bebased on community access and participation andshould reflect the special interests and needs of thelistenership it is licenced to serverdquo 1
On Radio Work for Ordinary People - a Practitionerrsquos View
ldquoRadio is simply people talking with people The Tambuli stations have merely expanded theopportunity for people to talk more to a wideraudience and to listen to a more expansive array ofideas on matters that directly concern themrdquo 2
On Community Ownership and Management
ldquoTo qualify as a community radio the ownership and control of the station must rest squarely and unquestionably with the community it claimsto serverdquo 3
Commercial Media Antagonism Towards Community Media
ldquoMainstream commercial media continue to harbournegative feelings about community media and areconvinced that they are adequately able to servecommunity needs They have not yet come around toaccepting that the special character of communitymedia is complementary rather than antagonisticand mutually exclusiverdquo 5
This placing of both public andcommercial broadcasting into aprescriptive category treating listeners as objects is significantfor even when they broadcasttheir so-called community serviceprogrammes they usually remainin the same prescriptive modeThis is contrary to the participatoryessence of community radio programming
COMMUNITY RADIO IN THE CONTEXT OF THEGLOBALIZATION OFMEDIA
Recent years have seen a strongtrend towards the globalization ofmedia Colossal media enterprisesof a commercial nature have beenformed and increasingly span theglobe with their programmesCertain countries have also becomecentres of highly successful mediaproduction mainly of an enter-tainment character and sell theiroutput to TV channels worldwideObvious examples are soap operasfrom the USA However audienceresearch has shown that peopleprefer to watch programmes withtheir own cultural orientationsrather than those imported fromothers For this reason media productions from developing
countries such as Brazil ChinaEgypt India and Indonesia arenow gaining wider distribution inlarge-scale commercial media
While some people argue that theglobalization of the media disruptslocal cultures others state thatglobal media intensifies theconsciousness of the world as awhole and is therefore beneficialThey see global media and community media as complemen-tary each forming important functions that the other cannotAnd this is certainly the case
By definition global media arecommercial and need to attractlarge audiences for their adverti-sing content Thus they broadcastprogrammes that attempt to satisfya common thread of sensitivitiesamong large numbers of peopleusing well-tried and rather standardif not banal entertainment formatsThe lack of variety in programmeorientation is therefore generallyattributed to the lsquoself-censorshiprsquoof the market which uses entertainment as the sole criterionfor selection However it is alsotrue that governments tend to bemore comfortable with privatebroadcasters limiting themselvesto entertainment rather thanbecoming involved in the moreproblematic area of news and
current affairs For these reasonsthemes reflecting socio-politicalinterests are often insufficientlycovered or deliberately ignoredby private broadcasters
Clearly given their characteristicsand orientation commercial andglobal media can hardly meetsocio-economic and developmentneeds of the countries they coverThe excessive entertainment provided by commercial televisionhas often provoked a call for areappraisal of the potential ofpublic broadcasting stressing theneed for quality programmes anddemanding more possibilities ofchoice and access for audiences A logical step in this direction is toexpand the democratization ofmedia to the community levelespecially through communityradio in which accessibility is thenorm
Furthermore community radioworks in the cultural context ofthe community it serves it dealswith local issues in the local language or languages it is relevantto local problems and concernsand its aim is to help the commu-nity to develop socially culturallyand economically This is not onlyin contrast with global media operations it is also in contrastwith centralized urban-based 5
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mun
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io H
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Global Communication
ldquoGeorge Orwell in Nineteen Eighty-Four warned us ofa society controlled by Big Brother Is that what weare encountering today when we see so many peoplein poor communities tuning into western dominatedideals of the rich consumer society Orwell was veryconcerned about the socialist drives of the industrialage But perhaps he was also warning about the takeover of society by a democratic political power drivento degradation by these very industrial drives and bythe easy resort to globalization of mediardquo 6
The Power of the Local Approach
ldquoAn effective strategy for the community radiostation is to present what cannot be offered by any
other radio station that is local content with a localflavour The local radio station must dwell on itsstrongest reason for existence - local events issuesconcerns and personalities If a local station can doan exhaustive reportage of what goes on in its community on a regular basis there is no way aregional or national broadcast outfit could competefor listenership The element of proximity is the mostpotent quality that the community radio should capitalize on People will be enthusiastic to know ona daily or even hourly basis about the people andevents unfolding next to their place of aboderdquo 7
6
national media even of a publicservice nature for they are oftenremote from the realities of ruralcommunities and their needs
THE EVOLUTION OF COMMUNITY RADIO
The pioneering experiences fromwhich todayrsquos community radio hasevolved began some 50 years agoin Latin America Poverty and socialinjustice were the stimulus forthose first experiences one beginningin Bolivia in 1947 and known as theMinersrsquo radios and another inColombia in the same year knownas Radio SutatenzaAccioacutenCulturalPopular (See boxes 1 and 2 at the end of this Chapter for descriptions)
These experiences in Bolivia andColombia set a trend even iftodayrsquos concept of communityradio has evolved considerably Forexample the Minersrsquo radios inBolivia were working in thedecades of ideological clash between Marxism and capitalismThus their principal focus was tounite the community of miners tobattle for better and fairer workingconditions They were generallyconsidered to be trade unionradios even if the miners providedmuch of the finance for the purchase
of equipment and running costs
Radio SutatenzaACPO in Colombiaalthough inspired by the aim ofsupporting the community of peasants was not owned or directlymanaged by them There was muchfeedback from peasants - some50000 letters a year ndash and thesecertainly ensured the integration ofthe peasantsrsquo desires and needsinto the radiorsquos programming Butit was not truly lsquoradio by the peoplefor the peoplersquo which is todayrsquosaim
Even so this first systematic effortby Radio Sutatenza to educate byradio created a movement thatldquohellipspread and was later consolidatedthrough ALER the Latin AmericanEducational Radio BroadcastingAssociation This inter-linkage ofradio and education is basic to theidea of public service and markedthe birth of community media inLatin Americardquo 8
However even if the groundbreak-ing work was in Latin America itwas in Europe that communityradio first became a vital phenome-non an alternative to ndash or a critiqueof ndash mainstream broadcast mediaThe first challenges to state public-service broadcasting were in the1960s-70s when ldquoswashbucklingentrepreneurs boarded the airwavesillegally and seized as much of the
audience as they could carry awayfrom the treasure chest monopolycontrolled by the staterdquo 9 In theWest these pirate stations proved acatalyst in motivating governmentsand national broadcasting systemsto introduce legitimate local radio
In Africa the establishment ofcommunity radio became in abroad sense a social movementafter the demise of the apartheidregime in South Africa This wasfollowed by democratizationdecentralization and to someextent structural adjustmentelsewhere in that continent10
The pressure groups that have instigated community radio inmany parts of the world (egminers pirate radio operators missionaries and democracy movements) have been less presentin Asia In their place internationalagencies such as UNESCO andother external donors have oftentaken initiatives to help get community radio off the groundAnd in some cases it has been thenational broadcasting organizationthat has itself started communityradio services
Vision of Joaquiacuten Salcedo founder of RadioSutatenza and Accioacuten Cultural Popular
ldquoWithin weeks of arriving in Sutatenza Salcedo as ajunior priest had challenged the peasantry from thepulpit to take up arms against the poverty and backwardness that afflicted them and had offered hishand and vision in a partnership They respondedand so a pact was formed
Salcedo pioneered a concept known as lsquointegralfundamental educationrsquo similar to what today is
often called lsquolife educationrsquo The core of the conceptis that the educational process must be the development of the individual as a whole person and as a member of society
It became an ACPO slogan that lsquodevelopment is inthe mind of mankindrsquo And providing people witheducation in the broadest sense would enable themto make informed decisions and become proactivein taking control of their livesrdquo 11
The Influence of DifferentBroadcasting Ownership Systems
Latin America adopted the NorthAmerican system of mainly privateand commercial broadcastingwith multiple stations of variedpower and reach In this context itwas relatively easy for new stationsto start up And several thousandhave done so in Latin Americaoften initially as illegal or piratestations
In Western European countriesthe public-service state broadcastingmonopolies which had been setup when radio and later TV werefirst introduced usually had management mechanisms throughstatutory public bodies Thesecontrolling bodies ensured thatbroadcasting policies and programmes were as independentas possible of government partypolitical or other influences
European countries that adoptedthis public-service broadcastingapproach through state networksdid so because from the very firstdays of radio in the 1920s and TVsome 30 years later the electronicmedia were considered by leadingthinkers as marvellous instrumentsfor expanding culture educationand information and for improvingsocieties According to that thinkingthe mass media could not be
allowed to function principally ona commercial basis and as a vehicleto be taken over by the advertisingindustry to market products
Many countries in the developingworld especially in Africa and Asiawhere European countries hadheld influence as colonizers adoptedthe European model at least as faras the state monopoly on broad-casting was concerned Howeverthey did not always allow broad-casting policy to be controlled by astatutory and independent publicbody preferring complete controlby government of all aspects oftheir electronic media Thus manygovernments especially those ofcentrally planned economies usedtheir broadcasting networks tofurther their political aims and inparticular to consolidate theirpower base
In such circumstances and fullyrealizing that information ispower these governments withfully state-controlled broadcastingwere extremely reluctant to allowany electronic media to operateindependently This made it difficultfor community media initiatives toget started Only in the early 1980sdid some governments begin torelax their opposition to indepen-dent media but even today manygovernments still effectively oppose
the idea of relinquishing theirmonopolistic control of the broad-casting media
On the other hand it has becomeclear in the last decade or so thatattempts to control information ina society are doomed to fail The fax machine on a desk thecomputer connected to theInternet electronic mail andsatellite television are underminingall the efforts of repressiveregimes to control and conditionthe information that their peoplereceive This situation coupledwith the spread of democracy andfreedom of expression in mostparts of the world is opening thedoor to community media initiativesand particularly to communityradio And governments in countriesthat have already opened the doorare able to see for themselves thatcommunity radio has great potentialfor promoting and supportingd e ce n t ra l i ze d e n d o g e n o u sdevelopment
Technical Evolution
In addition to the political aspectsof decentralizing broadcastingthere are technical factors thathave played and continue to playa very important part in the evolu-tion of community radio 7
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Alternative Media as Antibodies
ldquoSome fifteen years ago I described alternative media as antibodies producedas a protection against the neglect insensitivity and insanity of the conventional mediardquo 12
8
Two important breakthroughs haveallowed major progress firstlycheap transistor receivers andsecondly low-powered and cheaptransmitters
Until the invention of the transistorin the mid-1950s radio receiversused valves and were expensive andcumbersome Until that time mostof the worldrsquos radio receivers weremanufactured in North Americaand Europe but the arrival of thetransistor paved the way to massiveradio ownership in developingco u n t r i e s Fo r e xa m p l e i n Sub-Saharan Africa India andChina the number of radio receiversexpanded from two million in 1956to 90 million in 1975 And the number of radios has continued toexpand dramatically worldwide tothe two billion or more of today
The availability of cheap receivershas played a key role in the evolu-tion of community radio with apush-pull effect in the sense thatonce a community station starts tobroadcast there is often a significantrise in radio ownership This is anindication that radio listening maybe as much a function of peoplersquosinterest in what is being broadcastas their ability to afford a radioreceiver For example in a poorrural area of Mali where a communityradio station began to function
radio ownership rapidly rose by 140 percent 13
The second technical breakthroughwas low-power transmitters using abroadcasting system known asFrequency Modulation (FM) Thesebecame increasingly available in the1970s and 1980s (See also Chapter4) Small companies in severalcountries began to produce equip-ment that was designed specificallyfor community radio operationsMuch of it was in kit form and sorobust and simple that it was idealfor use in the often harsh conditionsof developing countries
AN IMPORTANT INITIATIVE BY UNESCO
Among UNESCOrsquos missions areldquothe free exchange of ideas andknowledgerdquo and promoting ldquofreeflow of ideas by word and imagerdquoIn this context UNESCO launchedan initiative to support communityradio in 1980
The initiative began with discussionsin 1980 between UNESCO and theEconomic Commission for Africaon local radio broadcasting Thesehighlighted the fact that very fewAfrican countries had a commonlanguage that enabled nationalbroadcasting to effectively reachthe rural people who made up as
much as 80 percent of the popula-tion The best broadcasters coulddo was to select perhaps ten of themain local languages and broadcastdaily programmes in them on atime-sharing basis Thus no singlecommunity could listen to a languageit understood for more than a shortperiod each day
There were also problems of physi-cal and mental distance the centralbroadcasting facilities were oftentoo far away from their ruralaudiences for their broadcastsignals to be received intelligiblyand the urban-based programmeproducers were too far away mentally to know and understandtheir rural audiences properly
The discussions in those early daysand for many years afterwardsassumed that the state broadcastingsystems would be decentralized tolocal stations These would mainlyrelay the signal from the capital but would also originate some programmes locally This systemwould keep the local radio underthe control of the national broad-casters and as such it cannot beconsidered as an example of thecommunity broadcasting model oftoday
On the Potential of Community Broadcasting in Africa
ldquoCommunity-based radio broadcasting could be theleast costly mass medium for development in media-starved rural Africa It could promote positivecultural identity using local languages which areineffectively used on national broadcasting stationsand are usually accessible only to urban and eliteaudiencesrdquo 14
Big Boxes are More Impressive
ldquoIntegrated circuits and new componentsenable us to make smaller pieces of equipment but some manufacturers justlike to use big boxes open them up andthey are practically empty insiderdquo 15
Equipment Factor A first needwas for cheap and simple equip-ment quite different from the kindof equipment used by state orcommercial radio stations SoUNESCO organized a workshop atBrighton Polytechnic in 1980 thatbrought together British ChineseCuban French and Ghanaian engi-neers The purpose was to identifypriorities and outline designconcepts A first requirement wasa 10-watt FM transmitter thatcould run off a 12-volt car batteryor even solar panels and thesecond was for a simple and cheapaudio mixer similarly powered forbringing together sounds (voicesmusic and sound effects) into asingle programme for broadcast-ing The other necessary itemssuch as tape recorders and recordturntables could be purchased atreasonable prices in the market
The transmitter was designed andbuilt by Mallard Concepts inBritain and the six-channel audiomixer was designed and its pro-duction supervised by Jake Mills aGhanaian who was for many yearsthe technical director of GhanaBroadcasting Corporation
Based on integrated circuitry theMallard transmitter was onlyslightly larger than a home hi-fiamplifier It could be deliveredeither in kit form or fully assem-bled The largest component in theequipment was the transformer the
device for conver-ting power from110- or 220-voltalternating currentto 12-volt directcurrent
The cost of theMallard equipmentpackage was aroundUS$2000 comparedto about US$15000or more for com-mercial transmittersof similar power
Tests with theMallard transmittershowed that itssignal could beheard on a normalradio at a range ofup to 12-20 km Itwas so light androbust that it could easily be takenout into the countryside in a carPowered from the carrsquos batteryand with an antenna hoisted into atree an outside broadcast stationcould be set up
UNESCO also worked on solar-powered receivers and onproblems such as the cheapconversion of existing AM receiversso that they could also pick up FMbroadcasts Despite some promisingdesigns for solar-powered receiversit proved impossible to find amanufacturer that could mass-produce them on the scale necessaryto make them cheap enough for
Soldering circuits for 20-watt FM transmittersin Brixham UK
9
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ity
Rad
io H
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1 An early model
of the FM community radiotransmitter designed byMallard ConceptsLtd UK forUNESCO
Phot
o C
A A
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Phot
o W
Jay
awee
ra
10
even the very poor to buy Bothsolar and wind-up generator radiosets are manufactured today but atprices still prohibitive to most ruralfolk
Political Factors Solving thetechnical problems was often lessdifficult than overcoming the political ones in promoting thespread of community radioUNESCOrsquos push in the area of community radio was essentiallyradical based on concepts ofhuman rights and freedom ofexpression But the world of theearly 1980rsquos was still divided byideological conflict between Leftand Right and state monopolies onbroadcasting were the norm inmany developing countries
It is easy to think that governmentssimply wanted to repress all formsof self-expression that could pose athreat to their authority or to theirstable hold on power However closer consideration shows thatmany governments especially incountries with a multiplicity of ethnic groups and languages feltthat national identity and unitywould be strengthened throughhaving a single broadcasting voicefrom the centre and through promoting a national languageWhatever the reason for govern-ments to defend their broadcasting
monopolies UNESCO faced anoteworthy challenge in promotingcommunity radio
The First Community RadioStation in Africa
The government of Kenya was thefirst to open the door to UNESCOrsquosproposal for setting up a communityradio In May 1982 a Mallard 10-watt transmitter as well as anaudio mixer designed by Jake Millsand related broadcasting equipmentof a total value of less thanUS$25000 were supplied to thecommunity of Homa Bay on LakeVictoria This is a poor area withmany problems of underdevelop-ment Local people were givenbasic training in how to use theequipment and the station beganbroadcasting for two hours a day inLuo one of Kenyarsquos principle lan-guages but not that of the dominantethnic and political group
Homa Bay was successfully on airfor only two-and-a-half years beforethe government closed it down forit was said to be working contraryto the official policy of makingSwahili and English the nationallanguages Furthermore despite itsvery local coverage it was said tobe increasing tensions between different ethnic groups
Building on Homa Bay
Despite this political setback theHoma Bay experience proved that asmall community radio operationcould be effectively set up withequipment costs of less thanUS$25000 and that it could function in a low-technology environment without encounteringtechnical problems
UNESCOrsquos initiative in communityradio coincided with some worldtrends that favoured it The mostimportant of these was the growingawareness of the limitations of centrally planned economies leadingultimately to the collapse of theideology that had built them But innon-Marxist countries too demo-cratization decentralization andneo-liberal policies were on themarch and this was also leading toa greater willingness to decentralizenational broadcasting systems
In Sri Lanka the Sri LankaBroadcasting Corporation hadalready regionalized its services andthe notion of starting communityradio was a natural next step Thusin 1983 the second UNESCO community radio initiative wasbegun in the context of a largemulti-purpose irrigation schemethe Mahaweli DevelopmentProject About a million peoplewere being resettled on newly
Excerpt from 1988 Evaluation of MahaweliCommunity Radio
ldquoIt has animated settlers into participation in activities that not only encouraged self-actualizationbut also community identify and development Intandem with Mahaweli development workers it hasmotivated the settlers to try innovative practices inagriculture and health It has likewise motivatedlocal development workers to take the settlers andtheir problems more seriously ensuring a more palpable degree of service to the peoplerdquo
Some Achievements of Mahaweli Community Radio
ldquoIn one area we came across a group of teenagedelinquents who had no land and were desperately insearch of something to do Through our programmesand discussions we motivated them to clean up thevillage pond and set up an ornamental fish production enterprise In another village we arranged a mass wedding to solemnize the marriageof elderly couples who were living togetherTheir offspring had faced many hardships as theirparents were not legally married I produced manyprogrammes on gambling and alcoholism which helped the addicts to reflect upon themselves andgive up the vicerdquo 16
Bamako Declaration on Radio Pluralism(President Konareacute of Mali 1993)
ldquoRadio pluralism is an essential componentin the deepening of the democratic processnow under way it allows people greateraccess to a diversity of information andguarantees increased popular participation for sustainable human developmentAfrican statesmust speed up the ending of the monopoly over ofthe airwaves and give priority to national proponents of independent radio when allocatingbroadcasting frequenciesrdquo 20
irrigated land and these familiescame from various parts of thecountry Originally no media element was included among thevarious rural development inputsfor Mahaweli However it waslater realized that a communityradio service could help the sett-lers to integrate and to take initia-tives to improve their living stan-dards In effect they needed todevelop a sense of community aswell as learn more about improvedagricultural practices health andso on
Community radio offered greatpotential for this so with financialsupport from Danish InternationalDevelopment Assistance (DANIDA)and UNESCO the MahaweliCommunity Radio was set up Itsfirst station covered about 20000settlers in the major developmentregion surrounding the town ofGuirandurokotte but it was latercomplemented by several othersmall FM stations in the area
Although the Mahaweli CommunityStations were all under the controlof the Sri Lanka BroadcastingCorporation they used a truecommunity radio style This wasquite different from the style usedby the national broadcaster
One of the main thrusts ofMahaweli Radio in addition toproviding settlers with information
was to obtain feedback from themabout development activitiesthrough recordings made in thecommunities which were laterincluded in programmes orthrough having settlers come intothe studios to talk on air Withsuch participation in the radio programming and dealing as it didwith local problems and issues theradio became a vital andpersonalized link in the life of thecommunity
Community Radio Expanding ata Fast Pace
Riding on the flood tide of changethat has been sweeping the worldtowards democratization anddecentralization in the 1980rsquos and1990rsquos community radio has beenexpanding at a fast pace UNESCOfollowed its Kenyan and Sri Lankanexperience with support to otherstations in a wide variety of coun-tries among them Ghana TongaHaiti Cape Verde St LuciaTrinidad and Tobago SurinamJamaica Guyana the Philippinesand many others However UNESCO is now far from beingalone in promoting communityradio A wide range of internationaldevelopment agencies and nationaland international NGOs are involvedin many parts of the world
The rapidity of the spread of community radio is remarkableand Mali provides an interestingexample In 1991 after 23 years ofmilitary dictatorship severe socialdisturbances finally overthrew thegovernment and a multi-partydemocracy was formally establishedA transition government came topower pending democratic elections
Mali is a primarily rural society andthe transitional government orga-nized consultations with represen-tatives of the rural people It wasfound that after more than twodecades during which the nationalmedia had been the channel forissuing instructions and exhorta-tions and with government staffin rural areas equally distant thepeasantry was disaffected and alienated by the governmentrsquosimposed development programmesThey preferred to ignore them 17
The transitional government andthe elected one that took its placedecided to install with the help ofUNDP and the Food and AgriculuralOrganisation (FAO) a policy ofusing communication systemati-cally for Malirsquos development thefirst country in the world to do soMali also took a lead in media libe-ralization in Africa notablythrough organizing a crucial confe-rence in Bamako in September1993 called ldquoFreedom for AfricanRadiosrdquo 18 19 11
Com
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ity
Rad
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12
Mali had itself just liberalized its state TV andradio which ever since they began had broadcastexclusively in French a language only understoodby the countryrsquos elite And with illiteracy levelsof about 70 percent the majority of the peoplehad had no access to media-based information
In the five years after Mali liberalized its mediamore than 60 independent radio stations beganto operate providing access in local languagesto people for the first time since the dawn ofradio broadcasting And many other countriesare becoming similarly involved with communityradio Much has happened to improve thesituation for community broadcasting since theHoma Bay community transmitter was closeddown by the government of Kenya some 15 yearsago And as an endnote Kenya today is also discussing legislation that would recognizecommunity radio as part of the countriesbroadcasting scene
The Bolivian experiencebegan with a radio servicecalled the lsquoVoice of the
Minerrsquo linked to the Siglo XXmine in the Department of PotosiacuteIn subsequent years 23 stationsin the various mining areas of thecountry were set up and came tobe known collectively as theMinersrsquo Radios
These radio stations were born asa trade union response to theappalling conditions of workersin the mines most of which wereowned and operated until 1952 bya few rapacious and fabulouslyrich families the lsquotin baronsrsquosuch as the Patintildeos who wereknown world-wide for their extra-vagant lifestyles Meanwhile theminers who were the source oftheir wealth and of the mainnational export were being inhu-manely exploited Living in primitive mining camps often inthe cold of very high altitudespoorly paid and suffering fromtypical minersrsquo afflictions such assilicosis they were already oldmen by the age of 40 Their lifeexpectancy was further reducedby the lack of safety precautionsin the mines and frequent accidents In 1952 the mineswere nationalized but little chan-ged for the miners becausegovernments lacked socialconscience
Unfortunately historical factsabout the Minersrsquo Radios remainsomewhat vague for the mainsource of information is the
memory of the people involvedHowever it is certain that theradios were a crucial element inhelping to lead the struggle ende-mic in Bolivia for many years - aconfrontation that saw massacresof miners and their families civilwar and revolution
The radios helped to unite theminers in the struggle and provided them with news andinformation that countered thenegative propaganda against theirinterests that was being put out bymost of the mainstream mediaThe importance of the MinersrsquoRadios is evident from the num-ber of times they were systemati-cally destroyed or their equip-ment confiscated by the militarysent in by one or other of the succession of governments thatruled the country
It was in fact the miners that initiated the massive strike in1981 that finally led to the end ofdictatorship in Bolivia As on allprevious occasions of seriousconfrontation with the authoritiesone of the principle demandsmade by the miners was thereturn of the equipment for theirradio stations or in cases wherethe equipment had been destroyed the right to start themup again with new equipmentThe miners usually contributedmost of the cost a further illustra-tion of the importance of theseradio stations in their lives
Although the main role of theMinersrsquo Radios was the defence
and promotion of minersrsquo rightsthey were also central to a widerange of cultural and educationalactivities They promoted andbroadcast festivals of minersrsquopoetry discussions about theaesthetic value of popular songsand other art forms and discus-sions about education issueseven including a discussion ofwhether minersrsquo children shouldlearn to play chess
The miners themselves contributedto the costs of establishing andrunning their radio stations but inmost cases the management andprogramming policy was in thehands of their unions And therewas little participation by minersin the kind of radio programmesthat would be promoted by com-munity radio today However theintegration of the radio stationsinto the mining community wasto a great extent ensured by theirphysical location close to themine they served and peoplecould generally visit the studioand say their piece if they wanted
Most Minersrsquo Radios were set upin the second half of the 1950sbut their most flourishing yearswere between 1963 and 1983After that world tin prices beganto drop and in 1985 a neo-liberalgovernment passed a decree tolsquorelocatersquo miners throwing about20000 of them out of miningwork forever This cut the groundfrom under the feet of their radiosSome were passed to peasantgroups but today less than tenare still operating
BOX 1 The Minersrsquo Radio in Bolivia
BOX 2 Radio SutatenzaAccioacuten Cultural Popular in Colombia
This initiative was launchedin 1947 by a priest JoaquiacutenSalcedo in an Andean
village called Sutatenza It beganusing a home-made transmitterwith a range of two to three kmbut from this Radio Sutatenzagrew into Colombiarsquos mostpowerful broadcasting network
Salcedo an atypical priest wasmore concerned about the socialand economic status of Colombiarsquospeasants than about conventionalChurch matters Driven by his mission to bring education to peasants to help them develop herealized that radio could reacheven into the most isolated parts ofmountainous Colombia Thus theidea of the Radio Schools ofSutatenza was born and from thatAccioacuten Cultural Popular (ACPO)
The educational broadcasts byRadio Sutatenza expanded untilthey covered a wide range oftopics including literacy numeracyhealth farm production housingimprovements family and personalrelationships sport and leisureand - crucially as it turned out - theresponsibilities of parenthood andpractising responsible procreation
People listened to these programmes in informal RadioSchools - in effect small groupswho came together each eveningThe groups were assisted by moni-tors people with more knowledge
and experience than the group Atany one time there was usually anenrolment of some 200000 peasants in about 20000 RadioSchools
To complement the radio programmes ACPO produced arange of textbooks and a PeasantrsquosLibrary of 100 books on topics forrural communities And a weeklymagazine with an estimated readership of 600000 people waspublished Furthermore trainingof peasant leaders and technicaltraining courses in communitieswere a part of the activities
The Roman Catholic Church supported the operation from thebeginning mainly with funds fromCatholic groups in Europe butACPO also attracted world-wideattention and many internationalagencies also became involved infinancing it
Ultimately Radio Sutatenza wasthe victim of its own successW h e n i t i n t r o d u c e d i t s programmes on lsquoresponsible procreationrsquo the Church begansystematically to undermine itSalcedo declared that the problemwas to convince the masses that itwas not sinful to discuss these matters and that it was difficult toeducate people for human dignityand for responsible maternity in acountry dominated by religiousrules ACPO held no position on
chemical or physical methods ofbirth control Its task was only tocreate the basis on which indivi-duals could take their own respon-sible decisions
This position infuriated the Churchhierarchy in Colombia which heldthat the only purpose of humansexual intercourse was procreationof the species So it convinced theEuropean Catholic groups to with-draw their support HoweverACPO continued to function withother international funding passedthrough the government
The operation struggled on usingmainly borrowed funds until 1985when its powerful and valuableradio infrastructure was sold to acommercial network In 1987 after40 years successfully dedicated tohelping peasants develop theirminds knowledge and life skills itfinally folded completely Itsassets which included a publi-shing house a plant for pressingmusical records a 14-storey officeblock in the capital as well as peasant training centres were soldto meet its debts
13
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mun
ity
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1
1 Independent Radio and Television Commission of Ireland1988
2 Quote Louie Tabing Manager of the UNESCODANIDATambuli Project Philippines
3 Zane Ibrahim and Ms Adams Bush Radio 895 FM (See CaseStudy)
4 P M Lewis and J Booth The Invisible Medium PublicCommercial and Community Radio MacMillan (London 1989)
5 Jocelyn Josiah Presentation on Media for Community Buildingin the Caribbean during Roundtable on Communication forDevelopment Brazil (Bahia 1998)
6 Carlos A Arnaldo Localism and the Displacement of Politics Placebased Communication Development (Globalism and the Politicsof Place) Vol 41 No 2 1998 Sage Publications and SID (Rome June 1998)
7 Louie N Tabing Programming Tips for a Community Radio StationUNESCO-DANIDA Tambuli Project (Manila 1998)
8 Rafael Roncaglio lo Public Service Broadcasting ndash Cultural andEducational Dimensions UNESCO (Paris 1995)
9 T McCain and F Lowe Localism in Western EuropeanBroadcasting Journal of Communication Vol 40-1 (1990)
10 Moncef M Bouhafa Child Survival and Broadcasting ndashOpportunities and Challenges paper presented at internationalconference on Broadcasting for Child Survival Voice ofAmericaUSAID (Washington April 1998)
11 Colin Fraser and Sonia Restrepo-Estrada Communicating forDevelopment - Human Change for Survival IB Tauris (LondonNew York 1998)
12 Peter Lewis in Alternative Media Linking Global and LocalReports and Papers on Mass Communication No 107 UNESCO (Paris 1993)
13 Mary Myers The Promotion of Democracy at the Grass-roots The Example of Radio in Mali Frank Cass Journal Vol 5 No 2 (London 1998)
14 Jake Mills of Ghana the designer of the cheap 6-channelaudio mixer (1990)
15 Martin Allard designer of a simple and cheap FM transmitter
16 Interview Sunil Wijesinghe broadcaster of MahaweliCommunity Radio (1999)
17 Colin Fraser and Sonia Restrepo-Estrada op cit
18 Moncef M Bouhafa Grassroots Media and CommunityEmpowerment in West Africa paper presented to theInternational Conference on Media and Politics CatholicUniversity of Brussels Belgium 1997 (revised 1998)
19 Mary Myers op cit
20 Ibid
14
In Barbados after running the experimental UNESCO community radio for the 1995 World Environmental Conference students took over the radio station and continued programmes ever since from the Barbados Community College as Radio GED
Phot
o U
NES
CO
Kin
gsto
n
Chapter 2Features and Functions of Community Radio
15
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mun
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2
T his chapter describes the special featuresand programming approach of communityradio in terms of public access and partici-
pation ownership management funding editorial independence and credibility as wellas its representation of different groups andinterests in the community and its inclusion ofmarginalized and minority groups
The section on functions covers the role of community radio in reflecting local identity andculture in providing a diversity of voices opinionsprogrammes and content on air and in promotingdemocratic process social change developmentcivil society and good governance Its functionas a lsquopeoplersquos telephonersquo and its contribution tothe training of human resources for the broad-casting industry are also touched on
After absorbing the content the reader will
bull Have a clear picture of the many features andfunctions of community radio
bull Be able to act as a resource personleaderduring discussions in a community about the possibility of setting up a radio stationproviding the necessary background informa-tion for decisions on ownership manage-ment programming policies and the benefitsthat can be expected from a communityradio
ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF COMMUNITY RADIO
The Audience asProtagonists
While community radio is a form of public-servicebroadcasting it has anapproach that is differentfrom conventional broad-casting Its specific focus isto make its audience themain protagonists by theirinvolvement in all aspects of its management and programme productionand by providing them withprogramming that will helpthem in the developmentand social advancement oftheir community
A Special Slant on News Entertainment and Education
News on a community station unlike that on the mains-tream media is not an isolated story or event alone ratherit aims to be part of an ongoing and future process whichsupports change and development in the community
Special Sunday treat for Radio Ibahay - actress Chin ChinGutierrez visits the station during the childrenrsquos programme
and sings a song in Aklanon
Phot
o C
A A
rnal
do
16
Entertainment is provided in aform that is a collective culturalexpression rather than a featuringof refined performers It is morelike singing Karaoke than listeningto a professional artist
Education is more the sharing ofexperiences and learning from othersin the community than listening toan expert or teacher talking
Principles of Public Access andParticipation
Citizens have a democratic right toreliable accurate and timely infor-mation Based on this right it is apublic interest of broadcasting thatit should incorporate the principlesof access and participation
Access implies the availability ofbroadcasting services to all citizensparticipation implies that the publicis actively involved in planning andmanagement and also providesproducers and performers
In concrete terms for communityradio these concepts mean that
bull A community radiorsquos broadcastpattern reaches all members ofthe community it aims to serve
bull The community participates informulating plans and policies forthe radio service and in definingits objectives its principles ofmanagement and its program-ming
bull The community participates indecisions concerning programmecontent duration and schedulesPeople se lect the types ofprogrammes they want ratherthan having them prescribed bythe producers
bull The community is free to commentand criticize
bull There is continuous interactionbetween producers and receiversof messages The radio itself actsas a principal channel for thisinteraction but there are alsomechanisms that allow easycontact between the communitythe programme producers and themanagement of the radio station
bull There are unrestricted opportu-nities for members of the com-munity as individuals or groupsto produce programmes and behelped by the radio station staffusing the technical productionfacilities available
bull The community participates inthe establishment managementadministration and financing ofthe radio station
Ownership
The facilities of community radioare almost invariably owned by thecommunity through a trust founda-tion cooperative or some similarvehicle However there could becases where formal ownership wasin the hands of a body external tothe community but which has passedthe facility to the community for itsindependent and exclusive use
Management
Irrespective of formal ownershipthe stationrsquos policies managementand programming must be the responsibility of the community inorder for it to be considered a truecommunity radio There will usual-ly be a representative communitycommittee or Board of Directors toset overall policies while day-to-day
Radio quickly and easily becomes he link in society between poor and rich between rural and urban groups between agricultural routine and city leisure At Radyo Ibahay one of the smallest Tambuli stations film and TV actress Chin Chin Gutierrez share her ideas on development in an interview for the Sunday programme
Phot
o C
A A
rnal
do
administrative andoperational decisionsare left to a stationmanager selected by thecommunity
Funding
A community radio service is set up and run asa non-profit organization Itrelies on financial supportfrom a diversity of sourceswhich may include donationsgrants membersh ip fees sponsorsh ip or advert i s ing A combination of these is themost desirable in order to ensureindependence Many communityradios also organize fund-raisingevents among their audience Theoverall aim is always to reach astate of financial self-sufficiency
Editorial Independence andCredibility
Community radio is editoriallyindependent of central and localgovernment of political partiesand of commercial and religiousinstitutions in determining its policies and programming Overallpolicy is set by the aforementionedrepresentative community-levelcommittee but with day-to-day
operational decisionsabout programming taken by thestation manager hisher role as acredible and non-partisan personbecoming crucial
Representation of DifferentGroups and Interests in theCommunity
Communities are inevitably madeup of different groups and inter-ests Community radio broadcastsprogrammes that cater to theseand also encourages them toexpress themselves on air Clearlyhowever programme and timeallocation are approximately pro-portional to the size of any parti-cular group or interest in the com-munity taking into account anyspecial circumstances or needs
Inclusion ofMinority and MarginalizedGroups
Community radio includes minorityand marginalized groups on equalterms rather than giving them an
17
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mun
ity
Rad
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andb
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A A
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Even the smallest children haveaccess to the radio on the
Radio Ibahay Sunday childrenrsquosprogramme
Carol Singing for a Tape Recorder
Community radio stations often organize communityevents such as community fairs cultural eveningsand other fund-raising activities One Tambuli community radio station in the Philippines organizeddoor-to-door carol singing at Christmas to raisefunds to buy a new tape recorder
18
occasional voice as in the case of many public broadcasters Its programming ensures a wide diversity of voices and views frommarginalized groups such aswomen and youth and it promotesand protects the interests cultureand linguistic diversity of ethnicminorities in the community
FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNITY RADIO
Community radio aims to fulfil thefollowing functions
Reflect and Promote LocalIdentity Character and Culture
Co m m u n i t y ra d i o p ro v i d e s programming that is particular toits communityrsquos identity and character Thus it relies principallyon local content It includes outsidenews and events that have a specialinterest or implications for itsaudience
It also focuses on local cultureCulture is what a community saysto itself and what it says to othersIt is how the people the individualmembers of a community expresstheir dreams and hopes and howthey talk about their past and theirfuture It is what they care aboutLike life itself culture is infinitelyvariable and constantly evolving Itis the result of a process not of
definitions And that is why indemocracies governments areexpected only to establish broadframeworks for cultural expressionby the people Governments mustnot get involved in content or style 1
Community culture is also of courseartistic expression through localmusic dance poetry theatre storytelling and so on and these arefeatured strongly by most commu-nity radios Local performers areencouraged to go on air uninhibitedby considerations of the lsquoprofessionalstandardsrsquo they may have acquiredfrom mainstream media The valueof content and lsquolocalnessrsquo usuallyoutweighs formal quality and lsquoprofessionalismrsquo though thisshould not be used as an excuse forsub-standard technical production
Culture is also Language Locallanguages and expressions are theraw material that feeds communityradios They are the cement of cultural diversity which is as important for the successful futureof humanity as biological diversityThere are some 6700 languages inthe world and 63 percent of theseare in Africa and Asia Nationalbroadcasting and media globaliza-tion combined with other factorssuch as urban migration threatenhalf of the worldrsquos languages with extinction during the nextgeneration And with them will go
their cultures Community radio is aprime defence against this gravetrend towards the impoverishmentof cultural diversity 2
Create a Diversity of Voices andOpinions on the Air
Community radio through itsopenness to participation to all sectors and people in a communitycreates a diversity of voices andopinions on the air
Some discord is present in all communities they are not the peaceful harmonious groupingsthat outsiders may idealisticallyimagine Discord may be caused bydiffering interests by differing ethnic linguistic or religious backgrounds or even by someancient feud The acknowledgementof conflict is necessary for democracyand for democratic communitiesThrough an understanding of whyconflict exists communities canunderstand themselves better andpave the way to resolve conflicts A function of community radio is totry objectively to air all sides of a dis-cussion without itself taking sides
Main Functions of Community Radio as Formulatedin South Africa
Community radio stations should
bull Promote and reflect local culture character andidentity
bull Assist in creating a diversity of voices and opinionsand encourage individual expression
bull Increase access to a diversity of voices on air
bull Assist in creating a diversity in broadcastingownership
bull Be responsive to the needs of their community
bull Contribute to human resources development forbroadcasting and where appropriate to job creation
bull Encourage members of the relevant community toparticipate in programming and production matters
bull Encourage innovation and experimentation in programming 3
Preserving Linguistic Diversity in IndustrializedCountries too
Community radio stations in New York broadcast inWolof on Sundays for people of the Senegalese community Two other stations broadcast in Koreanwhile in France the Arab population has demandedthe right to set up media channels that meet its specific needs 4
Provide a Diversity ofProgrammes and Content
Community radio provides a diversity of programmes in a varie-ty of formats and styles Forexample roundtable discussionsreportage interviews talks call-inprogrammes live broadcasts ofmeetings in the community etcAudience preferences are takeninto account in deciding what formats are most suitable
Content also covers a wide rangeof topics again in accordance withthe expressed desires and needs ofthe audience Content is mainlydetermined by the lifestyles andlivelihood of the community andby the problems it faces In ruralareas themes such as health farming fishing environmentcredit marketing of producesmall-scale enterprises etc usuallyfeature prominently but always setin the context of the communityrsquosactual situation
News broadcasts may also focuson different types of contentThey may cover only local eventsand issues or they may includenational items that have local relevance or they may evenbroadcast national and internatio-nal news per se in the case of aremote community with no accessto other media channels
Encourage Open Dialogue andDemocratic Process
The ancient Greeks who inventeddemocracy conducted their politi-cal debate in public All those whowished could be present at themeetings to listen and voice theirviews Sheer numbers of peoplemake this impossible today andfor this reason democratic processhas become distant from ordinarycitizens Typically once politiciansare elected their contact withtheir electorates is limited andthey go about their tasks withoutmuch further consultation ordebate with them
It is a function of community radioto provide an independent platformfor interactive discussion aboutmatters and decisions of importanceto its community This is in keepingwith the decentralization processesnow being implemented in manycountries a purpose of which is tobring democratic decision-makingcloser to the people concerned
However for social and economicprogress to take place democraticprocesses cannot start and finish inthe community They must reachinto the government and privateinstitutions operating in the community as well as to policymakers and authorities at thelocal regional and even nationallevel
The public debates aired by thecommunity radio will certainlybe heard by locally-basedstaff of government andprivate institutions and theradiorsquos content should berelayed by them to theirsuperiors This lays the foun-dation for development initia-tives that are responsive to thecommunityrsquos felt needs andpossibilities In additionrecordings by the communityradio service can be used inmeetings or even broadcast byother stations to make betterknown what is happening at thegrassroots level
In sum the core of democraticprocess is the ability of people tohear and make themselves heardCommunity radio provides theforum for that to happen
Promote Development andSocial Change
People in poor communities tendto be fatalistic about their situationThey will all have individual perceptions but developmentcannot take place on the basis ofthese What is needed is a collectiveperception of the local reality andof the options for improving itThis can only be achieved throughinternal discussions within the
Connections
ldquoLocal radio stations have the responsibility toconnect people with people people with peoplersquosorganizations and people with officials and govern-ment functionariesrdquo 5
19
Com
mun
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Rad
io H
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While group listening is not the norm among radio audience radioachieves a certain level of similarity among people living in rural areasProblem-solving becomes easier when there is ldquocommonnessrdquo in knowledge perceptions aspirations goals and processes
20
community about its situation thecauses and possible actions forimprovement
Community radio provides the perfect platform for these internaldiscussions and for reaching a collective perception of the situationSpecific problems can be analyzedremedies discussed and thosemost affected - or who can helpwith the solution - mobilized tocollective action
Anti-social behaviour by minoritiesin a community can also be modifiedby exerting pressure from themajority through community radioprogrammes
Promote Civil Society
Civil society is that multiplicity ofsocial institutions that allows asociety to live in harmoniouscoexistence It creates its own stan-dards and values for individual andgroup behaviour rather thanhaving them imposed from above
Especially in countries that haverecently adopted democratic systems after decades of single-party or authoritarian rule theyounger generations have littleidea about what democracy entailsor about the civil society thatmakes democracies function
Some community radios focus onexplaining the implications ofdemocracy and civil society raisingawareness about peoplersquos rightsbut also about their obligationsThey work to explain how a civicsense is needed if new-found freedoms are to result in harmonyand social progress
Promote Good Governance
In poor communit ies loca l authorities and politicians can easily take advantage of citizenseither individually or as a group inpart because the marginalized andoppressed have no way to complain Community radio helpspeople to obtain their just rights bygiving them a platform to air theirgrievances And through playing acommunity watchdog role it makeslocal authorities and politiciansmore conscious of their public responsibilities
Broadcasting of discussions orquestions and answers betweenmembers of the community andlocal authorities about some issuethat i s exerc i s ing them i s a technique that is often usedAnother technique is to broadcastlive the discussions of local government meetings
This function of community radiois not always easy to fulfil In veryremote communities and wherepower has been held by a few familiesfor generations the people may bereluctant to speak their mindbecause they all have a debt of onesort or another to those familiesAnd equally the powerful familiesmay be unwilling to take criticism
Encourage Participation Sharingof Information and Innovation
Participation is a key word in development circles but it is notalways appreciated that participationand communication are two sidesof the same coin for when peoplecommunicate about their situationand about options for improving itthey are in effect participating Andthey are also laying the foundationfor collective action in which theywill participate Community radioencourages participation by providing a platform for debateanalysis and the exchange of ideasand opinions
In addition community radioallows for the sharing of informationand innovation For example onefamily or group in a communitymay have solved some problemthat is common to many otherpeople such as obtaining farm
Some of the Social and Development Benefits ofTambuli Community Radio Stations in thePhilippines
bull There is a new vibrancy and will to change in thecommunities
bull Men gave up their passionate pastime of gamblingafter a series of discussions over the radio clearlyshowed its negative economic impact on their fami-lies and on the community
bull Butchers were prohibited from bringing live ani-mals to the market and slaughtering them there
bull A large poultry farm was cleaned up to reduce itssmell and pollution
bull Creeks were dredged to reduce risks of flooding
bull A footbridge and extra lighting were installed
bull A day care centre for children was created by thelocal authorities
bull Illegal logging and fishing were stopped as a resultof community pressure 6
A Statement by the Programme Director of the Independent Radio Bamakan in Mali
ldquoThere are a lot of aspects of democracy that peopledonrsquot know about and we are obliged to raise awa-reness to explain that democracy is not anarchythat democracy involves rights and obligations Wehave the right to demand but we also have obliga-tions to the Staterdquo 7
credit from a new bank in the
nearest city A broadcast account
by them explaining how they went
about it and the procedures required
would be the stimulus for other
families to do the same Another
example might be providing infor-
mation about a farmer in the area
who had multiplied seed of an
improved vegetable variety and
was willing to sell it
Give Voices to the Voiceless
In many traditional societies
women and youth and ethnic and
linguistic minorities are virtually
ignored in community affairs But
no community can change and
develop equitably and satisfactori-
ly without the active and informed
participation of its women youth
and minority groups (See Box 3 at
the end of this Chapter)
Therefore community radio gives
voice to the voiceless in the
community This of course is in
addition to giving the community
in general a voice after years of
having been inert recipients of
state or commercial broadcasts
Provide a Social Service asa Replacement for theTelephone
In poor rural areas where
telephones hardly exist
community radio replaces
them to an important extent
by broadcasting messages
For example a family living
in a remote part of the
community can be informed
that a relative living in the
main agglomeration has
been taken ill and would they
please come to visit Or a
farmer with an animal he
wants to sell can have the
fact announced over the radio
replacing the series of calls he
would make if telephones were
available Again a person looking
for temporary labour to help with
some farm task could alert those
people who were interested to
offer their services through a
broadcast announcement
The efficiency of government ser-
vices say in health is improved by
broadcasting the schedule for field
visits ahead of time so that people
will be waiting for these on arrival
Contribute to Diversity inBroadcasting Ownership
Community commercial andnational or state broadcasting allhave roles in society though com-munity broadcasting is the onethat has generally lagged behindthe others Community radio helpsto redress this and provides thebalance of broadcast informationsources needed by democraticsocieties for their advancement
In Benin children participate directly in literacy courses on the air
21
Com
mun
ity
Rad
io H
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In October 1992 Bhutan Broadcasting Corporation was transformed from a statebroadcaster to a public corporation with a much decreased subsidy Above at thenew Punaka market a broadcast trainee talks with the people about prices travelalong country roads quality of the harvest and news of the village This project was financed by DANIDA
Phot
o U
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CO
Phot
o C
A A
rnal
do
Difficulties in Achieving Transparency - a Case Studyfrom the Philippines
The more remote the community the more hesitantpeople are to speak out People rely on their leadersfor the smallest problems and they all owe a debt tothe few political families To criticise them wouldseem ungrateful
The local council told the community radio to acceptcalls from listeners with queries or comments duringlive broadcasts of the weekly council sessions Butwhen the calls began to come in the council toldthem to stop accepting them The council also beganto chose which portions of the sessions could bebroadcast and told the radio team to leave the roomwhen budget discussions were under way 8
22
Contribute to theDevelopment of HumanResources for theBroadcasting Industry
Community radio arguablydemystifies the broadcasterrsquosprofession by taking communitymembers as message producersIt is also a school for fledglingbroadcasters where they ofcourse acquire valuable technicalskills
But there is another factor that makes people trained in community radio particularlyvaluable They are broadcasterswho live among their listenersshare many of the same problemsand get constant feedback ndash positive and negative - on the formats of their programmes andon their interest and usefulnessThis gives them unique insightsinto the broadcaster audiencerelationship and into radio as a toolfor change and development It isnot uncommon therefore forcommunity broadcasters go on tojoin the staff of mainstream broadcasting
lsquoThe Peoplersquos Telephonersquo in Haiti
ldquoWhen the bandits sped off on their motorcycle leaving a cloud of dust a dead body and a distressedvillage in their wake they thought they were on theroad to freedom They hadnrsquot heard about the villagersquos radio station Radyo Flanbo In Haiti community radio stations such as Flanbo are knownas lsquothe peoplersquos telephonersquo and as the bandits prepared to terrorize the next village Flanborsquos newsreader broadcast a warning of their imminentarrival The bandits might as well have drivenstraight to the police stationrdquo 10
Phot
o U
NES
CO
Kin
gsto
n
Radio Muye the first community radio run bywomen in the Caribbeanunder the UNESCO specialproject lsquoWomen Speaking toWomenrsquo
One of the youngest womenrecruits of the community
radio station in CuyoPalawan DYMC Radio
1 Adapted from Pierre Juneau GeneralIntroduction Public ServiceBroadcasting - the Challenge of the21st Century Reports and Papers on Mass Communication No 111 UNESCO (Paris 1997)
2 Sophie K Ly El Recuerdo delConocimiento Perdido InteRadio Vol 9 No 2 AMARC (Montreal 1997)
3 Triple Enquiry Report IndependentBroadcasting Authority Republic ofSouth Africa (1995)
4 Ibid
5 B S S Rao during the Consultationon Media Policy and Community RadioBangalore India (1996)
6 Colin FraserSonia Restrepo-Estrada Communicating forDevelopment - Human Change for Survival IB Tauris (LondonNew York) 1998
7 Mary Myers The Promotion ofDemocracy at the Grass-roots The Example of Radio in Mali FrankCass Journal Vol 5 No 2 (London Summer 1998)
8 Adapted from Cecile Balgos The Sounds of Silence UNESCOSources No 89 UNESCO(Paris 1997)
9 Felix Librero in Communication forPeople Power Ed Maslog NavarroTabing Teodoro UNESCOTambuliProject Institute of DevelopmentCommunication College of MassCommunication UNESCO NationalCommission Philippines (Manila 1997)
10 David Shanks Voices for the VoicelessA feature prepared by WorldAssociation for ChristianCommunication (WACC) (London March 1999)
Information as a Commodity for Decisions
ldquoThe appropriate use of community broadcasting isto satisfy community and social needs In the processof doing so people are able to access the very important commodity called information on whichthey base their day-to-day decisionsrdquo 9
Phot
o L
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ing
23
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mun
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Filipino women - particularly
those in the countryside
where socialization has been
limited by poverty and inadequate
educational attainment - are often
shy reserved and timid In addition
rural families are often resistant to
changing the traditional position of
women as housekeepers and
women would generally prefer that
their husbands participate in
community projects
It is very evident that the issue of
collectively pursuing womens rights
and empowerment has been relegated
to the lowest priority among rural
people So it often takes cajoling and
reassurances before women will
come out of their shells
However increased readiness to
participate in community projects
can be seen among those who have
been exposed to mass media culture
and our initial talks in communities
regarding special radio programmes
for about and by women were met
with much eagerness I attribute this
to the fact that some family and
social institutions that had been
trying to promote womenrsquos activities
in the community felt threatened and
welcomed the support that radio
could provide
Once involved women are highly
dependable They adhere to rules
Compared to men they are more
meticulous They are less subject
to anomalous behaviour and
malfeasance They are consistently
enthusiastic And where the women
are mixed with men the men also
become more enthusiastic if not to
say better performers
Meriam Aranas the president of
the Olutanga Islanders Media
Development Foundation was a
strong-willed leader of an active
womens group promoting livelihood
and conservation projects She
registered the association and led the
drive to erect a building for the radio
station
A schoolteacher Rosario Gozos was
appointed as station manager in
Partido Camarines Sur She is
single-handedly running a family
because her husband works abroad
She spearheaded the
successful drive against illegal
gambling in the district Among
other things she has initiated an
all-women Saturday programme
Her infectious dedication
has inspired all the other
volunteers in her radio
station In less than three
years the station became
an institutional power in
the community It has
contributed greatly to
the progress and well
being of Partido
Lyn Villasis a soft-
spoken beautician has
been running a story-
telling program for
children for years and has become
one of the most popular personalities
in the station in Banga Aklan
Malou Angolluan is a youthful
college graduate who has taken
voluntary activity as a vocation Her
exemplary work and dedication to
service have earned her profuse
admiration from her listeners She
has turned down several offers to
work in bigger commercial radio
stations
BOX 3 Involvement of Women
In Ibahay Aklan province PhilippinesAte Meds rushes from Sunday mass tothe Studio for her weekly childrenrsquosprogramme
Phot
o C
A A
rnal
do
24
In Pastapur Hyderabad India women discuss local problems for airing on a regional radio station of All India Radio They are also advocating for new legislationto enable them to broadcast on their own antenna
Phot
o J
im B
entl
ey
25
Chapter 3Legal Aspects
T his chapter gives an overview of the legis-lation governing community radio in avariety of countries world-wide Special
attention is given to South Africa wherebroadcasting legislation is in many ways exem-plary and could be used as a model by othercountries The main common factors and themain differences that exist in national commu-nity radio legislation are described as are typi-cal requirements for obtaining a licence
The reader will gain
bull An awareness of the wide variations in legisla-tion and of the obstacles that communityradio may face in some parts of the world
bull An understanding of the need to examine clo-sely the existing legislation before embarkingon a community radio project
bull Knowledge of the likely information andconditions that the authorities will requirebefore issuing a community radio licence
UNEVEN AND HAPHAZARD LEGISLATION
The airwaves or the frequencies for broadcastingare a public asset It is therefore incumbent uponnational administrations in line with the decisionsof the administrative planning conferences organizedby the International Telecommunications Union(ITU) to regulate and allocate their use with thepublic interest in mind as well as with fairness andtransparency And general national media policiesshould meet the same criteria
Unfortunately this does not always happen andthe legislation governing community radio is veryuneven In several regions of the world communityradio suffers because current legislation is eithernon-existent inconsistent or basically hostile Thishandbook is not the place for an exhaustive description of the legislation country-by-countrybut a brief overview of the situation in a few countries world-wide will give a feel for the situation
MOST PROGRESS IN AFRICA
Many countries in Africa have made good progress inlegislating for community radio This is particularlyinteresting because at first sight it would appearto be a paradox on the one hand communityradio certainly has a natural role to play in cateringto the information needs and interests of the wide
ethnic cultural and linguistic diversity present inmost African countries but on the other handgovernments fear that freedom of ethnic and linguistic expression might undermine nationalunity It will be remembered that this was partlywhat brought the Homa Bay community radioexperience in Kenya to a premature end in 1984
However it seems that the lesson has now beenlearned about authoritarian suppression of diverselinguistic and cultural expression within a countryThis ultimately produces strong resentment andtensions in society Indeed even in industrializedcountries the last two decades have seen a changeof heart by governments that now try to preservethe traditional linguistic and cultural identity of theirminority groups They have realized that a pluralisticsociety can also achieve national identity and unity
This is the case in many parts of Africa too Sincethe early 1990s countries such as Mali BurkinaFaso Namibia and South Africa have all embarkedon a course of freeing their airwaves and promo-ting community radio as part of the nationalbroadcasting spectrum backing the policy withappropriate legislation in most cases
South Africarsquos progress towards new broadcastingpolicies and community radio legislation is consideredexemplary Some countries have already copied itand many others could also find it a useful modelIt is therefore outlined in the next section
Com
mun
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26
Broadcasting Legislation inSouth Africa ndash an ExemplaryCase
The government of post-apartheidSouth Africa realized that the countryrsquos media could help toresolve many socio-economicdevelopment needs and at thesame time help to build a democraticand pluralistic society But newbroadcasting policies and opera-tions would be needed
An Independent BroadcastingAuthority
The first step taken in 1993 wasthe creation of an IndependentBroadcasting Authority (IBA) ajuridical body to formulate broad-casting policy plan the use of thefrequency spectrum issue licencesadjudicate in the case of com-plaints and in general regulate thebroadcasting industry It functionsindependently of the State and ofgovernmental and political partyinfluences It is a non-profit entitythat is financed partly by the Stateand partly from fees that itreceives
The IBA is run by a Council madeup of seven people appointed bythe State President They arepeople with expertise in fields thatinclude broadcasting policy media
law marketing journalism enter-tainment and education They arealso selected on the basis of theircommitment to fairness freedomof expression the right of thepublic to be informed opennessand accountability
Overall Objectives of theBroadcasting Legislation
Among the main objectives ofSouth Africarsquos broadcasting legisla-tion are the following
bull Promote the provision of a diverserange of broadcasting services ona national regional and local levelwhich cater for all language andcultural groups and provideentertainment education andinformation
bull Promote the development ofpublic private and communitybroadcasting services which areresponsive to the needs of thepublic
bull Develop and protect a nationaland regional identity culture andcharacter
bull Encourage ownership andcontrol of broadcasting servicesby persons from historicallydisadvantaged groups
bull Ensure that private and commu-nity broadcasting licences are
Western Media Models a Disservice toDevelopment
ldquoBroadcasting media have developed into aone-way model in Third World countrieswith information news and massive dosesof entertainment flowing from large urbancentres The uniform prescription designed by theaffluent minority at decision-making level does notaddress the issues of development which require alocal perspective for each county and each community The concepts and use of the media as developed in industrialized societies have not proved conducive to the development needsof our countryrdquo 1
controlled by persons or groupsfrom a diverse range of commu-nities in the Republic
bull Ensure equitable treatment ofpolitical parties by all broadcas-ting licencees during any electionperiod
bull Ensure that broadcasting licenceesadhere to a code of conductacceptable to the IBA
Categories of Radio Broadcasting
The legislation foresees three categories of radio service
bull A public service ndash A serviceprovided by the South AfricanBroadcasting Corporation or byany other statutory body or person that receives revenuefrom licence fees paid by listenersfor their receivers
bull A private service - Operatedfor profit and controlled by aperson who is not a publicbroadcasting licencee
bull A community service - A broadcasting service which
Is fully controlled by a non-profit entity and carried onfor non- profitable purposes
Serves a particular commu-nity
Encourages members of thecommunity served by it orpersons associated with orpromoting the interest ofsuch community to partici-pate in the selection andprovision of programmes tobe broadcast
May be funded by dona-tions grants sponsorshipadvertising or membershipfees or by any combinationof these
The term lsquocommunityrsquo includes ageographically founded communityor any group of persons or sectorof the public having a specific andascertainable common interest
South African LicencingArrangements
In keeping with the general andcommunity radio policies outlinedabove the legislation providesdetailed requirements that mustbe met by applicants for commu-nity radio licences It also laysdown the procedures to be follo-wed These are complex anddemanding in terms of the detai-led information that is called forCommunity radio licences areawarded for four-year periodsalthough shorter temporarylicences can also be issued
Licences are not granted to anyparty movement organizationbody or alliance which is of a politi-cal nature
Readers may wish to browse theIBArsquos website (httpibaorgza)for more details on South Africancommunity radio policy legislationand licencing
ASIA AND INDIArsquoSLENGTHY DEBATE ON
COMMUNITY RADIO
The situation in Asia is far lessfavourable than in Africa andIndia provides a good illustration ofthe problems Nepal and Sri Lankashow ways of solving problems
All India Radio (AIR) was establishedas a state broadcasting monopolyin 1935 in line with the Britishmodel the BBC The debate aboutbreaking that monopoly beganmore than 30 years ago with theChanda Committee reportSubsequent committees have spe-cifically recommended decentrali-zing broadcasting to institutionalizethe process of participation and tomeet peoplersquos fundamental rightto information The SupremeCourt passed a landmark judge-ment in 1995 declaring that theairwaves were a lsquopublic goodrsquo andstressing the importance of main- 27
Com
mun
ity
Rad
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28
taining a balance in broadcastingbetween market (commercial)forces government monopoly andmeeting the peoplersquos needs andrights to receive and impart infor-mation This judgement openedthe door to the granting of licencesto local stations for public partici-pation and territorialsectoralbroadcasts but the legislationnecessary to allow this to happenhas still not been passed It seemshowever that it is under prepara-tion at the time of writing
The main results so far of thedecades of debate on the subjecthas been some decentralization byAIR to lsquolocalrsquo stations and a recentand rapid expansion of commercialstations using FM frequenciesbelonging to AIR that have beenleased to private operators Someof the AIR lsquolocalrsquo stations try to getcloser to the community and usecommunity radio styles But for themost part these lsquolocalrsquo stationsmerely relay urban-oriented pro-grammes from the national or fromregional capitals rather than pro-ducing locally relevant materials
Commercial broadcasting is onlyallowed to provide entertainmentNews and current affairs and evensex education are banned Thusthe private FM stations which havebeen expanding in response to mar-
ket forces have created a profile aslsquoelectronic discosrsquo for urban youth 1
A consultation session attended bymore than 60 broadcasters legalspecialists university staff anddevelopment communicators metin Bangalore India in September1996 and signed the BangaloreDeclaration urging the governmentto take steps to legitimatize andpromote community radio Sopressure has been building andthere appears to be light at the endof the tunnel
In Nepal the Government-ownedradio service was the only onebroadcasting until May 1997 whenRadio Sagarmatha came on air (SeeCase Study 2) Present govern-ment policy on broadcasting whichgoes back to legislation passed in1993 favours a mix of governmentcommercial and communitybroadcasting but even so it tookfrom 1994 to 1997 before the firstcommunity radio licence was awar-ded to Radio Sagarmatha Its successhas been such that community radiois now set to expand in the country
In Sri Lanka another country witha government-owned broadcastingservice it was this service itself thatbegan community broadcasting in1983 with Mahaweli Radio asdescribed in Chapter 1 It laterexpanded community radio to
cover other parts of Sri Lankamainly in support of rural develop-ment However in mid-1997 aSupreme Court ruling put an end tothe government monopoly of theairwaves and a parliamentary committee was established to pre-pare a new broadcasting bill Thiswill certainly recognize and promotecommunity radio for it is a branchof broadcasting that has becomewell entrenched in Sri Lanka basedon the long experience ofMahaweli Community Radio
In Asian countries that have essen-tially followed the North Americanpattern of commercial broadcas-ting such as the Philippines com-munity radio stations often func-tion without licences
LEGISLATION IN SOMELATIN AMERICAN COUNTRIES
Despite Latin Americarsquos pioneeringrole in community radio todayrsquoslegislation leaves much to be desiredThere are about 6000 registeredradio stations on the ContinentAbout 85 per cent of these are privatecommercial about 7 percentare governmental and the remain-der are in the hands of the ChurchSome of the latter consider them-
Nepalrsquos National Broadcasting Act (1993) Prioritiesfor Programming Should Include These Themes
bull Development oriented programmes agricultureeducation industry commerce science and technology health family planning forest andenvironmental protection
bull Harmony among all classes languages castes religions and religious groups equality and goodwill among all
bull Growth of different languages and cultures inNepal
bull Growth of national interests and unity
bull Growth of moral and national awakening
bull Awakening of social awareness
bull Non-detrimental influence on Nepalrsquos relation withneighbouring and friendly countries
bull Foreign policy pursued by the nation
bull Growth of folksongs folklore and culture
bull Important activities on national and internationallevels
Success Breeds Success in Nepal
In less than a year of operations the value of RadioSagarmatha in improving information flow and creating a forum for democratic dialogue among stakeholders in development issues was so evidentthat the government which had initially restrictedhours of broadcast to only two per day increased itto 13 and then to 24 hours daily The initial andtotal ban on advertising was also lifted the licencewas expanded to include mobile broadcasting and itsfrequency was reserved for its exclusive use throughout the whole country
selves to be community radios In addition there are very largenumbers of unregistered stationsthat have been in existence foryears many of them communityradios which are in formal senseillegal
It was only in the mid-1990s thatsome Latin American countriesbegan to pass legislation on com-munity radio and that legislationis often unfavourable
For example Brazilrsquos very recentlegislation limits the power ofcommunity stations to five wattsseldom enough to cover a typicalpoor peri-urban settlement of 10-20000 people It also makescommunity radio impossible inscattered rural communities ofwhich there are many in Brazilrsquosvast interior Nor is any advertisingpermitted which makes sustaininga community radio even more difficult than it is usually
In Ecuador community radio wasnot legally acknowledged until1996 Most community radios arelicenced as commercial or culturalstations The law in 1996 finallyrecognized community radio as adistinct part of the broadcastingscene but the legislation imposedrestrictions on the power of transmitters that could be used -500 watts at the antenna - andprior approval from the army was
required Any commercial activitywas prohibited as in Brazil
T h e n a t i o n a l o rg a n i z a t i o nrepresenting community radio inEcuador brought a constitutionalchallenge to the law and managedto remove the clause requiring theprior approval of the army but thelimits on transmitter power andcommercial activities remain inforce As late as early 1999 therewere still no community radiostations operating under the newlegislation they all had commercialor cultural licences
After its leadership role in communi-ty radio there is now a paradoxicalsituation in Bolivia In 1995 a lawwas passed under which licenceswould be granted in future only toradio and television stations of acommercial nature that werepublic or private limited compa-nies in accordance with the coun-tryrsquos commercial code Among themore than 500 radio stations inBolivia there are a number ofwell-established educational radioservices that will be allowed tocontinue operating for 20 yearsunder the new law but scores ofcommunity and peasant radiosbecame illegal in 1996 If closeddown their frequencies are sold tothe highest bidder
The contradictory aspect of all ofthis is that it occurred shortly afterthe passing of another law that on
Popular ParticipationThis in effect is part of adecentralization processwhich delegates deci-sions to the local leveland provides funds to implement themCommunity radio couldevidently have enor-mous potential for assis-ting the decentralizationprocess by arousinginterest and participa-tion in local policy anddevelopment decisionsHowever this will not bepossible under the newlegislation which discri-minates against commu-nity radio
In Argentina a situa-tion somewhat similar tothat in Bolivia exists De facto there have beennumerous community popularcultural and university radios stations in existence for manyyears But in 1998 a governmentdecree on broadcasting frequen-cies was issued and a NationalFrequency Plan approved Anarticle in the decree stipulated theimmediate closure of radio stations that were not officiallyrecognized Furthermore theNational Frequency Plan did nottake into account the frequenciesalready being used by many small
Radio Sagarmatha in Kathmandu Nepal led a five year legal battle to obtain itsauthorisation to broadcast It began in 1990 with a communication policy lsquowhitepaperrsquo wich eventually led in 1994 to a new broadcasting act which opened the airwaves to non-governmental organisations or private individualsand organisations for the purposes of education and culture
29
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ngle
30
radios that had been working foryears throughout the country
Most serious of all however wasthe fact that the overall broadcast-ing legislation the context for frequency applications remainedunchanged and this is legislationthat goes back to the days of thedictatorships that used to rule thecountry The legislation excludesany form of social organizationfrom having a broadcasting frequency and specifies that onlycommercial organizations canapply for them
In 1996 a decree modified thato lder leg i s lat ion for i t was recognized as unconstitutional anddiscriminatory But this correctivedecree of 1996 was cancelledwithin days of its publication Thusby default the old legislation fromthe days of the dictatorships wasleft in force
This situation threatens the wholesector of community and popularradios in the country At the time ofwriting the community and not-for-profit broadcasting sectoris fighting tooth and nail for newlegislation that recognizes its rightto exist and its role in democraticsociety
SOME EXAMPLES FROMWESTERN EUROPE
For the purposes of comparisonthe situation in Europe is worthexamining Western Europeancountries were all models of nationalpublic-service broadcasting untilsome of them began to allow inde-pendent and commercial radio andtelevision channels to operate inthe 1960s However even thengovernments applied regulationsto the operations of those channelsThen in the early 1980s there wasa general deregulation of broadcast-ing in most of Western Europewhich resulted in a free-for-all inmany countries Privately ownedcommercial radio expanded likewildfire but so did communityradio in many countries
The Scandinavian countries parti-cularly Sweden were among thelast in Europe to bow to pressurefrom the commercial media firm intheir belief that their nationalpublic broadcasting systems werebest for their societies - societiesthat are world famous for theirdemocracy and strong civic senseBut even if it proved impossible toresist the commercialization andprivatization of the electronicmedia in Scandinavia the door wasopened at the same time to a vastexpansion of community radio
There are more than 2000 commu-nity radios in Sweden the majoritycatering to special-interest commu-nities
In Denmark the 300 or so com-munity radios provide access to 96percent of the population Many ofthese community radios even ifthey have been allowed to broad-cast commercials and receive sponsorship since the late 1980swork in financially difficult circum-stances Most also receive supportfrom various sources such as membership fees bingo listenerdonations and contributions fromorganizations such as trade unionsreligious groups or the local municipality Community radio isseen as a cultural activity that iscomparable with other culturalactivities It has even been suggestedthat a government fund be createdto subsidize community radio likeother cultural areas
In Ireland the 1988 Radio andTelevision Act included licencingprocedures for community radiobut the Act did not go into anygreat detail on the subject In theearly 1990s the issue of broadcas-ting policy attracted much attentionand in 1995 a Government PolicyPaper on Broadcasting was published
Democracy without Communication
ldquoWithout democratic communication democracy is not possible The broadcasting spectrum must beregulated and normalized [in Argentina] but thiscannot be done using criteria from the days of dictatorshiprdquo 3
As part of the general concernabout achieving suitable broadcast-ing policies for Ireland theIndependent Radio and TelevisionCommission launched an 18-month community radio pilot pro-ject It began operating in 1995and it was designed to explore andevaluate the potential of commu-nity radio in the country Animportant element favouring theproject was the surge in communi-ty and voluntary activity in Irelandthat had resulted from increasingnational and international concernabout issues such as poverty andunemployment
Eleven community stations wereestablished under the project tooperate until the end of 1996 Thisexperience showed that communi-ty radio stations could developinto a viable and distinct strand inIrish broadcasting Certain difficul-ties were encountered during theproject and realizing the potentialof community radio will call for asubstantial level of ongoing com-mitment from support agenciesand from the communities servedHowever there can be little doubtthat community radio will developand assume its appropriate role inthe Irish broadcasting scene in thefuture 4
CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCE IN LEGISLATION
National community radio legisla-tion where it exists usually sharessome common factors but thereare also significant differences between countries
Main Common Factors
bull Community radio must beowned and controlled by a non-profit entity
bull It must be run as a non-profitoperation
bull It must serve the interests of aparticular community whichmay be a geographical commu-nity or a community of peoplewith common interests
bull It should provide programmingthat promotes socio-economicand cultural development forthe different sectors in the community at the same timefostering civic integration andsolidarity
Factors that Vary in CommunityRadio Legislation
Power of the TransmitterSome countries place an upperlimit on the power of the transmitter
that may be used by a communityradio usually in the range of five to500 watts Such limitations couldbe unrealistic in mountainousareas where transmission over difficult terrain can require higherpower
Creation of Networks Somecountries specifically forbid thecreation of networks betweencommunity radios even if theyallow occasional link-ups for special events of interest to thecommunities involved
Advertising andor SponsorshipRegulations about this vary consi-derably Some countries forbid allcommercial advertising on orsponsorship of community radioswhile others allow it but put a limiton the minutes in an hour that canbe devoted to it This usuallyranges from six minutes to up to15 minutes per hour
In some cases there are restrictionson the type of advertising that maybe broadcast When this is casethe usual tendency is to limit thescope to matters directly linked tothe community served by theradio for example local workopportunities events that are totake place and business and services that are carried out in thatarea Even when legislation doesnot specify such restrictions about
the type of advertising some com-munity radios impose it them-selves They may for examplerefuse to advertise items that aredamaging to health such as alcoholand tobacco
Some legislation specifies a ceilingon the proportion of total stationrevenue that can be derived fromadvertising usually setting it at 50percent
Other Sources of FundingMembership fees from listenerscontributions from individualsorganizations or local authoritiesand charges for personal announ-cements are other sources of funding but in keeping with theCharter of the World Associationof Community Radio (AMARC)some legislation specifies that nosingle source should provide morethan 50 percent of a stationrsquosrevenue Funding from politicalparties or from other special interestgroups is forbidden in some legislation
Political Broadcasts These areforbidden at all times in somelegislation while in others they areallowed in designated pre-electionperiods When they are allowedthe principle of lsquoequal time andequal opportunityrsquo for all parties isusually stipulated In some casescommunity radios have to report
31
Com
mun
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32
to the nationrsquos independent broadcasting authority any politicalspeech that lasts for more thanthree minutes providing the actual duration date and time of broad-cast and the name of the politicalparty concerned
APPLYING FOR A LICENCE
Anyone anywhere who hasserious intentions of starting acommunity radio should ascertainwhat existing legislation is in forcebeginning with licence require-ments Some countries apply quitesevere sanctions to punish illegalbroadcasters heavy fines andorconfiscation of the equipment arethe commonest
The procedures for applying for alicence vary between countries butin any event entities that apply willusually be expected to provideinformation about the followingwith supporting documentation asappropriate
bull The juridical and non-profit sta-tus of the entity making theapplication
bull The probity of the individualsmanaging the entity
bull The community to be served andthe size of the potential audience
bull An explanation of how the com-munity could benefit from aradio service
bull The demand in the communityfor such a service
bull The technical features of the proposed radio station and theheight and location of its antenna
bull The community managementstructures and the personnel thatwill be put in place to run the service
bull The type of programming thatwill be featured the productionarrangements foreseen and howcommunity participation will beensured
Some countries that have recentlyintroduced legislation that coverscommunity radio have drawn uplists of available FM frequencies ineach of the smallest administrativeareas of the country such as muni-cipalities or counties In somecountries especially in LatinAmerica periodic announcementsof the frequencies that are availablefor community radio are made bythe broadcasting authorities andrequests for their use are solicitedIf there is an excess of requests forthe available frequencies the win-ners are adjudicated on the basis ofthe quality of their proposals theexperience of the applicant in
community development work theradio programming planned andthe size of the community
Licencees normally pay a one-offfee for the frequency they are allocated and a much smallerannual fee thereafter For examplein Colombia which introduced itscommunity broadcasting legisla-tion in 1995 the typical one-off feefor the frequency ranges from theequivalent of about US$900 toUS$2000 depending on the size ofthe potential audience The annualfee averages about US$150
1 Report of Consultation on Media Policy and Community Radioorganized by VOICES (Bangalore India 1996)
2 Ibid (Intervention by Hasmukh Baradi)
3 From statement issued by the not-for-profit broadcasting sector in Argentina demanding new legislation (1999)
4 Independent Radio and Television Commission IRTC Policyon Community Radio Broadcasting IRTC (Dublin 1998)
5 Personal communication from Alida Becerra Director of the Social Development Department Ministry ofCommunications (Colombia 1999)
Community Misconceptions about Costs
ldquoQuite a lot of the applicants who have been grantedcommunity radio licences here in Colombia since 1995could not find the funds to pay for the frequencyOthers thought that the Ministry of Communicationwould provide them with the equipment These aresome of the reasons why of the 560 licences we havegranted only about 150 community radios areactually functioning Of course we have had to revoke many of the licences because they were notput to use within the prescribed time periodrdquo 5
Chapter 4Technical Aspects
33
Com
mun
ity
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T his chapter opens with a brief explanation of the scientific principles underlying radio
broadcasting including the differences between AM and FM propagation It then describes
the range of equipment required for FM broadcasting under four categories transmitters
antennas studio programme production equipment and field programme production equipment
It explains the role of each The practical implications of the lsquoline-of-sightrsquo characteristics of FM
broadcasting are discussed
A section covers issues of reliability maintenance and precautions to reduce the risk of damage
The requirements for a community radio studio (size layout soundproofing acoustical balance etc)
and suitable spatial arrangements for the various components of the radio station are described
A section on future possibilities discusses the role of computers in programme production merging
community radio with the Internet and new technologies
A box provides a basic list of equipment required for a community radio service and its cost
In the main the reader will
bull Learn about the basic technicalities of broadcasting and the equipment needed for an FM service
bull Be able to make an initial assessment of the technical suitability of a specific area for setting
up a community radio service
bull Know about the technical requirements for the siting of the components of the broadcasting
system and be able to consider how best to meet them in given circumstances
bull Know the approximate investment required for equipment
Nevertheless the knowledge gained will not necessarily eliminate the need for early advice from a
technical specialist nor hands-on or formal training
TECHNICAL BACKGROUND
Radio broadcasting creates electro-magnetic waves that travel in anapproximately straight line and at thespeed of light about 300000 km persecond
A radio wave that is being propagatedoscillates each side of the straight lineHow far these oscillations go beforereturning to the centre line and movingout to the other side of it is known asthe amplitude of the wave The distancefrom the crest of one wave to the crestof the next is known as the wavelength
How long the cycle of each oscillationtakes is known as the frequency It isexpressed in Hertz named afterHeinrich Hertz a German radio pioneerA cycle time of one second is one Hertz(1Hz) a thousand cycles in a second isa kiloHertz (kHz) and a million cyclesin a second is a megaHertz (mHz)
Radio waves are propagated from thetransmitterrsquos antenna system like theripples in a pond when a stone is drop-ped into it Waves from a broadcastingstation are known as carrier wavesbecause they are carrying information
34
that has been attached to themThe process of attaching informa-tion to the wave is achieved bymodulating or varying one of itscharacteristics either its amplitudeor its frequency Hence the termsAmplitude Modulation (AM) andFrequency Modulation (FM) for thetwo methods of wave transmission
Radio broadcasting uses four frequency bands Their names derive from whether their wavelengths are measured in kilometres hundreds of metrestens of metres or metres
bull The kilometric band ndash long waves(Frequency 150-280 kHz)
bull The hectometric band ndash mediumwaves (Frequency 525-1600 kHz)
bull The decametric band ndash short waves(High Frequency 6-25 MHz)
bull The metric band (Very HighFrequency 875 ndash 108 MHz)
AM Broadcasting
For the first three bands the signalis attached to the wave by amplitudemodification (AM) AM signals travel great distances For examplelong waves can be propagated forup to about 1000 km before fadingout and medium waves travel several hundred kilometres
Short waves even if limited by thecurvature of the earth can travelenormous distances because theybounce off the ionosphere an invisible layer of electrically charged particles at the outer edgeof our atmosphere from wherethey return to earth far from thetransmitter
The main layer of the ionosphereresponsible for long distance communications is the ldquoF layerrdquoAfter dark this layer is a singledense one about 250 km above theearth and it reflects short wavesignals very effectively But duringthe day the ldquoF layerrdquo splits into twothin layers ldquoF1rdquo about 200 kmabove the earth and ldquoF2rdquo about350 km above the earth Thesetwo layers are less effective inreflecting radio signals and that iswhy reception of short wave broad-casts is better after darkWorldwide radio services like RadioFrance Internationale the BritishBroadcasting Corporation or theVoice of America use short wave toobtain the geographic coveragethey require It can also be particu-larly useful in mountainous countries
AM broadcasting is subject tomuch atmospheric interferenceand distortion and it is thereforeunsuitable for stereo services It
also requires a considerable inputof electrical power and otherinvestments For example thewhole mast of the antenna of anAM medium wave station is chargedwith current and therefore it has tobe insulated from the ground
FM Broadcasting
The fourth frequency band themetric band uses FrequencyModulation (FM) to attach thesignal to the carrier wave This system varies the frequency - speedof oscillations of the waves - butkeeps their amplitude or breadthconstant
FM was invented in 1933 in theUSA and the first station to use itwas built in 1939 It has advantagesover AM especially in its freedomfrom distortion and interference Itrequired different broadcastingtransmitters and radio receivers tothe ones in general use in the 1930sand 1940s and so it was slow toexpand Indeed it really only beganto take off in the 1950s and 1960sin industrialized countries and inthe 1970s and 1980s in developingcountries ndash and even as late as the1990s in some of these
FM broadcasting requires muchless electrical power than AM anduses a very simple antenna The
Frequency modulation (FM)
Amplitude modulation (AM)
wavelength
ampl
itud
e
The Inventor of Frequency Modulation
Edwin Armstrong an American scientistresponsible for much of the earliest technical development of radio broadcasting in the first two decades of the20th century made the FM breakthroughin 1933 Born in 1890 he was enthused as a boy by the exploits of Guglielmo Marconi who in 1901had managed to send the first radio signal across the Atlantic At the age of 14 Armstrong decided to become an inventor
In 1939 he financed the first ever FM station fromhis own pocket at a cost of $300000 to prove itsworth Sadly Armstrong was forced to spend much ofhis life in litigation to protect his inventions and infighting the established radio industry which did notwant to embark on his new FM system Finally in1954 with most of his wealth gone in the battle forFM he took his own life
quality of the signal is excellentand it can be mono or stereo
However FM signals reach muchshorter distances than AM signalsbecause FM follows the line ofsight In other words the antennaand the radio receiver must beable to lsquoseersquo each other with noobstructions in the path - such ashills or high buildings - whichinterrupt the signal in the sameway as they interrupt sight Buteven with the transmitter andreceiver in line of sight the distancebetween them is important becau-se with radio signals each time thedistance is doubled the signalstrength is reduced to a quarter ofwhat it was Put another way inorder to reach twice the distancefour times the power is needed
BROADCASTING EQUIPMENT 1
In general terms the equipmentrequired for broadcasting falls intofour categories
bull The transmitter that generatesthe signal to be broadcast
bull The antenna through which thetransmitterrsquos signal is radiated
bull The studio equipment used toproduce the programmes
bull The equipment required for programme production in thefield and for linking outside locations to the studio eg forfield reporting
A complete list of equipment withcosts for a typical UNESCO-
supported community radio
project is provided in Box 4 at the
end of this chapter Reading the
following section in conjunction
with that equipment list and with
diagrams should provide an
appreciation of the role and
function of each part of the
system
Transmission Equipment
The power output of a transmitter
is measured in watts Community
radio relies mainly on low-power
FM transmitters with typically an
output of between 20 and 500
watts usually in the range of
20-100 watts However a
distinction must be made between
the power of the transmitter itself
and the power that actually leaves
the antenna which is known as the
Effective Radiated Power (ERP)
The design of the antenna affects
the ERP So-called lsquohigh-gainrsquo
antennas can result in considerably
more watts of ERP than the out-
put watts of the transmitter itself
A low power FM transmitter
35
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mun
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Mal
lard
Con
cept
s Ltd
U
K fo
r UN
ESCO
Met
ric
wav
es
Dec
amet
ric
band
(sho
rt w
aves
)
Hec
tom
etri
c ba
nd(m
ediu
m w
aves
)
Kilo
met
ric
band
(lon
g w
aves
)
100
MH
z
875
MH
z
25 M
Hz
6 M
Hz
1600
kH
z
525
kHz
280
kHz
150
kHz
Frequency modulation A m p l i t u d e m o d u l a t i o n
The four radio frequency
36
Several companies around theworld now produce cheap FMtransmitters for community radiousing frequencies between 875 and108 mHz the usual band for FMbroadcasting They range in pricefrom a little over US$ 500 to some$ 2000 and they are about the sizeof a thick paperback novel Not allof the models available especiallythose from the US are built withthe possible harsh conditions ofdeveloping countries in mind
The technology of FM transmittersis now so simple and well knownthat it is not beyond the capacity ofcompetent engineers in developingcountries to build them Usinglocally available materials the DANIDAUNESCO Tambuli community radio project in thePhilippines locally produced its firsttransmitter and successfully put itto work in 1998 though most ofTambulirsquos stations still use British orChinese transmitters The experi-ence of Cape Verde where localtechnicians built their own transmitters was mentioned in theIntroduction
Low-power transmitters may alsohave an amplifier or booster atta-ched to them to increase theirpower output Many of the UNESCO-supported communityradios have 20-watt transmitters
with a 100-watt booster Thistransmission equipment especiallythe booster generates considerableheat and so it is always accompan-ied by a cooling fan and it needs tobe installed in a well-ventilatedplace
Nearly all FM transmitters built forcommunity radio require a 12-voltDC power supply Thus they can berun either off an electrical mainsource with a transformer thatconverts this into a 12-volt DCoutput or a vehicle battery or solarpanels
It is important to keep the audiosignal from an FM transmitter atthe right level If the signal is overmodulated distortion will resultand possible interference withnearby stations A device called alimitercompressor is thereforeincluded in the audio chain to keepthe signal at its pre-set level
In a few cases community radiosuse AM broadcasting Setting upand running costs are generallymuch higher than they are for FMHowever the ability of AM toextend over a wider broadcast areaeven if one of lower sound qualitymay make it desirable in certain circumstances In some cases particularly in large towns wherethe competition for FM frequen-cies is very high obtaining one at
reasonable cost may be impossibleand therefore some communityradios have found it easier to rentor buy an existing AM frequencyThis will probably have a commer-cial licence but the communityradio management can lay down itsown policy in respect of advertising
The Antenna
The height position and adjust-ment of the antenna play a primor-dial role in achieving high qualityand the furthest possible reach ofan FM broadcast signal This isbecause as already noted FMsignals travel in a more or lessstraight line and follow the line ofsight The antenna that propagatesthe signal must therefore be as highas possible and there should befew obstructions that will block thesignal The higher the antenna isthe further its signal will reacharound the natural curvature of theearth
FM Problems in Hilly Areas FMhas limitations in hilly areas becau-se even if the antenna is placed ontop of a peak there may be areas ofsignal shadow in the valleys Theonly solution for using FM in hillyareas may be to install one or morerelay transmitters to cover theareas in shadow
Martin Allard explains Broadcast Coverage Patternin Relation to Watts and Antenna Height
All of the differing figures given for the coverageradius of FM are reasonable in their own way It is farfrom being an exact science however and opinionsvary considerably as to what is an acceptable signalstrength that is sufficient for a normal listener
The basic facts to understand are these
The Effective Radiated Power (ERP) of an FM stationis approximately the power of the transmitter multiplied by the number of elements in the antennaThere are practical limits as to how big an antennacan be and above a certain size losses in the cablesbecome significant
Of course VHF signals do not go far beyond the optical horizon They do bend around hills to a smallextent but otherwise they behave much like lightThe distance to the horizon depends on the height ofthe antenna and must take into account any largeobstructions
For an acceptable stereo signal you need 3-4 timesthe power of a mono transmission We have foundthat upgrading some of the early low-power stationswith a modern high-gain antenna and low-loss feedercable produces a good stereo signal over the samerange without an increase in transmitter power
Some typical range figures based on stereo transmission in a flat area with an antenna 25metres high would be
20 watts ERP - 5 km
100 watts ERP - 12 km
1200 watts ERP - 30 km
But each case is different We have one example of astation running 1200 watts ERP with regular listeners 80 km away 2
The height of the antenna willdepend on the terrain and on anyobstacles that the signal must passHowever it is usually at least 20-30 metres above the ground evenin flat terrain The antenna may beplaced on a building or hilltop togain the necessary height or amast may be constructed for it
Constructing the Mast Antennamasts can be built locally usingsteel uprights and lathes to createa lattice construction However asimpler and cheaper version canbe built using galvanized steelwater pipes Steps are welded tothem so that the broadcastingantenna itself fitted high on themast can be reached for adjust-ments and repairs
Both types of mast must be firmlyanchored in a concrete block in theground and they must be heldvertical by guy wires also anchoredin concrete
The Two Categories ofAntenna There are two broadcategories of antenna omnidirec-tional which as its name impliesradiates the signal in all directionsthrough 360 degrees around itselfand directional which radiates thesignal towards one segment of thecircle around it Almost all com-munity radio stations use an omni-directional antenna but there are
situations where a directionalantenna is better One example iswhere an antenna is placed on theside of a mountain overlookingthe community to be reached Adirectional antenna beaming thesignal only over the communitywould give added power compar-ed to using an omnidirectionalantenna that wasted part of itssignal against the mountainsidebehind it
Antenna Design Manufactureand Tuning FM antennas comein a variety of designs and thechoice and tuning of the antennato get the best signal is the work ofa specialist Antennas can bebought ready made but for mostcommunity radios they are fabri-cated on the spot by a metal worker using materials that canusually be bought in a local hard-ware shop such as copper piping 37
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Typical Antenna Mast Made from Water Pipes
and aluminium or PVC piping allheld together by hose-clamps and solder
Fine-tuning of the antenna to getthe best signal is done with an instrument called a power metrewhich measures the StandingWave Ratio (SWR) It costs lessthan US$ 100 This costs less thanUS$ 100 It is connected betweenthe transmitter and the antenna to
38
measure the ratio between thepower coming from the transmitterand the power being reflected backfrom the antenna If a lot of poweris being reflected back by theantenna it is not properly tunedand broadcast power is being lostThe specialist adjusts the lengthand position of the moveableradiating elements on the antennauntil the SWR meter shows thatthere is little or almost no powerbeing reflected back from theantenna Many modern transmit-ters incorporate an SWR powermetre
Studio Equipment
Recording and Playback Mostof the equipment used in a radiostudio would be familiar to any onewho had ever used home musicalequipment It consists in the mainof cassette recordersplayers andother tape recorders record turntables and compact discplayers However the quality of thisequipment in a radio studio ishigher than that of the commonrange of home equipment This isbecause firstly high-quality soundis needed so that even after theinevitable degradation of thesound between the studio and thelistenerrsquos ear the quality will still beof an acceptable level Secondly
studio equipment must withstandmuch heavier and more constantuse than its equivalent in the home
Some small community radios inindustrialized countries prefer tobuy cheap consumer electronicitems such as CD players and sim-ply replace them when they wearout This is seldom a suitableapproach in developing countrieswhere it is usually easier to obtainfunding for initial costs than it is forrecurrent costs Furthermore suchcheap consumer electronic itemsmay be less available here than theyare in industrialized countries
Control ConsoleMixer Themain unfamiliar item to mostpeople entering a radio studio forthe first time is the control consoleand mixer unit This allows the programme producer or his techni-cian to select the sound sourceswanted during the programme forexample a cassette or compact diskplayer or one or more of themicrophones in the studio It alsoallows him to raise and lower thevolume of each source graduallyand to superimpose one or moreover another as in the case of avoice with background music orsound effects This is calledlsquomixingrsquo the sound channels Theconsolemixer has sockets for head-phones through which the producer
can listen to the various channelshe has available or to the final mixedversion for broadcast An output linefrom the consolemixer goes to thetransmitter
All the studio equipment is power-ed from a local electricity sourcewhich should pass through anautomatic voltage regulator Thisreduces power fluctuations thatchange the speed of voices or music
Programme Production andNews GatheringEditing in theField
Remote Microphone Mixer Inthe simplest operations in the fielda single tape recorder can be usedto gather material or a microphonecan be connected by a long line tothe studio console for nearbyoutside coverage But any more elaborate programme productionoutside the studio when severalmicrophones and sound inputs arerequired needs a remote micro-phone mixer sometimes alsoknown as an auxiliary microphonemixer This functions in much thesame way as the studio mixer but itis smaller and usually runs off bat-teries In the field it is used toselect andor mix the varioussound inputs required for the programme that is being recorded
Linking Reporters and Othersto the Studio A second aspect ofoutside broadcasting is linking thefield reporter to the studio for livelyand interesting eyewitness reportson events and for news in outlyingparts of the community
In industrialized countries and inmajor towns in developing coun-tries the telephone is the mostcommon way of making this linkAll that is required is a device calleda telephone adaptor to patch theincoming phone call into the studioconsole from where it can bebroadcast or recorded for later use
However in rural areas of the devel-oping world where telephones arescarce other means must be usedto connect an outside reporter tothe studio Very High Frequency(VHF) or Ultra High Frequency(UHF) transceivers (lsquowalkie-talkiesrsquo)are one method Some countriesset aside certain frequencies in the200 mHz range - where the qualityof the sound is good - especially forconnections between outsidereporters and their studios Thisrequires a base station in the studioand handsets for the reporters inthe field
Cellular mobile phones for outsidereporters are another solutionwhen there are no fixed telephonelines
Mobilizing People with VHF Transceivers
In some deprived areas where there is notelephone service amateur VHF transceiversare abundant in fact they are a statussymbol This is the case in a remote islandin the Philippines where a community radioof the Tambuli project has managed to mobilizenumerous people with VHF transceivers to participatepersonally as reporters in radio programmes and alsoto lend their transceivers to others to do the sameThus without any investment from the communityradio a volunteer network of outside reporters hasbeen set up (See Case Study 1- Putting CommunityPeople in Charge)
Telephone Call-Ins Some com-munity radios especially in townswhere telephones are availableinstall a special telephone mixersystem which allows them to receivemultiple and simultaneous callsput them on hold in the order inwhich the calls came in and thenpass them in turn to the consolemixer to go on air at the commandof the programme producer Thissystem which of course can alsobe used by outside reporters phoning in is relatively expensiveand may not be justifiable in atypical rural area of a developingcountry In some developingcountries local technicians havedesigned their own telephonepatch system The cheapest way ofputting a telephone call on air is tohave a telephone with a speaker inthe studio and put a microphonenext to it but the quality of theresulting signal is not very good
RELIABILITY AND MAINTENANCE
Most of the equipment outlinedabove is inherently robust andreliable and is generally quitesimple to maintain by someonewith appropriate knowledge andtraining However certain simpleprecautions need to be taken toprevent accidental damage
Precautions against LightningExperience has shown that light-ning striking the antenna duringthunderstorms is a common causeof damage to transmitters It istherefore vital to weld a lightningconductor to the top of the antennamast And if the antenna is fixed ona roof an earthing wire of braidedcopper should be welded to it rundown the side of the building andfixed to an iron bar driven deepenough into the ground to findmoist soil
Handling Precautions Otherprecautions concern handling ofthe equipment Any radio trans-mitter that is switched on withoutbeing connected to its antenna
or to an equivalent load will be permanently damaged Thuswhen a transmitter has been disconnected from the antennasay for testing or repair a dummyload of the same resistance as theantenna must be attached to itLoad resistors as they are calledcan be purchased ready-made andcome with a variety of resistancesor they can be rigged up by using anormal electrical light bulb of theappropriate watts
Another handling issue of obviousimportance is always to take parti-cular care to respect the polarity -the positive and negative terminals -when connecting equipment Amistake here can burn it out
In Kothmale Sri Lanka the nationalgovernment providedland tower and antennas These madeit possible to set upmicrowave transception telephone twenty-fourhour link to Internetand FM transmission
39
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Block Diagram of Studio Equipment
Phot
o M
Sen
anay
aka
3 M
40
STUDIO PREMISES
Size A simple radio studio can beset up in any existing house orroom having a minimum of ninesqm available This is needed toinstall the equipment and to givespace for the operators to use itHowever it is much more practical toaim for premises of at least 25 sqmwith 50 sqm or more as the ideal
The minimum practical size for anannouncerrsquos booth is about 12sqm If one can count on a total ofsome 50 sqm about half of thiscan be devoted to the announcerrsquosbooth which will then be bigenough for roundtable discussionssmall groups of performing musi-cians and the like The remainingfloor space in the building can betaken up by a technicianrsquos cubicleand receiving and working areas
Announcerrsquos Booth andTechnicians Cubicle Theannouncerrsquos booth is often separa-ted from the technicianrsquos cubicle bya window with carefully fitteddouble glass panes to prevent out-side noise reaching the micro-phones in the booth This arrange-ment means that the announceronly has to worry about the micro-phone in front of him or her whilethe technician works the consoleand the sound channels such astape recorders and record players
However not all community radiosseparate the announcerrsquos booth
from the technician and some-times the announcer likes to dohisher own production handlingthe equipment and talking into themicrophone as a lsquoone-personshowrsquo So there can be flexibility indesigning the studio layout
Soundproofing and AcousticalBalance The announcerrsquos boothmust be soundproof because themicrophones in it will pick up anyexternal noise that reaches themPartitions made of light board suchas plywood usually need to be dou-bled with a space in between thatcan be filled with sound-deadeningmaterial and spaces around doorsneed to be sealed with rubberstrips
The acoustical balance in theannouncerrsquos booth must be care-fully adjusted Sound bounces andreverberates off hard walls and pro-duces an echo or lsquocathedral effectrsquowhen picked up by the micropho-ne To avoid this parts of the wallsshould be covered with soft mate-rials While acoustic tiles are avai-lable commercially for this purpo-se the same effects can be achie-ved with simpler and cheapermaterials such as egg trays cur-tains mats or cardboard Howeverif too much of the wall space iscovered with these sound-absor-bing materials the lack of resonan-ce will make all programmes soundas if they are coming from an openfield
Air Conditioning If air condition-ing is to be installed it should be ofthe silent split type with the com-pressor in a place apart from therecording studio and where its humwill not be picked up by the micro-phones in the announcerrsquos boothCold air should be blown into theannouncerrsquos booth through a ductand a silent extractor fan shouldalso be fitted in the booth
SPATIAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COMPONENTS OF THE RADIO STATION
The transmitter is connected to theantenna by a coaxial cable Thiscable absorbs a considerableamount of the power coming fromthe transmitter and therefore thelength of the cable should be asshort as possible With the relative-ly cheap types of coaxial cable normally used for communityradio the distance between thetransmitter and its antenna shouldnot exceed about 30 metres
Ideally the transmitter and studiowill be in the same building withthe antenna close to it or on theroof However the transmitter isbest put in a room separate fromthe studio equipment because if itis too close radio frequency emis-sions from the transmitter canaffect the studio equipment andcause noise and hum
A commercialy available load resistor
Typical studio layoutPh
oto
M A
llard
There will be occasions howeverwhen the site chosen for theantenna will be unsuitable for thestudio because of height consider-ations it is possible in the circum-stances to place the antenna on ahilltop with the transmitter nextto it and have the studio some distance away in a more favourablelocation All that is required is apower line up to the transmitterand a second line that carries theoutput from the studio to thetransmitter This programme lineas it is called should not be longerthan 1000 metres The ideal material for this line is telephonecable which is designed to carryvoice communication and to resistexposure to weather But evenhousehold electrical wire can beused though this is not designedfor outdoor use and will need tobe checked regularly
FUTURE POSSIBILITIES
A Studio in a Computer
Computers have long been used inradio studios for simple tasks suchas word processing of scripts andindexing and cataloguing recor-dings Radio studios accumulatelarge numbers of recordings overtime and it becomes difficult tofind specific items say parts ofpast coverage of a certain subject
required for a new programme ifrelying on human memory aloneComputerized index and catalogueon the other hand can provide a listand short description of all thematerial on that subject with thenumbers of the tapes and the location of each
Computerized ProgrammeProduction In recent years digi-tal technology has opened up newvistas for radio production It isnow possible to store all of thematerial for radio programmes -talks music sound effects jinglesetc - on the hard disk of a compu-ter whereas before these had to bestored on tape
Computer software now existsthat allows programme producers- as many as 15 at a time workingat separate terminals simulta-neously - to select the materialthey want from the hard disk andmix and edit it into a programmeWith the completed programmerecorded on its hard disk the computer can then be instructed
to put the programme or even aseries of programmes on air atpredetermined times without further intervention from studiostaff
This type of computerized produc-tion can replace the function ofmuch of the equipment in a tradi-tional studio and it is certainlyhighly efficient for programmeproduction In practice howevernot all of the traditional equip-ment is likely to disappear in thenear future for example audioequipment for recording materialand transferring it to the hard diskof the computer later will certainlycontinue And for outside programme production the remotemicrophone mixer described earlieris cheap and convenient even iffinal production in the studio iscomputerized
In addition it should be rememb-ered that good community radioalso relies on participation fromthe audience in live on-air sessionsin the studio rather than on
The Pastapur community in India built their own radio studio using locally firedclay bricks The tower is a professionally fitted self-standing mast with an omni-directional antenna crafted under the guidance of a profesional broadcasting technician Adjacent are five school rooms for lsquolearning withoutfrontiersrsquo also built from the same kind of bricks
41
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entl
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Maximum Distance from the Studio to the Transmitter is 1000 M
pre-recorded productions only Forlive programmes in the studiosuch traditional equipment is stillthe most practical
Community Radio and theInternet
The Internet holds enormouspotential for development especial-ly in rural areas For example infor-mation about health agriculture or
42
the environment can be down-loaded from it it can be used toconnect health workers agriculturalextensionists or ordinary villagerswith technical experts to discusssome particular problem and it canbe used to put communities incontact with each other for on-linediscussions and debates aboutissues that affect them or aboutproblems and their solutions
The Village Trail and theInformation SuperhighwayUnfortunately in most developingcountries up to now Internetaccess and the valuable informationit can provide have been availableonly to a relatively small and privi-leged minority For example inAfrica less than 15 percent of thepopulation had Internet access atthe end of 1998 And nowhere arethe rural poor a part of that privile-ged Internet-using minority Theproblem can be summed up in thequestion How can poor ruralpeople living along the village trailbe connected to the informationsuperhighway
Integrating community radio pro-gramming with the Internet is oneway to reach out to villagers If theradio station has a computer withInternet access programme produ-cers can call on an enormous spectrum of information on sub-
jects of general concern to theiraudience as well as being able tolook for replies to specific queriesraised by members of the comm-unity Broadcasting such informationcan effectively bring the Internetinto any home even into thosewhere the family could never aspireto having a telephone withoutmentioning the computer to gowith it
The Internet and ProgrammeProduction The Internet can bevery useful for programme produc-tion A station can obtain a vastquantity and range of informationfrom it For example material frommajor news agencies is available onthe Internet as is information fromdevelopment agencies non-governmental and governmentalorganizations universities and thelike In addition more and more
audio programmes can be down-loaded from the Internet for re-broadcast The themes of theseproductions often cover issues ofgreat importance to communityradios such as health educationwomenrsquos rights and so on
The Internet is also a forum for the exchange of programmesServices such as OneWorldGlobalRadioService and A-Infosallow producers to deposit programmes for other producers to pick up and broadcast and vice-versa
A community radio may also wantto offer information about itself toother Internet users It can open asite on the World Wide Web todescribe its organization program-ming staff etc in as much detail asit wants 3
Bringing the Internet to Rural People in Sri Lanka
Kothmale is a constituency covering a cluster of ruralcommunities with a total population of about150000 Its community radio station is the basis foran innovative experiment to use radio as an effectiveinterface between local people and the Internet
Each day the radio station airs a programme calledlsquoRadiobrowsing the Internetrsquo during which communitybroadcasters discuss and interpret the informationon selected Internet sites The local language is usedmaking the information easily accessible to peoplewho understand no English and would be unable touse the Internet directly
Listeners can request information on specific topicsOf particular benefit is information on markettrends agriculture life skills for poverty alleviationformal and informal educational materials healthand medicine
This UNESCOGovernment of Sri Lanka pilot projectis also providing free Internet access through in anInternet Cafeacute and two terminals in community librariesfor people who wish to browse in person
In addition the radio station is developing a community database of the information frequentlyrequested by listeners Much of this is in the locallanguage and is particularly suited to local develop-ment interests and needs This is important becausepackaged information on the Internet is seldom suitable
Kothmale lsquoradio browsingrsquothe on-air announcerbrowses the Internet inEnglish and simultaneouslyreports her findings inSinghala She can alsorespond to questions in the studio or from livephone calls
Phot
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Rural Multi-Purpose Telecentres
Speculation about the use ofmicrochips and satellite communi-cation as tools in rural develop-ment goes back to the early 1980sOne of the ideas that has beenmaturing since then is that of ruralmultipurpose telecentres whichhave also been called lsquorural infor-mation shopsrsquo
The basic principle is to create aplace where villagers can go forinformation - either free or for afee - on agriculture health familyplanning and other developmentalor social topics In its fullest andmost logical form a communityradio station would form thenucleus for a rural telecentre providing a variety of services
This telecentre would of coursehave an Internet connection toprovide the services outlined inthe previous section related toaccessing databanks and sourcesof expertise and connecting com-munities to each other In additionit could offer other functions suchas public telephone and fax as wellas building libraries of videosaudio-visual materials books andpublications In one of the formsproposed for India under a WorldBank programme the centreswould sell records and cassetteshire out videos and audio-visualequipment and provide servicessuch as desktop publishing and
photocopying These serviceswould aim to help the centresbecome self-sufficient
In Bangladesh it is highly signifi-cant that the Grameen Bankfamous for its imaginative micro-credit programmes for the ruralpoor especially women startedGrameen Telecom in 1996 Thisprovides loans for women to buycellular phones and set up a publicservice and it also providesInternet connections in majorcities It plans to put telephoneservices into all of Bangladeshrsquos50000 villages and also to expandits Internet-access services This isa first step along the path towardsrural multi-purpose telecentresHowever it is sad that broadcast-ing in Bangladesh is still a govern-ment monopoly and there is nosign that community radio will beallowed to begin any time soon
Digital Technology
Digital technology has steadilytransformed the way in which pro-grammes are made and distribu-ted in recent years Many broad-casters have already invested indigital systems for contributionand production Now the switchfrom analogue to digital is movingalong the broadcasting chain intotransmission At the same timethe digital developments are draw-ing together the broadcasting
telecommunications and compu-ter industries in a process ofconvergence For all broadcastersthis is leading to a new and chal-lenging business environment inwhich they are searching for a clearlsquomultimediarsquo role The InternationalTelecommunications Union (ITU) isediting a publication on this subject
SPECIALIST ADVICE
This chapter has provided an over-all guide to the technical aspects ofsetting up a community radio ser-vice Nevertheless anyone embar-king on such a project should seekspecialist advice on the technical
In Kothmale Sri Lanka Buddhist monks surf the net for religious texts at the Kothmale Community Radio on the Internet and on the air
43
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aspects of the particular circum-stances before going ahead withthe investment Such advice canusually be obtained from the tech-nical staff in a nearby state or com-mercial radio station and it neednot be costly 1 Much of the material in these sections is based on
Community Radio Station - A Technical Manual by staff ofthe UNESCODANIDA supported Tambuli CommunityMedia Project Philippines That manual provides moretechnical detail than can be included in this more general handbook
2 Martin Allard in a personal communication (1999)
3 Philippe Beacutechamp The ABCs of ICTs InteRadioVol10No 2 (Montreal December 1998)
4 Colin Fraser and Sonia Restrepo-Estrada Communicatingfor Development - Human Change for Survival 1B Tauris(LondonNew York 1998)
5 Laurie Hallett provided the following information onDAB in a personal communication (1999)
44
BOX 4 Basic Equipment for a UNESCO-supported Community Radio Station (Prices in US Dollars)
Item No Description Unit price Total
TRANSMISSION EQUIPMENT
1 2 FM Stereo Transmitters 100 Watt
Note one as a standby transmitter 800 1600
2 1 Wide-band Omni-directional Antenna (four layer with splitter set for the allotted FM Frequency of the station) 1200 1200
3 1 Heliax antenna cable (50 Meter) and connectors 550 550
4 1 A1000 Two channel compressor and limiter 545 545
5 1 Locally fabricated antenna mast and anchors 1200 1200
Transmission equipment total US$ 5095
STUDIO AND FIELD EQUIPMENT
6 1 Professional Studio Console with built in telephone hybrid 10+10 watt amplifier for studio monitors stereo monitor output for cue talkback microphone VCA feeders with a total of 7 mono inputs9 stereo inputs 3 mono outputs8 stereo outputs 2000 2000
7 2 PMC Studio Monitor Speakers ( Power ouput 150 watts) 515 1030
8 2 Dual Auto Reverse Cassette Deck 570 1140
9 1 CD Changer 900 900
10 4 Headphones 100 400
11 5 Dynamic Microphones with Windshields 390 1950
12 2 Utility Mixer with XLR input 400 800
13 3 Microphone stand with swinging arm 55 165
14 2 Microphone desk stand (flexible) 115 230
15 5 Portable cassette recorders with XLR mic inputs and carrying case 515 2575
16 5 Dynamic Microphones for portable casette recorders 170 850
17 2 Quartz Clock Diameter 25 cm hoursminsseconds 25 50
18 40 XLRMF Canon connectors (20 Male and 20 Female) 10 400
19 20 Phono connectors Male 3 60
20 20 Phono connectors Female 3 60
21 25 RCA connectors 1 25
Item No Description Unit price Total
22 1 MIC cable (100 m role) 260 260
23 1 Audio cable (100 m role) 150 150
24 4 Automatic voltage regulators 50 200
25 1 Multi-tester + assorted repair equipment set 50 50
Total Studio and Field Equipment US$ 13295
COMMUNITY RADIO BASIC EQUIPMENT TOTAL US$ 18390
Additional Costs Support to community fo building remuneration and studiofabrication - US$ 2500(Consumables and costs for energy source not included)
Item No Description Unit price Total
OPTIONAL (Computer based Audio and news processing)
1 2 Digital Audio Computer Workstation PIII-700 with 20 GBHDDCD-R Drive (SCSI) USB port Speakers and a Sound Card (Sound Blaster) with Windows 982000 1500 3000
2 2 USB Interface controller with two XLR inputs two balanced 14rdquo TRS inputstwo unbalanced 14rdquo inputs and SPDIF IO Four channels of audio in and two out simultaneously via USB 600 1200
3 1 Editing software package 400 400
4 100 CD-R Media (CD re-writeble) 3 300
5 1 Internet ready Computer withWindows 98 + MS-WORD 1100 1100
6 1 Laser Printer 750 750
Total Optional Computer Equipment US$ 6750
Chapter 5Getting Started
45
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T his chapter sets out the various practical steps involved in setting up a community radio service
beginning with ascertaining the legislative context and conducting a proper consultation and
analysis process in the community A qualitative research method based on Focus Group
Discussions is outlined for this process
The value of drawing up a Mission Statement for the radio station is explained and the involvement
of religious authorities local educational institutions and politicians is discussed
The technical and social criteria for choosing the site in the community for the studio and the
transmitter and antenna are outlined Alternative models including loudspeaker systems are
described as are the main factors governing the choice of power of the transmitter
Later sections deal with ownership and management staff sustainability and looking for outside
funding The issue of advertising and its implications where permitted are discussed in some
detail
Box 6 at the end of the Chapter provides a checklist of questions to which answers are required for
the successful setting up of a community radio
Reading this Chapter will enable the reader to
bull Obtain a good grasp of the various steps involved in setting up a community radio service
bull Appreciate the need for the careful consideration of social factors and relationships in the
community as well as for a full analysis and consultation in the community of its needs and
expectations in respect of a community radio
bull Assume a leadership role or participate in ensuring that all of the necessary preparations are
properly conducted and that informed decisions are taken by the community
Proper research and planning areessential for starting a communityradio service The process should beginwith the gathering of information fromvarious sources but in particular fromthe community itself
A series of questions that need answersis provided in Box 6 at the end of theChapter The sections that follow hereexpand on those questions and areintended as guidance for in-countrypeople groups or organizations thatare planning a community radio
LEGAL CONTEXT
A first step for setting up a communityradio is to find out what the nationalbroadcasting legislation sets out for thelicencing of independent radio stationsIf there is no mention of non-profitcommunity broadcasting there may beother avenues to explore For examplethe provisions for commercial radiomay also apply to a community serviceand in some countries many communityradios have commercial licenses Thisshould not however lead to a situationwhere profit is the main or sole motiva-
46
tion of the station There may alsobe licences for cultural radio Insome cases people simply proceedwithout a licence However care isneeded because this can have penalconsequences (See Chapter 3 forthis and for more informationabout applying for licences) Wherecommunity radio is still forbiddenthere may be other options that donot involve radio transmission (Seethe section below on models)
PREPARATORY WORK INTHE COMMUNITY
Answering the questions laid out inBox 6 will call for much ground-work in the community Thisgroundwork consists of consulta-tion processes within the commu-nity to analyze its situation existingmedia access how a communityradio might usefully serve theinterests of the community in whatways and so on
Clearly the leaders of the commu-nity - which include the elected andthe religious authorities as well theinformal but also influential opin-ion leaders - must be part of theconsultation process
But equally if not more importantis a consultation process thatinvolves the community at largeGroup discussions with the various
sectors in the community areessential These could include forexample farmers fishermen shopowners teachers artisans etc It isalso crucial to consult women andyouth who are traditionally margi-nalized in many rural societies Norshould any minority cultural andlinguistic groups be left outPeoplersquos attitudes towards the exist-ing situation towards the desirabi-lity and possibility of change anddevelopment and towards the pos-sible role of a community radio ser-vice must be ascertained and hope-fully confirmed This is the realbasis of community radio socialwill not technical equipment
Experience has shown that in some
cases merely holding participatoryworkshops to discuss the situationof the community and exploreways of improving access to basicservices may lead spontaneously tothe idea that better communica-tion within the community couldbe a first prerequisite for changeand development A communityradio may then emerge naturally asthe most appropriate communica-tion medium
Preliminary Results The initialconsultation process should indicate
bull The level of enthusiasm for andcommitment to the notion ofhaving a community radio service
Phot
o M
Alla
rd
On Defining the Future Radio Station
ldquoIt must be decided what the station will be and forwhom Will it be a tool to be used by a selected fewor by only one sector of the community talking downto the many Will it be monopolised by disc jockeysOr will its main function be to empower the community as a whole to learn more about issuesthat directly affect its members such as primaryhealth care religious tolerance basic education teenage pregnancy etcrdquo 1
Before doing the technical work of setting up radio in Western Nepal it is essential to encourage the community to discusstheir idea of radio and their aspirations in focus group discussions
Faith in the capacity of all people
ldquoCommunication is a vital process for everyone concernedwith development It is a process not an end It is a meansto sustainable development The role of communication in the development process is to make people consciousof the reality of their situation and make them aware thatthey have the power to change their social realities It assumes that people are equal that they have a right toknowledge and culture and that they can criticize theirsituation and act on it It also implies having faith in thecapacity of all people including the illiterate to discusssocial issues intelligentlyrdquo
Ed Moyo
bull What its overall objectivesshould be especially in terms ofchange and development
bull How in general terms it shouldoperate
If no broad consensus on theseissues can be reached the future ofthe idea may be compromised orthere could be a need for more andbroader discussion
As the consultation processescontinue answers to the moredetailed issues laid out in Box 6should be sought
Contacts will also need to be madewith people and institutions outsidethe community who could have abearing on the project These willinclude among others any state orcommercial radio channels thatalso reach into the communitydevelopment institutions NGOsconcerned with communitydevelopment and local officials ofgovernment services in healthagriculture education and thelike
A Method for Conducting theConsultations
Among the most powerfulmethods for researching peoplersquosopinions and ideas are FocusGroup Discussions (FGDs) and
this technique can be successfullyused for the community consulta-tions being described hereOriginally used for market researchFGDs have more recently beenapplied with outstanding results indevelopment work when qualitativeinformation about peoplersquos opinions perceptions ideas andaspirations is required 2
What is an FGD An FGD bringstogether from six to12 people whoare homogeneous in terms of theireducation life-style and economicstatus and who therefore sharesimilar problems They need to behomogeneous to reduce the chancethat one or more persons of a levelthat the rest perceive as beingsuperior dominate the discussionThere should not be less than sixpeople in the group or it will bedifficult to get a dynamic discus-sion going and to gain a meaning-ful consensus and there shouldnot be more than twelve so thateveryone will have a chance to speak but also to avoid the formation of sub-groups and sub-discussions
These community consultationscould also include groups of sayunemployed youths or motherswith small children or small farmers
The Facilitator The group discussion is run by a facilitatorwhose principal task is toget members of the grouptalking among themselvesabout the subject in ques-tion This might for examplebe what types of radioprogrammes would beuseful to help youngmothers safeguard andimprove their infantsrsquohealth
The facilitator adopts a lowprofile and a very informal stan-ce so that the group feels relaxedHeshe also uses special tech-niques to encourage members ofthe group to talk among them-selves and not to respond tohimher directly The facilitatorguides the discussions with pre-pared open-ended questions thatbegin with words such as lsquoWhatdo you think aboutrsquo or lsquoHowwould you suggest that wersquo iequestions that cannot be answeredwith a simple lsquoyesrsquo or lsquonorsquo
Stimulating In-depth AnalysisA further key function of the facili-tator is to stimulate the group intodeeper analysis of the issues beingdiscussed For example heshemust never let a statement ofopinion by a member of the grouppass without probing it to find out
what lies behind that statement A group member might say some-thing like lsquoI really like that pro-gramme and I never miss itrsquo Or agroup member might say the exactopposite to the effect that heshethoroughly disliked the program-me In either case the facilitatorshould immediately say - but in amild manner ndash something likelsquoThatrsquos an interesting opinion Tellus why you think thatrsquo In factquestions using lsquoWhyrsquo are the keyfor provoking deeper analysis andreaching a fuller understanding ofthe issues at stake as the groupsees them
The Observer While the FGD isin progress an observer is sitting
The participation oflocal institutions whether government or nongovernmentcontributes to makingthe stationrsquos programming relevantand dynamic
47
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48
quietly taking notes of the mainpoints that are being made Whenthe discussion is finished it is agood idea for the observer to takeover the proceedings and to readthe main points back to the groupIt is very important that hesheseeks their confirmation of eachpoint in order to ensure that it hasbeen correctly noted This leadsmore easily to a broad consensus
Effectiveness of FGDs Especiallywith people of low educational sta-tus FGDs are remarkably effectiveThe group feels at ease becausethey are talking with their peersand because the facilitator deliber-ately creates a totally informalatmosphere Once the members ofthe group start discussing among
themselves they spark reactionsideas and opinions off each otherin a way that provides true insightsinto what is in their minds andhearts FGDs are generally far moreeffective for gaining these insightsthan are one-on-one interviews forall too often the interviewee herewill say what he or she thinks theinterviewer wants to hear At theother extreme general and mixedgroup discussions can easily bedominated by a few people - not tomention that women and youthhardly ever speak out freely at suchgatherings The facilitator shouldbe aware of this guard against itand encourage the less outspokento air their feelings without embar-rassing them
Some FGDs with different sectorsof the community backed up withkey informant interviews withopinion leaders local authoritiesand the like will normally providethe desired information with whichto plan a community radio serviceBut whatever methods are used forthe consultation within the com-munity and with other interestedparties the process should neverbe rushed Mistakes or misunder-standings that are not put right orclarified in the early stages maycome back to haunt the communi-ty radio operation later on
Furthermore during the planningphases and indeed at all stagesone must be very alert to the possi-
bility that special interest groupsmight have hidden agendas that inthe end could result in their high-jacking the radio service for theirown interests
IMPORTANCE OF A MISSION STATEMENT
It is important to begin drafting a short and concise mission statement about the objectives ofthe planned community radio ser-vice at an early stage This providesa basis for discussion and it can bemodified and refined during theconsultation phase
Once a final version of the missionstatement is agreed by the variousstakeholders this constitutes abasis for common understandingand a platform on which to buildThis is not to say that the missionstatement is carved in stone it mayneed modification in the light ofexperience but any changes shouldalways be the result of a communi-ty consultation process
What the station does once opera-ting to adhere to its mission state-ment will depend largely on theindividuals chosen to direct andmanage it There must be regularassessments perhaps by a specialcommittee within the communityof how the operations are fulfillingthe stationrsquos mission
In Senegal women are very active in disussing issues of the daythey make for anatural forum face-to-face or on the air
Phot
o C
Fra
ser
On the Mission Statement
ldquoThe mission [statement] of a radio station definesits aims it is the map that provides directiontowards the achievements of its objectives it is theinstrument to measure its success it is thefoundation on which everything else is built it is the star that guides us The entire programming must be based on the principles established by the missionrdquo 3
ROLE OF THE RELIGIOUSESTABLISHMENT
Special consideration should begiven to the role of the religiousauthorities in the community Innumerous communities they havebeen crucial in helping to start andrun a radio service Their commit-ment to genuine community parti-cipation and to ensuring that theradio is run in the best interests ofthe people is often outstanding
However it should not necessarilybe assumed that all religiousauthorities are free from influencepeddling or political interests Soeven if the religious establishmentcan often be of pivotal importancein starting and running a commu-nity radio service detailed discus-sions are necessary to establish itsposition and its perceptions beforeautomatically seeking a partner-ship with it
ROLE OF LOCAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
The staff of local schools may havea particular interest in communityradio and help to get it started For example they may see it as away of increasing the involvementof parents in the education of theirchildren
In addition schoolteachers canplay a major role as volunteerbroadcasters They often broad-cast a daily programme to remindchildren about their homeworkand assist them with it And insome communities the operationof the radio station is handed overto schoolchildren once a week
INVOLVEMENT OF POLITICIANS
There are varying points of viewabout the role of politicians incommunity radio or whether theyshould have one at all (See Box 5for the opinion of an experiencedcommunity radio broadcaster)
CHOOSING A LOCATION IN THE COMMUNITY
Technical and social considerationsdetermine the appropriate loca-tion of the radio infrastructure in acommunity
Technical Criteria
Position of the antenna and transmitter
bull Given the line of sight character-istics of FM radio waves theantenna should be as high aspossible on an elevated site oron a mast not less than 30metres high and not obstructedby tall buildings
bull The transmitter and antennashould not be close to high-tension power lines
bull There should be an availablepower source
bull The transmitter and antennashould be as close as possible toeach other and not more than30 metres apart
Position of the antenna and transmitter relative to the studio
bull The studio may be up to 1000m from the antenna and trans-mitter but it must be connectedto them by a cable ndash the pro-gramme line Alternatively theprogramme could be fed fromthe studio to the transmitter sitevia a small power link VHF trans-mitter
Position of the studio
bull The studio must have an available power source
bull It should be away from uncon-trollable sources of noise
Social Criteria
bull The studio should be as close aspossible to the centre of popula-tion
bull It should be in a site easily accessibleto members of the community
bull It should have low or no rentalcharges
bull It should be in a site that is freeof vested interests
bull It should be secure from vandalsand pilferers 49
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A Comment on the ReligiousEstablishment and Community Radio inthe Philippines
ldquoThe religious establishments are not
expected to have political or business
interests A majority of them are genuinely dedicated
missionaries who have a deep understanding of the
problems of the poor It is a shame however that
some individual members of the clergy overtly carry
their own personal idiosyncrasies and social biases
and in some cases political partiality into the com-
munity
In [a] community where we actually set up a radio
station the priest happened to be named
chairperson of the Community Media Council
Unfortunately he had never shown fondness
in getting the people to participate in decision
making He distrusted local leadership motives
He ran the station management by himself and
conferred involvement to his minions
When the election campaign period came
the priest threw his support behind the candidate
whom he deemed the peoplersquos favourite
As the station was conveniently located in the
convent the priest took the occasion to use
the programmes to build up the favoured candidate
and downsize the opponentrdquo 4
ldquoAfter 22 years as a broadcast journalist I have a
generally sceptical attitude towards politicians
Whenever I listen to a politician speaking
I try to figure out what is at the back of his mind but
often in vain
The question in the project was whether we should deal
with politicians or leave them out totally After numer-
ous discussions in our team as well as consultations
with professional sociologists the conclusion was that
politicians needed to participate in operating the radio
station After all politicians are inescapable elements
of community life They could be influential cogs in the
development of the community
The project cannot totally do away with politicians
even if the opportunist ones are quick to see the poten-
tial of a community-wide medium to get them votes
and public admiration Our approach is to place the
politicians role in logical perspective If for instance
partisan politicians agree to be involved in the
Community Media Council all the important political
parties must be represented
Certain politicians may publicly manifest a desire to
keep their hands off the project while some may
volunteer resources and heavy personal involvement
However even among those who ostentatiously adopt a
hands-off policy they could have lackeys in key
positions in the station - perhaps either as a generous
benefactor an intellectual or a domineering station
manager Thus the extension of his personality and
interests could creep into sensitive station decision-
making
Some politiciansrsquo pronouncements may indicate
unconditional concern for the masses and they may
well include a candid pledge of non-interference in the
stationrsquos affairs However few make good their
promises Some will ostensibly adhere to their public
commitment particularly when the project manage-
ment makes its presence felt But the shrewd politician
may intervene surreptitiously
Quite often the saying lsquoHe who has honey in his
mouth has a sting in his tailrsquo is confirmed This may
apply not only to the typical impassioned politician
but also to certain other eloquent members of the
community
However I grant that these are general observations
and there are certainly exceptions to them
The way programmers and broadcasters respond to
political manoeuvres will be determined by their
ethical foundation and trainingrdquo
Louie Tabing Manager of the UNESCODANIDATambuli Project Philippines
BOX 5 Involvement of Politicians in Community Radio
50
CHOOSING A MODEL
Most community radios aspire tohaving their own broadcasting facilities and frequency but this isnot always possible due to the prevailing legislation or to a lack ofeconomic resources The alterna-tives at least initially are
bull To obtain airtime for communityprogrammes from an existinggovernment or commercial sta-tion that covers the area
bull Rent an existing frequency butthis solution is normally confinedto urban areas
bull To install a lsquocommunity radiorsquo sys-tem that uses loudspeakersconnected to the studio and situa-ted to cover the communityrather than broadcasting by atransmitter
Whatever model is used it is generally a good idea to start withonly a limited number of hours aweek of broadcasting and then tobuild up slowly In this way therewill be time to plan and prepare thebroadcasts properly As experienceis gained and as the programmeproducers and other staff becomeaccustomed to their roles thehours of broadcasting can beexpanded
Loudspeaker Systems
Community radios often begin by usingloudspeakers and some even remain withthat system because of unfavourable legislation Loudspeaker systems have twodrawbacks firstly the sound quality is notgood and secondly people are compelled to listenwhether they want to or not This can produce tensions in the community
Part-Time Broadcasting
ldquoIt is usually thought that radio must operate on adaily basis but this is purely a presumption derivedfrom mainstream media Given the usual staffingand resource problems of daily operations in a ruralcommunity it could be more effective for its radioservice to operate on a limited but regular basisHistorically the socio-political programming of alternative media has not been continuous Regular intervals between programming increaseaudience loyalty and attention They also give broadcasters the time they need to plan and producemore relevant programmesrdquo 5
One good strategy for the start-upperiod is to broadcast at weekendsonly This will make it easier to findvolunteers who have weekendtime available However theaudience must be informed andreminded that the station will beon air only each weekend Thisshould be done through weeklypublicity efforts using means suchas a mobile loudspeaker announce-ments by the religious establish-ment posters etc
POWER OF THE TRANSMITTER
A broadcast pattern that coverstoo wide a physical area compli-cates the operations of a commu-nity radio and may make it difficultto concentrate on the immediatecommunity that is to be servedGiven that community radiodepends to a large extent onvolunteer participation a largetarget area may result in workloads that are difficult to maintainlsquoSmall is beautifulrsquo in communityradio too and it is often better tohave more small transmitterscovering specific communitiesthan one more powerful one thatspreads its signal widely
In rural areas a 20-watt transmit-ter should normally provide suffi-
cient power but there may be jus-tification for an amplifier to boostthe output to 100 watts In a citywhere there is competition fromother stations transmitters maygo up to 300-500 watts
It is important to ensure that thebroadcast pattern covers a com-munity having between 5000 and25000 potential listeners To besuccessful a community radiomust be able to rely on variousforms of support from its listenersless than 5000 may not providethe critical mass that will allow theradio to sustain itself and muchmore than 25000 means that theradio begins to become imperson-al and difficult to manage with aresultant loss in the communitycharacter of the service
OWNERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT
These are crucial issues that needcareful thought Even if the overallconcept is that the communityowns the radio there usuallyneeds to be some body such as afoundation or association whichrepresents the communityrsquos inter-ests and also provides the juridicalentity to apply for the licence andto hold it In some cases it may bepossible to plan for a community
media cooperative This couldallow each member of the com-munity to buy a share
With regard to management theconcept of community radio isthat the community itself shouldbe in overall control Obviouslyhowever the whole communitycannot be involved all the timeand therefore some sort of manage-ment body needs to be formedthat represents the different sec-tors in the community In manycases a community media com-mittee is created to assume themanagement role Whatever thebody is called its members mustrealize that they are accountableto the community at large and tothe particular sector they repre-sent Their decisions regarding therunning of the station and its programming must be democraticand transparent
PROGRAMMING
Programming policies are coveredin the next chapter Howeveranyone planning a communityradio should give early thought toprogramming issues especiallywith regard to mechanisms that willensure the maximum possible com-munity access and participation 51
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Reach of the Station
ldquoHow far the station reaches is less important than where the station reaches A station with atransmitter that has a long reach may be situated ina sparsely populated region whereas a station situated in a densely populated region may have atransmitter that doesnt reach very farrdquo 6
52
As a tactic for starting communityradio programming it is useful tofind out what people enjoy andappreciate about other radio pro-grammes they listen to and whythey like them Focus GroupDiscussions would be an idealmethod for obtaining this qualitativeinformation
STAFF
Few if any community radio sta-tions can afford to pay staffbeyond perhaps the station mana-ger if they are lucky Thus mostcommunity radios rely extensivelyon volunteers as programme pro-ducers reporters and studio tech-nicians However the use of volun-teers is not simply to get cheaplabour for a poorly funded opera-tion On the contrary volunteersgive a special and positive characterto community radio creating animage of goodwill commitmentand service for the common goodThose same characteristics arerequired in the community at largefor it to change and develop alongdemocratic lines
SUSTAINABILITY
Generating Income
While many community radios indeveloping countries are launched
with support fromsome outside donor -national or interna-tional - anyone plan-ning and promoting acommunity radioshould bear in mindfrom the very begin-ning how to sustainthe service once it isup and running
There are severaloptions for raisingrevenue to cover run-ning costs as follows
bull Commercial adverti-sing when this is allowed underexisting national legislation
bull Sponsorship which may also bedebarred by national legislation
bull Donations
bull Fees for private announcementsmade over the radio as lsquothe peoplersquos telephonersquo
bull Membership fees paid by listeners
The Advertising Issue In manycountries that have recently intro-duced legislation for non-profitcommunity radio the commercialmedia are so strong and influentialthat they have succeeded in ensur-ing that community radio is prohi-bited from accepting advertisingthus preventing it from infringing
on their lucrative domain But des-pite the revenue problem that thismay present it may have someadvantages for the image and cre-dibility of community radio forcommunity radio is essentiallypublic-service broadcasting and itshould be seen to be free fromcommercial interests andinfluences
Thus even where advertising isallowed careful thought should begiven to the type of advertisers thatwould be acceptable within thecharacter of a community radioservice These would normally onlybe local providers of goods and ser-vices the multinational soft drinksindustry and goods that are dama-ging to health such as tobacco andalcohol should be avoided
A Conversation with the Manager of a CommunityRadio about Sustainability
During the preparation of this handbook theauthors telephoned the manager of a successful community radio station in one of the poorest partsof Colombia Towards the end of a long conversationabout the radiorsquos character and operations theauthors asked lsquoHow do you sustain the radio How does it survive
The lady burst out laughing and then said cheerfullylsquoBy miracle or rather by one miracle after anotherrsquo
This same manager had the clever idea when theradio was started to organize a party to whichpeople were asked to bring cassette tapes or recordsof their favourite music These were played at theparty She then asked to borrow then so that shecould make copies for use by the radio In this wayshe started the stationrsquos collection of popular music7
Phot
o C
A A
rnal
do
On the Government of Ecuadorrsquos Ban on Advertisingby Community Radio
ldquoWe are not for profit but we are not for bankruptcyeitherrdquo 8
The carabo or water buffalo as it is known in most parts of Southeat Asia is a preciousanimal It ploughs the field it transports goods it provides music and community
programmes through the radio strapped to its horns Some people call this lsquocar-abao stereorsquo
On Keeping Staff - the Case of CrispinZarate a Liability Turned to an Asset in thePhilippines
ldquoCrispin was a farmerrsquos son an unem-ployed school dropout Pinny as he wasfamiliarly called could usually be seenhanging around in his neighbourhood bar He wouldinvariably go home drunk His lifestyle and drinkinghabits hardly made him an eligible bachelor Norcould anyone consider him handsome The only talentthat Pinny exhibited was playing the guitar well
When the training for volunteers for the radio sta-tion was announced Pinny was among those to signup Since he was jobless he fitted the criterion thattrainees should be available for a three-week crashcourse
Pinny was an ardent trainee and became a dedicatedvolunteer broadcaster People expressed admirationfor his voice Indeed he had a knack for radio and hisinnate good nature came to the surface
His friends would tease him alluding to his lookslsquoYou sound like a real human being when you go onthe air Pinnyrsquo He would take the teasing with aproud smile
Everybody was struck dumb when they heard thatPinny was getting married and even more so whenthey learned that it was to one of the most amiableteachers on the island
I was delighted about Pinny Radio work had turneda derelict into one of the most appreciated and lovedpersons in the community
Then I received the bad news he had left the non-paying job in the station to find work in a construc-tion project on the mainland His wife was expectinga child so he could not afford to be jobless
But perhaps the loss to the station was a gain to thecommunity We had converted a liability into a usefulfamily manrdquo 9
Conflicts of Interest Sponsorshipcan also be plagued by problemsrelated to conflicts of interestsespecially when the sponsors arecommercial organizations
On the other hand sponsorshipfrom community-based associa-tions say of women farmers orfishermen can be extremelyimportant and so can sponsorshipfrom development organizationsand NGOs The same applies todonations from similar associa-tions or organizations
In the long term however relianceon outsiders will always put sustain-ability at risk Thus sustainabilityshould be seen as the ultimate res-ponsibility of the communityitself and the challenge to themanager of the station and to histeam of producers reporters andtechnicians is to make the serviceso enjoyable useful and valuableto its listeners that they will bewilling to support it through sub-scription fees voluntary donationsin cash or kind and the like
Keeping Staff
Sustainability is not only related tofunding the sustainability of staffis equally important Most person-nel working with a communityradio are volunteers and the men
volunteers are usually unemployedand looking for a paid job Thushigh staff turnover is a constantconcern Training which givespeople job satisfaction and careerprospects is one inducement (Forvolunteer work on a communityradio see Chapter 7 on training)Having women on staff may alsohelp reduce turnover because theyare less likely to be looking for jobsoutside the community
An innovative idea used in theUNESCODANIDA-supportedTambuli project in the Philippineswas to include livelihood-genera-ting activities for the staff of theradio stations The principle was to
provide small credits that wouldallow staff to start some commer-cial activity to support themselveswhile they continued to work asvolunteers with the radio In somestations this idea has worked wellbut in others it has been more dif-ficult to put into practice
53
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mun
ity
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5
The radio station is excepted to address withintegrity and fairness the main issues andproblems in the community Sponsors and
donors with vested interests may potentially draw away the
station from its avowed directions or undulysway its programming decisions
54
LOOKING FOR OUTSIDE FUNDING FOR START-UPCOSTS
Community radios often manageto obtain funding from outsidedonors - such as national or inter-national NGOs or bilateral or multilateral development agencies- for the investment required forthe initial purchase of equipmentand to train staff The mission statement of the proposed com-munity radio is an essential ele-ment in any request for externalfunding It is also useful to puttogether a brief dossier that detailsall the important points about theproposed station in order toencourage a donor to invest in itCare is needed however not toproduce an over-glossy presenta-tion that could give the wrongimpression
Donors do not part easily withtheir funds and they will scrutinizethe proposed community radioproject with care They will want tosee how the points raised in Box 6have been answered and they willcertainly conduct their own on-siteenquiries
It should by now be clear that starting a community radio stationthough not particularly complica-ted does require a considerableamount of preparation and hardwork For the initiative to succeedit is vital not to skimp any of it
1 Legislation
bull What is the current legal situation for non-profit com-munity radio
bull If it is provided for in the legislation what are the termsfor obtaining a licence and the necessary qualificationsof the applicant
bull Is the cost of the licence affordable how long will ittake to obtain and what will be the terms for renewal
bull Can the transmitter be purchased and installed withouta licence or will prior approval of the telecommunica-tion authorities be needed
bull If community radio is not allowed for in the legislationwhat other avenues exist For example are the sameconditions for private commercial radio stations appli-cable to non-profit community stations Are there pro-visions for culturaleducational channels
bull If it is not possible to set up a proper radio station coulda community loudspeaker system be used instead
2 Location Criteria
bull Does the area planned for the broadcast pattern - 10-15km in radius - have a large enough population to sustaina community radio say from 5000 to 25000 people
bull Is the terrain suitable for low-power line-of-sight FMbroadcasting or is it too hilly
bull What mainstream commercial or state radios reach thecommunity If many do it may be difficult to sustain acommunity radio service Alternatively are there anymainstream media that could support or be linked intothe proposed community radio service
bull What cooperation and support can be mobilized fromlocal institutions and organizations eg local councilsgovernmental and non-governmental organizations
bull Is the site selected for the station centrally placed andeasily accessible to the community
3 Characteristics and Capabilities of Promoters ofCommunity Radio
bull What is the credibility level and the previous experienceof the people promoting the project
bull Are they generally acceptable to the stakeholders in theproject
bull What is their capacity to mobilize human and financialresources to sustain the operations of a communityradio
bull What is the level of democracy in their decision-making processes
bull Have they been accepted as credible and non-partisanactivists in the community with a reputation for integrityand transparency in their dealings
bull What are the constraints and opportunities for organizinga representative community radio council (Board ofDirectors) or a cooperative society for communitycommunication
4 Context for Setting the Objectives and Drafting a Mission Statement
bull How does the community perceive its situation and theneed for change and development Are people unhappywith the present circumstances and if so to what extentdo they see change as good and also as possible
bull What are the principle obstacles to those changes inattitude and behaviour that could help to promotedevelopment
bull What are the traditional decision-making processes inthe community and how might these be affected byopening a democratic forum for discussion in the shapeof a community radio
bull Who are the formal and informal opinion-leaders in thecommunity and are there any that hold explicit orimplicit leadership roles in relation to the proposedcommunity radio
BOX 6 Main Factors to Consider When Planning a Community Radio
1 Quote Zane Ibrahim and Ms Adams Bush Radio 895 FM(See Case Study 4)
2 Colin FraserSonia Restrepo-Estrada Focus Group Discussions inDevelopment Work Some Field Experiences and Lessons Learned Journal of Development Communication Number One Volume Nine(Kuala Lumpur June 1998) This article provides details of this subjectand technique for which there is only space for an outline here
3 Quote Bill Siemering US public radio activist (1997)
4 Quote Louie Tabing Manager of the UNESCODANIDA TambuliProject Philippines (1999)
5 Based on a written statement by W Jayaweera UNESCO Project Officer(1999)
6 Comment Zane Ibrahim and Ms Adams Radio by Bush Radio South Africa(See Case Study 4)
7 Personal communication Cilia Mosquera Manager of Radio CanaleteIstmina Colombia (1999)
8 Comment community broadcaster in Ecuador (See Case Study 5)
9 Quote Louie Tabing Manager of UNESCODANIDA Tambuli ProjectPhilippines (1999) 55
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bull What points of resistance - either from individuals orgroups - might the community radio be expected toencounter in pursuing its declared objectives
bull Why and how could a community radio service help tobring about change and development In particularwhat impact could it have in mobilizing local resourcesfor development and in increasing community partici-pation for good governance
5 Technical Aspects
bull What is the situation regarding an electricity source forthe studio and for the transmitter
bull What transmission power is likely to be needed to coverthe community
bull Can the antenna be installed at least 30 m above theground firmly anchored to prevent wind damage andwith a lightning conductor
bull Can the antenna and transmitter be installed next toeach other - not more than 30 m apart
bull Can the studio and transmitter be installed far enoughapart to prevent radio frequency emissions from gettinginto the studio equipment
bull Is the place selected for the studio - as well as beingcentrally located and easily accessible to the population -free of uncontrollable noise and free of vested interests
6 Ownership and Management
bull What type of ownership structure can be envisaged
bull How is the community to be involved in managementand programming
bull To what extent do the plans for the community radiointegrate the traditionally vulnerable and marginalizedgroups - ie women youth and ethniclinguistic minorities - in the management and operations of theproposed community radio
7 Programming for the Community Radio Service
bull As an initial guide what programmes do people listento now which do they like most and why
bull What mechanisms can be set up to ensure regularconsultation and feedback with the community to ensurethat programmes meet their likes and needs
bull What special measures will be necessary to ensure thatprogramme producers respect the desires of theiraudience
bull Are there any particular programme formats that arelikely to be especially favourable or unfavourable inhelping to meet the objectives of the radio service
bull What mechanisms can be set up to identify individualsor groups that could produce their own programmes forbroadcast and how will they need to be encouraged andhelped
8 Staffing and other Resources
bull Is there enough interest and enthusiasm to be able tomobilize human and material resources to start and runthe station
bull Who can assume the task of the day-to-day manage-ment of the radio station
bull Is the proposed manager of the station acceptable to allsegments of the community and does heshe have thenecessary managerial and interpersonal communicationskills
bull What will the role of volunteers be in running the operation
bull What resources can be mobilized to ensure the start upof the community radio
bull What resources can be mobilized to sustain the com-munity radio over time
56
The church as a major institution of society has a major role to play
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Moneky Bay Radio Station
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Chapter 6Programme Policies
57
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T his chapter stresses the need for participation of the audience in establishing programmingneeds and preferences in programme production (as presenters and performers) and in evaluation
It describes the crucial role of community news as part of an ongoing process of change and development discusses the ethical standards required by journalists and goes on to emphasize theimportance of balancing views in all programming
Later sections deal with policies for coverage of religiouscultural events local election broadcastsand educational broadcasts
The final section is on the importance of audience surveys and outlines how to conduct them
After absorbing the Chapter the reader will
bull Be able to establish programming policies and operations that will achieve maximum partici-pation of the community and its various sectors at all stages
bull Be able to set up mechanisms to ensure that programming meets audience needs and wishes
bull Know the ethical principles for news gathering and reporting and for maintaining a balance ofviews in a programme
bull Be aware of the possible legal conditions surrounding coverage of local elections and knowhow to handle coverage fairly and objectively
bull Gain insights into the use of radio as an educational medium and know the requirements tomake it effective
PARTICIPATORY PROGRAMMES
Any successful radio station mustappeal to the interests tastes anddesires of its audience What makesprogrammes for a community radiodifferent is that in addition to pleasingentertaining and perhaps providingsome general enlightenment for itsaudience they also seek to facilitatechange social progress and betterliving conditions in the community thatthe radio serves
It needs high numbers of listeners andaudience loyalty to achieve this but theunique advantage that communityradio has over any other type of broad-casting in winning audience is its abilityto be specifically relevant to the particular needs interests and desiresof its relatively small audienceHowever it can only reach this level ofrelevance through the constant invol-vement and participation of thataudience in the planning operationand evaluation of its programming
58
Participation in AscertainingNeeds and Preferences
A consultation process is requiredto establish certain things abouteach of the main audience sectors(eg women men youth farmerscooperative members etc) Themain points to be ascertained are
bull Listenersrsquo needs
bull Listenersrsquo preferences
bull Listening habits (ie times of daywhen people mainly tune in)
This information is the basis fordeciding on programme contentformat and the scheduling of pro-grammes at times that best suit thevarious segments of the audience
Participation in ProducingProgrammes
Everything possible should be doneto encourage individuals andgroups to participate in program-me production In this contextgroups might also be NGOs working in the community or staffof government services The principle role of the station staffapart from encouragement shouldbe to provide technical support andfacilities to the producers
In the Philippines an interestingp ro g ra m m e fo r m a t c a l l e dBaranggayan sa Himpapawid
roughly lsquoVillage on the Airrsquo hasbeen developed by the UNESCO-DANIDA supported Tambuli ProjectThe programme is produced in adifferent village each week in thearea covered by the communityradiorsquos broadcast pattern
In essence it is a variety show inwhich the villagers take the lead assingers musicians humorists poetsinterviewers and interviewees panelmembers and so on Althoughmost of the programme consists oflocal culture and entertainment italso contains a section that givesthe community the chance to discuss relevant issues and villageconcerns in public with local leaderscalled on to respond and maketheir opinions and position clearThis often gives rise to a debate onthe subject
A k a r a o k e s y s t e m - t h erecorderplayback lsquosing-alongrsquomachine which is very well knowneven in Philippine villages - usuallyserves as the outside recording studio Its familiarity to the villagershelps to reduce possible inhibitions
The programme is normally broad-cast the day after it is recorded andit is enormously popular even if thevillagers who produced it had noprevious experience of talking orsinging in front of a microphone
Participation of Individuals andGroups as Presenters orPerformers
Obviously programme formats like lsquoVillage on the Airrsquo in thePhilippines provide occasions forordinary people to present and perform in front of a microphoneBut even without such a program-me format it is important to solicitand support performances thatinvolve ordinary people These cantake a variety of forms includingfor example musical presentationsreadings of poetry comic skits orquite simply interviews round-tables or discussions in whichpeople present their ideas and opinions about any issue that is ofinterest to the communityProgramme formats that inviteparticipation from people in thecommunity should be a regular feature of the stationrsquos broadcasts
Every effort should also be made tohave the radio station seen as afocal point in the communitywhere people are free to come andtalk to the staff and discuss ideasfor programmes in which theycould be involved
An Overview of Programming
Programming decisions are among the most sensitiveand challenging tasks in a station This activity isnecessary when starting a radio station or whenmodifications are called for Periodic evaluation exercises usually trigger a programming revamp
Long hours of consultation and brainstorming sessions are devoted to programme planning A cunning programme manager serves to facilitate aparticipatory deliberation ndash rather than dictateideas - to determine the thrust format content andphilosophies By participating the staff [too] becomeenthusiastic implementers of the programme planIndeed participation makes the station a genuinecommunity radio 1
This graph shows the time avilability of various target groups for radio listening Different localities may show slightly varying trends from this
hypothetical illustration To determine the time slots of programmes designed for specific groups the programmers must at least figure
out if not make a formal research on the habits of their target listeners
Time Availability Chart
BROADCAST TIME
Participation in Evaluation ofProgramming
Community radio stations normallyreceive considerable numbers ofletters andor telephone callsfrom listeners These often providefeedback from the audience aboutthe stationrsquos programmes Thisprocess is very useful to the stationpersonnel and the audience shouldtherefore be encouraged by theannouncers and presenters towrite or call with their comments orsuggestions
However in addition to this routinefeedback a community radioshould conduct periodic evalua-tions of its programming with theparticipation of members of itsvarious audience sectors TheFocus Group Discussion techniqueoutlined earlier is an excellentmethod for eliciting peoplersquos opin-ions about existing programmestheir effects on community lifeand their ideas as to how programmes could be improved
Individual programmes may alsobe evaluated in conjunction withthe audience Programmes arenormally analyzed from two basicviewpoints
bull The formal structure of the programme including its technicalquality (the sound effects used
performance of the announcersand other participants controlof extraneous noise etc)
bull The content of the programmewith specific relation to
Information sources - were theywell selected credible and suffi-cient in number
Context - were the themes of theprogramme pertinent to the specific situation and needs of theaudience
Timeliness - were the themes ofthe programme pertinent in thesense of covering an actual orongoing situation
Actors and roles - did the physicalactors (persons) and the non-physical actors (institutions) eachplay their appropriate role in theprogramme
Communication approach ndash wasthe programme one-way or participatory Did it lead to anycritical analysis by the audience
bull Message formulation - did thecentral message come out clearlyWas there a good balance bet-ween rational emotional andaffective elements Was the format suitably matched withthe content
It is vital that a community radiomanager and his or her staff realize from the beginning thatprogramming decisions must bepart of a dynamic processFeedback and evaluations shouldbe constantly driving the processof improving and adapting theprogramming to meet the needsand preferences of the listenersAnd it must be remembered thatthese are not necessarily constantTo fall into a programming routineand to assume that listeners aresatisfied with what is on offer isthe short road to listeners desert-ing the frequency And that in turnis the short road to the death ofthe community radio
Peoplersquos views and opinions are important for strenghtheningdemocratic practice and for arriving at a cooperative approach tocommunity development Hence in Olutanga a small island in thesouthern part of Zamboanga Philippines the Village on the Airprogramme is the most popular of all It exemplifies the key themeof community radio- participation of the people
59
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60
COMMUNITY NEWS
Community news is a unique feature and a prime strength thatgives a community radio station theinside track in competing againstlarger commercial or government stations However it must beremembered that the news provided by community radio incontrast to that of the mainstreammedia is not an isolated story orevent alone rather it should bepart of an ongoing and future process that is supporting progressand development in the communityRegular local news broadcasts inthe context of a process are thereforethe lifeblood of a community radioProgramming policies and opera-tions need to give them maximumimportance
Gathering local news is not alwayseasy especially when limitedresources make transportation andmobility for station personnel diffi-cult The idea of lsquopopular reportersrsquo- essentially a few volunteers scat-tered in the community - whoreport in to the studio by telephonecellular phone or VHF radio isalways worth pursuing
However journalistic ethics are justas important in community newsgathering and reporting as they arefor any major news organization
Indeed these ethics can be evenmore important in a communityradio For given the more intimaterelationship that exists betweenthe radio and its audience and thefact that the audience is also inter-related because it is part of a com-munity incorrect or tendentiousreporting or misrepresentation ofan event or issue can have moreimmediate and damaging effectsthan they would in a larger and lessinvolved audience
Thus a community radiorsquos programming policy with regard tocommunity news needs to be basedon having personnel and outsidereporters who have been properlyinitiated into the ethics of journa-lism These cover such aspects ashonesty fairness and objectivityand verification of sources beforeissuing a news item It is difficultnot to make the occasional mistakebut if it does happen an immediateacknowledgement and correctionshould be broadcast (See also the Code of Conduct in the next chapter)
Many community radios also pre-sent news bulletins that includeregional national and internationalitems The source for these is usuallythe mainstream media ndash newspapersradio and TV It is sometimes possible to arrange a link up with a
state or commercial radio stationand re-broadcast its news bulletinto the community Some communityradios make a point of having newsitems discussed on air by listenerseither through telephone calls orby 2-3 member panels in the studio
Whatever approach is used for out-side news the overall policy shouldbe to present or comment on it in away that makes it accessible andmeaningful to the communityaudience
BALANCING VIEWS
The main thrust of a communityradio should be to try to promotefair discussion and debate that canlead to resolution of conflictingviewpoints and to democraticconsensus The personnel of thestation and the way they work arefundamental in achieving this (Theterm lsquopersonnelrsquo of course includesvolunteers)
The staff of the radio station mustof course appear to be neutral Thisis not to say that they will not havetheir own personal points of viewbut they must on no account lettheir opinions influence the waythey stimulate and conduct any dis-cussions or make presentations onair A station manager should bewatchful for any manifestations of
DECLARATION OF PRINCIPLES ON THE CONDUCTOF JOURNALISTS
Adopted by the Second World Congress of theInternational Federation of Journalists at Bordeaux25-28 April 1954 and amended by the 18th IFJ WorldCongress in Helsingoumlr 2-6 June 1986 This interna-tional declaration is proclaimed as a standard of pro-fessional conduct for journalists engaged in gathe-ring transmitting disseminating and commentingon news and information and in describing events
1 Respect for truth and for the right of the public to truthis the first duty of the journalist
2 In pursuance of this duty the journalist shall at all timesdefend the principles of freedom in the honest collectionand publication of news and of the right of fair commentand criticism
3 The journalist shall report only in accordance with factsof which heshe knows the origin The journalist shallnot suppress essential information or falsify documents
4 The journalist shall use only fair methods to obtainnews photographs and documents
5 The journalist shall do the utmost to rectify any publishedinformation which is found to be harmfully inaccurate
6 The journalist shall observe professional secrecy regardingthe source of information obtained in confidence
7 The journalist shall be aware of the danger of discrimination being furthered by the media and shalldo the utmost to avoid facilitating such discriminationbased on among other things race sex sexual orientationlanguage religion political or other opinions and national or social origins
8 The journalist shall regard as grave professional offencesthe following plagiarism malicious misrepresentationcalumny slander libel unfounded accusations theacceptance of a bribe in any form in consideration ofeither publication or suppression
9 Journalists worthy of that name shall deem it their dutyto observe faithfully the principles stated above Withinthe general law of each country the journalist shall recognize in professional matters the jurisdiction of colleagues only to the exclusion of every kind of interference by government or others
bias by his staff while on air as wellas in hisher normal socialcontacts for if any staff are knownto have a strong position on somesubject and express it openly insocial conversations it will bemore difficult for them to presenta position of neutrality while onair Furthermore station managersshould take seriously and lookinto any complaints from listenersabout bias or manipulation ofinformation in the work of the stationrsquos personnel
The balancing of views also callsfor equal opportunity and time toallow different viewpoints to beexpressed on air The managementshould have a rigid policy thatensures this
It must always be rememberedthat the credibility and integrity ofthe service and of the personnelwho run it are crucial to its successand sustainability
COVERAGE OF RELIGIOUSAND CULTURAL EVENTS
Religious functions in a communi-ty are often cultural events as wellAdequate coverage of these occa-sions has to be included in theradio stationrsquos programme In amulti-religious community theradio station should take the
necessary steps to ensure reason-able access to all the different reli-gious institutions and denomina-tions To achieve this it is oftengood to have a committee of differ-ent religious leaders to agree onand advise the station on airtimeallocation for different religiousprogrammes The basic thrust ofreligious programming should betowards promoting religious harmony in the community deni-gration of other peoplersquos religiousbeliefs must be avoided at all costs
LOCAL ELECTION BROADCASTS
Some countriesrsquo legislation specifi-cally forbids community radio tobecome involved in any way withpolitical campaigning Othersallow campaigning under strictlycontrolled conditions only duringspecified election periods Themanagement of a communityradio should examine carefully theparticular legal situation withregard to electioneering
If a community radio is involved inpolitical campaigns it is essentialthat no party or candidate derivesundue advantage or suffers unduedisadvantage A transparent sys-tem of providing equal opportuni-ty and equal time to duly register-ed political parties and candidates
must be established The conceptof equality in opportunity andtime must take into account thelength of the broadcast the qualityof presentation and any advantagesthat might accrue from the timeand day of the broadcast If noagreement can be reached betweenthose concerned drawing of lotsor some similar system may beused
Any programme of a politicalnature which is sponsored or paidfor with the intention of influen-cing voters in a certain directionmust be properly identified as suchat the beginning at regular intervalsduring the programme and againat the end (See also the section onpolitical broadcasts in the Code ofConduct in Chapter 7)
Community radio can effectivelymonitor and ensure good conductof elections and thus support thisvital democratic process
EDUCATIONAL BROADCASTS (School on the Air)
In the 1960s and 1970s when ruralbroadcasting was being widelypromoted by development agen-cies there was much emphasisgiven to the educational possibilitiesoffered by radio a strategy
Everywhere religion plays a major role in the lives of people Community radiobroadcasters must also learn to appreciate this role while keeping radio free
from undue religious influences
61
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pioneered by Radio Sutatenza inColombia However experienceshows that as an educationmedium radio alone is weak itneeds to be supported by othermedia such as printed materials aswell as by inter-personal contactsto form a complete educationalpackage
A community radio may well decidethat part of its programmingshould consist of educationalbroadcasts for example for farmerson agricultural techniques or formothers on childcare and nutritionIf such a policy decision is takenthe best results will be achievedwhen it is based on proper adulteducation methodology Thisbegins with careful structuring of
the educational content of thebroadcasts in accordance with thetraineesrsquo circumstances needs andcapacities It should also involvesome sort of enrolment and recog-nition award for successful comple-tion of a course in order to enhancepeoplersquos sense of commitmentAnd the radio programmes shouldbe supported by other materialsgroup discussions and inter-personalfollow-up
Setting up a programme of educa-tional broadcasts can be a veryworthwhile objective for a commu-nity radio but it needs to be care-fully thought out planned andwork in conjunction with theappropriate services in say healthor agriculture Advice and support
from an adult education specialist
can help to ensure successful
programmes
Whether or not a community radio
decides to broadcast educational
programmes per se its policy
should take into account that edu-
cation in the broad sense of the
word and in the context of helping
people to improve their lives is one
of the fundamental objectives of
community radio Thus educa-
tional content will always be present
though it may be built into a variety
of formats including reportage
interviews panel questionanswer
sessions or discussions entertaining
drama etc
School on the Air ndash Girandurukotte CommunityRadio Sri Lanka
ldquoThe School on the Air was an action-oriented programme whose primary objective was to provideinstructional education in a manner that would leadto action It also attempted to develop a coordinatedapproach in which all those concerned with thedevelopment of the area could work together We
believed that such an approach would pave the wayfor our listeners to put into practice the instructionsthey received through radio and other channels ofcommunication
The radio producer in charge of agricultural pro-grammes worked with the agricultural extension officers in the area and with the committee thatadvised on the farming programme of the School onthe Air to develop an agricultural calendar and toidentify on-farm activities and their technicalcontent for the coming season
The calendar with the relevant technical informationwas produced and circulated among 115 farmers whoenrolled in the agricultural programme of the Schoolon the Air These farmers were asked to listen to theradio programme and to make notes in the blankspace provided in the calendar itself
A question was asked at the end of each programmeto which the farmers sent in their reply either bymail or during a visit to the radio stationThe programme received an average of 200-250replies many of which were from farmers not enrolled in the programme
The correct answers were discussed in the follow- upprogramme and those who had provided correct answers received marks
A seasonal course usually lasted 2-3 months and atthe end of the course farmers who had collected anaggregate of pass marks were awarded a School onthe Air certificaterdquo 3
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In Laurel Batangas a police officer runs the lsquoTraffic and Good Behaviourrsquo programmeThe studio is an abandoned classroom at the local high school
Phot
o L
Tab
ing
Some stations like Radio Voice of Manduyog in Banga Aklan Province are fortunate tobe linked to an educational institution In this instance the Aklan State College ofAgriculture serves its community with agricultural and technical programmes as well aspublic service womenrsquos programmes children stories good behaviour Students volunteerfor station duty as researchers or announcers
AUDIENCE SURVEYSA community radio that has goodfeedback from its audiencethrough letters telephone callsand visits to the studio and whichregularly conducts participatoryevaluations of its work as describedearlier will have access to muchqualitative information Howeverthis may not be enough to providea full picture of a radio stationrsquosperformance and standing Theindependence of an outside surveyteam is required to obtain reliableanswers to questions such as
bull Does the station have credibilityamong its listeners
bull Is the station seen as a reliablesource of information
bull What image and status do thestaff have in the eyes of the community
bull To what extent does the com-munity depend on the stationfor information and develop-ment materials
bull What do listeners do with theinformation they gain Do theyuse it store it pass it on toothers or look for additionalinformation
bull What impact is the radio havingin the community Whatchanges can be essentially attributed to the radio
In addition some quantitativedata may be needed about howmany people listen to the station
and when compared to other stations and how many listen toparticular programmes This infor-mation provides a picture of howthe community radio stands inrelation to other media channelsavailable to the audience
The type of information mentionedabove is often difficult to obtainThere are specialized companiesthat conduct audience researchusually for large commercial stations They have a natural tendency to inflate the listeningfigures so that the radio stationthat contracted the survey can usehigh ratings as a basis for chargingmore for advertising time In addition the experience of thesecompanies is mainly urban
Unfortunately the gadgetry usedby mainstream media to electronic-ally record the number of receiverstuned into a programme and evenwhen the channel is changed isbeyond the reach of communityradio stations So other methodsneed to be used to obtain thequantitative data
The commonest method is to takea sample of the audience - specialsampling techniques exist for theselection - and have them answer aquestionnaire either by mail orduring an interview The resultsare extrapolated to give a picturefor the whole community
The radio station itself canuse certain techniques totry to determine listeningpatterns One of these isto invite the audience tosend in entries to acontest or to make contri-butions to a communitycampaign The announce-ment is systematicallyrepeated throughout thedayrsquos programming andthe respondents are askedto say at what time ortimes they heard theannouncement
In most countries one candiscard the use of com-mercial media research organiza-tions for community radio It isbetter to enlist the help of NGOsuniversity students or volunteerswho are unknown in the commu-nity to conduct surveys and inter-views (If interviewers are knownin the community respondentsmay feel conditioned in the waythey answer) What is ideal is toget help from the staff of anothercommunity radio station for suchan outsider view They also learnfrom the experience
However difficult it may be toarrange surveys by outsiders fromtime to time are important to beable to gauge the way a communi-ty radio is functioning and thestanding it enjoys among itsaudience
Bus stops provide unique opportunities to gain feedback from audience and conduct interestinginterviews In Punka the Chief of Programmes of Bhutan Radio interviews an expectant passenger While waiting for the bus his handy radio helps pass the time
63
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mun
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1 Louie Tabing Programming Tips for a Community Radio Station UNESCO-DANIDA Tambuli Project (Manila 1998)
2 Louie Tabing et al Neighbourhood Radio Production UNESCO-DANIDATambuli Project Manila undated
3 Based on MJR David Mahaweli Community Radio A Field ProducerrsquosNotebook Institute of Development Communication Laguna(Philippines 1993)
Interviewing for Agricultural School on the Air Sri Lanka Recordingtraditional songs for transplanting rice
Phot
o W
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awee
ra
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rnal
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64
Homa Bay Radio Station
Phot
o U
nesc
o
Chapter 7The Community Broadcaster
Com
mun
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7
T his chapter provides a prototype code of conduct for community broadcasters A community
radio service could use it as it stands or it could modify it according to any special local needs
or conditions It includes sections on programme production and on ethics conduct and
teamwork during operations and in the studio on the care of equipment and on the general conduct of
broadcasters in their normal life in the community
Other sections deal with conduct related to financial matters and provide details of how these can
be handled Appropriate policies and conduct for political broadcasts and for advertising
and sponsorship are also covered
Sections on the selection and training of community broadcasters give advice on selection criteria
on the content and categories of training required and describe various types of training modalities
There is a discussion of the pros and cons of on-site in-country and overseas training and a final
section on the financing of training
The reader can expect to
bull Gain an understanding of the need for and content of a code of conduct for community
broadcasters
bull Have a model code of conduct to apply as it stands or to modify to suit local circumstances
bull Learn about the different types and content of training needed by community broadcasters
and have guidelines for the general planning and organizing of training activities
CODE OF CONDUCT
The conduct of the personnel whowork with a community radio is centralto achieving the levels of efficiencyintegrity and positive image requiredfor its success Some national broadcasting legislations that includecommunity radio also provide a codeof conduct for broadcasters In additionthe UNESCODANIDA supportedTambuli Project in the Philippines hasdrawn up a code of its own 1
Although most codes of conduct arealmost identical in their generalapproach there may also be a need forspecial points to cover aspects that arespecific to a certain country For exam-ple where community radios areallowed to accept advertising or becomeinvolved in political campaigns theproper ethical conduct of these willneed to be included in the code
It is a useful idea therefore for community broadcasters in a countryto form associations and agree on acommon code of conduct appropriateto their circumstances In essence the 65
66
code of conduct should be a professional instrument for self-regulation and not a law or regula-tion enforced by government Thecommunity being served by thestation should also be informed ofthe code being applied
The code of conduct which followsbelow brings together elementsfrom several sources but it is basedon the structure of the Tambulidocument It is provided as a proto-type which community radios mayuse or modify as they wish
A PROTOTYPE CODE OF CONDUCT
Preparing and ConductingBroadcasts
General
bull Programmes should be well pre-pared in order to present newideas new information and newpoints of view
bull Broadcasters should obtain infor-mation from reliable sources andorganize their programmesproperly before going on air
bull A good balance should be main-tained between news entertain-ment and public-service programmes
bull Programming should maintain abalance that properly reflects the
differing interests of the variousmajority and minority sectors inthe community
Research
bull Broadcasters should actively andconstantly be researching newinteresting and comprehensiveinformation The most persistentresearchers and enquirers willultimately be the most reliablesources of information for otherpeople
Decency and Good Taste
bull Programmes should excludematerial that is indecent obsceneor offensive to public morals orto the religious convictions of anysector of the community
bull Programmes should promotegood relationships between differ-ent sectors of the community andshould most certainly avoid pre-judicing them
bull Justifiable material that relates tobrutality violence atrocitiesdrug abuse and obscenity shouldbe presented with due care andsensitivity and always in contextnot gratuitously Special care isnecessary when children are likelyto hear the programme
bull Broadcasters should rememberthat listeners especially children
and youth may make radioannouncers and presenters theirrole model and therefore theyshould behave accordingly
Respect for Privacy
bull Broadcasters should use care andconsideration in matters involv-ing the private lives and concernsof individuals The interest andeven the right to know of a com-munity is not a licence to invade apersonrsquos privacy But there can becases of exceptional overridingand legitimate public interestthat waive the right to privacy
bull Information provided by an inter-viewee as off-the-record shouldbe treated as such by a reporter
Preference for a Positive andConstructive Approach
bull Broadcasters should stronglyavoid the temptation to includerumours gossip slurs criticismsconflicts and indirect propagan-da in their programmes
bull Where the public interest is atstake and a controversy must bediscussed on air the broadcastersshould do everything in theirpower to present all sides of thestory
Responsibilities
ldquoLike every bestowed opportunity the privilege touse radio carries with it responsibilities - towards theinstitution and more than this towards society It isthe responsibility of anyone using the power of communication to uphold the dignity of the stationand his co-workers Radio is a powerful tool withwhich one person can manifest care for the community dependent on him for fair honest andtruthful communication rather than serve selfishmotives It is easy to detect whether a broadcaster isrepresenting his interest or that of the communitywhere he belongsrdquo 2
lsquoHate Radiorsquo A Warning
The former Director-General of UNESCO AmadouMahtar MrsquoBow stated ldquoBecause radio can be verypowerful it may sometimes be detrimental to thepeople it aims to serve We saw in Rwanda that aradio station Radio Mille Collines contributedgreatly and criminally to the tragedy that hit thatcountry To avoid human rights abuses even minorones community media practitioners and humanrights activists are trying to rally internationallyaround a Peoples Communication Charter that pro-vides guiding principles to prevent such potentialabuses Inter alia the Charter states that ldquorestrictions on access to information should be permissible only for good and compelling reasons as when prescribed by international human rightsstandards or necessary for the protection of a democratic society or the basic rights of othersrdquo
A Real Emergency is the Only Valid Excuse
ldquoIt is only in emergency cases that an announcer maybe allowed to absent himself without previous noticeThis would need to be on the level of a deathof a member of his household or the need tobring to the hospital a member of the familywho is running a fever of 40 degreesrdquo 3
bull Broadcasters should emphasizeinteresting and useful informa-tion rather than dwell onunsavoury conflicts
bull When dealing with a problemrather than bemoaning it thestress should be placed on dis-cussing it in the positive light ofwhat possible actions could betaken and by whom to solve it
Conduct During Operations
Teamwork
bull The personnel of a communityradio are all part of a team andshould act and work as such Thismeans among other thingsbeing willing to help a colleaguewho is in difficulty for any reasonand co-operating by providinginformation contacts andmaterials to colleagues who mayneed them
bull Individuals should participate inevaluations and discussions andencourage their colleagues toassess and criticize their work
bull Individuals should be willing toaccept and act upon evaluationcritiques
bull Broadcasters should be willing tomake announcements that promote other programmes inthe stationrsquos schedule
bull In live programmes it should benormal practice for a broadcasterto stand in for the programmefollowing hishers if the nextbroadcaster should be delayedThe broadcast should never beleft unattended
Respect for Management
bull Personnel should respect themanagement and comply fullywith the administrative andoperational procedures it hasput in place
bull Any disagreements betweenstaff member(s) and the man-agement should be first discussed with the station manager If the problem cannotbe resolved at that level thematter should be referred to themanagement body of the community radio whose decisionshould be final Respect fromboth sides and a democraticprocess should be observed inthese discussions with the inter-ests of the radio station and thecommunity it serves as the dominating criterion
Punctuality and Reliability
bull Personnel who are to go on airmust be punctual leaving suffi-cient lead-time to prepare them-selves and their materials and to
confer with the station manageror with guests or interviewees asnecessary An absolute mini-mum of ten minutes beforebroadcast time should beobserved though consider-ably longer lead-time isusually advisable
bull If an individual anticipates notbeing able to fulfil a broadcastcommitment heshe shouldinform the station manager atleast one day before so that areplacement can be appointedand have time to prepare properly
Conduct in the Studio Premises
bull No personnel should be allowedto bring firearms into the studioeven if they are members of thepolice or military
bull Drinking or taking of illicit drugsin the studio premises should betreated as a violation of the sta-tionrsquos standing and integrity Soshould coming to the stationintoxicated or under the influenceof drugs
bull Broadcasters should not inviteguests and relatives to the studiopremises without briefing themon proper behaviour especiallywith regard to orderliness andsilence 67
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Broadcasters mustbecome a reliablesource of information for people
In no case should the announcer cometo the sudio less than10 minutes
before broadcast time
68
bull Guests should not be allowed todistract broadcasters disruptactivities or tamper with or pilferstation equipment and property
bull Children visiting the stationshould always be accompanied by aparent or other responsible adult
Care of Studio Equipment
bull Every member of the stationrsquos staffshould participate in preserving itsequipment and property
bull The operation of studio equip-ment should only be by peoplewho have been trained qualifiedand authorized to use it
bull All equipment not in use shouldbe switched off All personnelshould be obliged to clean recapcover and store equipment theyhave used in their proper place
bull No piece of equipment should betaken out of the studio premiseswithout the prior approval of thestation manager or the person towhom heshe has delegated con-trol of such matters Ideally thisapproval should be in writing
bull Any equipment taken out of thestudio premises should bereturned promptly after use
bull Systems of usage and borrowingshould be set up A userrsquos log anda borrowerrsquos log should be kept
bull Broadcasters should immediatelyreport to the station manager orothers in authority any malfunc-tion loss or damage to equip-ment they were using noting thetime and circumstances in whichit happened
bull Based on the points outlinedabove the station manager inconjunction with the rest of themanagement body of the com-munity radio should establishregulations for the use of itsequipment and ensure that allpersonnel are aware of them
Conduct of Personnel Outsidethe Radio Station
bull Community broadcasters arereformers and agents of positivechange and development Theircomportment in their social andfamily life and in their life in gen-eral in the community shouldmatch the image they project asstaff of the community radio
bull Any member of the staff shouldbe automatically dismissed iffound guilty of any criminal orillicit activity The managementof a community radio shouldhave the constitutional right tosuspend or dismiss any such person especially when it isdeemed that keeping himher
would prejudice the image andstanding of the station
bull No member of the staff shoulddivulge classified information
Solicitation of FundsAdvertising or Sponsorship
bull Only personnel who have beenspecifically designated to do soby the management should beallowed to solicit or receive donations grants sponsorship orany other form of financial support for the community radioor for specific programmes Theauthorization to solicit or collectfunds should be in writing
bull No radio station should acceptfunds from any illegal source orfrom any source whose activitieshave a negative effect on thecommunity society or the countryeg gambling rings smugglersdrug traffickers producers orpurveyors of tobacco and alcoholconcerns that are damaging orpolluting the environment etc
bull No funds should be acceptedfrom political parties or otherinterest groups that could latercompromise the stationrsquos editorialindependence
Caution with Record Companies
ldquoCommunity stations can end up playingmusic all day The music industry makes iteasy to lsquospin discsrsquo instead of providing thecommunity with the programming it needsWhen a record company gives a station freemusic the station becomes a record sales outlet for the only place people hear new music is on radioIn South Africa record sales increased dramaticallywhen community radio began Another problem isthe gifts and unsolicited attention that many recordcompanies lavish on the individual who is responsiblefor the lsquoplay listrsquo of tunes that are broadcast to givethe station its identityrdquo 4
Management of FinancialResources
bull The community radio shoulddesignate a treasurer whoshould open a bank account forthe safekeeping and disbursementof its financial resources Thechoice of bank should be madein conjunction with the manage-ment body of the radio
bull Two signatures should berequired for withdrawal of fundsfrom the bank account
bull All funds grants earnings collections and other incomeshould be remitted to the desig-nated treasurer as soon as possibleand never later than 24 hoursafter being received Any personnel who keep funds forlonger should be considered tohave misappropriated them andbe disciplined accordingly
bull The treasurer should keep arecord of all receipts and payments This should be avail-able for inspection at any timeby any member of the manage-ment or by the authorities
bull Only after income has beengiven to the treasurer and itsreceipt duly recorded should itbecome expendable No staffshould be permitted to use
unrecorded incomeeven to reim-burse legitimateexpenses theym a y h a v ei n c u r r e d
bull The stationm a n a g e rshould haveaccess to ap e t t y c a s hf u n d T h i ss h o u l d b ereplenished bythe treasurer whenever it fallsbelow a predetermined amountFull records of the petty cashexpenditures and replenish-ments should be kept
bull The community should be keptinformed at regular intervals ofthe financial state of their radiostation and also have the rightto ask for related information atany time
Political Broadcasts (where allowed)
bull The community radio manage-ment should ascertain in detailany provisions in the nationalbroadcasting legislation con-cerning radio coverage duringpolitical campaigns and abide bythem scrupulously
bull bull
bull Broadcasters should not giveundue advantage or disadvan-tage to any political party orcandidate
bull Equal opportunity and equaltime should be accorded to dulyregistered political parties andcandidates Equality in this con-text takes into account thelength of the broadcast thequality of presentation and anypossible advantages from thetime and day of the broadcast
bull If no agreement on such equalitycan be reached between thoseconcerned drawing of lots orsome similar system may beused
bull News and other informationprogrammes should be edited 69
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70
for strictly factual informationand should avoid bias in favour oragainst any political party or candidate
bull Any personnel of a communi-ty radio including the man-agement body should resigntheir post and refrain fromany regular activity as a broad-caster before or at the time ofdeclaring their intention ofbecoming involved in any politicalor partisan activity
Advertising and Sponsorship(where allowed)
bull The management body shoulddecide whether advertisingwhen allowed under the existinglegislation is compatible with the aims and objectives of the community radio
bull If it is decided to accept advertisingthe management body shouldestablish criteria for the types ofcommercial interests whose publicity will be broadcast
bull Preference should be given toevents goods and services beingorganized or offered by commer-cial concerns within the area inwhich the community radio is situated
bull Advertising should not be accepted
from concerns offering goods thatare harmful to individuals to thecommunity or to society especiallyin terms of health or behaviour(eg tobacco and alcohol) Norshould advertising be accepted foritems that are generally detrimentalto the socio-economic welfare ofthe poor (eg junk food carbonat-ed drinks and other items that are low in nutritional value and relatively high in cost)
bull In respect of sponsorship - whereallowed - and advertising careshould be taken to ensure thatthere is no potential conflict ofinterest between the sponsor oradvertiser and the change anddevelopment objectives of theradio station
Advertisements by PoliticalParties and Candidates
Advertising by political interestsduring election campaigns - asdistinct from party politicalbroadcasts - presents a specialproblem The communityradio management body
should take one of three possible decisions
bull Apply the principle of equaltime and opportunity to politicaladvertisements as in the caseof party political broadcasts
bull Allow each party the freedom tobuy as much air time as it wantsand can afford
bull Not accept advertisements frompolitical parties or candidates
Some community radios chargehigher rates for political advertise-ments than they do for commercialones and it is tempting to solvemany of the sustainability problemsthat afflict all community radios byselling air time willy-nilly to all thepolitical interests that want it andcan pay for it Nevertheless it isdubious whether a communityradio should help the alreadystrong parties to get strongeragainst the weaker alternative par-ties that might bring greater socialprogress From an ethical view-point it is probably better to apply
Some Typical Examples of Potential Conflicts ofInterest between Advertising Revenue and theGeneral Good
bull Revenue from infant formula producers or retailersversus promoting the healthier practice of breast-feeding
bull Revenue from farm pesticide manufacturers versusthe need to promote integrated pest management
bull Revenue from international bottlers of carbonateddrinks versus promoting the use of locally grownfruit-based drinks
bull Sponsorship for a farming programme fromcommercial dealers or outlets of farm produce ver-sus support to farmers to obtain better prices
bull Sponsorship from a mining company with localoperations versus the need to reduce its negativeenvironmental impact
The Commercial Radio Viewpoint
After a series of elections in Ecuador spread over a short time the owner of a commercial stationin Cuenca said only half joking These politically unstable times have saved half of us frombankruptcy 5
Training Experience at Radio Sagarmatha Nepal
Two types of training have been conducted the firstfocusing on broad concepts and techniques has successfully upgraded general skills and brought people into the fold the second has been integratedinto the stations specific needs and context workingwith producers and developing new programmes
The first type has been done with foreign resourcesgenerally the training centres of international broadcasters This training was important for identifying and developing human resources While Nepal has excellent media resources of its ownthe expertise of these international broadcasters hasbeen extremely beneficial
The second type has used local resources and integrated the needs of the station and of thetrainees into the planning and conducting of trainingcourses using a more hands-on on-the-job approachThis has proved appropriate to the overall development of the station and to existing and available technologies This training has beenconducted by station personnel and internationaltechnical advisers working locally It has concentrat-ed on existing station staff rather than new recruits
the equality principle or not toaccept any political advertisingeven if this means loss of revenue
SELECTION OF COMMUNITY BROADCASTERS
Some community radios arestaffed by people chosen mainlyfor their commitment to the wel-fare and improvement of theirown community and for theirinterest in radio as an instrumentfor social progress Other commu-nity radios are able to draw onpeople who have some experienceor training in the area of commu-nication or journalism but whomay be outsiders to the communi-ty Although they may have a bet-ter education and more skills thanordinary members of a communi-ty they may well be at an initialdisadvantage until they havegained full insight into how thecommunity functions
When selecting people from thecommunity it is usual to apply certain other criteria besidesthese peoplersquos sense of commit-ment They should be residents ofthe community with no immediateintention of migrating away fromit they should have good oralcommunication skills they shouldbe of good moral standing and
have leadership potential theyshould be representative of anyethnic and religious groupings andof political affiliations in the com-munity and they should have timeavailable for the initial training andfor a volunteer job
The balance between women andmen is particularly important Inmany countries it is usually mainlymen who come forward whentraining is being offered but it isessential that women be integratedinto the operation in balance withmen Quite apart from fundamentalissues of gender equity most com-munity radios have high numbersof listeners among women whoneed information that is best supplied by other women Womenon the air will also help others toassume an equitable and respectedrole in the affairs of the communi-ty and its development Staff sustainability will usually beimproved by having womenbecause they are less likely to leavethe community in search of work
In one community radio in SouthAfrica which provides training forbroadcasters no training course isallowed to go ahead unless at leasthalf of the participants arewomen (See Case Study 4) Insome countries it may be difficultfor cultural reasons to insist on this
condition immediately but itshould certainly be a target every-where
TRAINING OF COMMUNITY BROADCASTERS
Community radio stations veryoften begin with people who havenever been inside a radio studionever held a microphone andnever had any involvement withthe world of media or journalismTraining such people presents anoteworthy challenge but experi-ence has shown that it is not as difficult as one might expect
Content of Training
Many skills are involved in broad-casting The principal ones thatstaff collectively of a station needto have fall into three main types
Technical - use of equipment andsimple repairs
Programme production - coveringelements such as radio talk voiceperformance script writing inter-view techniques news gatheringwriting and delivery magazineprogramme production produc-tion of radio spots jingles andpublic-service announcementsproduction of participatory pro-grammes in the community basic
Martin Allard on Technical TrainingldquoI think that the future of community radio is theelimination of the role of the technician as aseparate activity and the inclusion of a limitedamount of technical training in the functions ofstation managers and programme producersrdquo 6
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c o m m u n i c a t i o ntheory and practice
Management andOperations ndashincluding manage-ment skills overallprogramming for acommunity radiomarketing the station audienceresearch methodsradio laws andethics
In addition every-one working with acommunity radiomust be well
versed in the Code of Conductbeing applied
Categories and Phases ofTraining
The training required for broad-casters falls into two broad categories
bull Introductory training needed forthem to able to function at theminimum level of competencerequired
bull Refinement of their skills untilthey become fully competent inone or more broadcasting roleeg programme producerannouncer reporter studio
technician etc In many smallcommunity radio stations peoplehave to learn to function in any orall of these roles
Introductory Training
This should cover three basic typesof content
bull The philosophy of communityradio and its role in news enter-tainment and education andparticularly in change and development
bull The principle factors in the codeof conduct for community broadcasters
bull The use of broadcasting equip-ment and basic programme production
Some community radios manage toprovide this basic training in anintensive introductory course lasting about three weeks and heldin the community The courseshould include a large amount ofhands-on training as indeed shouldall types of broadcaster training
The introductory training providedwhen starting a community radioservice will of course need outsidesupport both in terms of trainersand funding The trainers can comefrom other well-established com-munity or public-service broadcast-ing stations in the country
The introductory training can be
used to help the selection process
for staff It is useful to include more
trainees than the staff actually
needed and to select the best of
them at the end of the course
Once a community station is up
and running new personnel can
often be given their basic training
by working with the already
competent staff learning by doing
supplemented with sessions to
cover aspects such as the philosophy
code of conduct and other
conceptual issues of community
radio
Refinement of Skills
Community broadcasters need to
take part in a continuous process of
learning Even veterans often learn
something new from others from
reading or from some reaction in
the community to a programme
they have produced In addition
new technology is being intro-
duced all the time
Refinement of skills to a certain
extent comes naturally through
learning-by-doing but this is not
enough There are several ways that
broadcasters can be helped to
improve their performance
Listening is all important listening to feedback listening to opinions listening togood music and to onersquos own singing At the Childrenrsquos Center in Olongapo
Philippines Shirley listens to a recording for the morning show
Phot
o C
A A
rnal
do
Formal Training Courses EitherOn-site or In-country Usingnational or international trainersshort training workshops can beorganized on specific aspects ofbroadcasting and programme pro-duction
This type of training is most effec-tive and economical if traineesfrom several different communityradio stations can be broughttogether This has the additionalbenefit of opening doors forfuture contacts cooperation andinterchange between various stations For example it is veryuseful to have staff from one community radio help to evaluatethe programming and work of another Their outsider percep-tions can be invaluable and at thesame time they learn from theexperience
Training Attachments toOther Radio Stations It is oftenpossible to come to an arrange-ment with another more experi-enced community radio or public-service station to send trainees fora period of work with them Insome countries notably SouthAfrica the station that pioneeredcommunity radio has become atraining centre for other stationswith less experience This has several advantages particularly in
terms of low costs and sharing ofexperience If the attachment is toanother community radio and toa successful one the trainees mayalso learn how certain problemshave been solved and how innova-tive and creative ideas are beingapplied in programming
Care should be taken aboutattachments to commercial stations Their philosophy is so different from that of communityradio that even if a trainee learnssome technical aspects of programme production heshewill learn nothing about using radioas part of social development
Overseas Fellowships Many ofthe worldrsquos major broadcastingorganizations run training coursesin their home country Amongthese are Radio Netherlands theB B C a n d D e u t s ch e We l l e Governments and developmentagencies are sometimes willing toprovide fellowships for communitybroadcasters to follow a course atone of these training centres Thiswill certainly give the trainees avaluable learning experience in allaspects of radio production butthere may be certain disadvantagesas explained in the next section
On-Site In-Country or OverseasTraining
There are pros and cons to each ofthe above
On-site training in the communitywhere the radio station operatesprovides the most realistic possibletraining venue the group oftrainees work with the equipmentwith the people and in the circumstances of their futureactivities It also saves the cost oftravel and subsistence for thetrainees
The main disadvantage of on-sitetraining is that the trainees part ofwhose motivation may well becareer prospects may feel that thisis ldquosecond-classrdquo training compared to going say to thecapital city for a course or to acourse in another country Thusthey may feel less motivated
In-country training in a courserun in a location other than theirown community has more prestigevalue to the trainees as does atraining attachment with anotherradio station Other advantagesare the contacts and interchangethat can develop for the futurefrom a period of working withother professionals in the samefield
ldquoMost people think of radio as a lsquoone-to-onersquo
medium reaching out to a single anonymous
mass public This concept is reflected in early
communication research on air-dropping
leaflets lsquoinjectingrsquo information into what is
considered a population basically characterized
by its sameness
And yet at the other end of radio transmission at each
listening set there are usually only two or three individual
people real persons And sometimes our ears are captured
by the natural talent of interpersonal communication
voices addressing each individual in a large audience ndash
politicians religious leaders a person-oriented
disc-jockey or even an outstanding news announcer
They speak with natural charm a built-in capacity
to hold an audience a charisma to catch even
non-believers in their spell They speak from a inner core
of conviction and draw others to them by appealing to
their inner core of questioning of doubt and of hesitation
One might say that theses broadcasters are successful
because they defy the conventional rules of media
They do not read scripts they read meaning the script
acting only as a prompt to the deeper significance of their
messages The microphone is only an electronic
intermediary between them and the persons in the
mass audience
They speak not to the microphone but through the
microphone to people with people They use media
despite media to reach people This is a very particular
sense of interpersonal media that seems to have
been lost todayrdquo
Carlos A Arnaldo
73
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Overseas Training is the mostprestigious and expensive of alland it will almost certainly opencareer opportunities beyond theradio station of the traineersquos community This is precisely one ofthe disadvantages of overseastraining in terms of staff stabilityBut there are other disadvantagestoo notably that the technical andworking conditions of an overseassituation may cause the trainee tobecome dissatisfied when heshereturns to the simpler community
station at home increasing theprobability that heshe will acceptan offer from a mainstream stationFinally overseas training howevertechnically rewarding is outsidethe traineersquos normal cultural context and this may reduce itsapplied value
Financing of Training
There are a variety of sources offunding for training of communitybroadcasters When internationaldevelopment agencies or NGOshelp to finance the initial equip-ment for a station they usuallyinclude a training component inthe project This will normallycover at the very least the introduc-tory training for the start-up phasebut it may also include refinementof skills over a longer period oftime
Development agencies and NGOsmay also grant fellowships to com-munity broadcasters Some ofthese may be for overseas trainingbut many are also for in-countrytraining courses or for assignmentsthat are part of a training experi-ence
Specific development projectswithin a country may be anothersource For example when a pro-ject - say one for environmentalprotection or health - wants support from radio programmesthe funding agency may wellfinance the training of broadcastersso they will make the best possibleprogrammes on that project
Whatever the sources and types oftraining in a given country themanagement of a community radio
should be constantly alert to thetraining needs of the staff On theone hand increased competenceleads to increased job satisfactionand tends to enhance staff stabilityOn the other hand there willalmost inevitably be high staffturnover in a situation where mostof the staff are unemployed volun-teers The management musttherefore be ready to arrange forthe fairly constant training ofreplacements
1 Tambuli Project Management Community Broadcasters -Code of Conduct UNESCO-DANIDA Tambuli Project(Manila 1998)
2 Op cit
3 Op cit
4 Quote Zane Ibrahim and Ms Adams Bush Radio 985 FMSouth Africa (See Case Study 4)
5 Quote Bruce Girard Radio Chaguarurco(See Case Study 5)
6 Martin Allard Technologiacutea Adaptada InteRadio Volume 9No1 1997 AMARC (Montreal 1997)
7 See the Case Study 4 Bush Radio 895 FM
Phot
o U
nesc
o
Homa Bay UNESCO project fixing the transmitter
Chapter 8Case Studies
75
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T he following section contains five casestudies of community radio stations inAsia (Philippines and Nepal) Africa
(Ghana and South Africa) and Latin America(Ecuador) Their authors are all intimatelyconnected with the stations and provide inter-esting insights into how they set up their oper-ations how they handled the problems theyencountered and what the results have beenFor this reason they are important to anyoneinvolved - or who wants to become involved - incommunity radio
The case studies were edited by the authors ofthe main body of the handbook They were for-ced to reduce their length considerably whilemaintaining their original structure They hopeto have left the essential information intactCertain parts especially of an anecdotal naturewere taken out of the original case studies andput into the main body of the handbook
Olutanga an Unlikely Community for a RadioStation
In the 1970s the island of Olutanga in MindanaoProvince was the scene of frequent heavy fightingbetween warring Muslims and Christians Towncentres were razed to the ground following onesuch encounter
However two decades after the bloody conflictsMuslims and Christians now live peacefullytogether on the island The minority Muslims areconcentrated in the north-east and southern sec-tions The island has a sparse population ofapproximately 35000 people mainly concentra-ted in three towns
Despite todayrsquos relative calm however a heritageof past instability and danger still shows mosthouses are built of light materials as if no one isreally happy to settle permanently on the islandThe 18-kilometre dusty or muddy road dependingon the season of the year stretches the length of theisland and is used only by a few four-wheelvehicles Carabao-drawn sleds tricycles horsesand travellers on-foot share the thoroughfare
Most of the residents of Olutanga eke out a livingfrom non-irrigated agriculture and marginal fishcapture in the over-exploited marine grounds
A few traders have established businesses by catering to what the majority of poor people canproduce or buy
There are two high schools both run by religiousmissionaries The one that serves the northerntowns of Mabuhay and Talusan is attended by lessthan 300 students Another high school in thetown of Suba-Nipa at the southern end of theisland also has limited enrolment There are no tertiary or vocational schools Very few parentscan afford the high cost of sending their childrenfor tertiary to metropolitan centres on the largersurrounding islands
Government services in education health lawenforcement etc are minimal No bank operateson the island and there are very poor communica-tion facilities except for numerous hand-held veryhigh frequency (VHF) transceivers
Visitors to the island are therefore astonished tofind that this island eight hours away by boat fromthe city of Zamboanga operates a radio stationThe islanders themselves were incredulous whenthe facility was proposed to them in 1993 by theTambuli Project They became even more doubtfulwhen full control of the station were also offeredto them
RADIO IN FOR ABOUT AND BY THE COMMUNITY IN THE PHILIPPINES
by Louie N Tabing
Olutanga - a Perfect Location for a Tambuli RadioStation
The first community radio station in Mindanao wasinitially recommended by some local Catholic leadersto be in Ipil not in Olutanga But Ipil did not meetTambulirsquos criteria it was too prosperous and it wasalready a centre of economic growth
Tambuli was looking for communities that were infor-mation-poor economically depressed conducive toFM signal propagation with good prospective coope-rators and where a community radio station wouldmake the most impact Olutanga 40 kilometres outto sea met those criteria perfectly It was certainlyimpoverished and isolated It was also relatively flatso signal propagation for a low-power FM transmitterwould not be a problem One thing however wouldbe missing - a local cooperating institution Onewould have to be developed
Initial Visit and First Meetings
A first consultative conference held at the Catholicconvent was a hurriedly arranged by VHF radio Lessthan ten leaders attended Several of them weremunicipal officials including the vice-mayor of thetown the parish priest and others who expressedtheir suspicions of the project They were quick topoint out that only a month before somebody fromManila had collected money from people allegedlyfor theatre training The stranger had then left withthe money and was never heard of again I had to assurethem that no person equipment or money would leaveOlutanga during the proposed radio project
What is really your objective then They asked Areyou selling the equipment Will you be selling radio
sets If you are really from UNESCOwhy dont you build schools for usWhere is the catch
Such questions were freely aired after we told thelocals that Tambuli would like to help them set up acommunity radio station Nevertheless the prospectof having the facility and operating it was inviting tocommunity leaders The municipality could use it fordissemination of information The station could be aconvenient vehicle for public service The youngpeople could use it for requests and dedications
During the one-and-a-half-hour meeting somecopies of our Tambuli Primer an illustrated comic-likepublication explaining the project were passedaround and the radio idea was discussed further Wemanaged to arouse the interest of the locals and atthe same time we heard some salient information onthe political and social dynamics of the area I was notworried by the people who questioned the genuine-ness of our intentions It is understandable for animpoverished community to be wary and suspiciouswhen something is offered for nothing
It was agreed that before the next meeting each ofthe sectors represented at the first would consult witha wider number of people And they might submit aresolution reflecting the views and feelings of theirsectors The interim period would give them time toconsult with their constituencies It would give themtime to check on our true identity and objectives as well
Some 25 key sectoral leaders attended the secondmeeting a few weeks later Educators farmers fisher-men women people from different religious groupstricycle operators and motorcycle drivers cameContending political parties were also presentSurprisingly the early doubts about the project haddisappeared Many leaders brought resolutions welcoming the setting up of the radio station
Succeeding meetings established a core group of leaders who would handle the affairs of the project
An interim body was constituted from among thosepresent The leaders elected a set of officers andthese were eventually registered as the OlutangaIslanders Media Development Foundation (OIMDF) A dynamic municipal councilwoman Meriam Aranasheaded it
One of the first decisions to be made by theFoundation was the location of the station Followingthe recommendation that a community radio stationshould be free from the control of political parties andreligious groups the local leaders decided that thestation should not be housed in the convent Norshould it be located in the municipal building whichwas perceived as a political place The offer by muni-cipal officials to accommodate the station would onlybe accepted if a building or a lot were donatedwithout strings attached In order to accept dona-tions enter into agreements employ personnel andadminister the station the organization needed to bea juridical entity It was therefore decided that OIMDFwould need to be registered with the Securities andExchange Commission
Soon a new group emerged from among theFoundation members It was pointed out that theTambuli Primer states that there can be a CommunityMedia Council (CMC) - separate from the formallyregistered organization - to make decisions about theradio and its operations They contended that theFoundation members were permanent whether theywere performing well or not whereas the Councilmembers could be replaced yearly if they did not per-form well Hence a CMC of about 11 members wasalso formed It was headed by Napoleon Aboc a businessman who was also a retired policeman
It soon became evident that the CMC and theFoundation were contending factions polarizedtowards either Aboc or Aranas who were each identi-fied with a distinct political grouping Tambuli Project76
Management recognized that instead of workingharmoniously together frictions would divide the leaders as a result Re-uniting the leadership thusbecame a long and delicate process
Locating and Setting up the Technical Facility
During the initial stage of the project there was someobvious lobbying from certain leaders of Suba-Nipato have the station placed in that southern town Theycontended that Suba-Nipa had the biggest populationof the three towns
The Tambuli Project Management provided criteriafor the selection of the studio site including accessi-bility to participants and community members secu-rity of the equipment low rental or expenses eg forrenovation technical factors related to signal propa-gation availability of power proximity to an elevatedsite for the antenna and neutrality such that no particular groups could monopolize or dominate nordeter the participation of other groups
Long and agitated discussions took place on wherethe station should be located Since the majority ofthe participants were from Mabuhay and Talusanthese prevailed The station would be in the northernpart of the island A 20-watt transmitter in Mabuhaywould provide the best coverage of the island Anauxiliary station might later be considered for Suba-Nipa
With the leaders of the Catholic Church as the projects initial contacts our main host in the islandbecame the parish priest of Mabuhay He consentedto our using the convent as a temporary project siteThe parish priest and later his successor both took anactive role in the project while at the same timeadopting an unassuming stance The involvement ofthe clergy added status and dignity to the project and
helped to dissipate speculations that it was politicallymotivated
The station became operational in June 1993 its provisional studio being located in the convent Someof the leaders close to the Catholic Church hoped thatthe convent would become the permanent studiosite Others contending that there were certain publicissues on which the Church held manifest positionsexpressed reservations on using the convent perma-nently Religious leaders of other denominations theysaid would have second thoughts about participatingin broadcasts
After drawn-out discussions it was decided that thestation would temporarily be operated at the premises of the Catholic Church However it wouldeventually relocate to a neutral permanent site
Installation of Equipment
The Project engineer Romy Carballo personally installed the equipment About five local techniciansto whom he gave orientation and training assistedhim The equipment was basically the same as that listed in Box 4 in Chapter 4
The radio station was operating on a test-broadcastbasis in time for a training course on community radioprogramming and production to be held It coveredapproximately a 10-kilometre radius reaching all corners of the island although the signal reaching thetown of Suba-Nipa was rather weak The engineerassured the residents that the signal would reach further when the station was transferred to a newbuilding where the antenna could be raised to about100 feet
Training Islanders to be Broadcasters
It was agreed that some 15 broadcast volunteerswould be trained for three weeks A set of criteriafor the selection of trainees was agreed betweenthe CMC the Foundation and Tambuli The localleaders - the Foundation and the CMC - wouldscreen the applicants If possible there would a bereasonable balance between women and menethnic groupings religious denominations andpolitical affiliations
Of the 35 people who applied for the trainingcourse only 15 were selected Three of those notchosen offered to attend the course as observersFarmers fishermen women Muslims and youngpeople were represented Two elementary schoolteachers a para-military soldier and the electionregistrar were also in the group
Two of the participants had to walk seven kilo-metres daily to the training site and sometimesthey had to be at the radio station at five am inorder to start the programme of test-broadcastsMost of the other trainees walked at least a fewkilometres
The training team was led by an instructor fromthe University of the Philippines Institute ofDevelopment Communication who works withradio DZLB of Los Bantildeos Laguna He was supportedby the Project staff The course consisted of lectures practical work evaluation and actualbroadcasts The training subjects included radiotalks voice performance scriptwriting newsgathering writing and delivery magazine programme production production of radiospots jingles public-service announce-ments participatory productions in the community radio laws and ethics basic
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77
communication theories and practices and program-ming for a community radio station A one-day exposure visit was made to existing radio stations inPagadian City
The trainees were given the chance to recommendprogramming formats and broadcast hours for theradio station as well as to choose their leader ValToto Samonte who was elected station manager wasa seemingly unlikely choice as a member of the para-military unit in the area We in the TambuliManagement could not see that a soldier would besuitable to run a community radio station But it turned out that Toto was the right choice for he hadleadership qualities with a balanced social outlookHe proved dedicated volunteer
Building the Studio
Recognizing the potential importance of the stationin the community the local government of Mabuhaydonated a 400 sq m plot to the Foundation for a proper studio to be built
A drive to raise money for the construction of the stu-dio building was launched The fact that the radio sta-tion was already going on air helped to convince com-munity members to contribute Initially a Piso-piso(one peso per person) campaign was conductedMany were happy to give not one but five or tenpesos each
A raffle was also organized Tickets were distributedto local residents and visitors as well as to the nearbytowns Each ticket in booklets of twenty tickets wassold for 100 pesos (US$ 350) Among the prizes werea cow sacks of rice and home appliances In spite of
hopes for bigger proceeds the drawnetted only around P50000 (US$1500) for the Foundation
With contributions from the provincial governmentand from the Tambuli Project a 25-square meter studio building and 100-foot antenna tower wereerected in May 1994 Carpenters as well as volunteerstaff and other residents helped construct the bungalow-type concrete building
This was partitioned into an announcers booth technicians post and receiving-working area Withoutadequate ventilation the announcers booth becametoo hot during the day and particularly in the summermonths So a local politician pledged an air-conditioningunit It took more than two years however for thepromise to materialize
As well as providing a new home for the studio thebuilding accorded the radio station an independentstatus It also served as testimony to the communityrsquosenthusiastic participation in the project Moreover itgave every Olutangan a rightful claim to ownership ofthe station
Eventually a 20-watt relay station had to be installedto cover the portion of Suba-Nipa that was not recei-ving the Mabuhay transmissions properly But therewere also occasions when the second station genera-ted its own programmes using a karaoke player-recorder to cater to the people of Suba-Nipa Thetransmitter was installed in the house of the localyouth leader
An Island that Survives on Radio
One astonishing discovery was that despite thepoverty of the island many people owned portableVHF amateur transceivers In the coverage area of theOlutanga station there were about 100 of thesetransceivers known generically as Icoms thecommonest brand name Some had been distributedby the government to Barangay leaders but amazingly
many were privately owned Many of them were not properly licenced and is not clear where they all camefrom Some may have been illegally smuggled inwhile others may belong to informers for rebel orMuslim secessionist groups in the region
Regardless of whether or not they were covered bygovernment permit the VHF receivers were soon putto a good purpose Toto Samonte seizing the oppor-tunity to organize a radio club among VHF radioowners More than 50 people attended the first callfor an organizational meeting where officers wereelected In 1995 I conducted a two-day workshop onhow the radio club members could participate in thebroadcasts
Today the Icom owners make up a wide network ofnews gatherers information feeders and regular participants in the programmes of the station(Tambuli supplied the radio station with a VHF base unit)
These VHF radio owners have multiplied the capacityof ordinary citizens to access the station by makingtheir equipment available to everybody in the neigh-bourhood either for serious information or for simplesocializing purposes such as song dedications andgreetings The radio station has served as the nervecentre for this regular and dynamic interaction
By incorporating the VHF transceivers the station hasstimulated the participation of hundreds of people onthe island in a similar way to using the telephone inthe big cities The portable transceivers allow a variety of people from all corners of the communityto discuss individual and community problems on aircovering everything from romance to politics or theeconomy78
Programming the Voice of Olutanga
Tingog sa Olutanga (The Voice of Olutanga) goes on theair daily on broken schedule from 0500 to 0700 h1100 to a 1300 and 1800 to 2000 hours
The station runs mainly news and public-affairs pro-grammes anchored by a main personality Other pro-ducers and reporters join in with features news tipsand regular programme segments
Field reports coming from residents who own VHFtransceivers make up most of the news and public-affairs programmes The volunteer reporters havebeen instrumental in bringing more timely informa-tion news and public service to the islandersCredited to the radio reporters are news of delaysand cancellations of ferry services information on theavailability of fruit tree seedlings piglets or otherfarm inputs for farmers information about agricultu-ral meetings details on lost items and help for thesick On one occasion a jail escapee was quickly recap-tured thanks to the radio
A popular programme is the weekly Baranggayan saKahanginan This features items produced in the vil-lages using the karaoke or song playbackrecordingmachine Thus ordinary people with absolutely notraining in radio organize programmes in their ownneighbourhood the taped programme consisting ofsongs panel discussions interviews homemakingtips poetry etc While programme elements aremainly entertainment and cultural community pro-blems are also discussed openly The taped program-me is then sent to the station for immediate airingFreely ventilated opinions and criticisms keep leadersand government officials constantly on the alert Andthey find an opportunity to respond to peoplesviews
Since people have been conditioned by commercialradio to want entertainment listeners demand that
the station air music programmes Some evening slotsare therefore devoted to music requests and dedica-tions which include valuable life thoughts for reflectionReligious programmes find their place at weekendswhen the various denominations are given air timeThe Sunday Mass is broadcast live for the predomi-nantly Catholic community as are services by otherreligious leaders whether Muslims or Protestants As in other Tambuli stations the programming is proposed by the staff and approved by theCommunity Media Council
Volunteer Staff
There are some six people who regularly anchor thedaily programmes with about a dozen others contri-buting portions and materials All the anchors inclu-ding the station manager work on volunteer basisThey have other sources of livelihood such as fishingteaching farming tending a store or working in themunicipal government The main anchors receive asmall allowance to cover their transportation to andfrom the studio
Seven volunteer technicians who have received training both on production and equipment opera-tion take daily turns at the station One of them is alicenced radio communication operator Others areeither electricians or electronics repairmenAnnouncers and technicians who participate regularlyare given a small honorarium from the regular contri-butions received by the station from the community
In addition however most announcers and techni-cians are the beneficiaries of a livelihood loan grantedby Tambuli and administered by the OlutangaIslanders Media Development Foundation This liveli-hood project aims to help them become engaged in achosen livelihood project with a cost on average of
approximately P5000 (US$120) For this purposea workshop on entrepreneurship and micro-projectswas conducted by an expert from the University ofthe Philippines Institute for Small Scale Industries
Most of the recipient volunteers chose an activitywith which they were familiar and which wasappropriate to their situation such as duck raisingrice trading upholstery making operating amechanical repair shop fish farming pig raisingetc Ninety percent of the staff livelihood projectparticipants were successful in their endeavourand have expressed readiness to pay back theirloans
The rest of the participants in the radio projectincluding members of the Community MediaCouncil work on a purely voluntary basis Indeedas at most other Tambuli sites staff members donot receive any honorarium or allowance
Olutanga Dreaming
Olutanga will be the best island in the PhilippinesGreat optimism is present in Toto Val Samontersquosvoice every time he makes this statement over theradio But for some islanders the hope thatOlutanga will be able to extricate itself from economic and geographic disadvantage is still a dream
However Toto exudes confidence as he discusseshow self-help projects and perseverance can putthe islanders forward on the air The probability ofOlutanga becoming the most highly developed ofthe regionrsquos islands may still be smallbut I for one am an admirer of Toto forhis selfless dedication and tirelessefforts
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Political and Legislative Context
In 1990 Nepal changed from a monarchical non-partysystem to a parliamentary model A new constitutionenshrined the right to freedom of expression specifi-cally the right for citizens to demand and receiveinformation on any matter of public importance Thiswas followed by policy and practical guidelines in1992 a National Communications Policy in 1993 aNational Broadcasting Act and in 1995 BroadcastRegulations
Prior to 1995 radio broadcasting was the exclusivedomain of Radio Nepal the state broadcaster establi-shed in 1951 An attempt in 1984 to establish an independent station with support from UNESCO andGermany was not approved Even after 1990 theauthorities were slow to relinquish monopoly controlof broadcasting The first licence was granted in 1997four-and-a-half years after the initial application toRadio Sagarmatha Nepalrsquos first independent community-based public-interest radio
The Media Environment in Nepal
The mountainous nature of Nepal is ill suited to cover-age by electronic media or to the mass circulation ofprint media Access to all types of media is also limited bywidespread poverty low literacy levels - especially amongrural women - and a very low level of electrification
Until the coming of a democratic system in 1990 theelectronic media - Nepal Radio Nepal Television(established in 1984) and the official print media -two daily newspapers - were controlled by thegovernment Programmes and content mainly gene-rated in Kathmandu are considered largely irrelevantto the rural population who make up some 80 ofthe total Private media have increased in number butgenerally suffer the same limitations
The liberation of the airwaves from state controlbrought commercial radio to Nepal Initially RadioNepal established a FM frequency designed to generate revenue to subsidize its national AM serviceThe channel was sub-let to five commercial operatorsbroadcasting mainly pop music aimed at youngaffluent urban dwellers
Given the limitations and constraints of nationalmedia and the commercialized and non-indigenouscharacter of the new FM ventures many journalistsindependent media organizations and developmentagencies now envision small community-basedpublic-interest radios throughout the country as analternative Radio Sagarmatha is a start in this direc-tion (Sagarmatha is the Nepali name for Mt Everest)
The Long Battle for a Licence to Broadcast
The battle for the licence was long and hard The mainorganization in the campaign was the Nepal Forum ofEnvironmental Journalists (NEFEJ) joined later byother organizations committed to seeing some inno-
vation in the countryrsquos communication system toaddress the needs of the new democracy Theirstrategy was local FM radio and their goal becameRadio Sagarmatha (RS)
The main obstacles were an unstable political environment conservative politicians bureaucratsdisinclined to change and the monolithic presence ofRadio Nepal Drawn into the fight were figures ofnational prominence professional associationsNGOs the print media - including the government-owned dailies - foreign embassies and UN organiza-tions There were four changes of government duringthe struggle and with each new one the lobbying andpersuasion had to begin again
In 1993 there was an international symposium onCommunity Broadcasting in South Asia held inKathmandu The then Minister of Communicationswas a principle guest He was positively impressed andengaged NEFEJ in discussions about the next steps forlegislative guidelines and regulations But then theGovernment fell and his successor was less receptive
NEFEJ wrote an open letter concerning the situationand appealing for support from local groups as well asfrom foreign delegations to Nepal The strategy yielded results but just as the Minister seemed to becoming around the government again fell
While the struggle was in progress practical prepara-tions were being made to set up the radio stationUsing the resources and radio production experienceof NEFEJ and with financial support from UNESCOand others training and equipment acquisition was80
RADIO SAGARMATHA A CASE STUDY FROM NEPAL
by Ian Pringle
begun By the end of 1996 the foundations for a radiostation were soundly placed Only a licence was missing it was still not forthcoming despite the legislation in its favour
By early 1997 the battle had been carried into theinternational media The station had equipment andtrained staff but almost five years of struggle waitingand playing by the rules had brought no licence The key players were emboldened to take risks ofpunishment for unlicenced broadcasting one year injail and a heavy fine
In early April 1997 NEFEJ requested a temporarylicence to test its set-up The request was met withsilence Acting on legal advice NEFEJ decided tobegin five days of test broadcasts anyway The govern-ment was confused as to who was transmitting untilon the third day RSrsquos programme director deliberate-ly informed the authorities After a few hours a letterarrived from the Ministry of Communicationsdemanding who had provided permission for thebroadcasts The government threatened strongaction reminding the station that their transmissionswere illegal
These events made news Local and internationalmedia publicized the confrontation The two govern-ment-owned dailies even published sympathetic stories on their front page With the offer of free legalcosts NEFEJ was prepared to take the case to court
During the controversial test broadcasts the stationannounced that it would begin full broadcasting withor without a licence on 22 May 1997 the LordBuddharsquos birthday a day of peace The governmentwas informed that if legal action was taken against thestation public and media support would be usedagainst it in the upcoming local elections
Three days later four-and-a-half years after the appli-cation the licence finally came As the Government
official handed it over he said lsquoYou have won thewarrsquo To which the RS programme director repliedlsquoLately you have obeyed the lawrsquo
The licence that had taken so long to come had 14conditions and restrictions including no commercialprogrammes no political commentary or news onpolitical events broadcasting for only two hours perday and submission of a weekly report to theMinistry Nevertheless Radio Sagarmatha beganbroadcasting as promised on 22 May 1997 the firstindependent station in South Asia
Organizational Establishment
NEFEJ the driving force behind RS focuses onenvironmental development and human rightsissues working in a variety of media In the late 1980sNEFEJ began producing a weekly radio programmeon environment and development that was aired onRadio Nepal Space for a radio studio was includedwhen NEFEJ moved to a new location in the early1990s but there was almost no equipment and thebulk of radio programme production was done at thestudios of Radio Nepal
In 1993 after the international symposium onCommunity Broadcasting in South Asia held inKathmandu a UNESCO mission to Nepal conducteda one-week course for journalists from NEFEJ andparallel organizations in basic radio production skillsThough operating with a minimum of equipment thetraining was successful in focusing skills and promo-ting the idea of the station
Both the symposium and the UNESCO mission solidi-fied local and regional support for the project drawing in other media organizations and producing a
more detailed proposal for the station than thatcontained in the application submitted the pre-vious year
The studio equipment for RS began to arrive in1994 For the first time NEFEJ was able to produceprogrammes in their own studio Though consideredto be without a licence RS was producing programmes In early 1997 when the transmissionequipment arrived it began moving its operationsto a more technically suitable and clandestine sitethe house of one of the key players
Relations with the Government Since theLicence
Despite the innumerable difficulties in obtaining alicence subsequent official relations have beennon-interventionist and productive
By late 1998 the Minister of Communications wassympathetic to community radio and many pen-ding and new applications had been approved RShad its licence extended to 13 and then to 24hours per day it was granted permission to acceptcommercial advertising and to rebroadcast theBBC Nepali Service and BBC World Service inEnglish and it was licenced to provide a mobileservice to be broadcast anywhere in the country
Training and Recruitment
These have been integrated in the sense that per-formance during training courses and fellowshipshas been used to select staff Most ofthe current staff and volunteers comefrom a journalistic background
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Following the first UNESCO-supported training course (1)
in 1993 further courses and fellowships were organizedin 1994 and 1995 NEFEJ and the Nepal Press Instituteworked with UNESCO Panos (London) DANICOMand Worldview International Foundation for theseactivities The fellowships provided opportunities fortrainees to produce radio programmes on specifictopics Thus there was an integrated plan for trainingfellowships programme production andselection for employment
Further training in 1996 and 1997 was supported byODA (Great Britain) and Deutsche Welle (Germany)The former required programmes on communityforestry The partnership included training in inter-viewing skills producing issue-based radio programmeassemblage and production Deutsche Welle supporteda training course for less experienced staff from RSand from other FM stations on basic radio production
In October 1997 a small focused on-the-job trainingprogramme was organized for RS production staffwith the assistance of a Danish journalist working inNepal The three weeks of training honed traineespractical all-round skills The programme was moreindividually-oriented than previous courses had beenand it involved instruction assignment of tasks andcritique
A second such course which included more womenwas conducted six months later for ten new recruitsIn addition another group of Panos fellowships wasprovided to produce programmes on AIDSHIV
Other support comes from Radio Netherlands whoprovided a fellowship in 1998 for a person to go totheir training centre in Holland for four months The
Centre for International Studies andCooperation a Canadian NGO supports RS with a general adviser
Future Training and Recruitment The station hasyet to implement systematic training for volunteersbut it has prioritized this in plans for 1999 DeutscheWelle has confirmed its support for an in-house on-the-job workshop There will also be regular locally-driven training courses with or without external fund-ing or resources Developing RS as a training resourcefor Nepal and for other countries in the region is astated objective
Organizational Structure
NEFEJ is the organizational umbrella for RS thoughthe station has officially become a partnership of fourNepali NGOs NEFEJ Himal Association WorldviewNepal and the Nepal Press Institute
The station is headed by a seven-member autono-mous Board of Directors constituted by NEFEJ TheBoard has representation from all four partner NGOsand meets monthly to review and plan activities setpolicy and provide broad direction for the station
RS is headed by a station managerprogramme directorHe sits on the Board of Directors as a membersecre-tary and is responsible for all day-to-day operations
Staff
RS has the following staff station managerprogrammedirector six full-time producers two technicians amusic librarian an engineer (on retainer) an accountsofficer and a station helper There are some 26 volun-teers who are an increasingly important part of RSsprogramming and operations A significant number ofthem are reimbursed for expenses or paid a smallhonorarium
Womens Participation
RSs informal policy is to develop the capacity andconfidence of women within the organization provideopportunities to women and through broadcasts toinfluence change in the orientation of womens rolesBut despite this policy the cultural bias in Nepal haskept womenrsquos participation low though there havebeen recent improvements Women make up about afifth of the production staff and a third of volunteers
Audience
There has been much audience feedback in the formof letters phone calls and drop-in visits from whichsome picture of the stations listening audience can bedrawn There are listeners among societys decision-making elite as well as in the shops of small mer-chants There are listeners in rural sectors of the Valleyas well as in urbanized households of the capital Itappears that listeners are mostly in the over 25 agerange and that they possess some higher educationinterest in events and issues in the public domain orin local music and culture
Some programmes on RS have targeted specificaudiences including children and parents as well asthe Tamang (a minority language) community andwomen working in the home
Listenership and audience are difficult if not impos-sible to estimate without a comprehensive survey Butwhat is already clear is that RS has a strong profile asa serious broadcaster and one whose programming isall-Nepali and in the public interest - the thinking persons radio82
Community Access and Participation
Community participation has been limited comparedto community stations in other parts of the worldThe mainstays of production are paid journalists andprogramming is centrally planned organized anddirected In many respects RS sees itself as a publicrather than community broadcaster a responsiblepublic spokesperson and facilitator as opposed to avehicle for open community participation
Nevertheless RSs programming has given hundredsperhaps thousands the opportunity to have theirvoices and opinions heard in a public forum On adaily basis the station takes its listeners to the streetsand into locations of everyday life as lived by realpeople
The stations daily public-affairs magazine alsoincludes two regular access spots the first featuringcomments from listeners who phone in and recordtheir feedback onto an answering machine thesecond is a vox-pop segment in which producersrecord opinions on a particular topic from people inthe streets
In a daily segment called Its My Turn Now differentmembers of the community speak their mind on atopic of their choice The segment is pre-recorded andbroadcast without editing To date the platform hasbeen shared by people from a variety of backgroundsand occupations
Interactive phone-in programming has been delayedby the lack of a hybrid system to interface phone lineswith the studio RS expected to introduce this in 1999
Community access exists in co-productions with localgroups Community groups and local NGOs produceweeklymonthly programmes with technical and production assistance from the station This is animportant source of programmes as well as a link todifferent segments of the community
Technical Considerations
The Kathmandu Valley an almost level basin of some25 by 30 kilometres framed by hills is an ideal loca-tion for FM broadcasting The historical economicand political capital and centre of the country is hometo the largest concentration of people 15-2 million
The test broadcasts in April 1997 used a locally madeantenna and were from a low elevation as were thefirst proper broadcasts beginning a month later InNovember 1997 the station began looking for a newsite which at a higher elevation could improve recep-tion The one selected after several tests is on the sideof a hill overlooking Kathmandu it has line of sight tomost areas of the 25 x 30-kilometre basin A housewas rented and a new studio built
Since it first went on air officially the station hasbroadcast daily even during moves to new sitesexcept in early 1998 when the transmitter a 500-wattAllard model caught fire and was damaged The sta-tion went off the air for 40 days until a 20-wattChinese-made transmitter and a 100-watt amplifierarrived through UNESCO from the Tambuli project inthe Philippines
The studio and its equipment are essentially the sameas when RS began apart from some small items and asatellite dish with a tunerdecoder Upgrading thebroadcast studio and establishing a production facilitywith digital components is now a priority
Programming
From the outset Radio Sagarmatha has worked topresent listeners with a combination of issues andentertainment social discussions and music as well asbeing a conduit for the variety of voices and opinionspreviously unheard on Nepals radio channels
For the daily two hours initially accorded under itslicence the new station chose 0700-0900 hoursRS introduced itself to the valleys listeners withtwo hours of Nepali music from rare folk recordings to contemporary popular selectionsinterspersed with short messages and stationannouncements
Public Interest Public-affairs broadcasting iscentral to RSrsquos mission for a more responsiblemedia and a more pluralistic society Using fellow-ships RS early on produced a series of programmes about environmental conditions cultural and social aspects of different regions ofthe country AIDSHIV community forestry drinking water democracy in Nepal etc Sinceautumn 1997 RS has been broadcasting a dailymagazine programme called Haamro Khaldo (OurValley) which covers topical issues and brings invoices from a broad cross-section of society Someof the issues covered have been meter tamperingby taxi drivers thieves and pickpockets prostitu-tion AIDS leprosy TB increasingly declining airand water quality child labour abortion andchanging gender roles
In addition there is a weekly discussion of socialcultural and development issues called Dabali(Community Meeting Place) a blend of the tradition-al Nepali medium and space for public dialogue anddiscussion and the modern medium of radio
Recently RS has begun Safa Radio (Clean AirCampaign) Five days a week it broadcasts theresults of air pollution measurements in differentparts of the city Once a week the cumulativeresults are discussed on air
Music and Culture RS provides a clearalternative to commercial stationsplaying largely pop music it broadcasts
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83
almost entirely Nepali traditional folk and modernmusic with some classical music from other parts ofthe world It presents one daily and four weekly pro-grammes devoted exclusively to music A Tamangcommunity group also co-produces a programme inboth languages with Tamang music
The station has an impressive music collection withmany rare recordings and pieces of authentic nationalcultural and historical significance The collection hasbeen obtained free of cost with about half of itrecorded from the library of Radio Nepal and theother half from donors
Nepal has a long tradition of oral folk media Untilsome 50 years ago one source of news for communi-ties were artists who spread the word about eventsentertained and educated through specially com-posed songs RS utilizes these traditions in a dailyserial The station once invited a musical group from avillage to record some of their music in the studioThey recorded ten songs in the traditional style adaptedto contemporary issues While in Kathmandu theyrecorded a new song about an alarming aspect oftheir capital city the pollution
Co-productions Local interest groups produce programmes for a particular audience on a particulartopic The editorial responsibility for the programmeusually lies with the community group with RS provi-ding technical support and airtime In addition to helping to fill the stationrsquos broadcast schedule theseprogrammes are also an important element of community participation
Childrens Programming Sponsored by UNICEFRS commissioned and broadcast a ten-minute serial
an educational soap opera involving agrandfather tree and a baby parrotThey interact with children who play
and listen at the base of the tree It is produced by afamed Nepali comedy troupe The serial is presentedtogether with 20 minutes produced in-house of stories poetry discussion and participation by children themselves
Mobile Radio On the Road
In November 1998 RS received permission to run amobile radio service anywhere in Nepal using the sta-tions Kathmandu frequency 1024 FM The idea wasnot to extend RSs Kathmandu service but rather tobring the idea of local radio to some of the 80 ofNepals people who live in rural areas and in smallcommunities
In 1999 a vehicle with a small studio transmitter anda team of facilitators began to visit rural communitiesto do basic training and demystify radio so that localpeople could become interested in starting their ownstations RS has always been seen as a starting pointfor wider community-based radio services in NepalIndeed momentum is now building fast with severalcommunities outside the Kathmandu Valley alreadyon the way to starting stations
Funding and Costs
The facility set-up initial operations training and fel-lowships were financed with international supportUNESCO provided about US$ 65000 About half ofthis was for equipment DANIDA provided operatingfunds in the second year and as already noted manyother organizations have provided fellowships andtraining Self-reliance is a priority and after two yearson air RS was beginning to operate on locally earnedrevenues The main strategy for achieving sustainability
is building partnerships with local organizations thatwill provide support as sponsors and co-producers ofprogrammes The recent lifting of the initial restrictionon commercial advertising has also opened a potentialsource of revenue
In 1999 the operational budget was US$ 2750 permonth of which salaries absorbed about US$1300Revenue was estimated at US$ 1075 mainly from co-productions and sponsorship The balance of US$1675 was provided by an operating grant from DANIDA
1 For a complete view of this basic training and preparation for broadcast see Carlos A Arnaldo and Kjell Linder Establishment of a FM Community Radio (Nepal IPPC ndash 352 ndashNEP 01 Technical report) UNESCO (Paris 1994)
84
ldquoSagarmatha is the old Nepali name for Mount
Everest and literally means lsquohead in the heavensrsquo
This is what Radio Sagarmatha intends to be an
intelligence permeating community thinking on
issues of health environment education social
well-being and development of the community by
sharing ideas with all through the radio wavesrdquo
Carlos A Arnaldo
Introduction and Origins
Radio Ada is a rural community radio station in eastern Ghana The station started broadcasting on 1 February 1998 and it has won a loyal followingamong its predominantly illiterate audience
The origins of the station can be traced back to the1950s and 1960s when the founders got their start inbroadcasting one with a small radio station inMonrovia Liberia that has since been washed awayby the sea and the other with one of the very firstcommunity radio stations in the Philippines DZJOthat continues to operate today from its base inInfanta Quezon In 1982 one of the founders was instrumental in starting the first community radio inAfrica the ill-fated Homa Bay station in Kenya on theshores of Lake Victoria an experience that drovehome the risks of such a venture in a continent hostileto independent information
Indeed there had been an earlier brush with this hostility in 1974 when broadcasting in Ghana was agovernment monopoly Encouraged by private discussions with key officials in the Government thefounders of Radio Ada submitted a formal applicationfor what if approved would have preceded HomaBay as the first community radio in Africa The appli-cation was turned down
Legal Context
It took nearly two decades following this event toopen the way for independent media in Ghana In1992 constitutional government was restored andwith it the possibility of a new communicationsscene The new Constitution which came into effectin January 1993 states that ldquoThere shall be no impediments to the establishment of private press or media and in particular there shall be no law requiring any person to obtain a licence as a prerequisiteto the establishment or operation of a newspaperjournal or other media for mass communication orinformationrdquo
The process of establishing private broadcasting didnot however start until February 1995 That waswhen the Ghana Frequency Registration and ControlBoard (GFRCB) issued guidelines for the submissionof applications to operate private broadcasting stations
Frequency Allocation
The application for Radio Adarsquos frequency was submitted on 17 March 1995 by its legal entity GhanaCommunity Broadcasting Services previously registeredas a non-profit company However it was not until 16 April 1996 that the application for Radio Ada wasaccepted
A positive aspect of the delay was that in the interimperiod private broadcasting companies had negotiatedmajor reductions in the fees levied for the allocationof a frequency originally set at the equivalent of
about US$ 13000 for all stations In the eventRadio Ada as a community radio only had to paya tenth of this and on 3 May 1996 it was allocatedthe frequency 937 FM for a period of five yearsThis was later changed to 933 for reasons that willbe explained later
Main Factors Considered when Starting Radio Ada
The information in Radio Adas application to theGFRCB reflected the stationrsquos very specific sense ofidentity in accordance with the following elements
Objectives The key elements that make upRadio Adarsquos sense of identity are embodied in itsmission statement This was crystallized from theexpressed objectives and expectations of the stationrsquos volunteers and from other members ofthe community The mission statement includesthe following items
bull To support the development aspirations andobjectives of the Dangme people in every sphereof life
bull To give a voice to the voiceless in every contextand at all levels
bull To sustain the dynamic growth of Dangme culture within the national and the global polity
bull In all of this to encourage promoteand contribute to informed dialogueand reflective action
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RADIO ADA GHANA - A BLESSING ON THE DANGME PEOPLE
by Alex and Wilna Quarmyne
Coverage area and target audience The primarytarget audience of Radio Ada resides in the fourDangme-speaking districts of Ghana These are in theeastern sector of the country within 100 km of AccraLarge parts of them still lack or have only recentlyreceived such basic infrastructure as piped water andelectricity The estimated total population of thecoverage area is 600000 over 60 of whom areilliterate Poverty is widespread
Language Radio Ada broadcasts exclusively in thevernacular of its audience Dangme Dangme comprises five mutually intelligible languages - AdaGbugbla Klo Ningo and Se There are marked culturaldistinctions between the speakers of these languagesHowever the linguistic interface and the marginaliza-tion hitherto of the language in the national discoursegive them a special bond as a people In recent yearsthere has been an effort in the educational and reli-gious institutions to develop ldquostandard Dangmerdquo auniform version of the languages The policy at RadioAda however is to use Dangme in its various originaland native spoken forms
Location - base area The station is in Ada in theDangme East District Theoretically it could havebeen based anywhere in the coverage area but one ofthe founders is a native son of Ada which meant thatthe station started out with a reserve of trust thatfacilitated getting community support and localresources At the estuary of the Volta River Ada comprises two contiguous towns Big Ada and AdaFoah and their surrounding villages in a virtual cul-de-sac that gives residents a particularly intimate sense ofcommunity Most residents in the area are engaged infarming and fishing
Actual site The site of the station building was chosen because of its easy access to the surrounding
community It sits in full view on the mainfeeder road to the national highway atthe junction to Big Ada and Ada Foah
Name The stationrsquos on-air name Radio Ada isdrawn from its location although it is a radio stationfor the Dangme-speaking community as a whole notjust Ada Because of this it has often been suggestedthat the stationrsquos name should be ldquoDangme RadiordquoThe station has however retained the name RadioAda because while it promotes strong local culturesas a basis for sound national development it alsoguards against chauvinism
The building The Radio Ada building was purpose-designed and built It provides one on-air studio twoproduction studios with adjacent control rooms twooffices and a few small service rooms The decision toconstruct was taken after it was established thatconverting an existing building whether purchased orleased would not be cost-effective
The design tries to blend the essential elements of aprofessional broadcasting operation with the specialrequirements of a community radio station especiallythe need for access and the realities of working in arural area For example rather than being sealed offthe on-air studio looks out onto the main road allow-ing anyone who comes to the station to see theannouncer or even passers-by on the road to ex-change a wave with him The ceilings are lined with ldquotsatsardquo a local mat woven out of reeds which hasproven satisfactory acoustically while also giving thestudios a cool and indigenous feel
Equipment selection The equipment chosenreflects the stationrsquos dual character as a rural community-based yet professionally complete broad-casting operation The items of equipment are thebest options technologically for their price offeringhigh performance with ease of operation low energyconsumption and minimum maintenance
Transmitter The transmitter a 350-watt Mallard unithas performed exceedingly well in covering the target
area but it will soon be used only as a standby unit Itwill be replaced by a 1-KW transmitter to enable thestation to get a stronger signal into the nearby metro-politan areas where there are sizeable Dangme-spea-king populations thus expanding its market potential
Antenna Tower The tower stands 150 feet high rightnext to the station building It was built out of piecesof scrapped antennas after the cost of a shorter (100-foot) new tower proved prohibitive It was hoisted byprofessional riggers working during their own time
Studio equipment Two of the three studios are fullyequipped the third is expected to be equipped soonThe on-air studio equipment consists of two sets eachof professional compact disc players minidisc and cas-sette recordersplayers and a 12-channel audio mixerThe production studios have the same equipmentbut of a semi-professional standard The mix and performance of the equipment has proven entirelysatisfactory
Field recording equipment Radio Ada attaches greatimportance to field recording equipment because ofits emphasis on programmes originating in the community Currently it has four portable minidiscrecorders and two professional and one semi-professional audiocassette recorders After some initial resistance to the minidisc recorders becausethey seemed too high-tech staff now favour them fortheir greater portability recording quality precision ofoperation editing facility and efficient in-built rechar-geable batteries The high cost of minidiscs has lead toa policy of using them as masters with most programmes being dubbed on to audiocassette
Funding With long-term sustainability in mind itwas decided early that requests for donor fundingwould be limited to equipment Land and the buildingwere provided from the limited resources of the foun-86
ders For sentimental reasons Radio Ada first solicitedfunds for its equipment from UNESCO1 a pioneeragency in community radio UNESCO regarded therequest favourably but was able to meet less than halfthe cost The shortfall for the equipment except forone studio was covered by the Stem van AfrikaFoundation of the Netherlands and the WorldAssociation for Christian Communication
Major Elements in Running a Community Radio
At the heart of running this community radio stationare the following elements
Programmes Radio Ada broadcasts 17 hours a daybetween 0500-2200 hours The programmes can bebroadly divided into the following categories newsand current affairs socio-economic developmentlocal culture religious youth and general interestGuiding programming is the stationrsquos holistic viewthat regards every programme as a potential tool fordevelopment The main news offerings are three daily15-minute bulletins and a daily 110-minute newsmagazine programme The bulletins emphasize localnews especially stories filed by the stationrsquos volunteerstringers A 10-minute market report is also broadcaston market days
Programmes that are specifically development-orien-ted include four weekly half-hour programmes forfour key occupational groups - farmers (women andmen) fishermen fishmongers (ie fishsellers who arealso fish smokers) and drivers - as well as programmeson health the environment and on literacy and deve-lopment All these programmes are produced andrecorded in the field based on the participantsconcerns and interests and they typically include
discussions interviews and spontaneous perfor-mances of traditional worksongs or other music
The occupational as well as the literacy programmesapply the principle of ldquonarrowcastingrdquo and are sandwiched between general-interest programmesduring the optimum listening time for the targetgroup More occupational programmes are beingdeveloped eg for artisans traders and teachers withthe idea that every group in the coverage area shouldfeel it has a ldquopiece of the actionrdquo in the station Inaddition to its news and development-oriented programmes the station produces a weekly total ofapproximately 30 half-hour programmes in the othercategories Its programmes on local culture includestorytelling traditional cookery Dangme bookread-ing discussions on various aspects of culture and adaily half-hour of traditional music featuring localgroups recorded either at the studio or in the field
One development-oriented programme on the envi-ronment is designed as a travelogue with the producergoing from village to village each week highlightingits special features of interest and in the process calling attention to environmental problems Despitethe soft-sell approach the message seems to getthrough Arriving at a village one day the producernoticed a sudden flurry He had been recognized andchildren were sent scurrying by their elders to fetchbrooms and tidy up the area While this was flatteringconfirmation that the producerrsquos words were beingheard the ultimate objective of the station is thatprogrammes should lead to sustained communityaction This requires attractive contextual presenta-tions that build on peoplersquos knowledge and that areclosely integrated with interventions on the ground
Staff Radio Adarsquos staff consists of about 50 volun-
teers Fourteen work full-time Twenty producers operate mainly in the field and come tothe station at least once a week to discuss programmes edit recordings etc Ranging in agefrom the early 20s to the early 50s the volunteersinclude farmers teachers hairdressers masonscivil servants traders school leavers and extensionworkers Approximately a third are women Abouthalf of the volunteers have full-time jobs outsidethe radio station while the rest are self-employedor unemployed When resources permit theremuneration of a core group of staff will be consi-dered The founders of the station serve as itsvolunteer executive directors
Staff training Prior to their involvement withRadio Ada none of the staff had had any expe-rience or training in broadcasting Except for fivewho went for short-term courses in radio produc-tion in Kaduna Nigeria all received their entiretraining through courses organized by Radio AdaThis was for two reasons first conventional training courses do not emphasize a developmentphilosophy and community-based approachsecond conventional training normally requiresqualifications that are unnecessary or even irrele-vant for a community radio station The basic criteria for volunteers at Radio Ada are simple andinclusive commitment to the community willing-ness to work as a volunteer and ability to speakDangme and English - the latter because the majority of the trainers did not speak Dangme
All formal training was organized through a seriesof participatory workshops coveringparticipatory research tools basic pro-gramme production news production
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and announcing The workshops conducted by specialists who support Radio Adarsquos objectives started out with its development philosophy and thenecessary professional concepts and they offeredpractical hands-on experience Training organized invarious forms has continued as a permanent activityof the station
Management Much of the management of the station is done by a committee of seven of the moresenior volunteers This establishes implements andmonitors policy on all aspects of the station and alsomaintains the stationrsquos bank account A station coor-dinator is the acknowledged head but refers routinelyto the executive directors The decision-making of thecommittee is based on constant consultation witheach other and with other volunteers Team spirit andself-appraisal are fostered in monthly evaluationworkshops involving all the volunteers except for thenews stringers who are not resident in the immediatecatchment area
Community support access and participationPrior to its application for a licence the idea of settingup Radio Ada was discussed with and informallyendorsed by the appropriate traditional leaders andgovernment authorities in the intended host commu-nity With the allocation of its frequency the first taskwas to widen the process of building community support This was concentrated on the stationsimmediate catchment area from which it wouldnecessarily draw its main resources Built into the pro-cess was the recruitment and training of volunteers
A community survey was conducted by these volun-teers in July 1996 Its purpose was to introduce the
idea of a development-oriented ver-nacular station and solicit the ideas ofthe community on programming and
operations The survey involved over 1200 respon-dents in 42 villages who gave virtually unanimousalmost emotional support to the idea of the stationTypical responses from the survey during a communi-ty meeting were
ldquoYes FM in Ada will be helpful We do not hear aboutthings happening on the radio Anybody who rejectsthis idea must be jailed In the old days we never hadthis chance Now when it comes we must embrace itNow all of us can listen to our own voices We cannow listenin our own mother tongue It shouldcome now nowrdquo
The enthusiastic response of the community to theidea of the station has been sustained by the partici-patory character of its programming and operationsTo give yet another opportunity for community participation five minutes are set aside after the midday and evening news for a commentary wherelisteners may record their views on any subject withthe only proviso that they do not make slanderous orderogatory statements
One commentary involved the leader of an associa-tion of women fishmongers Traditionally it is onlythe men who fish and it is from them that their wivespurchase fish to smoke and sell The men sell at theirprice and the women keep any profits they make ontheir sales to consumers for the maintenance of theirhousehold
In her commentary the leader of the fishmongers bitterly criticized Radio Adarsquos market report and protested against the beating of some members ofher association by their husbands This is becausewhen Radio Ada started broadcasting the marketnews the husbands of the fishmongers angrily claimed that their wives were cheating them by sellingat far more than the price they had paid to them
In a presentation on Radio Ada it was explained thatthe market prices reflected the cost and time of the12 different processes involved or value added bet-ween the time of purchase and the time of sale of thefish The presentation elicited respect and calmed thesituation
Audience reaction Lacking the necessary resourcesRadio Ada has not been able to conduct a formal lis-tener survey However feedback is constant throughthe staffs interaction with listeners on their recordingtrips and the influx of letters and visits to the stationThe feedback is consistent in characterizing Radio Adaas a blessing on the Dangme community Lettersand comments from a variety of sources quote precise details indicating that listeners pay attentionmeticulously to programme content Many offerconstructive criticism and make suggestions for otherprogrammes As many letters as possible are respondedto in a weekly mailbag programme
Reports from the field indicate that whole sections oftowns and villages stop for certain programmes suchas the series of an indigenous street musician whoweaves local legend and moral tales into song Formany the station is clearly their only source of infor-mation of the outside world It has also become aplayer in the life of the community being called uponfrequently to establish the veracity of issues andmediate in disputes
Operational costs Radio Ada has not solicited anysubsidies for its operational costs These are intendedto be funded entirely from income from commercialadvertising and from low-priced social announce-ments (eg obituaries) Currently expenditure ismainly for utilities supplies and in the absence of astation vehicle transport allowances which are calculated88
at actual cost After nearly a year in operation andeven with an all-volunteer staff income is running atabout half of expenditure This is mainly because withthe many other tasks involved in establishing the stationnot enough attention was focused on marketing It isexpected that with more aggressive marketing thestation will at least break even by the end of its secondyear of operation
Problems and Difficulties Encountered
Problems There were delays in the arrival of mater-ials for the construction of the building but even so itwas completed in 13 months The transmission frequency was the most serious problem After RadioAdarsquos successful test broadcasts in August 1997 apowerful FM station in Lagos Nigeria began opera-ting on the same frequency effectively jammingRadio Ada and making it impossible to begin fullbroadcasting at Christmas 1997 as planned Radio Adahad to apply for a new frequency and 933 MHz wasgranted in mid-January 1998 postponing broadcast-ing until 1st February
Sixteen days later Radio Ada was surprised by suddenand severe electricity rationing For a while it tried tooperate with generators borrowed firstly from anNGO and later from a local government departmentbut neither provided enough power for full opera-tions The programme schedule was cut to 10 hours aday But listeners made impassioned pleas throughthe radio station to the local government authoritiesto provide it with a generator Without Radio Adarequesting it the Dangme East District Assemblydonated a generator to the station in recognition ofits vital services to the community The station nowoperates seamlessly through power cuts
Difficulties The management of a large corps ofvolunteers presents special difficulties These areaddressed through dialogue mentoring and self-criticism and evaluation However even with paidstaff there would be a shortage of the necessary qual-ities and skills At the same time there is a shortage oftrainers with participatory development experiencecompetence in radio programme production and relevant vernacular language skills
Another difficulty is that the development servicesare too weak to be able to support and follow up onradio programmes properly In the circumstances andsince the task is too important to be postponed thestation has to try to energize and facilitate those services Accessing resources to meet all these needs isa full-time job for several people - who do not at present exist
The station has not yet developed the marketing strategies required for accessing the advertisingpotential of the market There is a need to introducethe ldquoculture of advertisingrdquo to the small enterprisesand traders in the coverage area to generate revenuefor the station This advertising drive is a task that willrequire care to ensure that the objectives of the station are not compromised
Main Lessons Learnt
The first year of operation has been an important les-son in validation for the community that radio canplay an essential and developmental role in their day-to-day lives for the volunteers that they have thecapacity to run and maintain a broadcasting stationand for the station itself that it provides a vital andappreciated service
The main lesson learnt is that in the interests ofsustainability the commercial aspects should havebeen addressed from the very beginning Therewas so much pressure to get the station up andrunning that no staff were assigned to ldquosellrdquo thestationrsquos services
This is particularly urgent now because theachievements of Radio Ada have carried their ownmomentum Overnight the station outgrew itscapacities The community response has beensuch that the station is called upon for a greatervariety of outreach services than ever anticipatedThe necessary resources exist but the station mustnow help to mobilize them
The final lesson is more of a reminder in additionto material resources knowledge and skills itneeds faith and solidarity to carry an idea forward- as Radio Adarsquos volunteers have amply demon-strated Admonishing a fellow volunteer for hispriorities in giving more time to party politics thanto the station a volunteer said ldquoParty politics is forfour years Radio Ada will be here foreverrdquo
1 Alex Quarmyne worked with UNESCO for many years promoting community radioOn retirement he and his wife returned to his home community to start Radio Ada
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The Context for Community Radio
After years of broadcast monopoly by the (then)Apartheid states South African BroadcastingCorporation (SABC) the struggle to free the airwaves has been won SABC was restructured andin 1993 an Independent Broadcasting Authority (IBA)was established Since the first licences were issued in1995 South Africa now has more than 85 indepen-dent radio stations and community radio is here tostay (See Chapter 3 for details of South African legislation)
The presence of community radio has changed theface of broadcasting in South Africa It has recruited acountless number of volunteers and community workers who actively participate in their stations Inaddition the sector has managed to attract advertisersand in certain instances stations are generating a fairincome from selling airtime and promoting eventsHowever the stations that have achieved most interms of financial independence are in one sense victims of that success they are often seen as toocommercial to belong fully to the developmentalcommunity radio sector
The community radio sector has shown in its shortexistence a tremendous ability to survive Howeverthe need to continue developing training and mostimportantly to work toward self-sustainability is clear
Donor support has been excellentover the last few years especially forbroadcast equipment Some stations
also receive core funding for daily operations It seemsclear that for now donor funding remains one of thefew dependable options for start-up support Inmoving toward self-sufficiency many stations haveidentified other possible income sources the mostprominent of which apart from advertising aremembership fees and community fund-raisers
Getting Started
In the late 1980s a small group of people interestedin the development of an alternative audio communi-cation system formed an organization that recordedinformation on cassettes in radio format made dupli-cates and distributed them in and around Cape Town
The organization was called CASET (CassetteEducation Trust) located in a small office in Salt RiverIts objective was to inform and educate the poor onsubjects like literacy hygiene health and of courserelevant political issues Since its humble beginningsthe initiators of the project always knew that broad-casting would be integral to its long-term educationaland empowerment objectives CASET began to discuss the idea and its potential and eventually proposed establishing a community radio facility atthe University of the Western Cape (UWC) just outside Cape Town
After much deliberation however it became clearthat the UWC campus would not be a suitable location it was too far away to be accessible to theblack community as a whole In fact UWC had been
built in 1960 for coloured people a racial definitionthat defined persons of a hybrid origin The Collegelocated far from the city and surrounded by densebush soon became known as Bush College and its campus cafeteria radio station was known as Bush Radio
In due course CASET was dissolved and recreated asan aspirant community radio initiative Keeping theoriginal campus name Bush Radio was bornConstituted in 1992 as a Voluntary Associationowned and operated by its members it focused ongetting the community on air The objective was togive black people the opportunity to be broadcastersMoney was needed to keep the initiative afloat Manydonors were approached until finally the FriedrichEbert Stiftung (FES) a German foundation involved inbroadcasting training provided support
News of the FES support spread The concept of com-munity radio was exciting and applications for trainingfrom all over started to flood in Bush Radio soonestablished itself as a key trainer and lobbyist for theestablishment of community radio in South AfricaPressuring the government to grant it a licence tobroadcast and training fledgling stations across thecountry Bush Radio slowly established both itself andthe concept of community radio as a significant force
Defiance
After a number of licence applications were rejectedBush Radio decided to broadcast illegally In May1993 a group of volunteer activists took the stationrsquos90
BUSH RADIO 895 FM SOUTH AFRICA - PAST PRESENT AND FUTURE
by Zane Ibrahim and M Adams
equipment including its illegally obtained transmitterinto a room set it up and prepared to switch on Apress release was circulated a short programme sche-dule was designed and a song was composed After afew test runs Bush was ready Interspersing shortdrama talks short poems and comic turns BushRadio went on air
The broadcast lasted four hours before the authoritiesinvaded the premises and seized the equipment BushRadios two key members were charged on threecounts illegal broadcasting illegal possession ofbroadcast apparatus and obstructing the course ofjustice The case dragged on but friends and support-ers nationally and internationally understood whyBush Radio members would risk being jailed for theright to be heard After tremendous pressure fromindividuals and organizations world-wide the statedropped the charges eight months later
Training and Activism
During the next two years the country witnessedmassive political change and prepared for its firstdemocratic elections Meanwhile Bush Radio contin-ued its quest to get the community on air It pursuedand vigorously implemented its national training acti-vities It became the first South African communityradio initiative to join the World Association ofCommunity Radio Broadcasters (AMARC) and contin-ued to champion the cause for the establishment ofcommunity radio in South Africa
At the beginning of 1993 the FES donated a fullyequipped studio for the primary purpose of trainingIt was indeed a wonderful sight Bush Radio was starting to look like a real radio station
A full-time training co-ordinator was brought onboard The courses included introduction to commu-nity radio features and documentary productionwomen and technology and managing communityradio The activities were in essence the training oftrainers Participants were expected to return to theirstations and gradually train their volunteers Otherorganizations soon became involved and partner-ships and exchange programmes were establishedwith Deutsche Welle Radio France InternationaleUSIS and the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation
National institutions including the Institute for theAdvancement of Journalism and the Media TrainingCentre also started to offer radio courses So a resourceof basic radio production and management skills wasslowly established Radio training networking andlobbying were together sowing the seeds for todayscommunity radio movement in South Africa
To promote the cause of community radio further aNational Community Radio Forum (NCRF) was estab-lished in 1994 to lobby government and co-ordinateand guide the sector Initially operating from theoffices of Bush Radio the NCRF later raised its ownfunds and set-up an office in Gauteng By the end of1994 more than a hundred licence applications forcommunity stations had been submitted to the IBA
Licence at Last
In June 1995 exactly seven years after CASET madeits first commitment to get the people on air BushRadio received its licence But the IBA had to workwith an inherited frequency plan that could notaccommodate the flood of licence applications Andbecause of Cape Towns notorious Table Mountain
they offered Bush Radio a shared frequency a5050 split with a community station called C-Flat Although not perfect everyone was happyBush Radio broadcast daily from 1400 to 0200hours and C-Flat took over until 1400 hours andso on
Getting Ready to Broadcast
The mission to get a licence was achieved and thepeople now had to go on air Until that time BushRadio had three full-time staff a pool of trainedand enthusiastic volunteers and a well-equippedtraining studio
Activity now needed to be focused on successfulprogramming marketing and fund-raising for anoperational station In July 1995 Bush Radio helda strategic workshop to assess plan and establisha common vision for its future activities BushRadio membership had grown to 1000 and therewere about 100 active and trained volunteersCountless NGOs were also keen to support andget involved in the service of community radio
A schedule of programmes including both enter-tainment and education was debated with themembers Strong emphasis was placed on repre-senting the culture language and aspirations ofour local communities with honesty and prideThe three dominant languages in the Cape(Xhosa English and Afrikaans) were naturallyapproved as the broadcast languages for the sta-tion The motto we agreed was Its yours itsmine itrsquos ours
With a programme schedule agreed andwith less than eight weeks before going
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on air volunteers rushed to attend brush-up coursesprogramming meetings and other preparations TheSoros Open Society Foundation funded a state-of-the-art broadcast facility
Finally Bush Radio began broadcasting at 1400 hourson 1 September 1995 This is National Womens DayAs a mark of the importance the station gives towomen in the countryrsquos development the station haddeliberately chosen to start on that day
Bush Radio recently relocated to new and larger premises still in Salt River The 300 sqm location ontwo floors is twice as big as the previous one Thecomplex is a sophisticated analogue training produc-tion and broadcast facility probably the most techno-logically advanced community station in the country
Sound Management and Community Participation
Bush Radio was originally structured as a VolunteerAssociation guided by an appointed board of trusteesand an executive committee Once on air it was deci-ded that in order to move toward self-sufficiency anew structure was needed The Board opted to createnon-profit company and this has facilitated operatingthe station It also puts it in a position to attract spon-sorship and support from the business communitybecause a company has a better organizational base
One of the legal requirements is that a seven-memberboard of directors be set up to account for the assetsand operation of the company Bush Radios newlyappointed directors are both highly skilled and fullycommitted to the station Their portfolios include
fund raising programming market-ing staff etc The board comprisessome of Cape Towns top achievers
Community participation is at the core of BushRadios operations At the outset it was made clearthat the station is in existence for only one reason toserve the community Everyone from the communityis eligible for membership and training Through itsbroadcasts productions and training the stationmaintains contact with its target communities
In addition outside broadcasts held in these commu-nities give access for participation as well as maintain-ing and expanding the volunteer base which at present numbers about five hundred many have beena part of Bush Radio since its inception
Members come from all sectors of the communityrepresenting various interests cultures and languages They include students single mothers thedisabled gay activists the unemployed and therecently retired The members have direct access to allaspects of the station from administrative and financialmatters to programme content and training needsPolicy discussions and workshops are held once amonth and the community is invited to give theirinputs for running the station Community controland ownership is thus assured
Overview of Programming
The challenge is to offer identifiable voices and rolemodels on air Music programmes focus on non-mainstream music eg hip-hop reggae RampB jazzblues and jungle as well as on popular local musicThe music slots often include competitions call-insinterviews gig guides music charts and even comedyAn objective is to promote local artists and perfor-mers as well as genres of music not usually availableon commercial radio
While music is a vital component the station remainscommitted to tackling issues that engage and educatethe community It therefore prefers to host discus-sions and air features that facilitate informationexchange critical thought and debate In features andtalk shows Bush Radio makes available a broadcastplatform for members of the community who ascribeto the objective of true development Recently itlaunched a refugee programme run by refugees withthe aim of informing the public of their plight
Some specific regular programmes are
Backchat Representatives of various communityorganizations explain the role they play and how thecommunity can access their services From discussionsand calls during these programmes it appears thatnot enough has been done to inform the communityof the various organizations that can help themThese services include help for rape victims healthchildcare pensions for the aged etc
Community Law Produced by 4th and 5th year UWClaw students factual information that the generalpopulation seldom has explained to them is providedon a variety of issues Care is taken to carefully outlineeven the simplest of laws or human rights Phone-insegments of the show have proved to be extremelypopular while written requests for information arealso encouraged
Everyday People This daily 3-hour programme is inmusic magazine format It uses mainly local music andits emphasis is on township developments The musicis interspersed with public-service announcementsinformation bulletins notice-board news competi-tions and call-ins It has a high profile in the commu-nity and it is the only local youth programme thatreflects the dialect and personality of Cape TownrsquosXhosa speaking people92
TRC Report The Truth and Reconciliation
Commission (TRC) was established to help the nation
heal itself after Apartheid Bush Radio hosted a member
of the commission on a fortnightly basis The commis-
sioner would elaborate on the stationrsquos news report on
the TRC happenings of the week The discussions often
clarified and provided missing detail on the
Commissionrsquo hearings On several occasions the
stationrsquos guests were asked questions by callers that
they found to be important and worthy of further
investigation
TAXI TALK Minibus taxis are the only reliable means
of transport to and from the townships However
escalating rivalry amongst taxis have led to gun
battles where passengers are also shot and killed Bush
Radio and the Shell Oil Company joined forces and
produced Taxi Talk a programme where all involved
were invited to the station to discuss their grievances
The Federal Minister of Transport also played a major
role in mediating between the parties
Rape and Alcoholism Rape of women of all ages has
reached epidemic proportions Bush Radio has estab-
lished groups doing in-depth studies to find the best
way to develop programmes that will assist in helping
to reduce and even eliminate this social disease
Alcoholism plays a major part in it and for this reason
the station refuses to advertise alcoholic products
Similarly it does not carry tobacco advertising
for health reasons Once produced the rape and
alcoholism programmes will be offered to all other
community radio stations
A Training Station
As important as broadcasting is to Bush Radio the
station remains essentially a training centre Emphasis
is placed on developing potential broadcasters from
the community rather than on just filling airtime
Apart from the manager and administrator all of Bush
Radios staff are in-service trainees gaining valuable
on-the-job experience in areas like news music
features and programming
Each year the station receives hundreds of applica-
tions for training from communities nationally and in
some cases from initiatives abroad Much attention is
paid to the selection criteria for trainee candidates
and their future ability to pass on their skills Bush
Radio has developed training methodology and basic
curricula to suit traineesrsquo varied cultural linguistic and
educational backgrounds
During its first two years on air much of the activity of
the station was directed at building and maintaining
solid programming and management This meant that
training had to take a back seat Now that the station
is more settled in its broadcast ability and in response
to much demand from the sector it has returned to its
training focus In September 1998 Bush Radio laun-
ched a new fully equipped facility streamlined and
geared toward a comprehensive radio training
programme Training involves broadcast journalism
and technical and management skills These are
sophisticated fields of study and Bush Radio
continues to offer much-needed introductory level
training programmes in them
Overview of Courses
Introductory courses These cover differentforms of radio community radio and its role anintroduction to field recorders reel-to-reelmachines studios basic editing various programmeformats and the role of producers presentersreporters engineers etc At the end of the coursetrainees have enough knowledge to be able tofunction at a minimum level of competence
In-service trainees A practical one-year on-the-job experience structured to offer young graduates or others an opportunity to learn whileworking in the field of radio They work in the following areas
News In-service trainees are required to gatherinformation log edit and read the news live onair
Music The trainees are expected to ensure thatthe local content quota as stipulated by the IBA isadhered to They also help to maintain the musiclibrary develop links with record companies andensure that the station is offering a balanced variety of music on air
Production Apart from technical aspects of programme production trainees spend muchtime learning about the communitys develop-ment needs eg in health safety education etcThe amount of research is sometimes over-whelming but trainees gain essential skills for programme planning
Programme management Many stations haveproblems in the area of programmingexpertise The programme managementpart of the course assists the trainee in
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carefully assessing the needs of the station theresources available to it and the make up of the community The trainee is enabled to design implement and evaluate a comprehensive program-ming schedule
Prison Radio
Bush Radio was approached by the CriminologyDepartment of the University of Cape Town to develop a training programme for young prisoners tobe trained to operate a radio station After months ofnegotiations with prison officials a viable plan thatwould enable prisoners to operate a simple radio station within the facility was drawn up The enthusiasm shown by the participants convinced theauthorities that the therapeutic effect the programmehad on the inmates were beneficial to their rehabilita-tion The project continues and it is expected thatseveral other prisons will be receiving equipment aswell to duplicate the project
Lessons Learnt
Management and operation For the station tooperate efficiently there must be constant develop-ment through training and other professional activities Internal communication is essential Regularstaff meetings should be held to make sure that everyone has a clear understanding of where they fitinto the organization These meetings can also beused to encourage resource and idea sharing amongthe staff
Staff members should be encouragedto form strong contacts with thevolunteers In Bush Radio we have
learned that staff members tend to develop feelings
of superiority over the volunteers probably because
we are situated in an area with a high unemployment
rate To be employed at a radio station also has an
element of glamour
Marketing the station is also very important if the
station is to become self-sustaining
Volunteers Most of the volunteers at Bush Radio
come from deprived communities ie from the
stationrsquos target audience They often have limited
educational levels and most are unemployed The
communities that many of them have grown up in are
very tough They have a dire lack of role models
facilities and amenities Thus community radio often
is subjected to a high level of theft abuse resistance
to authority and change a lack of self-confidence
pride and commitment and an inherent apprehensive
attitude towards training and education Very few
volunteers understand the concept of volunteerism
its responsibilities and limitations In effect most of
the community radiorsquos target constituency simply
cannot afford to volunteer They are so poor
that some travel to the station on public transport
illegally
Nevertheless the commitment of some of the
volunteers is astounding but despite their energy and
vigour and even when they get on air it is difficult to
depend on their input Without compensation they
run out of steam and often just when programmes
have reached a steady following the volunteer
participants are drawn to job offers family commit-
ments or other more viable activities
Women in training and recruitment Women are
often excluded from areas that require technical
knowledge For this reason Bush Radio has a policy
that no training programme can begin unless at least
50 of the trainees are women
Community access and participation A commu-
nity radio station must be constantly trying to find
ways of providing the community with easier access
to it Apart from encouraging staff volunteers and
interested parties to come forward with ideas Radio
Bush encourages visits to the station However these
have had to be limited to certain days and hours If
not too many people hang around and disrupt
operations
Fund-raising The expectations of the donor and
those of the project have to be carefully discussed and
agreed upon before any funding takes place Many
projects suffer as a result of misunderstandings The
station must abide by its mission statement in any
application for funding Too often projects compromise
their mission statement in order to receive funds In
the long run this creates confusion
There are many different formats used for applying
for funding There is nothing wrong with contacting a
potential donor and asking what information is needed
whether there is a regular application form and so on
Many donors also expect to be kept informed on a
regular basis This should be done whether it is asked
for or not It is good to keep a donor or programme
sponsor up to date on developments at the station94
The Roots in Latin America
It was in Latin America that the worlds first communityradio experiences were initiated 50 years ago whentwo very distinct movements turned to radio as a wayof both increasing their influence and of contributingto community development These were RadioSutatenza in Colombia and the Minersrsquo Radios inBolivia (see boxes 1 and 2 in Chapter 1)
From these roots of rural Christian social develop-ment and militant trade unionism community radiohas grown to have significant presence in LatinAmerica church commercial university trade unionand indigenous peoples radio stations have combinedto make the regions radio the most dynamic anddiverse in the world
A Need to Communicate
Radio Chaguarurco located in a rural part ofEcuadors southern province of Azuay is a young station that continues in the tradition of LatinAmerican community radio The idea of setting it upstarted with a series of workshops in 1990 Thesewere organized by campesino organizations and bythe local churches in the counties of Santa Isabel andPucaraacute in the province of Azuay
The workshops were intended to organize the communities so that they might gain access to basicservices such as drinking water and electricity and toensure that human rights were being respected
A document written by the stations foundersexplains the process that launched the radio station
ldquoWe started to talk about what we needed first we mentioned electricity and drinking water but after that westarted talking about communication about being able toshare a common reality and being able to analyse it in orderto improve it That was how Radio Chaguarurco startedSome people who didnt live in the countryside asked why acommunity radio station was necessary when there were somany other priorities Isnt a radio station a luxury Sure there are lots of other needs health nutrition education day-care better agricultural techniques toimprove production But rather than patching things up tofulfil our needs temporarily its important to think aboutthe causes of the problems about the injustice andinequality that cause poverty and marginalizationrdquo
The director of the station says that the idea grew outof the need to communicate Because of RadioChaguarurcrsquos location it is very difficult to receiveradio stations from the region Few people haveaccess to television and even fewer to newspapersTelephones are still unavailable in many of the townsand they are not available at all in the countrysidewhere most people live
The communities are very scattered Some are only 30minutes from the county centres where the politicalstructures and the markets are located but others arebetween one and 12 hoursrsquo walk away with no roadsFor the population of such communities it is practi-cally impossible to be in daily or even weekly contactwith the centres
Communication began to be seen as a necessity bythe Church and campesino organizations in thearea The idea of a community radio station thuscaught on quickly and within a few months itbecame one of the main topics of discussionduring workshops People in rural areas were usedto being excluded from the media so they wereexcited about having their own radio station aplatform for talking about the necessities of theircommunities and about the problems in gettingbasic services
No doubt the idea of a radio station was a goodone but who would make it a reality A frequencyand government permission would be requiredEquipment would have to be bought Who wouldown the station Where would the station belocated Which communities would it serve
The local Church and the peasant organizationProyecto Norte quickly emerged as the two mainbackers of the project They had collaborated onprevious development projects and had participa-ted in the discussions about a radio station fromthe outset Helped by the areas representative inCongress they started laying plans
The first problem was obtaining a broadcast licenceIn 1992 Ecuadorrsquos law did not recognize commu-nity radio Getting a commercial licence involved acomplex process that even after years of waitingcould easily fail But there had been astation in Santa Isabel in the past Eventhough the man it belonged to had died
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RADIO CHAGUARURCO ECUADOR - NOW YOUrsquoRE NOT ALONE
by Bruce Girard
and the station had been off the air for many yearsthe commercial licence was still valid Buying a stationwith a licence still requires government permission aprocess almost as complicated as being assigned anew frequency But it was a definite possibility
With the process of legalizing the ownership of thefrequency underway the next step was decidingwhere the station should be located
Santa Isabel and Pucaraacute
Santa Isabel is a county capital with a population of3000 people It seemed the logical place for the station for it was the largest town in the region andan important market centre Apart from the Churchthe central plaza is ringed by banks doctors officesand shops It is less than two hours from the provincialcapital of Cuenca and because it has a telephone service it is an important communications centre forthe region At an altitude of 1500 metres it has a perfect climate for growing tomatoes onions andeven sugar cane products that are sold throughoutEcuador
The village of Pucaraacute also a county capital has apopulation of less than 1000 and is only 40 kilometres from Santa Isabel However the non-stopbus takes two hours to climb the unpaved road tomore than 3100 metres above sea level In the rainyseason the road can be closed for days at a timeThere are no telephones and when the road is closedthe village is incommunicado
Pucaraacute where the road ends has a single street in atear-shaped loop with a brightly pain-ted Church in the middle and a per-imeter of breath-taking mountains
and valleys This majestic view camouflages a harsherreality With an average annual temperature of only12 degrees and nights that drop to near zero Pucaraacutesclimate supports little more than subsistence agricul-ture - the staples of beans and potatoes - and a precarious living But Pucaraacute did have one importantadvantage for a possible radio station its altitude andmore central location meant that from a technicalperspective it was a better place to locate the transmitter than Santa Isabel In any event the townrsquosresidents only make up 20 of the total populationand the main target audience would be among therural 80
However the question of where to put the stationalso had a political dimension The community wherethe station was located would be more likely to haveits concerns broadcast its members on air and tobenefit most from it
The solution was to put the transmitter in Pucaraacute theadministrative centre in Santa Isabel and to put studios linked via microwave in both communitiesThus when Chaguarurcos director talks about theradio he says it is actually two stations sharing a singlefrequency and a single identity
Local information is gathered at both News programmes are also duplicated with two anchorsone in Pucaraacute and one in Santa Isabel Some inter-views are also duplicated with the interviewer in onecommunity and the person being interviewed in theother Some music programmes are produced only inPucaraacute and others only in Santa Isabel but many programmes are produced in both locations
At the time of writing a third studio was underconstruction in the village of Shaglly This has a population of only 250 but it is the nearest
community for 2500 rural dwellers There are plansto continue the decentralization process by establi-shing new studios in other communities
The Chaguarurco Foundation
The issue of ownership of the station was as importantas that of location From the beginning it was agreedthat it would not be owned by the local priest or bythe parish or by any single person It was to be ownedby the people In September 1992 the ChaguarurcoFoundation for Rural Development was establishedwith representatives from campesino organizations inthe two counties from the Catholic parishes andfrom the workers and volunteers of the radio stationThe radio is under the care and supervision of theFoundation ensuring that the people who in effectown it will always be in control and have access to it
The Chaguarurco Foundations board meets everythree months with extraordinary meetings held whennecessary The board receives reports from the stationdirector and makes the important programming andbudget decisions
By the time the Foundation was set up the dream ofthe radio station had been circulating for almost twoyears Nobody foresaw that they would have to waitanother two-and-a-half years to see how theFoundation would function obtain funding for theequipment get approval for a frequency and trainpeople for the station
Funding in the region is difficult and the project wasgoing to be an expensive one The areas geographiccharacteristics called for an AM transmitter whichwas substantially more expensive than an FM oneThe 5 kW Nautel transmitter including its antenna96
and installation was going to cost US$80000 morethan the community could ever put together on itsown Once the Foundation was established it startedthe slow process of getting the money together fromlocal and international sources However even thoughthey needed the money the community was not pre-pared to sacrifice the stations independence for it
Practically all new equipment was needed what wasavailable in the old station was not even good enoughto put in a museum The transmitter antenna and installation were donated by the Spanish aid agencyIntermon Caritas Manos Unidas some Spanishvolunteers and a solidarity group in Madrid also helped The Church in the provincial capital Cuencadonated a pickup truck
Donations were only sought for equipment and installation The Foundation was determined that thestation would pay its way and that is what has happened
Training the Community
While the process of legalizing the purchase of thefrequency crept slowly ahead a group of volunteersbegan training people from the community One problem was that nobody working on the project hadhad any experience in radio apart from two Spanishvolunteers who had a little experience in communityradio stations in Madrid
In essence those involved had to train themselvesfirst in order to be able to train others They read whatever books they could find and travelled to otherstations to see how these were run Experienced radiopeople were invited to speak and to give courses Inthe end a manual and a trainers package were produced based on what had been learned Then the
newly-trained trainers went out to start training thecommunity volunteers
Serious training started in December 1993 The ideawas that each community would look for a personthat they considered to be an appropriate correspon-dent In addition there was a general invitation toanyone who was interested to participate in thecourses
Four trainers divided the work between December1993 and October 1994 going to different communi-ties week by week There was no shortage of volun-teers Many of them walked four five or even sixhours to get to the place where the courses were heldThere was particular enthusiasm in one village wherethere had been many conflicts and much abuse ofpower by the authorities Some people had even beenkilled People believed that the radio would help themput an end to such abuses
In November 1994 the staff was selected fromamong those who had been trained In Decemberthey underwent a month of intensive and more specialized training The ongoing training and discus-sions about the radio kept the project moving forward and people involved However five years hadpassed since the project was first discussed and thewait had a cost Some people had got discouraged andhad left
However the station finally went on the air on 1 January 1995 As one participant remembers
ldquoIt was the most beautiful thing With lots of people listen-
ing We were crazy Greeting all the people Thanking the
ones who had been with us since the beginning those who
had taken courses with us the correspondents Making
calls to Cuenca to see if the signal reached the city There
were people who knew we were going to be on the air
and they called us We played lots of music and every
few minutes announced lsquoThis is Radio Chaguarurco
Were on the air Listen to us on 1550 kilohertz Tell
your neighbours to listenrsquo It was crazyrdquo
lsquoNow youre not alonersquo
After years of waiting peoples expectations werehigh They were not going to be satisfied with astation that sounded like all the rest They wantedto hear their own experiences and concerns toldin their own voices and in their own languageNow there was a communication medium wherepeople could talk say what they felt and denounceofficials who were giving them a hard time The phrase lsquoNow you are not alonersquo summed upthe sentiment produced by the station
To produce the kind of radio that the communitywanted called for a special kind of radio producerOnly four of the eight full-time staff and 20 volun-teers had ever formally studied journalism Theothers learned their skills in Chaguarurcos owncourses but all of them now work as journalistsand programme producers Five of the full-timestaff are based at the station in Santa Isabel andthe other three are based in Pucaraacute
The staff in the station are in fact almost volunteers Their salaries are not even the minimum that the law requires Howeveras the radios income rises their salarieswill also increase gradually
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Role of Volunteers
In addition to the paid staff there are some 20 volun-teer producers Six of them are correspondents in surrounding villages They gather the news in theirareas and periodically travel to the station with theirstories and tapes The station supplies them with taperecorders and rechargeable batteries Proceeds froman annual raffle are used to pay their bus fares
One volunteer produces a one-hour music programmesix days a week It features Ecuadorian music which isa special interest she developed at a time when thiswas unavailable on the radio She uses her personalcollection of records and tapes and says that the radioprogramme has collectivized it
Other volunteers produce a weekly market programmehosted simultaneously in Pucaraacute and Santa Isabel Thislooks at prices and trends in the areas markets It hasplayed an important role in controlling speculation
There is a constant turnover among the volunteersand for this reason the station continues to offerregular training courses to new ones
Participation and Programming
There are important characteristics that distinguishChaguarurco from other stations in the region Themost important is the priority the station gives tolocal voices language and culture Unlike radio stations in the city which have announcers who try tohide any regionalisms in their accents or their languageChaguarurcos announcers celebrate their own way ofspeaking Another important distinction is that the
station actively seeks the participationof people from the countryside invi-ting them to visit the station to tell
their stories to sing or just to greet their friends andfamily over the air
The station also plays an important role as a commu-nication channel at the service of the communities -a telephone service for those who do not have itWhen places in the radiorsquos coverage area are withoutroads and are difficult to reach the people who livethere listen to the station for information aboutimpending visitors so they can be ready for them
For example the community health project has amedical team which periodically visits remote communities Before the radio went on air this wouldtravel to a community and lose hours or even dayswaiting for the news of its arrival to get out to thepeople in the countryside and for the people to travelin to where the team was waiting to attend themNow the radio announces visits ahead of time andthe community is ready and waiting for them
Health matters are very important to the stationThey are covered for example in radio dramas thatthe station produces and broadcasts daily The dramashave characters that the people in the countryside canidentify with They chat with each other and tell stor-ies about health and related matters They talk abouttreating garbage vaccinations nutrition and aboutthe environment Some of the dramas also deal withpolitics culture and human rights These dramasacted by the stations own staff provide a valuableway of explaining complex issues in everyday languageand in a way that people can easily understand
A recent addition to the stationrsquos programming is theinclusion of news from Latin America and the worldthat the station gets from ALRED (Latin AmericanAssociation for Radio Education) and the Puacutelsar newsagency A satellite dish at the Pucaraacute station receives
ALREDs programmes and news from Puacutelsar arrivesvia the Internet
This information from other countries and conti-nents which people did not have before has met withfavourable comment ldquoWe see that there are people outthere just like us campesinos like us Were exchanginginformation with them In the same way we receive information here from other countries we also send newsfrom here to them And this is interesting to communicatelike brothersrdquo
A Minga for Chaguarurco
The way the Chaguarurco Foundation meets its objec-tive of covering the stationrsquos running costs is to keepcosts low using resources freely offered by the communities it serves In addition to the volunteerservices the studios in Pucaraacute and Santa Isabel are inspace provided free by the local churches When a studio needs a handyman or when a pot of soup isneeded for a minga (a day of volunteer labour for acommunity project) there are always people aroundto offer their skills or help Even so Chaguarurco hasto generate some US$2000 per month to cover itsoperational costs
The stations financial situation is healthy It managesto generate enough revenue to cover its fixed costs aswell as putting aside a few thousand dollars a year toimprove its equipment or cover unforeseen costsSources of revenue include advertising communitymessages production services and broadcasts of cultural events
Advertising which brings in about 20 of the stations revenue has always been a controversial subject Some people argued that commercials had no98
place in community radio Others said that the survivaland growth of the station was the most importantthing and that all advertisers should be welcome Thecompromise policy is to advertise only local goodsand services The philosophy is to promote what istraditional and local rather than the consumption ofimported products developed through high technologyand chemicals The message of the commercial radiosis seen as promoting these at the expense of homeproduce Thus the station does not give advertisingspace to carbonated drinks produced by multinationalsNor in the interests of health does it broadcast commercials for alcohol or tobacco
Political advertising is also controversial For most ofthe countrys radio stations elections are a bonanzaMore than a dozen parties buy airtime and it is customary for stations to put a surcharge of 20 to150 on it The temptation is strong During recentelections one party offered to buy time fromChaguarurco at a price that would have paid the billsfor months The offer was not accepted it was notthought beneficial to the community The station prefers to give equal possibilities to all political partiesrather than allowing the more powerful ones to gainfurther advantage through commercials
Community announcements and personal messagesaccount for about 40 of the stations revenue Yetanother source of income is the production of pro-grammes on health and other issues for local NGOsand government The station also continues to gethelp from the solidarity group in Spain organized byone of the volunteers who helped set up the stationThis raises funds through bingo sessions dinners andthe sale of handicrafts
Is Anyone Listening
Between June and November 1996 a team of students from Santa Isabel under the guidance of aDutch volunteer designed and conducted a survey of400 people in the stationrsquos coverage area The mainconclusions were
bull Radio is the most used medium In the towns 64also watch television especially in the evening Inthe countryside only 40 of people have access totelevision
bull Radio Chaguarurco is number one in terms ofaudience in both the towns and the countryside Itis however most popular in the countrysideamong adult listeners and among people with lesseducation
bull Forty percent of respondents from the villages claimto listen to Radio Chaguarurco everyday In thecountryside this rises to almost 50
bull The most popular programming is music followed bynews programmes and community announcements
The survey showed that the radio station was wellreceived by its audience but it also showed whereimprovements could be made by adjusting the sched-ule providing better training to the announcers andputting more agricultural information in the programming
In addition to the figures however the survey alsoshowed that after only four years on the air RadioChaguarurco has helped to make a number of important changes in community life It has improvedcommunication helped bring about more democracyand less abuse made a positive contribution by promoting the sharing of experiences and solutions toproblems and made people more aware of and proudof their own culture
How the Radio Station Has Helped theCommunity
The station has a system of announcements andcommuniqueacutes For three half-hour periods a day -morning noon and evening - people can send allkinds of messages concerning the situation ofpatients in hospital deaths lost animals invitationsto meetings etc The radio is thus the telephonefor those who do not have one
As a result of the stationrsquos existence the authoritiesinstitutions and merchants have become moredemocratic Before it was an everyday practice toabuse campesinos charge them more than theright price sell material that was intended forpublic-works projects and so on Now everybodyhears about such abuses on the radio and theyhave practically disappeared as a result
The radio has served to share experiences and problems For example a community that has succeeded in the struggle to obtain a service suchas electricity or drinking water explains on theradio how they went about it the procedures andwhat public offices they had to go to making itmuch easier for others to follow In addition solu-tions to everyday problems are shared eg ideasabout farming techniques or latrine building areexchanged
The radio is also helping to revalue the local culturemusic and way of speaking Songs that had practic-ally disappeared and that were only sung by theoldest people during family gatherings are onceagain heard on the radio Programmes containingsuch songs are among the most popular programmes on the radio and they aregenerating renewed pride in the localculture
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COMMUNITY RADIO HANDBOOKThis Community Radio Handbook aims to show that ordinary people even non-technical rural folk
can plan set up manage and produce radio programmes by themselves with a minimum of depen-dence on outside help whether for technical advice and training or for funds and equipment Althoughquite a number of radio stations began with a big helping hand from outside many community stationsthat on the air today were lsquoself-start-upsrsquo They began with a minimum of equipment and technicalknowledge but a strong community organization and a group will to push ahead and succeed
The Handbook highlights the case-stories of several such stations including Homa Bay Radio inKenya Radio Apam in Ghana Minersrsquo Radio in Bolivia Radio Sagarmatha in the Kathmandu valleyNepal Tambuli Community Radio in the Philippines and several others in order to share these creativeexperiences with others preparing to set up similar radio stations
As a handy reference for planning management technical background group dynamics broadcas-ting legislation and radio production formats based on pioneering experiences this book is a basic yetcomprehensive and practical reader for communication students researchers and planners and a lsquomustrsquofor prospective community broadcasters
1rue Miollis 75732 Paris Cedex 15
Further information Tel (331)45684025 bull Fax (331)45685585
e-mail ipanevskaunescoorg
- Contents
-
Much research interest has been devoted to mass media In their findings communicationspecialists have always acknowledged that there are many sectors communities and minorities whose access to information and means of self-expression are not always guaranteed by mass channels They have recognized that more sharply focused customizedand essentially small and local media are crucial in filling this gap
During the last two decades UNESCO has commissioned a number of studies andpublished monographs on the theme of community media The first monograph published byUNESCO on the theme of community media was Access Some Western Models of CommunityMedia by Frances Berrigan which appeared in 1977 and in 1981 the enquiry was extendedto the developing countries in a study by the same author entitled CommunityCommunications ndash the Role of Community Media in Development (No 90 in the series ofReports and Papers on Mass Communication) A few years later Peter Lewis prepared theUNESCO study Media for People in Cities (1984) which brought together a number of case-studies and the conclusions of two research meetings on urban community media
During the ensuing years UNESCO began setting up community radio stations in Africa(Homa Bay 1982) and Asia (Mahaweli 1986 and Tambuli Community radios 1982) The growthof the community radio lsquomovementrsquo was covered in a section of the UNESCO WorldCommunication Report in 1997
UNESCO sees community radio as a medium that gives voice to the voiceless thatserves as the mouthpiece of the marginalized and is at the heart of communication anddemocratic processes within societies With community radio citizens have the means tomake their views known on decisions that concern them The notions of transparency andgood governance take on new dimensions and democracy is reinforced Community radiocatalyzes the development efforts of rural folk and the underprivileged segments of urbansocieties given its exceptional ability to share timely and relevant information on developmentissues opportunities experiences life skills and public interests Given the audiencersquos lowliteracy rate and radiorsquos ability to involve women and to treat them not only as objects ormerely as a target audience but as participating agents and as a valuable source communityradio becomes one of the most promising tools for community development This hasbeen demonstrated by the special UNESCO project Women Speaking to Women community radiostations for the empowerment of women
In the age of multimedia and online communication the potential of community radioto provide for effective outreach to discuss and create demand for the Internet has becomeeven greater The Kothmale Internet radio experiment in Sri Lanka has proven that radiostations can promote and use the Internet in rural communities overcoming language barriersand lack of infrastructure By using radio and browsing the Internet to respond to listenersrsquodirect queries by sharing information and knowledge derived from the Internet the wholecommunity is involved and empowered with new opportunities
Against this background of challenges I believe that this handbook can contributetowards helping different communication actors technicians operators and radio producersin community radio stations to make more efficient use of community media for communitydevelopment by getting people involved in clarifying issues and solving problems and intalking to each other
The handbook is based on the experience and innovative thinking of communicationexperts and practitioners whose contribution I would like especially to acknowledge thelate Jake Mills former Director of Engineering Ghana Broadcasting Corporation whodesigned the prototype sound mixer Martin Allard electronics engineer designer of theUNESCO prototype transmitter Alex Quarmyne former UNESCO RegionalCommunication Advisor in Africa and project manager for Homa Bay in Kenya the firstcommunity radio in Africa Carlos Arnaldo former Chief of Communication Policies andResearch Section at UNESCO as project manager of Mahaweli community radio GeorgesDupont-Henius engineer UNESCO Communication Development Division WijayanandaJayaweera UNESCO Regional Communication Advisor for Asia and creator of KothmaleInternet Radio project Kwame Boafo of UNESCO Communication and InformationSector Louie Tabing project manager of Tambuli community radios and creator of Village on the Air For the time they took in producing this book and for their valuablecomments I should also like to thank Sonia Restrepo Estrada and Colin Fraiser for compilingthese experiences and putting them together for publication
Claude OndoboDeputy Assistant Director-General
for Communication and Information and Director of Communication Development Division
PREFACE
iii
Preface helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip iii
Introduction helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 1Any Community Can Start its Own Radio Station helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 1
Chapter 1 Community Radio in the Broadcasting Scene helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 3
Community Radio in the Context of the Globalization of Media helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 5
The Evolution of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 6
An Important Initiative by UNESCO helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 8
Box 1 The Minersrsquo Radio in Bolivia helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 12
Box 2 Radio SutatenzaACPO in Colombia helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 13
Chapter 2 Features and Functions of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 15
Essential Features of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 15
Functions of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 18
Box 3 Involvement of Women helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 23
Chapter 3 Legal Aspects helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 25
Uneven and Haphazard Legislation helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 25
Most Progress in Africa helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 25
Asia and Indiarsquos Lengthy Debate on Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 27
Legislation in Some Latin American Countries helliphelliphelliphelliphellip 28
Some Examples from Western Europe helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 30
Convergence and Divergence in Legislation helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 31
Applying for a Licence helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 32
Chapter 4 Technical Aspects helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 33
Technical Background helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 33
Broadcasting Equipment helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 35
Reliability and Maintenance helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 39
Studio Premises helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 40
Spatial Relationship Between the Components of the Radio Station helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 40
Future Possibilities helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 41
Specialist Advice helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 43
Box 4 Basic Equipment for a UNESCO-supported Community Radio Station helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 44
Chapter 5 Getting Started helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 45
Legal Context helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 45
Preparatory Work in the Community helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 46
Importance of a Mission Statement helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 48
Role of the Religious Establishment helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49
Role of Local Educational Institutions helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49
Involvement of Politicians helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49
Choosing a Location in the Community helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49
Box 5 Involvement of Politicians helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 50
Choosing a Model helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 50
Power of the Transmitter helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 51
Ownership and Management helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 51
Programminghelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 51
Staff helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip52
Sustainability helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip52
Looking for Outside Funding for Start-up Costs helliphelliphelliphellip54
Box 6 Main Factors to Consider When Planning a Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip54
Chapter 6 Programme Policieshelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 57
Participatory Programmes helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 57
Community News helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 60
Balancing Views helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 60
Coverage of Religious and Cultural Events helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 61
Local Election Broadcasts helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 61
Educational Broadcasts helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 61
Audience Surveys helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 63
Chapter 7 The Community Broadcaster helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 65
Code of Conduct helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 65
A Prototype Code of Conduct helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 66
Selection of Community Broadcasters helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 71
Training of Community Broadcasters helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 71
Chapter 8 Case Studies helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 75
Radio Olutanga (Tambuli Project) Philippines helliphelliphelliphelliphellip 75
Radio Sagarmatha Nepal helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 80
Radio Ada Ghana helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 85
Bush Radio South Africa helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 90
Radio Chaguarurco Ecuador helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 95
Table of contents
Communities and Communication
ldquoPeople live in a community by virtue of the thingswhich they have in common and communication isthe way in which they come to possess things in commonrdquo 1
T here are more than 20000radio stations in the worldand more than 2 billion
radio receivers Any notion thatTV and other sophisticated communication technology willreplace radio is unfounded forradio is in constant expansion Itswaves reach almost every cornerof our planet It is the prime electronic medium of the poorbecause it leaps the barriers of isolation and illiteracy and it is themost affordable electronic mediumto broadcast and receive in
The last two decades have seen arapid expansion in the number andpopularity of community radiostations Among the reasons forthis are the democratization anddecentralization processes in manyparts of the world deregulation ofthe media and the relaxing ofbroadcasting monopolies by stateinstitutions and disaffection withcommercial radio channels
Furthermore awareness is growingof the social and economic benefitsthat can result when ordinarypeople have access to appropriateinformation And it is also evidentthat when people especially the
poor can participate incommunica-tion processesand consensusbuilding aboutissues thataffect theirlives it helpsthem to cast off their traditionalstate of apathy and stimulatesthem to mobilize and organize tohelp themselves
ANY COMMUNITY CANSTART ITS OWN RADIO STATION
To start a small radio station is notas complicated and expensive asmany people think There isenough experience in many countries to prove that it is withinthe reach of almost any community
Community Will is the Key
The primordial condition for acommunity to start its own radiostation is a sense of internal cohe-sion and community consciousnessThere must be willingness forcooperative work and to poolresources and enthusiastic consensus
that the people want their own radioin order to advance their community
As part of the consensus buildingthat leads to the decision to establisha community radio the communitymust analyze its communicationneeds and determine how radiocould help to resolve them Thetraditional approach to develop-ment is to provide support to agriculture health education andso on and a radio station may notnormally be seen as a priority Buta community that analyzes itsneeds in detail and thinks aboutthe causes of its problems andmarginalization will often cometo the conclusion that it needscommunication processes to helppeople share common understan-ding and common goals This is thefirst step towards a communitytaking action to establish its ownradio station
ldquoEveryone has the right to freedom of opinion andexpression this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek receiveand impart information and ideas through any mediaand regardless of frontiersrdquo
Right of information section Article 19 of theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights
ldquoCommunity radio is a social process or eventin which members of the community associatetogether to design programmes and produce andair them thus taking on the primary role of actorsin their own destiny whether this be for something as common as mending fences in theneighbourhood or a community-wide campaign on how to use clean water and keep it clean or agitation for theelection of new leaders The emphasis is on the ownership of democratic and development efforts by the members of the communitythemselves and the use of media in this case radio toachieve it In every sense this is participatory communication(not programmes made about them by somebody else) It is above all a process not a technology not merely ameans because the people are part of that means and sois the message and the audienceCommunity radio is most relevant to a group of peoplewho live and act as a community and this could be severalfamilies several neighbourhoods or even several villagesor communities but the important thing is that theyinteract That is why I think of community radio as the
community speaking to each other and acting together forcommon goalsrdquo
Carlos A Arnaldo
Introduction
A basic Community Radio Studio in Burkina Faso
1
Com
mun
ity
Rad
io H
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oduc
tion
Phot
o U
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CO
2
Producing Programmes does notneed Magical Skills
The professional tasks of managing astation and producing programmesare not beyond the reach of typicalcommunities Unfortunately expo-sure to commercial andor stateradio leaves many people with theimpression that such professionalstandards are the norm and theydo not realize that good and effec-tive radio broadcasting can bemuch less formalized Nor do theyrealize that the usefulness andimpact of any media productiondepends much more on its relevan-ce to the audience than on its for-mal quality
This is not to say that quality ofprogrammes in terms of theirstructure and their technical level isunimportant For example impro-per use of recording equipmentmay result in programmes of suchpoor sound quality that they aredifficult to understand Howeverexperience with community radioshows that when people are moti-vated and enthusiastic the mini-mum technical levels required forbroadcasting can be masteredduring only a few weeks of trainingAnd as they gain hands-on produc-tion experience their skills developmarkedly They quickly reach fullysatisfactory levels of performance
The Cost and Technologyare not Prohibitive
The equipment requiredfor community radio isrobust and easy to main-tain and it does not needsupport from broadcastingengineers beyond some ini-tial training Its cost isconstantly falling For atypical community radiostation the normal cost ofthe equipment is little morethan US$20000 For minimalbroadcasting there is even asuitcase available weighing 16 kgwhich contains a five-watt trans-mitter a six-channel audio mixertwo compact disc players two cas-sette taperecordersplayers and anantenna The total cost is aboutUS$3000
There are also FM radio receiverswith a solar strip that can eitherpower the radio or charge a batteryAt night the radio can be poweredby a dynamo winding up the radioby hand for two minutes provides30 minutes of listening time
The tendency among those produ-cing equipment for communityradio has been to focus on simplicityof installation use and maintenanceAnd local people often show extra-ordinary capacity to adapt andbuild for themselves For examplein Cape Verde UNESCO helpedlocal technicians to install a single
transmitter on one islandHowever the technicians were soeager and enterprising that after-wards they built two more trans-mitters so that they could have oneon each of the three main islandsThis was despite the fact that thecomponents originally made avai-lable were scarcely enough for onestation Furthermore they also linkedthe three stations over seeminglyimpossible distances to form a net-work that shares programmes in acomplicated schedule every day5
Media and Development
ldquoDeveloping communities are characterized by isolation from ideas and information as well as services At the simplest level before people canconsider a question they need to be fully aware of allthe facts the short-term effects and the long-termimplications ways in which decisions taken in onearea will affect future planning Communicationmedia could present this informationrdquo 2
Phot
o C
A A
rnal
do
The Judges are the Listeners
ldquoIt is unfortunate that the so-called radio professionals have set certain artistic productionstandards which could intimidate the regular villagepeople The irony is that the so-called professionalproductions cannot compete with programmes doneby the inexperienced village people The professionalsforget that the ultimate judge of a radio programmeis the listenerrdquo 4
Donrsquot be afraid of radio
ldquoNo one should be afraid to use radio I have been abroadcaster for almost a quarter of a century andI know nothing about the electronics side of radio
Even today I cannot explain how my voice in the studio is processed and passed on finally to the family radio maybe hundreds of kilometres awayrdquo 5
1 John Dewey (1916) cited by Elizabeth Blanks HindmanldquoCommunity Democracy and Neighbourhood NewsrdquoInternational Communication Association (1998)
2 Frances J Berrigan ldquoCommunity Communications - the role ofcommunity media in developmentrdquo Reports and Papers onMass Communication no 90 UNESCO (Paris 1981)
3 Louie Tabing Neighbourhood Radio ProductionUNESCODANIDA Tambuli Project Philippines
4 Martin AllardrdquoOn the AirhellipThe Development of CommunityRadiordquo UNESCO Sources no 21 (1990)
5 Louie Tabing Manager of the UNESCODANIDA TambuliProject Philippines
Mang Vicente of Ibahay on Aklan Island in Southern Philippines plays traditional melodies on a flute made from PVC plumbing pipe
Chapter 1Community Radio in the Broadcasting Scene
3
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1
T his chapter describes the place of community radio in the broadcastingscene and explains the essential
difference in its approach compared to conventional public service or commercialbroadcasting A rationale is put forward for itsimportance in the scenario of increasing mediaglobalization
The evolution of community radio from itsfirst experiences some 50 years ago is tracedand set in the context of broadcast mediaownership patterns technical developmentsand the recent trends towards democratization and decentralization
The reader will acquire
bull An understanding of the special nature ofcommunity radio compared to other types ofradio broadcasting
bull An understanding of its place and importan-ce in the trend towards media globalization
bull Knowledge about its background specificfield experiences and the factors that havedetermined its evolution
This theoretical framework provides the long-term foundation for practical knowledge andskills to be gained in later chapters
Broadcasting can be divided into three general categories
bull Public-service broadcasting is generally conductedby a statutory entity which is usually - though notnecessarily ndash a state-supported or a state-ownedcorporation Its broadcasting policies and programmingare often controlled by a public body such as a councilor a legally constituted authority This body ensuresthat broadcasting operates to provide informationeducation and entertainment to the citizens andsociety in general and independently of governmentparty politics or other interests Much of the fundingfor the operation comes from licence fees that the listenersviewers pay for the receivers they have intheir homes
bull Commercial or private broadcasting providesprogrammes designed primarily for profit fromadvertising revenue and is owned and controlled byprivate individuals or by commercial enterprises
bull Community broadcasting is a non-profit servicethat is owned and managed by a particular communityusually through a trust foundation or association Itsaim is to serve and benefit that community It is ineffect a form of public-service broadcasting but itserves a community rather than the whole nation asis the usual form of public broadcasting describedabove Moreover it relies and must rely mainly on the resources of the community A community is considered to be a group of people who share
A Declaration of Principle
ldquoCommunity radio responds to the needs of the community it serves contributing to its developmentwithin progressive perspectives in favour of socialchange Community radio strives to democratizecommunication through community participation indifferent forms in accordance with each specificsocial contextrdquo
World Association of Community Broadcasters(AMARC) 1988
4
common characteristics andorinterests The commonality ofinterests may be based on
- The sharing of a single geographicallocation that is to say those livingin a specific town village orneighbourhood
- The sharing of economic and sociallife through trade marketingexchange of goods and services
Unfortunately this tidy classificationinto three categories of broadcastingis less than tidy in practice forthere can be combinations andoverlapping situations For examplea local commercial radio stationmay also broadcast some communityservice programmes a station ownedand managed by an NGO such as areligious institution may fill most ofits air time with such programmesand state-owned public-servicebroadcasting has increasingly beendecentralizing to the local level andproviding programming for thecommunities around it
Not surprisingly there is still nosingle definition or description ofcommunity radio And to complicatematters further there have beenvarious terms applied to small-scaleradio broadcasting such as lsquolocalrsquolsquoalternativersquo lsquoindependentrsquo or lsquofreersquoradio All of these lack precision Forexample the term lsquolocal radiorsquo
could also cover the decentralizedoperation through a local stationof a state-controlled broadcastingsystem or even a small commercialstation Terms such as lsquoalternativersquoand lsquofreersquo are also imprecise even ifin the context of radio they arenormally taken to mean alternativeto the mainstream mass media andfree from government ownershipand control Logically thereforethey include community radio butthey do not necessarily include it
The various definitions of communityradio that have been formulatedshare many common elements Thesimple and catchy phrase lsquoRadio bythe people and for the peoplersquo isoften used as a good summary Thisphrase captures well the essentialprinciple that must be in place for abroadcasting service to be consideredtrue community radio It must firstlybe managed by the communitysecondly be to serve that community
Strict application of these two principles would mean that a radiostation owned by a non-profitNGO and also managed by thatNGO would not necessarily qualifyas a true community radio even ifmuch of its programming wereaimed at community developmentThis is the case for many broadcastingservices run by religious organiza-tions and in practice the term
lsquocommunity radiorsquo is often used tocover this type of operation as wellOne example is Radio Maria whichbeginning from a single parish inNorthern Italy in 1983 now coversall of Italy and also has stations in21 other countries It is essentiallyan evangelical operation but it alsodoes a great deal in social servicesand community developmentusing volunteers and supported byspontaneous contributions fromlisteners
The somewhat confusing situationregarding what constitutes truecommunity radio can perhaps bestbe understood by considering thefollowing quotation this sums up aphilosophical approach that makescommunity radio different fromcommercial or public-service radio
ldquoCommunity radio emphasizes thatit is not commercial and does notshare what it would call the prescriptive and paternalistic attitude of public-service broadcas-tinghellip The key difference is thatwhile the commercial and public-service models both treat listenersas objects to be captured foradvertisers or to be improved andinformed community radio aspiresto treat its listeners as subjects andparticipantsrdquo 4
One Definition
ldquoA community radio station is characterized by itsownership and programming and the community it isauthorized to serve It is owned and controlled by anon-profit organization whose structure provides formembership management operation and programming primarily by members of the community at large Its programming should bebased on community access and participation andshould reflect the special interests and needs of thelistenership it is licenced to serverdquo 1
On Radio Work for Ordinary People - a Practitionerrsquos View
ldquoRadio is simply people talking with people The Tambuli stations have merely expanded theopportunity for people to talk more to a wideraudience and to listen to a more expansive array ofideas on matters that directly concern themrdquo 2
On Community Ownership and Management
ldquoTo qualify as a community radio the ownership and control of the station must rest squarely and unquestionably with the community it claimsto serverdquo 3
Commercial Media Antagonism Towards Community Media
ldquoMainstream commercial media continue to harbournegative feelings about community media and areconvinced that they are adequately able to servecommunity needs They have not yet come around toaccepting that the special character of communitymedia is complementary rather than antagonisticand mutually exclusiverdquo 5
This placing of both public andcommercial broadcasting into aprescriptive category treating listeners as objects is significantfor even when they broadcasttheir so-called community serviceprogrammes they usually remainin the same prescriptive modeThis is contrary to the participatoryessence of community radio programming
COMMUNITY RADIO IN THE CONTEXT OF THEGLOBALIZATION OFMEDIA
Recent years have seen a strongtrend towards the globalization ofmedia Colossal media enterprisesof a commercial nature have beenformed and increasingly span theglobe with their programmesCertain countries have also becomecentres of highly successful mediaproduction mainly of an enter-tainment character and sell theiroutput to TV channels worldwideObvious examples are soap operasfrom the USA However audienceresearch has shown that peopleprefer to watch programmes withtheir own cultural orientationsrather than those imported fromothers For this reason media productions from developing
countries such as Brazil ChinaEgypt India and Indonesia arenow gaining wider distribution inlarge-scale commercial media
While some people argue that theglobalization of the media disruptslocal cultures others state thatglobal media intensifies theconsciousness of the world as awhole and is therefore beneficialThey see global media and community media as complemen-tary each forming important functions that the other cannotAnd this is certainly the case
By definition global media arecommercial and need to attractlarge audiences for their adverti-sing content Thus they broadcastprogrammes that attempt to satisfya common thread of sensitivitiesamong large numbers of peopleusing well-tried and rather standardif not banal entertainment formatsThe lack of variety in programmeorientation is therefore generallyattributed to the lsquoself-censorshiprsquoof the market which uses entertainment as the sole criterionfor selection However it is alsotrue that governments tend to bemore comfortable with privatebroadcasters limiting themselvesto entertainment rather thanbecoming involved in the moreproblematic area of news and
current affairs For these reasonsthemes reflecting socio-politicalinterests are often insufficientlycovered or deliberately ignoredby private broadcasters
Clearly given their characteristicsand orientation commercial andglobal media can hardly meetsocio-economic and developmentneeds of the countries they coverThe excessive entertainment provided by commercial televisionhas often provoked a call for areappraisal of the potential ofpublic broadcasting stressing theneed for quality programmes anddemanding more possibilities ofchoice and access for audiences A logical step in this direction is toexpand the democratization ofmedia to the community levelespecially through communityradio in which accessibility is thenorm
Furthermore community radioworks in the cultural context ofthe community it serves it dealswith local issues in the local language or languages it is relevantto local problems and concernsand its aim is to help the commu-nity to develop socially culturallyand economically This is not onlyin contrast with global media operations it is also in contrastwith centralized urban-based 5
Com
mun
ity
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Global Communication
ldquoGeorge Orwell in Nineteen Eighty-Four warned us ofa society controlled by Big Brother Is that what weare encountering today when we see so many peoplein poor communities tuning into western dominatedideals of the rich consumer society Orwell was veryconcerned about the socialist drives of the industrialage But perhaps he was also warning about the takeover of society by a democratic political power drivento degradation by these very industrial drives and bythe easy resort to globalization of mediardquo 6
The Power of the Local Approach
ldquoAn effective strategy for the community radiostation is to present what cannot be offered by any
other radio station that is local content with a localflavour The local radio station must dwell on itsstrongest reason for existence - local events issuesconcerns and personalities If a local station can doan exhaustive reportage of what goes on in its community on a regular basis there is no way aregional or national broadcast outfit could competefor listenership The element of proximity is the mostpotent quality that the community radio should capitalize on People will be enthusiastic to know ona daily or even hourly basis about the people andevents unfolding next to their place of aboderdquo 7
6
national media even of a publicservice nature for they are oftenremote from the realities of ruralcommunities and their needs
THE EVOLUTION OF COMMUNITY RADIO
The pioneering experiences fromwhich todayrsquos community radio hasevolved began some 50 years agoin Latin America Poverty and socialinjustice were the stimulus forthose first experiences one beginningin Bolivia in 1947 and known as theMinersrsquo radios and another inColombia in the same year knownas Radio SutatenzaAccioacutenCulturalPopular (See boxes 1 and 2 at the end of this Chapter for descriptions)
These experiences in Bolivia andColombia set a trend even iftodayrsquos concept of communityradio has evolved considerably Forexample the Minersrsquo radios inBolivia were working in thedecades of ideological clash between Marxism and capitalismThus their principal focus was tounite the community of miners tobattle for better and fairer workingconditions They were generallyconsidered to be trade unionradios even if the miners providedmuch of the finance for the purchase
of equipment and running costs
Radio SutatenzaACPO in Colombiaalthough inspired by the aim ofsupporting the community of peasants was not owned or directlymanaged by them There was muchfeedback from peasants - some50000 letters a year ndash and thesecertainly ensured the integration ofthe peasantsrsquo desires and needsinto the radiorsquos programming Butit was not truly lsquoradio by the peoplefor the peoplersquo which is todayrsquosaim
Even so this first systematic effortby Radio Sutatenza to educate byradio created a movement thatldquohellipspread and was later consolidatedthrough ALER the Latin AmericanEducational Radio BroadcastingAssociation This inter-linkage ofradio and education is basic to theidea of public service and markedthe birth of community media inLatin Americardquo 8
However even if the groundbreak-ing work was in Latin America itwas in Europe that communityradio first became a vital phenome-non an alternative to ndash or a critiqueof ndash mainstream broadcast mediaThe first challenges to state public-service broadcasting were in the1960s-70s when ldquoswashbucklingentrepreneurs boarded the airwavesillegally and seized as much of the
audience as they could carry awayfrom the treasure chest monopolycontrolled by the staterdquo 9 In theWest these pirate stations proved acatalyst in motivating governmentsand national broadcasting systemsto introduce legitimate local radio
In Africa the establishment ofcommunity radio became in abroad sense a social movementafter the demise of the apartheidregime in South Africa This wasfollowed by democratizationdecentralization and to someextent structural adjustmentelsewhere in that continent10
The pressure groups that have instigated community radio inmany parts of the world (egminers pirate radio operators missionaries and democracy movements) have been less presentin Asia In their place internationalagencies such as UNESCO andother external donors have oftentaken initiatives to help get community radio off the groundAnd in some cases it has been thenational broadcasting organizationthat has itself started communityradio services
Vision of Joaquiacuten Salcedo founder of RadioSutatenza and Accioacuten Cultural Popular
ldquoWithin weeks of arriving in Sutatenza Salcedo as ajunior priest had challenged the peasantry from thepulpit to take up arms against the poverty and backwardness that afflicted them and had offered hishand and vision in a partnership They respondedand so a pact was formed
Salcedo pioneered a concept known as lsquointegralfundamental educationrsquo similar to what today is
often called lsquolife educationrsquo The core of the conceptis that the educational process must be the development of the individual as a whole person and as a member of society
It became an ACPO slogan that lsquodevelopment is inthe mind of mankindrsquo And providing people witheducation in the broadest sense would enable themto make informed decisions and become proactivein taking control of their livesrdquo 11
The Influence of DifferentBroadcasting Ownership Systems
Latin America adopted the NorthAmerican system of mainly privateand commercial broadcastingwith multiple stations of variedpower and reach In this context itwas relatively easy for new stationsto start up And several thousandhave done so in Latin Americaoften initially as illegal or piratestations
In Western European countriesthe public-service state broadcastingmonopolies which had been setup when radio and later TV werefirst introduced usually had management mechanisms throughstatutory public bodies Thesecontrolling bodies ensured thatbroadcasting policies and programmes were as independentas possible of government partypolitical or other influences
European countries that adoptedthis public-service broadcastingapproach through state networksdid so because from the very firstdays of radio in the 1920s and TVsome 30 years later the electronicmedia were considered by leadingthinkers as marvellous instrumentsfor expanding culture educationand information and for improvingsocieties According to that thinkingthe mass media could not be
allowed to function principally ona commercial basis and as a vehicleto be taken over by the advertisingindustry to market products
Many countries in the developingworld especially in Africa and Asiawhere European countries hadheld influence as colonizers adoptedthe European model at least as faras the state monopoly on broad-casting was concerned Howeverthey did not always allow broad-casting policy to be controlled by astatutory and independent publicbody preferring complete controlby government of all aspects oftheir electronic media Thus manygovernments especially those ofcentrally planned economies usedtheir broadcasting networks tofurther their political aims and inparticular to consolidate theirpower base
In such circumstances and fullyrealizing that information ispower these governments withfully state-controlled broadcastingwere extremely reluctant to allowany electronic media to operateindependently This made it difficultfor community media initiatives toget started Only in the early 1980sdid some governments begin torelax their opposition to indepen-dent media but even today manygovernments still effectively oppose
the idea of relinquishing theirmonopolistic control of the broad-casting media
On the other hand it has becomeclear in the last decade or so thatattempts to control information ina society are doomed to fail The fax machine on a desk thecomputer connected to theInternet electronic mail andsatellite television are underminingall the efforts of repressiveregimes to control and conditionthe information that their peoplereceive This situation coupledwith the spread of democracy andfreedom of expression in mostparts of the world is opening thedoor to community media initiativesand particularly to communityradio And governments in countriesthat have already opened the doorare able to see for themselves thatcommunity radio has great potentialfor promoting and supportingd e ce n t ra l i ze d e n d o g e n o u sdevelopment
Technical Evolution
In addition to the political aspectsof decentralizing broadcastingthere are technical factors thathave played and continue to playa very important part in the evolu-tion of community radio 7
Com
mun
ity
Rad
io H
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1
Alternative Media as Antibodies
ldquoSome fifteen years ago I described alternative media as antibodies producedas a protection against the neglect insensitivity and insanity of the conventional mediardquo 12
8
Two important breakthroughs haveallowed major progress firstlycheap transistor receivers andsecondly low-powered and cheaptransmitters
Until the invention of the transistorin the mid-1950s radio receiversused valves and were expensive andcumbersome Until that time mostof the worldrsquos radio receivers weremanufactured in North Americaand Europe but the arrival of thetransistor paved the way to massiveradio ownership in developingco u n t r i e s Fo r e xa m p l e i n Sub-Saharan Africa India andChina the number of radio receiversexpanded from two million in 1956to 90 million in 1975 And the number of radios has continued toexpand dramatically worldwide tothe two billion or more of today
The availability of cheap receivershas played a key role in the evolu-tion of community radio with apush-pull effect in the sense thatonce a community station starts tobroadcast there is often a significantrise in radio ownership This is anindication that radio listening maybe as much a function of peoplersquosinterest in what is being broadcastas their ability to afford a radioreceiver For example in a poorrural area of Mali where a communityradio station began to function
radio ownership rapidly rose by 140 percent 13
The second technical breakthroughwas low-power transmitters using abroadcasting system known asFrequency Modulation (FM) Thesebecame increasingly available in the1970s and 1980s (See also Chapter4) Small companies in severalcountries began to produce equip-ment that was designed specificallyfor community radio operationsMuch of it was in kit form and sorobust and simple that it was idealfor use in the often harsh conditionsof developing countries
AN IMPORTANT INITIATIVE BY UNESCO
Among UNESCOrsquos missions areldquothe free exchange of ideas andknowledgerdquo and promoting ldquofreeflow of ideas by word and imagerdquoIn this context UNESCO launchedan initiative to support communityradio in 1980
The initiative began with discussionsin 1980 between UNESCO and theEconomic Commission for Africaon local radio broadcasting Thesehighlighted the fact that very fewAfrican countries had a commonlanguage that enabled nationalbroadcasting to effectively reachthe rural people who made up as
much as 80 percent of the popula-tion The best broadcasters coulddo was to select perhaps ten of themain local languages and broadcastdaily programmes in them on atime-sharing basis Thus no singlecommunity could listen to a languageit understood for more than a shortperiod each day
There were also problems of physi-cal and mental distance the centralbroadcasting facilities were oftentoo far away from their ruralaudiences for their broadcastsignals to be received intelligiblyand the urban-based programmeproducers were too far away mentally to know and understandtheir rural audiences properly
The discussions in those early daysand for many years afterwardsassumed that the state broadcastingsystems would be decentralized tolocal stations These would mainlyrelay the signal from the capital but would also originate some programmes locally This systemwould keep the local radio underthe control of the national broad-casters and as such it cannot beconsidered as an example of thecommunity broadcasting model oftoday
On the Potential of Community Broadcasting in Africa
ldquoCommunity-based radio broadcasting could be theleast costly mass medium for development in media-starved rural Africa It could promote positivecultural identity using local languages which areineffectively used on national broadcasting stationsand are usually accessible only to urban and eliteaudiencesrdquo 14
Big Boxes are More Impressive
ldquoIntegrated circuits and new componentsenable us to make smaller pieces of equipment but some manufacturers justlike to use big boxes open them up andthey are practically empty insiderdquo 15
Equipment Factor A first needwas for cheap and simple equip-ment quite different from the kindof equipment used by state orcommercial radio stations SoUNESCO organized a workshop atBrighton Polytechnic in 1980 thatbrought together British ChineseCuban French and Ghanaian engi-neers The purpose was to identifypriorities and outline designconcepts A first requirement wasa 10-watt FM transmitter thatcould run off a 12-volt car batteryor even solar panels and thesecond was for a simple and cheapaudio mixer similarly powered forbringing together sounds (voicesmusic and sound effects) into asingle programme for broadcast-ing The other necessary itemssuch as tape recorders and recordturntables could be purchased atreasonable prices in the market
The transmitter was designed andbuilt by Mallard Concepts inBritain and the six-channel audiomixer was designed and its pro-duction supervised by Jake Mills aGhanaian who was for many yearsthe technical director of GhanaBroadcasting Corporation
Based on integrated circuitry theMallard transmitter was onlyslightly larger than a home hi-fiamplifier It could be deliveredeither in kit form or fully assem-bled The largest component in theequipment was the transformer the
device for conver-ting power from110- or 220-voltalternating currentto 12-volt directcurrent
The cost of theMallard equipmentpackage was aroundUS$2000 comparedto about US$15000or more for com-mercial transmittersof similar power
Tests with theMallard transmittershowed that itssignal could beheard on a normalradio at a range ofup to 12-20 km Itwas so light androbust that it could easily be takenout into the countryside in a carPowered from the carrsquos batteryand with an antenna hoisted into atree an outside broadcast stationcould be set up
UNESCO also worked on solar-powered receivers and onproblems such as the cheapconversion of existing AM receiversso that they could also pick up FMbroadcasts Despite some promisingdesigns for solar-powered receiversit proved impossible to find amanufacturer that could mass-produce them on the scale necessaryto make them cheap enough for
Soldering circuits for 20-watt FM transmittersin Brixham UK
9
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1 An early model
of the FM community radiotransmitter designed byMallard ConceptsLtd UK forUNESCO
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o C
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rnal
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o W
Jay
awee
ra
10
even the very poor to buy Bothsolar and wind-up generator radiosets are manufactured today but atprices still prohibitive to most ruralfolk
Political Factors Solving thetechnical problems was often lessdifficult than overcoming the political ones in promoting thespread of community radioUNESCOrsquos push in the area of community radio was essentiallyradical based on concepts ofhuman rights and freedom ofexpression But the world of theearly 1980rsquos was still divided byideological conflict between Leftand Right and state monopolies onbroadcasting were the norm inmany developing countries
It is easy to think that governmentssimply wanted to repress all formsof self-expression that could pose athreat to their authority or to theirstable hold on power However closer consideration shows thatmany governments especially incountries with a multiplicity of ethnic groups and languages feltthat national identity and unitywould be strengthened throughhaving a single broadcasting voicefrom the centre and through promoting a national languageWhatever the reason for govern-ments to defend their broadcasting
monopolies UNESCO faced anoteworthy challenge in promotingcommunity radio
The First Community RadioStation in Africa
The government of Kenya was thefirst to open the door to UNESCOrsquosproposal for setting up a communityradio In May 1982 a Mallard 10-watt transmitter as well as anaudio mixer designed by Jake Millsand related broadcasting equipmentof a total value of less thanUS$25000 were supplied to thecommunity of Homa Bay on LakeVictoria This is a poor area withmany problems of underdevelop-ment Local people were givenbasic training in how to use theequipment and the station beganbroadcasting for two hours a day inLuo one of Kenyarsquos principle lan-guages but not that of the dominantethnic and political group
Homa Bay was successfully on airfor only two-and-a-half years beforethe government closed it down forit was said to be working contraryto the official policy of makingSwahili and English the nationallanguages Furthermore despite itsvery local coverage it was said tobe increasing tensions between different ethnic groups
Building on Homa Bay
Despite this political setback theHoma Bay experience proved that asmall community radio operationcould be effectively set up withequipment costs of less thanUS$25000 and that it could function in a low-technology environment without encounteringtechnical problems
UNESCOrsquos initiative in communityradio coincided with some worldtrends that favoured it The mostimportant of these was the growingawareness of the limitations of centrally planned economies leadingultimately to the collapse of theideology that had built them But innon-Marxist countries too demo-cratization decentralization andneo-liberal policies were on themarch and this was also leading toa greater willingness to decentralizenational broadcasting systems
In Sri Lanka the Sri LankaBroadcasting Corporation hadalready regionalized its services andthe notion of starting communityradio was a natural next step Thusin 1983 the second UNESCO community radio initiative wasbegun in the context of a largemulti-purpose irrigation schemethe Mahaweli DevelopmentProject About a million peoplewere being resettled on newly
Excerpt from 1988 Evaluation of MahaweliCommunity Radio
ldquoIt has animated settlers into participation in activities that not only encouraged self-actualizationbut also community identify and development Intandem with Mahaweli development workers it hasmotivated the settlers to try innovative practices inagriculture and health It has likewise motivatedlocal development workers to take the settlers andtheir problems more seriously ensuring a more palpable degree of service to the peoplerdquo
Some Achievements of Mahaweli Community Radio
ldquoIn one area we came across a group of teenagedelinquents who had no land and were desperately insearch of something to do Through our programmesand discussions we motivated them to clean up thevillage pond and set up an ornamental fish production enterprise In another village we arranged a mass wedding to solemnize the marriageof elderly couples who were living togetherTheir offspring had faced many hardships as theirparents were not legally married I produced manyprogrammes on gambling and alcoholism which helped the addicts to reflect upon themselves andgive up the vicerdquo 16
Bamako Declaration on Radio Pluralism(President Konareacute of Mali 1993)
ldquoRadio pluralism is an essential componentin the deepening of the democratic processnow under way it allows people greateraccess to a diversity of information andguarantees increased popular participation for sustainable human developmentAfrican statesmust speed up the ending of the monopoly over ofthe airwaves and give priority to national proponents of independent radio when allocatingbroadcasting frequenciesrdquo 20
irrigated land and these familiescame from various parts of thecountry Originally no media element was included among thevarious rural development inputsfor Mahaweli However it waslater realized that a communityradio service could help the sett-lers to integrate and to take initia-tives to improve their living stan-dards In effect they needed todevelop a sense of community aswell as learn more about improvedagricultural practices health andso on
Community radio offered greatpotential for this so with financialsupport from Danish InternationalDevelopment Assistance (DANIDA)and UNESCO the MahaweliCommunity Radio was set up Itsfirst station covered about 20000settlers in the major developmentregion surrounding the town ofGuirandurokotte but it was latercomplemented by several othersmall FM stations in the area
Although the Mahaweli CommunityStations were all under the controlof the Sri Lanka BroadcastingCorporation they used a truecommunity radio style This wasquite different from the style usedby the national broadcaster
One of the main thrusts ofMahaweli Radio in addition toproviding settlers with information
was to obtain feedback from themabout development activitiesthrough recordings made in thecommunities which were laterincluded in programmes orthrough having settlers come intothe studios to talk on air Withsuch participation in the radio programming and dealing as it didwith local problems and issues theradio became a vital andpersonalized link in the life of thecommunity
Community Radio Expanding ata Fast Pace
Riding on the flood tide of changethat has been sweeping the worldtowards democratization anddecentralization in the 1980rsquos and1990rsquos community radio has beenexpanding at a fast pace UNESCOfollowed its Kenyan and Sri Lankanexperience with support to otherstations in a wide variety of coun-tries among them Ghana TongaHaiti Cape Verde St LuciaTrinidad and Tobago SurinamJamaica Guyana the Philippinesand many others However UNESCO is now far from beingalone in promoting communityradio A wide range of internationaldevelopment agencies and nationaland international NGOs are involvedin many parts of the world
The rapidity of the spread of community radio is remarkableand Mali provides an interestingexample In 1991 after 23 years ofmilitary dictatorship severe socialdisturbances finally overthrew thegovernment and a multi-partydemocracy was formally establishedA transition government came topower pending democratic elections
Mali is a primarily rural society andthe transitional government orga-nized consultations with represen-tatives of the rural people It wasfound that after more than twodecades during which the nationalmedia had been the channel forissuing instructions and exhorta-tions and with government staffin rural areas equally distant thepeasantry was disaffected and alienated by the governmentrsquosimposed development programmesThey preferred to ignore them 17
The transitional government andthe elected one that took its placedecided to install with the help ofUNDP and the Food and AgriculuralOrganisation (FAO) a policy ofusing communication systemati-cally for Malirsquos development thefirst country in the world to do soMali also took a lead in media libe-ralization in Africa notablythrough organizing a crucial confe-rence in Bamako in September1993 called ldquoFreedom for AfricanRadiosrdquo 18 19 11
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12
Mali had itself just liberalized its state TV andradio which ever since they began had broadcastexclusively in French a language only understoodby the countryrsquos elite And with illiteracy levelsof about 70 percent the majority of the peoplehad had no access to media-based information
In the five years after Mali liberalized its mediamore than 60 independent radio stations beganto operate providing access in local languagesto people for the first time since the dawn ofradio broadcasting And many other countriesare becoming similarly involved with communityradio Much has happened to improve thesituation for community broadcasting since theHoma Bay community transmitter was closeddown by the government of Kenya some 15 yearsago And as an endnote Kenya today is also discussing legislation that would recognizecommunity radio as part of the countriesbroadcasting scene
The Bolivian experiencebegan with a radio servicecalled the lsquoVoice of the
Minerrsquo linked to the Siglo XXmine in the Department of PotosiacuteIn subsequent years 23 stationsin the various mining areas of thecountry were set up and came tobe known collectively as theMinersrsquo Radios
These radio stations were born asa trade union response to theappalling conditions of workersin the mines most of which wereowned and operated until 1952 bya few rapacious and fabulouslyrich families the lsquotin baronsrsquosuch as the Patintildeos who wereknown world-wide for their extra-vagant lifestyles Meanwhile theminers who were the source oftheir wealth and of the mainnational export were being inhu-manely exploited Living in primitive mining camps often inthe cold of very high altitudespoorly paid and suffering fromtypical minersrsquo afflictions such assilicosis they were already oldmen by the age of 40 Their lifeexpectancy was further reducedby the lack of safety precautionsin the mines and frequent accidents In 1952 the mineswere nationalized but little chan-ged for the miners becausegovernments lacked socialconscience
Unfortunately historical factsabout the Minersrsquo Radios remainsomewhat vague for the mainsource of information is the
memory of the people involvedHowever it is certain that theradios were a crucial element inhelping to lead the struggle ende-mic in Bolivia for many years - aconfrontation that saw massacresof miners and their families civilwar and revolution
The radios helped to unite theminers in the struggle and provided them with news andinformation that countered thenegative propaganda against theirinterests that was being put out bymost of the mainstream mediaThe importance of the MinersrsquoRadios is evident from the num-ber of times they were systemati-cally destroyed or their equip-ment confiscated by the militarysent in by one or other of the succession of governments thatruled the country
It was in fact the miners that initiated the massive strike in1981 that finally led to the end ofdictatorship in Bolivia As on allprevious occasions of seriousconfrontation with the authoritiesone of the principle demandsmade by the miners was thereturn of the equipment for theirradio stations or in cases wherethe equipment had been destroyed the right to start themup again with new equipmentThe miners usually contributedmost of the cost a further illustra-tion of the importance of theseradio stations in their lives
Although the main role of theMinersrsquo Radios was the defence
and promotion of minersrsquo rightsthey were also central to a widerange of cultural and educationalactivities They promoted andbroadcast festivals of minersrsquopoetry discussions about theaesthetic value of popular songsand other art forms and discus-sions about education issueseven including a discussion ofwhether minersrsquo children shouldlearn to play chess
The miners themselves contributedto the costs of establishing andrunning their radio stations but inmost cases the management andprogramming policy was in thehands of their unions And therewas little participation by minersin the kind of radio programmesthat would be promoted by com-munity radio today However theintegration of the radio stationsinto the mining community wasto a great extent ensured by theirphysical location close to themine they served and peoplecould generally visit the studioand say their piece if they wanted
Most Minersrsquo Radios were set upin the second half of the 1950sbut their most flourishing yearswere between 1963 and 1983After that world tin prices beganto drop and in 1985 a neo-liberalgovernment passed a decree tolsquorelocatersquo miners throwing about20000 of them out of miningwork forever This cut the groundfrom under the feet of their radiosSome were passed to peasantgroups but today less than tenare still operating
BOX 1 The Minersrsquo Radio in Bolivia
BOX 2 Radio SutatenzaAccioacuten Cultural Popular in Colombia
This initiative was launchedin 1947 by a priest JoaquiacutenSalcedo in an Andean
village called Sutatenza It beganusing a home-made transmitterwith a range of two to three kmbut from this Radio Sutatenzagrew into Colombiarsquos mostpowerful broadcasting network
Salcedo an atypical priest wasmore concerned about the socialand economic status of Colombiarsquospeasants than about conventionalChurch matters Driven by his mission to bring education to peasants to help them develop herealized that radio could reacheven into the most isolated parts ofmountainous Colombia Thus theidea of the Radio Schools ofSutatenza was born and from thatAccioacuten Cultural Popular (ACPO)
The educational broadcasts byRadio Sutatenza expanded untilthey covered a wide range oftopics including literacy numeracyhealth farm production housingimprovements family and personalrelationships sport and leisureand - crucially as it turned out - theresponsibilities of parenthood andpractising responsible procreation
People listened to these programmes in informal RadioSchools - in effect small groupswho came together each eveningThe groups were assisted by moni-tors people with more knowledge
and experience than the group Atany one time there was usually anenrolment of some 200000 peasants in about 20000 RadioSchools
To complement the radio programmes ACPO produced arange of textbooks and a PeasantrsquosLibrary of 100 books on topics forrural communities And a weeklymagazine with an estimated readership of 600000 people waspublished Furthermore trainingof peasant leaders and technicaltraining courses in communitieswere a part of the activities
The Roman Catholic Church supported the operation from thebeginning mainly with funds fromCatholic groups in Europe butACPO also attracted world-wideattention and many internationalagencies also became involved infinancing it
Ultimately Radio Sutatenza wasthe victim of its own successW h e n i t i n t r o d u c e d i t s programmes on lsquoresponsible procreationrsquo the Church begansystematically to undermine itSalcedo declared that the problemwas to convince the masses that itwas not sinful to discuss these matters and that it was difficult toeducate people for human dignityand for responsible maternity in acountry dominated by religiousrules ACPO held no position on
chemical or physical methods ofbirth control Its task was only tocreate the basis on which indivi-duals could take their own respon-sible decisions
This position infuriated the Churchhierarchy in Colombia which heldthat the only purpose of humansexual intercourse was procreationof the species So it convinced theEuropean Catholic groups to with-draw their support HoweverACPO continued to function withother international funding passedthrough the government
The operation struggled on usingmainly borrowed funds until 1985when its powerful and valuableradio infrastructure was sold to acommercial network In 1987 after40 years successfully dedicated tohelping peasants develop theirminds knowledge and life skills itfinally folded completely Itsassets which included a publi-shing house a plant for pressingmusical records a 14-storey officeblock in the capital as well as peasant training centres were soldto meet its debts
13
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mun
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1 Independent Radio and Television Commission of Ireland1988
2 Quote Louie Tabing Manager of the UNESCODANIDATambuli Project Philippines
3 Zane Ibrahim and Ms Adams Bush Radio 895 FM (See CaseStudy)
4 P M Lewis and J Booth The Invisible Medium PublicCommercial and Community Radio MacMillan (London 1989)
5 Jocelyn Josiah Presentation on Media for Community Buildingin the Caribbean during Roundtable on Communication forDevelopment Brazil (Bahia 1998)
6 Carlos A Arnaldo Localism and the Displacement of Politics Placebased Communication Development (Globalism and the Politicsof Place) Vol 41 No 2 1998 Sage Publications and SID (Rome June 1998)
7 Louie N Tabing Programming Tips for a Community Radio StationUNESCO-DANIDA Tambuli Project (Manila 1998)
8 Rafael Roncaglio lo Public Service Broadcasting ndash Cultural andEducational Dimensions UNESCO (Paris 1995)
9 T McCain and F Lowe Localism in Western EuropeanBroadcasting Journal of Communication Vol 40-1 (1990)
10 Moncef M Bouhafa Child Survival and Broadcasting ndashOpportunities and Challenges paper presented at internationalconference on Broadcasting for Child Survival Voice ofAmericaUSAID (Washington April 1998)
11 Colin Fraser and Sonia Restrepo-Estrada Communicating forDevelopment - Human Change for Survival IB Tauris (LondonNew York 1998)
12 Peter Lewis in Alternative Media Linking Global and LocalReports and Papers on Mass Communication No 107 UNESCO (Paris 1993)
13 Mary Myers The Promotion of Democracy at the Grass-roots The Example of Radio in Mali Frank Cass Journal Vol 5 No 2 (London 1998)
14 Jake Mills of Ghana the designer of the cheap 6-channelaudio mixer (1990)
15 Martin Allard designer of a simple and cheap FM transmitter
16 Interview Sunil Wijesinghe broadcaster of MahaweliCommunity Radio (1999)
17 Colin Fraser and Sonia Restrepo-Estrada op cit
18 Moncef M Bouhafa Grassroots Media and CommunityEmpowerment in West Africa paper presented to theInternational Conference on Media and Politics CatholicUniversity of Brussels Belgium 1997 (revised 1998)
19 Mary Myers op cit
20 Ibid
14
In Barbados after running the experimental UNESCO community radio for the 1995 World Environmental Conference students took over the radio station and continued programmes ever since from the Barbados Community College as Radio GED
Phot
o U
NES
CO
Kin
gsto
n
Chapter 2Features and Functions of Community Radio
15
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T his chapter describes the special featuresand programming approach of communityradio in terms of public access and partici-
pation ownership management funding editorial independence and credibility as wellas its representation of different groups andinterests in the community and its inclusion ofmarginalized and minority groups
The section on functions covers the role of community radio in reflecting local identity andculture in providing a diversity of voices opinionsprogrammes and content on air and in promotingdemocratic process social change developmentcivil society and good governance Its functionas a lsquopeoplersquos telephonersquo and its contribution tothe training of human resources for the broad-casting industry are also touched on
After absorbing the content the reader will
bull Have a clear picture of the many features andfunctions of community radio
bull Be able to act as a resource personleaderduring discussions in a community about the possibility of setting up a radio stationproviding the necessary background informa-tion for decisions on ownership manage-ment programming policies and the benefitsthat can be expected from a communityradio
ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF COMMUNITY RADIO
The Audience asProtagonists
While community radio is a form of public-servicebroadcasting it has anapproach that is differentfrom conventional broad-casting Its specific focus isto make its audience themain protagonists by theirinvolvement in all aspects of its management and programme productionand by providing them withprogramming that will helpthem in the developmentand social advancement oftheir community
A Special Slant on News Entertainment and Education
News on a community station unlike that on the mains-tream media is not an isolated story or event alone ratherit aims to be part of an ongoing and future process whichsupports change and development in the community
Special Sunday treat for Radio Ibahay - actress Chin ChinGutierrez visits the station during the childrenrsquos programme
and sings a song in Aklanon
Phot
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A A
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16
Entertainment is provided in aform that is a collective culturalexpression rather than a featuringof refined performers It is morelike singing Karaoke than listeningto a professional artist
Education is more the sharing ofexperiences and learning from othersin the community than listening toan expert or teacher talking
Principles of Public Access andParticipation
Citizens have a democratic right toreliable accurate and timely infor-mation Based on this right it is apublic interest of broadcasting thatit should incorporate the principlesof access and participation
Access implies the availability ofbroadcasting services to all citizensparticipation implies that the publicis actively involved in planning andmanagement and also providesproducers and performers
In concrete terms for communityradio these concepts mean that
bull A community radiorsquos broadcastpattern reaches all members ofthe community it aims to serve
bull The community participates informulating plans and policies forthe radio service and in definingits objectives its principles ofmanagement and its program-ming
bull The community participates indecisions concerning programmecontent duration and schedulesPeople se lect the types ofprogrammes they want ratherthan having them prescribed bythe producers
bull The community is free to commentand criticize
bull There is continuous interactionbetween producers and receiversof messages The radio itself actsas a principal channel for thisinteraction but there are alsomechanisms that allow easycontact between the communitythe programme producers and themanagement of the radio station
bull There are unrestricted opportu-nities for members of the com-munity as individuals or groupsto produce programmes and behelped by the radio station staffusing the technical productionfacilities available
bull The community participates inthe establishment managementadministration and financing ofthe radio station
Ownership
The facilities of community radioare almost invariably owned by thecommunity through a trust founda-tion cooperative or some similarvehicle However there could becases where formal ownership wasin the hands of a body external tothe community but which has passedthe facility to the community for itsindependent and exclusive use
Management
Irrespective of formal ownershipthe stationrsquos policies managementand programming must be the responsibility of the community inorder for it to be considered a truecommunity radio There will usual-ly be a representative communitycommittee or Board of Directors toset overall policies while day-to-day
Radio quickly and easily becomes he link in society between poor and rich between rural and urban groups between agricultural routine and city leisure At Radyo Ibahay one of the smallest Tambuli stations film and TV actress Chin Chin Gutierrez share her ideas on development in an interview for the Sunday programme
Phot
o C
A A
rnal
do
administrative andoperational decisionsare left to a stationmanager selected by thecommunity
Funding
A community radio service is set up and run asa non-profit organization Itrelies on financial supportfrom a diversity of sourceswhich may include donationsgrants membersh ip fees sponsorsh ip or advert i s ing A combination of these is themost desirable in order to ensureindependence Many communityradios also organize fund-raisingevents among their audience Theoverall aim is always to reach astate of financial self-sufficiency
Editorial Independence andCredibility
Community radio is editoriallyindependent of central and localgovernment of political partiesand of commercial and religiousinstitutions in determining its policies and programming Overallpolicy is set by the aforementionedrepresentative community-levelcommittee but with day-to-day
operational decisionsabout programming taken by thestation manager hisher role as acredible and non-partisan personbecoming crucial
Representation of DifferentGroups and Interests in theCommunity
Communities are inevitably madeup of different groups and inter-ests Community radio broadcastsprogrammes that cater to theseand also encourages them toexpress themselves on air Clearlyhowever programme and timeallocation are approximately pro-portional to the size of any parti-cular group or interest in the com-munity taking into account anyspecial circumstances or needs
Inclusion ofMinority and MarginalizedGroups
Community radio includes minorityand marginalized groups on equalterms rather than giving them an
17
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mun
ity
Rad
io H
andb
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Even the smallest children haveaccess to the radio on the
Radio Ibahay Sunday childrenrsquosprogramme
Carol Singing for a Tape Recorder
Community radio stations often organize communityevents such as community fairs cultural eveningsand other fund-raising activities One Tambuli community radio station in the Philippines organizeddoor-to-door carol singing at Christmas to raisefunds to buy a new tape recorder
18
occasional voice as in the case of many public broadcasters Its programming ensures a wide diversity of voices and views frommarginalized groups such aswomen and youth and it promotesand protects the interests cultureand linguistic diversity of ethnicminorities in the community
FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNITY RADIO
Community radio aims to fulfil thefollowing functions
Reflect and Promote LocalIdentity Character and Culture
Co m m u n i t y ra d i o p ro v i d e s programming that is particular toits communityrsquos identity and character Thus it relies principallyon local content It includes outsidenews and events that have a specialinterest or implications for itsaudience
It also focuses on local cultureCulture is what a community saysto itself and what it says to othersIt is how the people the individualmembers of a community expresstheir dreams and hopes and howthey talk about their past and theirfuture It is what they care aboutLike life itself culture is infinitelyvariable and constantly evolving Itis the result of a process not of
definitions And that is why indemocracies governments areexpected only to establish broadframeworks for cultural expressionby the people Governments mustnot get involved in content or style 1
Community culture is also of courseartistic expression through localmusic dance poetry theatre storytelling and so on and these arefeatured strongly by most commu-nity radios Local performers areencouraged to go on air uninhibitedby considerations of the lsquoprofessionalstandardsrsquo they may have acquiredfrom mainstream media The valueof content and lsquolocalnessrsquo usuallyoutweighs formal quality and lsquoprofessionalismrsquo though thisshould not be used as an excuse forsub-standard technical production
Culture is also Language Locallanguages and expressions are theraw material that feeds communityradios They are the cement of cultural diversity which is as important for the successful futureof humanity as biological diversityThere are some 6700 languages inthe world and 63 percent of theseare in Africa and Asia Nationalbroadcasting and media globaliza-tion combined with other factorssuch as urban migration threatenhalf of the worldrsquos languages with extinction during the nextgeneration And with them will go
their cultures Community radio is aprime defence against this gravetrend towards the impoverishmentof cultural diversity 2
Create a Diversity of Voices andOpinions on the Air
Community radio through itsopenness to participation to all sectors and people in a communitycreates a diversity of voices andopinions on the air
Some discord is present in all communities they are not the peaceful harmonious groupingsthat outsiders may idealisticallyimagine Discord may be caused bydiffering interests by differing ethnic linguistic or religious backgrounds or even by someancient feud The acknowledgementof conflict is necessary for democracyand for democratic communitiesThrough an understanding of whyconflict exists communities canunderstand themselves better andpave the way to resolve conflicts A function of community radio is totry objectively to air all sides of a dis-cussion without itself taking sides
Main Functions of Community Radio as Formulatedin South Africa
Community radio stations should
bull Promote and reflect local culture character andidentity
bull Assist in creating a diversity of voices and opinionsand encourage individual expression
bull Increase access to a diversity of voices on air
bull Assist in creating a diversity in broadcastingownership
bull Be responsive to the needs of their community
bull Contribute to human resources development forbroadcasting and where appropriate to job creation
bull Encourage members of the relevant community toparticipate in programming and production matters
bull Encourage innovation and experimentation in programming 3
Preserving Linguistic Diversity in IndustrializedCountries too
Community radio stations in New York broadcast inWolof on Sundays for people of the Senegalese community Two other stations broadcast in Koreanwhile in France the Arab population has demandedthe right to set up media channels that meet its specific needs 4
Provide a Diversity ofProgrammes and Content
Community radio provides a diversity of programmes in a varie-ty of formats and styles Forexample roundtable discussionsreportage interviews talks call-inprogrammes live broadcasts ofmeetings in the community etcAudience preferences are takeninto account in deciding what formats are most suitable
Content also covers a wide rangeof topics again in accordance withthe expressed desires and needs ofthe audience Content is mainlydetermined by the lifestyles andlivelihood of the community andby the problems it faces In ruralareas themes such as health farming fishing environmentcredit marketing of producesmall-scale enterprises etc usuallyfeature prominently but always setin the context of the communityrsquosactual situation
News broadcasts may also focuson different types of contentThey may cover only local eventsand issues or they may includenational items that have local relevance or they may evenbroadcast national and internatio-nal news per se in the case of aremote community with no accessto other media channels
Encourage Open Dialogue andDemocratic Process
The ancient Greeks who inventeddemocracy conducted their politi-cal debate in public All those whowished could be present at themeetings to listen and voice theirviews Sheer numbers of peoplemake this impossible today andfor this reason democratic processhas become distant from ordinarycitizens Typically once politiciansare elected their contact withtheir electorates is limited andthey go about their tasks withoutmuch further consultation ordebate with them
It is a function of community radioto provide an independent platformfor interactive discussion aboutmatters and decisions of importanceto its community This is in keepingwith the decentralization processesnow being implemented in manycountries a purpose of which is tobring democratic decision-makingcloser to the people concerned
However for social and economicprogress to take place democraticprocesses cannot start and finish inthe community They must reachinto the government and privateinstitutions operating in the community as well as to policymakers and authorities at thelocal regional and even nationallevel
The public debates aired by thecommunity radio will certainlybe heard by locally-basedstaff of government andprivate institutions and theradiorsquos content should berelayed by them to theirsuperiors This lays the foun-dation for development initia-tives that are responsive to thecommunityrsquos felt needs andpossibilities In additionrecordings by the communityradio service can be used inmeetings or even broadcast byother stations to make betterknown what is happening at thegrassroots level
In sum the core of democraticprocess is the ability of people tohear and make themselves heardCommunity radio provides theforum for that to happen
Promote Development andSocial Change
People in poor communities tendto be fatalistic about their situationThey will all have individual perceptions but developmentcannot take place on the basis ofthese What is needed is a collectiveperception of the local reality andof the options for improving itThis can only be achieved throughinternal discussions within the
Connections
ldquoLocal radio stations have the responsibility toconnect people with people people with peoplersquosorganizations and people with officials and govern-ment functionariesrdquo 5
19
Com
mun
ity
Rad
io H
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ook
- UN
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2
While group listening is not the norm among radio audience radioachieves a certain level of similarity among people living in rural areasProblem-solving becomes easier when there is ldquocommonnessrdquo in knowledge perceptions aspirations goals and processes
20
community about its situation thecauses and possible actions forimprovement
Community radio provides the perfect platform for these internaldiscussions and for reaching a collective perception of the situationSpecific problems can be analyzedremedies discussed and thosemost affected - or who can helpwith the solution - mobilized tocollective action
Anti-social behaviour by minoritiesin a community can also be modifiedby exerting pressure from themajority through community radioprogrammes
Promote Civil Society
Civil society is that multiplicity ofsocial institutions that allows asociety to live in harmoniouscoexistence It creates its own stan-dards and values for individual andgroup behaviour rather thanhaving them imposed from above
Especially in countries that haverecently adopted democratic systems after decades of single-party or authoritarian rule theyounger generations have littleidea about what democracy entailsor about the civil society thatmakes democracies function
Some community radios focus onexplaining the implications ofdemocracy and civil society raisingawareness about peoplersquos rightsbut also about their obligationsThey work to explain how a civicsense is needed if new-found freedoms are to result in harmonyand social progress
Promote Good Governance
In poor communit ies loca l authorities and politicians can easily take advantage of citizenseither individually or as a group inpart because the marginalized andoppressed have no way to complain Community radio helpspeople to obtain their just rights bygiving them a platform to air theirgrievances And through playing acommunity watchdog role it makeslocal authorities and politiciansmore conscious of their public responsibilities
Broadcasting of discussions orquestions and answers betweenmembers of the community andlocal authorities about some issuethat i s exerc i s ing them i s a technique that is often usedAnother technique is to broadcastlive the discussions of local government meetings
This function of community radiois not always easy to fulfil In veryremote communities and wherepower has been held by a few familiesfor generations the people may bereluctant to speak their mindbecause they all have a debt of onesort or another to those familiesAnd equally the powerful familiesmay be unwilling to take criticism
Encourage Participation Sharingof Information and Innovation
Participation is a key word in development circles but it is notalways appreciated that participationand communication are two sidesof the same coin for when peoplecommunicate about their situationand about options for improving itthey are in effect participating Andthey are also laying the foundationfor collective action in which theywill participate Community radioencourages participation by providing a platform for debateanalysis and the exchange of ideasand opinions
In addition community radioallows for the sharing of informationand innovation For example onefamily or group in a communitymay have solved some problemthat is common to many otherpeople such as obtaining farm
Some of the Social and Development Benefits ofTambuli Community Radio Stations in thePhilippines
bull There is a new vibrancy and will to change in thecommunities
bull Men gave up their passionate pastime of gamblingafter a series of discussions over the radio clearlyshowed its negative economic impact on their fami-lies and on the community
bull Butchers were prohibited from bringing live ani-mals to the market and slaughtering them there
bull A large poultry farm was cleaned up to reduce itssmell and pollution
bull Creeks were dredged to reduce risks of flooding
bull A footbridge and extra lighting were installed
bull A day care centre for children was created by thelocal authorities
bull Illegal logging and fishing were stopped as a resultof community pressure 6
A Statement by the Programme Director of the Independent Radio Bamakan in Mali
ldquoThere are a lot of aspects of democracy that peopledonrsquot know about and we are obliged to raise awa-reness to explain that democracy is not anarchythat democracy involves rights and obligations Wehave the right to demand but we also have obliga-tions to the Staterdquo 7
credit from a new bank in the
nearest city A broadcast account
by them explaining how they went
about it and the procedures required
would be the stimulus for other
families to do the same Another
example might be providing infor-
mation about a farmer in the area
who had multiplied seed of an
improved vegetable variety and
was willing to sell it
Give Voices to the Voiceless
In many traditional societies
women and youth and ethnic and
linguistic minorities are virtually
ignored in community affairs But
no community can change and
develop equitably and satisfactori-
ly without the active and informed
participation of its women youth
and minority groups (See Box 3 at
the end of this Chapter)
Therefore community radio gives
voice to the voiceless in the
community This of course is in
addition to giving the community
in general a voice after years of
having been inert recipients of
state or commercial broadcasts
Provide a Social Service asa Replacement for theTelephone
In poor rural areas where
telephones hardly exist
community radio replaces
them to an important extent
by broadcasting messages
For example a family living
in a remote part of the
community can be informed
that a relative living in the
main agglomeration has
been taken ill and would they
please come to visit Or a
farmer with an animal he
wants to sell can have the
fact announced over the radio
replacing the series of calls he
would make if telephones were
available Again a person looking
for temporary labour to help with
some farm task could alert those
people who were interested to
offer their services through a
broadcast announcement
The efficiency of government ser-
vices say in health is improved by
broadcasting the schedule for field
visits ahead of time so that people
will be waiting for these on arrival
Contribute to Diversity inBroadcasting Ownership
Community commercial andnational or state broadcasting allhave roles in society though com-munity broadcasting is the onethat has generally lagged behindthe others Community radio helpsto redress this and provides thebalance of broadcast informationsources needed by democraticsocieties for their advancement
In Benin children participate directly in literacy courses on the air
21
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mun
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In October 1992 Bhutan Broadcasting Corporation was transformed from a statebroadcaster to a public corporation with a much decreased subsidy Above at thenew Punaka market a broadcast trainee talks with the people about prices travelalong country roads quality of the harvest and news of the village This project was financed by DANIDA
Phot
o U
NES
CO
Phot
o C
A A
rnal
do
Difficulties in Achieving Transparency - a Case Studyfrom the Philippines
The more remote the community the more hesitantpeople are to speak out People rely on their leadersfor the smallest problems and they all owe a debt tothe few political families To criticise them wouldseem ungrateful
The local council told the community radio to acceptcalls from listeners with queries or comments duringlive broadcasts of the weekly council sessions Butwhen the calls began to come in the council toldthem to stop accepting them The council also beganto chose which portions of the sessions could bebroadcast and told the radio team to leave the roomwhen budget discussions were under way 8
22
Contribute to theDevelopment of HumanResources for theBroadcasting Industry
Community radio arguablydemystifies the broadcasterrsquosprofession by taking communitymembers as message producersIt is also a school for fledglingbroadcasters where they ofcourse acquire valuable technicalskills
But there is another factor that makes people trained in community radio particularlyvaluable They are broadcasterswho live among their listenersshare many of the same problemsand get constant feedback ndash positive and negative - on the formats of their programmes andon their interest and usefulnessThis gives them unique insightsinto the broadcaster audiencerelationship and into radio as a toolfor change and development It isnot uncommon therefore forcommunity broadcasters go on tojoin the staff of mainstream broadcasting
lsquoThe Peoplersquos Telephonersquo in Haiti
ldquoWhen the bandits sped off on their motorcycle leaving a cloud of dust a dead body and a distressedvillage in their wake they thought they were on theroad to freedom They hadnrsquot heard about the villagersquos radio station Radyo Flanbo In Haiti community radio stations such as Flanbo are knownas lsquothe peoplersquos telephonersquo and as the bandits prepared to terrorize the next village Flanborsquos newsreader broadcast a warning of their imminentarrival The bandits might as well have drivenstraight to the police stationrdquo 10
Phot
o U
NES
CO
Kin
gsto
n
Radio Muye the first community radio run bywomen in the Caribbeanunder the UNESCO specialproject lsquoWomen Speaking toWomenrsquo
One of the youngest womenrecruits of the community
radio station in CuyoPalawan DYMC Radio
1 Adapted from Pierre Juneau GeneralIntroduction Public ServiceBroadcasting - the Challenge of the21st Century Reports and Papers on Mass Communication No 111 UNESCO (Paris 1997)
2 Sophie K Ly El Recuerdo delConocimiento Perdido InteRadio Vol 9 No 2 AMARC (Montreal 1997)
3 Triple Enquiry Report IndependentBroadcasting Authority Republic ofSouth Africa (1995)
4 Ibid
5 B S S Rao during the Consultationon Media Policy and Community RadioBangalore India (1996)
6 Colin FraserSonia Restrepo-Estrada Communicating forDevelopment - Human Change for Survival IB Tauris (LondonNew York) 1998
7 Mary Myers The Promotion ofDemocracy at the Grass-roots The Example of Radio in Mali FrankCass Journal Vol 5 No 2 (London Summer 1998)
8 Adapted from Cecile Balgos The Sounds of Silence UNESCOSources No 89 UNESCO(Paris 1997)
9 Felix Librero in Communication forPeople Power Ed Maslog NavarroTabing Teodoro UNESCOTambuliProject Institute of DevelopmentCommunication College of MassCommunication UNESCO NationalCommission Philippines (Manila 1997)
10 David Shanks Voices for the VoicelessA feature prepared by WorldAssociation for ChristianCommunication (WACC) (London March 1999)
Information as a Commodity for Decisions
ldquoThe appropriate use of community broadcasting isto satisfy community and social needs In the processof doing so people are able to access the very important commodity called information on whichthey base their day-to-day decisionsrdquo 9
Phot
o L
Tab
ing
23
Com
mun
ity
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io H
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ook
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2
Filipino women - particularly
those in the countryside
where socialization has been
limited by poverty and inadequate
educational attainment - are often
shy reserved and timid In addition
rural families are often resistant to
changing the traditional position of
women as housekeepers and
women would generally prefer that
their husbands participate in
community projects
It is very evident that the issue of
collectively pursuing womens rights
and empowerment has been relegated
to the lowest priority among rural
people So it often takes cajoling and
reassurances before women will
come out of their shells
However increased readiness to
participate in community projects
can be seen among those who have
been exposed to mass media culture
and our initial talks in communities
regarding special radio programmes
for about and by women were met
with much eagerness I attribute this
to the fact that some family and
social institutions that had been
trying to promote womenrsquos activities
in the community felt threatened and
welcomed the support that radio
could provide
Once involved women are highly
dependable They adhere to rules
Compared to men they are more
meticulous They are less subject
to anomalous behaviour and
malfeasance They are consistently
enthusiastic And where the women
are mixed with men the men also
become more enthusiastic if not to
say better performers
Meriam Aranas the president of
the Olutanga Islanders Media
Development Foundation was a
strong-willed leader of an active
womens group promoting livelihood
and conservation projects She
registered the association and led the
drive to erect a building for the radio
station
A schoolteacher Rosario Gozos was
appointed as station manager in
Partido Camarines Sur She is
single-handedly running a family
because her husband works abroad
She spearheaded the
successful drive against illegal
gambling in the district Among
other things she has initiated an
all-women Saturday programme
Her infectious dedication
has inspired all the other
volunteers in her radio
station In less than three
years the station became
an institutional power in
the community It has
contributed greatly to
the progress and well
being of Partido
Lyn Villasis a soft-
spoken beautician has
been running a story-
telling program for
children for years and has become
one of the most popular personalities
in the station in Banga Aklan
Malou Angolluan is a youthful
college graduate who has taken
voluntary activity as a vocation Her
exemplary work and dedication to
service have earned her profuse
admiration from her listeners She
has turned down several offers to
work in bigger commercial radio
stations
BOX 3 Involvement of Women
In Ibahay Aklan province PhilippinesAte Meds rushes from Sunday mass tothe Studio for her weekly childrenrsquosprogramme
Phot
o C
A A
rnal
do
24
In Pastapur Hyderabad India women discuss local problems for airing on a regional radio station of All India Radio They are also advocating for new legislationto enable them to broadcast on their own antenna
Phot
o J
im B
entl
ey
25
Chapter 3Legal Aspects
T his chapter gives an overview of the legis-lation governing community radio in avariety of countries world-wide Special
attention is given to South Africa wherebroadcasting legislation is in many ways exem-plary and could be used as a model by othercountries The main common factors and themain differences that exist in national commu-nity radio legislation are described as are typi-cal requirements for obtaining a licence
The reader will gain
bull An awareness of the wide variations in legisla-tion and of the obstacles that communityradio may face in some parts of the world
bull An understanding of the need to examine clo-sely the existing legislation before embarkingon a community radio project
bull Knowledge of the likely information andconditions that the authorities will requirebefore issuing a community radio licence
UNEVEN AND HAPHAZARD LEGISLATION
The airwaves or the frequencies for broadcastingare a public asset It is therefore incumbent uponnational administrations in line with the decisionsof the administrative planning conferences organizedby the International Telecommunications Union(ITU) to regulate and allocate their use with thepublic interest in mind as well as with fairness andtransparency And general national media policiesshould meet the same criteria
Unfortunately this does not always happen andthe legislation governing community radio is veryuneven In several regions of the world communityradio suffers because current legislation is eithernon-existent inconsistent or basically hostile Thishandbook is not the place for an exhaustive description of the legislation country-by-countrybut a brief overview of the situation in a few countries world-wide will give a feel for the situation
MOST PROGRESS IN AFRICA
Many countries in Africa have made good progress inlegislating for community radio This is particularlyinteresting because at first sight it would appearto be a paradox on the one hand communityradio certainly has a natural role to play in cateringto the information needs and interests of the wide
ethnic cultural and linguistic diversity present inmost African countries but on the other handgovernments fear that freedom of ethnic and linguistic expression might undermine nationalunity It will be remembered that this was partlywhat brought the Homa Bay community radioexperience in Kenya to a premature end in 1984
However it seems that the lesson has now beenlearned about authoritarian suppression of diverselinguistic and cultural expression within a countryThis ultimately produces strong resentment andtensions in society Indeed even in industrializedcountries the last two decades have seen a changeof heart by governments that now try to preservethe traditional linguistic and cultural identity of theirminority groups They have realized that a pluralisticsociety can also achieve national identity and unity
This is the case in many parts of Africa too Sincethe early 1990s countries such as Mali BurkinaFaso Namibia and South Africa have all embarkedon a course of freeing their airwaves and promo-ting community radio as part of the nationalbroadcasting spectrum backing the policy withappropriate legislation in most cases
South Africarsquos progress towards new broadcastingpolicies and community radio legislation is consideredexemplary Some countries have already copied itand many others could also find it a useful modelIt is therefore outlined in the next section
Com
mun
ity
Rad
io H
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26
Broadcasting Legislation inSouth Africa ndash an ExemplaryCase
The government of post-apartheidSouth Africa realized that the countryrsquos media could help toresolve many socio-economicdevelopment needs and at thesame time help to build a democraticand pluralistic society But newbroadcasting policies and opera-tions would be needed
An Independent BroadcastingAuthority
The first step taken in 1993 wasthe creation of an IndependentBroadcasting Authority (IBA) ajuridical body to formulate broad-casting policy plan the use of thefrequency spectrum issue licencesadjudicate in the case of com-plaints and in general regulate thebroadcasting industry It functionsindependently of the State and ofgovernmental and political partyinfluences It is a non-profit entitythat is financed partly by the Stateand partly from fees that itreceives
The IBA is run by a Council madeup of seven people appointed bythe State President They arepeople with expertise in fields thatinclude broadcasting policy media
law marketing journalism enter-tainment and education They arealso selected on the basis of theircommitment to fairness freedomof expression the right of thepublic to be informed opennessand accountability
Overall Objectives of theBroadcasting Legislation
Among the main objectives ofSouth Africarsquos broadcasting legisla-tion are the following
bull Promote the provision of a diverserange of broadcasting services ona national regional and local levelwhich cater for all language andcultural groups and provideentertainment education andinformation
bull Promote the development ofpublic private and communitybroadcasting services which areresponsive to the needs of thepublic
bull Develop and protect a nationaland regional identity culture andcharacter
bull Encourage ownership andcontrol of broadcasting servicesby persons from historicallydisadvantaged groups
bull Ensure that private and commu-nity broadcasting licences are
Western Media Models a Disservice toDevelopment
ldquoBroadcasting media have developed into aone-way model in Third World countrieswith information news and massive dosesof entertainment flowing from large urbancentres The uniform prescription designed by theaffluent minority at decision-making level does notaddress the issues of development which require alocal perspective for each county and each community The concepts and use of the media as developed in industrialized societies have not proved conducive to the development needsof our countryrdquo 1
controlled by persons or groupsfrom a diverse range of commu-nities in the Republic
bull Ensure equitable treatment ofpolitical parties by all broadcas-ting licencees during any electionperiod
bull Ensure that broadcasting licenceesadhere to a code of conductacceptable to the IBA
Categories of Radio Broadcasting
The legislation foresees three categories of radio service
bull A public service ndash A serviceprovided by the South AfricanBroadcasting Corporation or byany other statutory body or person that receives revenuefrom licence fees paid by listenersfor their receivers
bull A private service - Operatedfor profit and controlled by aperson who is not a publicbroadcasting licencee
bull A community service - A broadcasting service which
Is fully controlled by a non-profit entity and carried onfor non- profitable purposes
Serves a particular commu-nity
Encourages members of thecommunity served by it orpersons associated with orpromoting the interest ofsuch community to partici-pate in the selection andprovision of programmes tobe broadcast
May be funded by dona-tions grants sponsorshipadvertising or membershipfees or by any combinationof these
The term lsquocommunityrsquo includes ageographically founded communityor any group of persons or sectorof the public having a specific andascertainable common interest
South African LicencingArrangements
In keeping with the general andcommunity radio policies outlinedabove the legislation providesdetailed requirements that mustbe met by applicants for commu-nity radio licences It also laysdown the procedures to be follo-wed These are complex anddemanding in terms of the detai-led information that is called forCommunity radio licences areawarded for four-year periodsalthough shorter temporarylicences can also be issued
Licences are not granted to anyparty movement organizationbody or alliance which is of a politi-cal nature
Readers may wish to browse theIBArsquos website (httpibaorgza)for more details on South Africancommunity radio policy legislationand licencing
ASIA AND INDIArsquoSLENGTHY DEBATE ON
COMMUNITY RADIO
The situation in Asia is far lessfavourable than in Africa andIndia provides a good illustration ofthe problems Nepal and Sri Lankashow ways of solving problems
All India Radio (AIR) was establishedas a state broadcasting monopolyin 1935 in line with the Britishmodel the BBC The debate aboutbreaking that monopoly beganmore than 30 years ago with theChanda Committee reportSubsequent committees have spe-cifically recommended decentrali-zing broadcasting to institutionalizethe process of participation and tomeet peoplersquos fundamental rightto information The SupremeCourt passed a landmark judge-ment in 1995 declaring that theairwaves were a lsquopublic goodrsquo andstressing the importance of main- 27
Com
mun
ity
Rad
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andb
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- UN
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3
28
taining a balance in broadcastingbetween market (commercial)forces government monopoly andmeeting the peoplersquos needs andrights to receive and impart infor-mation This judgement openedthe door to the granting of licencesto local stations for public partici-pation and territorialsectoralbroadcasts but the legislationnecessary to allow this to happenhas still not been passed It seemshowever that it is under prepara-tion at the time of writing
The main results so far of thedecades of debate on the subjecthas been some decentralization byAIR to lsquolocalrsquo stations and a recentand rapid expansion of commercialstations using FM frequenciesbelonging to AIR that have beenleased to private operators Someof the AIR lsquolocalrsquo stations try to getcloser to the community and usecommunity radio styles But for themost part these lsquolocalrsquo stationsmerely relay urban-oriented pro-grammes from the national or fromregional capitals rather than pro-ducing locally relevant materials
Commercial broadcasting is onlyallowed to provide entertainmentNews and current affairs and evensex education are banned Thusthe private FM stations which havebeen expanding in response to mar-
ket forces have created a profile aslsquoelectronic discosrsquo for urban youth 1
A consultation session attended bymore than 60 broadcasters legalspecialists university staff anddevelopment communicators metin Bangalore India in September1996 and signed the BangaloreDeclaration urging the governmentto take steps to legitimatize andpromote community radio Sopressure has been building andthere appears to be light at the endof the tunnel
In Nepal the Government-ownedradio service was the only onebroadcasting until May 1997 whenRadio Sagarmatha came on air (SeeCase Study 2) Present govern-ment policy on broadcasting whichgoes back to legislation passed in1993 favours a mix of governmentcommercial and communitybroadcasting but even so it tookfrom 1994 to 1997 before the firstcommunity radio licence was awar-ded to Radio Sagarmatha Its successhas been such that community radiois now set to expand in the country
In Sri Lanka another country witha government-owned broadcastingservice it was this service itself thatbegan community broadcasting in1983 with Mahaweli Radio asdescribed in Chapter 1 It laterexpanded community radio to
cover other parts of Sri Lankamainly in support of rural develop-ment However in mid-1997 aSupreme Court ruling put an end tothe government monopoly of theairwaves and a parliamentary committee was established to pre-pare a new broadcasting bill Thiswill certainly recognize and promotecommunity radio for it is a branchof broadcasting that has becomewell entrenched in Sri Lanka basedon the long experience ofMahaweli Community Radio
In Asian countries that have essen-tially followed the North Americanpattern of commercial broadcas-ting such as the Philippines com-munity radio stations often func-tion without licences
LEGISLATION IN SOMELATIN AMERICAN COUNTRIES
Despite Latin Americarsquos pioneeringrole in community radio todayrsquoslegislation leaves much to be desiredThere are about 6000 registeredradio stations on the ContinentAbout 85 per cent of these are privatecommercial about 7 percentare governmental and the remain-der are in the hands of the ChurchSome of the latter consider them-
Nepalrsquos National Broadcasting Act (1993) Prioritiesfor Programming Should Include These Themes
bull Development oriented programmes agricultureeducation industry commerce science and technology health family planning forest andenvironmental protection
bull Harmony among all classes languages castes religions and religious groups equality and goodwill among all
bull Growth of different languages and cultures inNepal
bull Growth of national interests and unity
bull Growth of moral and national awakening
bull Awakening of social awareness
bull Non-detrimental influence on Nepalrsquos relation withneighbouring and friendly countries
bull Foreign policy pursued by the nation
bull Growth of folksongs folklore and culture
bull Important activities on national and internationallevels
Success Breeds Success in Nepal
In less than a year of operations the value of RadioSagarmatha in improving information flow and creating a forum for democratic dialogue among stakeholders in development issues was so evidentthat the government which had initially restrictedhours of broadcast to only two per day increased itto 13 and then to 24 hours daily The initial andtotal ban on advertising was also lifted the licencewas expanded to include mobile broadcasting and itsfrequency was reserved for its exclusive use throughout the whole country
selves to be community radios In addition there are very largenumbers of unregistered stationsthat have been in existence foryears many of them communityradios which are in formal senseillegal
It was only in the mid-1990s thatsome Latin American countriesbegan to pass legislation on com-munity radio and that legislationis often unfavourable
For example Brazilrsquos very recentlegislation limits the power ofcommunity stations to five wattsseldom enough to cover a typicalpoor peri-urban settlement of 10-20000 people It also makescommunity radio impossible inscattered rural communities ofwhich there are many in Brazilrsquosvast interior Nor is any advertisingpermitted which makes sustaininga community radio even more difficult than it is usually
In Ecuador community radio wasnot legally acknowledged until1996 Most community radios arelicenced as commercial or culturalstations The law in 1996 finallyrecognized community radio as adistinct part of the broadcastingscene but the legislation imposedrestrictions on the power of transmitters that could be used -500 watts at the antenna - andprior approval from the army was
required Any commercial activitywas prohibited as in Brazil
T h e n a t i o n a l o rg a n i z a t i o nrepresenting community radio inEcuador brought a constitutionalchallenge to the law and managedto remove the clause requiring theprior approval of the army but thelimits on transmitter power andcommercial activities remain inforce As late as early 1999 therewere still no community radiostations operating under the newlegislation they all had commercialor cultural licences
After its leadership role in communi-ty radio there is now a paradoxicalsituation in Bolivia In 1995 a lawwas passed under which licenceswould be granted in future only toradio and television stations of acommercial nature that werepublic or private limited compa-nies in accordance with the coun-tryrsquos commercial code Among themore than 500 radio stations inBolivia there are a number ofwell-established educational radioservices that will be allowed tocontinue operating for 20 yearsunder the new law but scores ofcommunity and peasant radiosbecame illegal in 1996 If closeddown their frequencies are sold tothe highest bidder
The contradictory aspect of all ofthis is that it occurred shortly afterthe passing of another law that on
Popular ParticipationThis in effect is part of adecentralization processwhich delegates deci-sions to the local leveland provides funds to implement themCommunity radio couldevidently have enor-mous potential for assis-ting the decentralizationprocess by arousinginterest and participa-tion in local policy anddevelopment decisionsHowever this will not bepossible under the newlegislation which discri-minates against commu-nity radio
In Argentina a situa-tion somewhat similar tothat in Bolivia exists De facto there have beennumerous community popularcultural and university radios stations in existence for manyyears But in 1998 a governmentdecree on broadcasting frequen-cies was issued and a NationalFrequency Plan approved Anarticle in the decree stipulated theimmediate closure of radio stations that were not officiallyrecognized Furthermore theNational Frequency Plan did nottake into account the frequenciesalready being used by many small
Radio Sagarmatha in Kathmandu Nepal led a five year legal battle to obtain itsauthorisation to broadcast It began in 1990 with a communication policy lsquowhitepaperrsquo wich eventually led in 1994 to a new broadcasting act which opened the airwaves to non-governmental organisations or private individualsand organisations for the purposes of education and culture
29
Com
mun
ity
Rad
io H
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ook
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Phot
o J
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ngle
30
radios that had been working foryears throughout the country
Most serious of all however wasthe fact that the overall broadcast-ing legislation the context for frequency applications remainedunchanged and this is legislationthat goes back to the days of thedictatorships that used to rule thecountry The legislation excludesany form of social organizationfrom having a broadcasting frequency and specifies that onlycommercial organizations canapply for them
In 1996 a decree modified thato lder leg i s lat ion for i t was recognized as unconstitutional anddiscriminatory But this correctivedecree of 1996 was cancelledwithin days of its publication Thusby default the old legislation fromthe days of the dictatorships wasleft in force
This situation threatens the wholesector of community and popularradios in the country At the time ofwriting the community and not-for-profit broadcasting sectoris fighting tooth and nail for newlegislation that recognizes its rightto exist and its role in democraticsociety
SOME EXAMPLES FROMWESTERN EUROPE
For the purposes of comparisonthe situation in Europe is worthexamining Western Europeancountries were all models of nationalpublic-service broadcasting untilsome of them began to allow inde-pendent and commercial radio andtelevision channels to operate inthe 1960s However even thengovernments applied regulationsto the operations of those channelsThen in the early 1980s there wasa general deregulation of broadcast-ing in most of Western Europewhich resulted in a free-for-all inmany countries Privately ownedcommercial radio expanded likewildfire but so did communityradio in many countries
The Scandinavian countries parti-cularly Sweden were among thelast in Europe to bow to pressurefrom the commercial media firm intheir belief that their nationalpublic broadcasting systems werebest for their societies - societiesthat are world famous for theirdemocracy and strong civic senseBut even if it proved impossible toresist the commercialization andprivatization of the electronicmedia in Scandinavia the door wasopened at the same time to a vastexpansion of community radio
There are more than 2000 commu-nity radios in Sweden the majoritycatering to special-interest commu-nities
In Denmark the 300 or so com-munity radios provide access to 96percent of the population Many ofthese community radios even ifthey have been allowed to broad-cast commercials and receive sponsorship since the late 1980swork in financially difficult circum-stances Most also receive supportfrom various sources such as membership fees bingo listenerdonations and contributions fromorganizations such as trade unionsreligious groups or the local municipality Community radio isseen as a cultural activity that iscomparable with other culturalactivities It has even been suggestedthat a government fund be createdto subsidize community radio likeother cultural areas
In Ireland the 1988 Radio andTelevision Act included licencingprocedures for community radiobut the Act did not go into anygreat detail on the subject In theearly 1990s the issue of broadcas-ting policy attracted much attentionand in 1995 a Government PolicyPaper on Broadcasting was published
Democracy without Communication
ldquoWithout democratic communication democracy is not possible The broadcasting spectrum must beregulated and normalized [in Argentina] but thiscannot be done using criteria from the days of dictatorshiprdquo 3
As part of the general concernabout achieving suitable broadcast-ing policies for Ireland theIndependent Radio and TelevisionCommission launched an 18-month community radio pilot pro-ject It began operating in 1995and it was designed to explore andevaluate the potential of commu-nity radio in the country Animportant element favouring theproject was the surge in communi-ty and voluntary activity in Irelandthat had resulted from increasingnational and international concernabout issues such as poverty andunemployment
Eleven community stations wereestablished under the project tooperate until the end of 1996 Thisexperience showed that communi-ty radio stations could developinto a viable and distinct strand inIrish broadcasting Certain difficul-ties were encountered during theproject and realizing the potentialof community radio will call for asubstantial level of ongoing com-mitment from support agenciesand from the communities servedHowever there can be little doubtthat community radio will developand assume its appropriate role inthe Irish broadcasting scene in thefuture 4
CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCE IN LEGISLATION
National community radio legisla-tion where it exists usually sharessome common factors but thereare also significant differences between countries
Main Common Factors
bull Community radio must beowned and controlled by a non-profit entity
bull It must be run as a non-profitoperation
bull It must serve the interests of aparticular community whichmay be a geographical commu-nity or a community of peoplewith common interests
bull It should provide programmingthat promotes socio-economicand cultural development forthe different sectors in the community at the same timefostering civic integration andsolidarity
Factors that Vary in CommunityRadio Legislation
Power of the TransmitterSome countries place an upperlimit on the power of the transmitter
that may be used by a communityradio usually in the range of five to500 watts Such limitations couldbe unrealistic in mountainousareas where transmission over difficult terrain can require higherpower
Creation of Networks Somecountries specifically forbid thecreation of networks betweencommunity radios even if theyallow occasional link-ups for special events of interest to thecommunities involved
Advertising andor SponsorshipRegulations about this vary consi-derably Some countries forbid allcommercial advertising on orsponsorship of community radioswhile others allow it but put a limiton the minutes in an hour that canbe devoted to it This usuallyranges from six minutes to up to15 minutes per hour
In some cases there are restrictionson the type of advertising that maybe broadcast When this is casethe usual tendency is to limit thescope to matters directly linked tothe community served by theradio for example local workopportunities events that are totake place and business and services that are carried out in thatarea Even when legislation doesnot specify such restrictions about
the type of advertising some com-munity radios impose it them-selves They may for examplerefuse to advertise items that aredamaging to health such as alcoholand tobacco
Some legislation specifies a ceilingon the proportion of total stationrevenue that can be derived fromadvertising usually setting it at 50percent
Other Sources of FundingMembership fees from listenerscontributions from individualsorganizations or local authoritiesand charges for personal announ-cements are other sources of funding but in keeping with theCharter of the World Associationof Community Radio (AMARC)some legislation specifies that nosingle source should provide morethan 50 percent of a stationrsquosrevenue Funding from politicalparties or from other special interestgroups is forbidden in some legislation
Political Broadcasts These areforbidden at all times in somelegislation while in others they areallowed in designated pre-electionperiods When they are allowedthe principle of lsquoequal time andequal opportunityrsquo for all parties isusually stipulated In some casescommunity radios have to report
31
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to the nationrsquos independent broadcasting authority any politicalspeech that lasts for more thanthree minutes providing the actual duration date and time of broad-cast and the name of the politicalparty concerned
APPLYING FOR A LICENCE
Anyone anywhere who hasserious intentions of starting acommunity radio should ascertainwhat existing legislation is in forcebeginning with licence require-ments Some countries apply quitesevere sanctions to punish illegalbroadcasters heavy fines andorconfiscation of the equipment arethe commonest
The procedures for applying for alicence vary between countries butin any event entities that apply willusually be expected to provideinformation about the followingwith supporting documentation asappropriate
bull The juridical and non-profit sta-tus of the entity making theapplication
bull The probity of the individualsmanaging the entity
bull The community to be served andthe size of the potential audience
bull An explanation of how the com-munity could benefit from aradio service
bull The demand in the communityfor such a service
bull The technical features of the proposed radio station and theheight and location of its antenna
bull The community managementstructures and the personnel thatwill be put in place to run the service
bull The type of programming thatwill be featured the productionarrangements foreseen and howcommunity participation will beensured
Some countries that have recentlyintroduced legislation that coverscommunity radio have drawn uplists of available FM frequencies ineach of the smallest administrativeareas of the country such as muni-cipalities or counties In somecountries especially in LatinAmerica periodic announcementsof the frequencies that are availablefor community radio are made bythe broadcasting authorities andrequests for their use are solicitedIf there is an excess of requests forthe available frequencies the win-ners are adjudicated on the basis ofthe quality of their proposals theexperience of the applicant in
community development work theradio programming planned andthe size of the community
Licencees normally pay a one-offfee for the frequency they are allocated and a much smallerannual fee thereafter For examplein Colombia which introduced itscommunity broadcasting legisla-tion in 1995 the typical one-off feefor the frequency ranges from theequivalent of about US$900 toUS$2000 depending on the size ofthe potential audience The annualfee averages about US$150
1 Report of Consultation on Media Policy and Community Radioorganized by VOICES (Bangalore India 1996)
2 Ibid (Intervention by Hasmukh Baradi)
3 From statement issued by the not-for-profit broadcasting sector in Argentina demanding new legislation (1999)
4 Independent Radio and Television Commission IRTC Policyon Community Radio Broadcasting IRTC (Dublin 1998)
5 Personal communication from Alida Becerra Director of the Social Development Department Ministry ofCommunications (Colombia 1999)
Community Misconceptions about Costs
ldquoQuite a lot of the applicants who have been grantedcommunity radio licences here in Colombia since 1995could not find the funds to pay for the frequencyOthers thought that the Ministry of Communicationwould provide them with the equipment These aresome of the reasons why of the 560 licences we havegranted only about 150 community radios areactually functioning Of course we have had to revoke many of the licences because they were notput to use within the prescribed time periodrdquo 5
Chapter 4Technical Aspects
33
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T his chapter opens with a brief explanation of the scientific principles underlying radio
broadcasting including the differences between AM and FM propagation It then describes
the range of equipment required for FM broadcasting under four categories transmitters
antennas studio programme production equipment and field programme production equipment
It explains the role of each The practical implications of the lsquoline-of-sightrsquo characteristics of FM
broadcasting are discussed
A section covers issues of reliability maintenance and precautions to reduce the risk of damage
The requirements for a community radio studio (size layout soundproofing acoustical balance etc)
and suitable spatial arrangements for the various components of the radio station are described
A section on future possibilities discusses the role of computers in programme production merging
community radio with the Internet and new technologies
A box provides a basic list of equipment required for a community radio service and its cost
In the main the reader will
bull Learn about the basic technicalities of broadcasting and the equipment needed for an FM service
bull Be able to make an initial assessment of the technical suitability of a specific area for setting
up a community radio service
bull Know about the technical requirements for the siting of the components of the broadcasting
system and be able to consider how best to meet them in given circumstances
bull Know the approximate investment required for equipment
Nevertheless the knowledge gained will not necessarily eliminate the need for early advice from a
technical specialist nor hands-on or formal training
TECHNICAL BACKGROUND
Radio broadcasting creates electro-magnetic waves that travel in anapproximately straight line and at thespeed of light about 300000 km persecond
A radio wave that is being propagatedoscillates each side of the straight lineHow far these oscillations go beforereturning to the centre line and movingout to the other side of it is known asthe amplitude of the wave The distancefrom the crest of one wave to the crestof the next is known as the wavelength
How long the cycle of each oscillationtakes is known as the frequency It isexpressed in Hertz named afterHeinrich Hertz a German radio pioneerA cycle time of one second is one Hertz(1Hz) a thousand cycles in a second isa kiloHertz (kHz) and a million cyclesin a second is a megaHertz (mHz)
Radio waves are propagated from thetransmitterrsquos antenna system like theripples in a pond when a stone is drop-ped into it Waves from a broadcastingstation are known as carrier wavesbecause they are carrying information
34
that has been attached to themThe process of attaching informa-tion to the wave is achieved bymodulating or varying one of itscharacteristics either its amplitudeor its frequency Hence the termsAmplitude Modulation (AM) andFrequency Modulation (FM) for thetwo methods of wave transmission
Radio broadcasting uses four frequency bands Their names derive from whether their wavelengths are measured in kilometres hundreds of metrestens of metres or metres
bull The kilometric band ndash long waves(Frequency 150-280 kHz)
bull The hectometric band ndash mediumwaves (Frequency 525-1600 kHz)
bull The decametric band ndash short waves(High Frequency 6-25 MHz)
bull The metric band (Very HighFrequency 875 ndash 108 MHz)
AM Broadcasting
For the first three bands the signalis attached to the wave by amplitudemodification (AM) AM signals travel great distances For examplelong waves can be propagated forup to about 1000 km before fadingout and medium waves travel several hundred kilometres
Short waves even if limited by thecurvature of the earth can travelenormous distances because theybounce off the ionosphere an invisible layer of electrically charged particles at the outer edgeof our atmosphere from wherethey return to earth far from thetransmitter
The main layer of the ionosphereresponsible for long distance communications is the ldquoF layerrdquoAfter dark this layer is a singledense one about 250 km above theearth and it reflects short wavesignals very effectively But duringthe day the ldquoF layerrdquo splits into twothin layers ldquoF1rdquo about 200 kmabove the earth and ldquoF2rdquo about350 km above the earth Thesetwo layers are less effective inreflecting radio signals and that iswhy reception of short wave broad-casts is better after darkWorldwide radio services like RadioFrance Internationale the BritishBroadcasting Corporation or theVoice of America use short wave toobtain the geographic coveragethey require It can also be particu-larly useful in mountainous countries
AM broadcasting is subject tomuch atmospheric interferenceand distortion and it is thereforeunsuitable for stereo services It
also requires a considerable inputof electrical power and otherinvestments For example thewhole mast of the antenna of anAM medium wave station is chargedwith current and therefore it has tobe insulated from the ground
FM Broadcasting
The fourth frequency band themetric band uses FrequencyModulation (FM) to attach thesignal to the carrier wave This system varies the frequency - speedof oscillations of the waves - butkeeps their amplitude or breadthconstant
FM was invented in 1933 in theUSA and the first station to use itwas built in 1939 It has advantagesover AM especially in its freedomfrom distortion and interference Itrequired different broadcastingtransmitters and radio receivers tothe ones in general use in the 1930sand 1940s and so it was slow toexpand Indeed it really only beganto take off in the 1950s and 1960sin industrialized countries and inthe 1970s and 1980s in developingcountries ndash and even as late as the1990s in some of these
FM broadcasting requires muchless electrical power than AM anduses a very simple antenna The
Frequency modulation (FM)
Amplitude modulation (AM)
wavelength
ampl
itud
e
The Inventor of Frequency Modulation
Edwin Armstrong an American scientistresponsible for much of the earliest technical development of radio broadcasting in the first two decades of the20th century made the FM breakthroughin 1933 Born in 1890 he was enthused as a boy by the exploits of Guglielmo Marconi who in 1901had managed to send the first radio signal across the Atlantic At the age of 14 Armstrong decided to become an inventor
In 1939 he financed the first ever FM station fromhis own pocket at a cost of $300000 to prove itsworth Sadly Armstrong was forced to spend much ofhis life in litigation to protect his inventions and infighting the established radio industry which did notwant to embark on his new FM system Finally in1954 with most of his wealth gone in the battle forFM he took his own life
quality of the signal is excellentand it can be mono or stereo
However FM signals reach muchshorter distances than AM signalsbecause FM follows the line ofsight In other words the antennaand the radio receiver must beable to lsquoseersquo each other with noobstructions in the path - such ashills or high buildings - whichinterrupt the signal in the sameway as they interrupt sight Buteven with the transmitter andreceiver in line of sight the distancebetween them is important becau-se with radio signals each time thedistance is doubled the signalstrength is reduced to a quarter ofwhat it was Put another way inorder to reach twice the distancefour times the power is needed
BROADCASTING EQUIPMENT 1
In general terms the equipmentrequired for broadcasting falls intofour categories
bull The transmitter that generatesthe signal to be broadcast
bull The antenna through which thetransmitterrsquos signal is radiated
bull The studio equipment used toproduce the programmes
bull The equipment required for programme production in thefield and for linking outside locations to the studio eg forfield reporting
A complete list of equipment withcosts for a typical UNESCO-
supported community radio
project is provided in Box 4 at the
end of this chapter Reading the
following section in conjunction
with that equipment list and with
diagrams should provide an
appreciation of the role and
function of each part of the
system
Transmission Equipment
The power output of a transmitter
is measured in watts Community
radio relies mainly on low-power
FM transmitters with typically an
output of between 20 and 500
watts usually in the range of
20-100 watts However a
distinction must be made between
the power of the transmitter itself
and the power that actually leaves
the antenna which is known as the
Effective Radiated Power (ERP)
The design of the antenna affects
the ERP So-called lsquohigh-gainrsquo
antennas can result in considerably
more watts of ERP than the out-
put watts of the transmitter itself
A low power FM transmitter
35
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Mal
lard
Con
cept
s Ltd
U
K fo
r UN
ESCO
Met
ric
wav
es
Dec
amet
ric
band
(sho
rt w
aves
)
Hec
tom
etri
c ba
nd(m
ediu
m w
aves
)
Kilo
met
ric
band
(lon
g w
aves
)
100
MH
z
875
MH
z
25 M
Hz
6 M
Hz
1600
kH
z
525
kHz
280
kHz
150
kHz
Frequency modulation A m p l i t u d e m o d u l a t i o n
The four radio frequency
36
Several companies around theworld now produce cheap FMtransmitters for community radiousing frequencies between 875 and108 mHz the usual band for FMbroadcasting They range in pricefrom a little over US$ 500 to some$ 2000 and they are about the sizeof a thick paperback novel Not allof the models available especiallythose from the US are built withthe possible harsh conditions ofdeveloping countries in mind
The technology of FM transmittersis now so simple and well knownthat it is not beyond the capacity ofcompetent engineers in developingcountries to build them Usinglocally available materials the DANIDAUNESCO Tambuli community radio project in thePhilippines locally produced its firsttransmitter and successfully put itto work in 1998 though most ofTambulirsquos stations still use British orChinese transmitters The experi-ence of Cape Verde where localtechnicians built their own transmitters was mentioned in theIntroduction
Low-power transmitters may alsohave an amplifier or booster atta-ched to them to increase theirpower output Many of the UNESCO-supported communityradios have 20-watt transmitters
with a 100-watt booster Thistransmission equipment especiallythe booster generates considerableheat and so it is always accompan-ied by a cooling fan and it needs tobe installed in a well-ventilatedplace
Nearly all FM transmitters built forcommunity radio require a 12-voltDC power supply Thus they can berun either off an electrical mainsource with a transformer thatconverts this into a 12-volt DCoutput or a vehicle battery or solarpanels
It is important to keep the audiosignal from an FM transmitter atthe right level If the signal is overmodulated distortion will resultand possible interference withnearby stations A device called alimitercompressor is thereforeincluded in the audio chain to keepthe signal at its pre-set level
In a few cases community radiosuse AM broadcasting Setting upand running costs are generallymuch higher than they are for FMHowever the ability of AM toextend over a wider broadcast areaeven if one of lower sound qualitymay make it desirable in certain circumstances In some cases particularly in large towns wherethe competition for FM frequen-cies is very high obtaining one at
reasonable cost may be impossibleand therefore some communityradios have found it easier to rentor buy an existing AM frequencyThis will probably have a commer-cial licence but the communityradio management can lay down itsown policy in respect of advertising
The Antenna
The height position and adjust-ment of the antenna play a primor-dial role in achieving high qualityand the furthest possible reach ofan FM broadcast signal This isbecause as already noted FMsignals travel in a more or lessstraight line and follow the line ofsight The antenna that propagatesthe signal must therefore be as highas possible and there should befew obstructions that will block thesignal The higher the antenna isthe further its signal will reacharound the natural curvature of theearth
FM Problems in Hilly Areas FMhas limitations in hilly areas becau-se even if the antenna is placed ontop of a peak there may be areas ofsignal shadow in the valleys Theonly solution for using FM in hillyareas may be to install one or morerelay transmitters to cover theareas in shadow
Martin Allard explains Broadcast Coverage Patternin Relation to Watts and Antenna Height
All of the differing figures given for the coverageradius of FM are reasonable in their own way It is farfrom being an exact science however and opinionsvary considerably as to what is an acceptable signalstrength that is sufficient for a normal listener
The basic facts to understand are these
The Effective Radiated Power (ERP) of an FM stationis approximately the power of the transmitter multiplied by the number of elements in the antennaThere are practical limits as to how big an antennacan be and above a certain size losses in the cablesbecome significant
Of course VHF signals do not go far beyond the optical horizon They do bend around hills to a smallextent but otherwise they behave much like lightThe distance to the horizon depends on the height ofthe antenna and must take into account any largeobstructions
For an acceptable stereo signal you need 3-4 timesthe power of a mono transmission We have foundthat upgrading some of the early low-power stationswith a modern high-gain antenna and low-loss feedercable produces a good stereo signal over the samerange without an increase in transmitter power
Some typical range figures based on stereo transmission in a flat area with an antenna 25metres high would be
20 watts ERP - 5 km
100 watts ERP - 12 km
1200 watts ERP - 30 km
But each case is different We have one example of astation running 1200 watts ERP with regular listeners 80 km away 2
The height of the antenna willdepend on the terrain and on anyobstacles that the signal must passHowever it is usually at least 20-30 metres above the ground evenin flat terrain The antenna may beplaced on a building or hilltop togain the necessary height or amast may be constructed for it
Constructing the Mast Antennamasts can be built locally usingsteel uprights and lathes to createa lattice construction However asimpler and cheaper version canbe built using galvanized steelwater pipes Steps are welded tothem so that the broadcastingantenna itself fitted high on themast can be reached for adjust-ments and repairs
Both types of mast must be firmlyanchored in a concrete block in theground and they must be heldvertical by guy wires also anchoredin concrete
The Two Categories ofAntenna There are two broadcategories of antenna omnidirec-tional which as its name impliesradiates the signal in all directionsthrough 360 degrees around itselfand directional which radiates thesignal towards one segment of thecircle around it Almost all com-munity radio stations use an omni-directional antenna but there are
situations where a directionalantenna is better One example iswhere an antenna is placed on theside of a mountain overlookingthe community to be reached Adirectional antenna beaming thesignal only over the communitywould give added power compar-ed to using an omnidirectionalantenna that wasted part of itssignal against the mountainsidebehind it
Antenna Design Manufactureand Tuning FM antennas comein a variety of designs and thechoice and tuning of the antennato get the best signal is the work ofa specialist Antennas can bebought ready made but for mostcommunity radios they are fabri-cated on the spot by a metal worker using materials that canusually be bought in a local hard-ware shop such as copper piping 37
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Typical Antenna Mast Made from Water Pipes
and aluminium or PVC piping allheld together by hose-clamps and solder
Fine-tuning of the antenna to getthe best signal is done with an instrument called a power metrewhich measures the StandingWave Ratio (SWR) It costs lessthan US$ 100 This costs less thanUS$ 100 It is connected betweenthe transmitter and the antenna to
38
measure the ratio between thepower coming from the transmitterand the power being reflected backfrom the antenna If a lot of poweris being reflected back by theantenna it is not properly tunedand broadcast power is being lostThe specialist adjusts the lengthand position of the moveableradiating elements on the antennauntil the SWR meter shows thatthere is little or almost no powerbeing reflected back from theantenna Many modern transmit-ters incorporate an SWR powermetre
Studio Equipment
Recording and Playback Mostof the equipment used in a radiostudio would be familiar to any onewho had ever used home musicalequipment It consists in the mainof cassette recordersplayers andother tape recorders record turntables and compact discplayers However the quality of thisequipment in a radio studio ishigher than that of the commonrange of home equipment This isbecause firstly high-quality soundis needed so that even after theinevitable degradation of thesound between the studio and thelistenerrsquos ear the quality will still beof an acceptable level Secondly
studio equipment must withstandmuch heavier and more constantuse than its equivalent in the home
Some small community radios inindustrialized countries prefer tobuy cheap consumer electronicitems such as CD players and sim-ply replace them when they wearout This is seldom a suitableapproach in developing countrieswhere it is usually easier to obtainfunding for initial costs than it is forrecurrent costs Furthermore suchcheap consumer electronic itemsmay be less available here than theyare in industrialized countries
Control ConsoleMixer Themain unfamiliar item to mostpeople entering a radio studio forthe first time is the control consoleand mixer unit This allows the programme producer or his techni-cian to select the sound sourceswanted during the programme forexample a cassette or compact diskplayer or one or more of themicrophones in the studio It alsoallows him to raise and lower thevolume of each source graduallyand to superimpose one or moreover another as in the case of avoice with background music orsound effects This is calledlsquomixingrsquo the sound channels Theconsolemixer has sockets for head-phones through which the producer
can listen to the various channelshe has available or to the final mixedversion for broadcast An output linefrom the consolemixer goes to thetransmitter
All the studio equipment is power-ed from a local electricity sourcewhich should pass through anautomatic voltage regulator Thisreduces power fluctuations thatchange the speed of voices or music
Programme Production andNews GatheringEditing in theField
Remote Microphone Mixer Inthe simplest operations in the fielda single tape recorder can be usedto gather material or a microphonecan be connected by a long line tothe studio console for nearbyoutside coverage But any more elaborate programme productionoutside the studio when severalmicrophones and sound inputs arerequired needs a remote micro-phone mixer sometimes alsoknown as an auxiliary microphonemixer This functions in much thesame way as the studio mixer but itis smaller and usually runs off bat-teries In the field it is used toselect andor mix the varioussound inputs required for the programme that is being recorded
Linking Reporters and Othersto the Studio A second aspect ofoutside broadcasting is linking thefield reporter to the studio for livelyand interesting eyewitness reportson events and for news in outlyingparts of the community
In industrialized countries and inmajor towns in developing coun-tries the telephone is the mostcommon way of making this linkAll that is required is a device calleda telephone adaptor to patch theincoming phone call into the studioconsole from where it can bebroadcast or recorded for later use
However in rural areas of the devel-oping world where telephones arescarce other means must be usedto connect an outside reporter tothe studio Very High Frequency(VHF) or Ultra High Frequency(UHF) transceivers (lsquowalkie-talkiesrsquo)are one method Some countriesset aside certain frequencies in the200 mHz range - where the qualityof the sound is good - especially forconnections between outsidereporters and their studios Thisrequires a base station in the studioand handsets for the reporters inthe field
Cellular mobile phones for outsidereporters are another solutionwhen there are no fixed telephonelines
Mobilizing People with VHF Transceivers
In some deprived areas where there is notelephone service amateur VHF transceiversare abundant in fact they are a statussymbol This is the case in a remote islandin the Philippines where a community radioof the Tambuli project has managed to mobilizenumerous people with VHF transceivers to participatepersonally as reporters in radio programmes and alsoto lend their transceivers to others to do the sameThus without any investment from the communityradio a volunteer network of outside reporters hasbeen set up (See Case Study 1- Putting CommunityPeople in Charge)
Telephone Call-Ins Some com-munity radios especially in townswhere telephones are availableinstall a special telephone mixersystem which allows them to receivemultiple and simultaneous callsput them on hold in the order inwhich the calls came in and thenpass them in turn to the consolemixer to go on air at the commandof the programme producer Thissystem which of course can alsobe used by outside reporters phoning in is relatively expensiveand may not be justifiable in atypical rural area of a developingcountry In some developingcountries local technicians havedesigned their own telephonepatch system The cheapest way ofputting a telephone call on air is tohave a telephone with a speaker inthe studio and put a microphonenext to it but the quality of theresulting signal is not very good
RELIABILITY AND MAINTENANCE
Most of the equipment outlinedabove is inherently robust andreliable and is generally quitesimple to maintain by someonewith appropriate knowledge andtraining However certain simpleprecautions need to be taken toprevent accidental damage
Precautions against LightningExperience has shown that light-ning striking the antenna duringthunderstorms is a common causeof damage to transmitters It istherefore vital to weld a lightningconductor to the top of the antennamast And if the antenna is fixed ona roof an earthing wire of braidedcopper should be welded to it rundown the side of the building andfixed to an iron bar driven deepenough into the ground to findmoist soil
Handling Precautions Otherprecautions concern handling ofthe equipment Any radio trans-mitter that is switched on withoutbeing connected to its antenna
or to an equivalent load will be permanently damaged Thuswhen a transmitter has been disconnected from the antennasay for testing or repair a dummyload of the same resistance as theantenna must be attached to itLoad resistors as they are calledcan be purchased ready-made andcome with a variety of resistancesor they can be rigged up by using anormal electrical light bulb of theappropriate watts
Another handling issue of obviousimportance is always to take parti-cular care to respect the polarity -the positive and negative terminals -when connecting equipment Amistake here can burn it out
In Kothmale Sri Lanka the nationalgovernment providedland tower and antennas These madeit possible to set upmicrowave transception telephone twenty-fourhour link to Internetand FM transmission
39
Com
mun
ity
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Block Diagram of Studio Equipment
Phot
o M
Sen
anay
aka
3 M
40
STUDIO PREMISES
Size A simple radio studio can beset up in any existing house orroom having a minimum of ninesqm available This is needed toinstall the equipment and to givespace for the operators to use itHowever it is much more practical toaim for premises of at least 25 sqmwith 50 sqm or more as the ideal
The minimum practical size for anannouncerrsquos booth is about 12sqm If one can count on a total ofsome 50 sqm about half of thiscan be devoted to the announcerrsquosbooth which will then be bigenough for roundtable discussionssmall groups of performing musi-cians and the like The remainingfloor space in the building can betaken up by a technicianrsquos cubicleand receiving and working areas
Announcerrsquos Booth andTechnicians Cubicle Theannouncerrsquos booth is often separa-ted from the technicianrsquos cubicle bya window with carefully fitteddouble glass panes to prevent out-side noise reaching the micro-phones in the booth This arrange-ment means that the announceronly has to worry about the micro-phone in front of him or her whilethe technician works the consoleand the sound channels such astape recorders and record players
However not all community radiosseparate the announcerrsquos booth
from the technician and some-times the announcer likes to dohisher own production handlingthe equipment and talking into themicrophone as a lsquoone-personshowrsquo So there can be flexibility indesigning the studio layout
Soundproofing and AcousticalBalance The announcerrsquos boothmust be soundproof because themicrophones in it will pick up anyexternal noise that reaches themPartitions made of light board suchas plywood usually need to be dou-bled with a space in between thatcan be filled with sound-deadeningmaterial and spaces around doorsneed to be sealed with rubberstrips
The acoustical balance in theannouncerrsquos booth must be care-fully adjusted Sound bounces andreverberates off hard walls and pro-duces an echo or lsquocathedral effectrsquowhen picked up by the micropho-ne To avoid this parts of the wallsshould be covered with soft mate-rials While acoustic tiles are avai-lable commercially for this purpo-se the same effects can be achie-ved with simpler and cheapermaterials such as egg trays cur-tains mats or cardboard Howeverif too much of the wall space iscovered with these sound-absor-bing materials the lack of resonan-ce will make all programmes soundas if they are coming from an openfield
Air Conditioning If air condition-ing is to be installed it should be ofthe silent split type with the com-pressor in a place apart from therecording studio and where its humwill not be picked up by the micro-phones in the announcerrsquos boothCold air should be blown into theannouncerrsquos booth through a ductand a silent extractor fan shouldalso be fitted in the booth
SPATIAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COMPONENTS OF THE RADIO STATION
The transmitter is connected to theantenna by a coaxial cable Thiscable absorbs a considerableamount of the power coming fromthe transmitter and therefore thelength of the cable should be asshort as possible With the relative-ly cheap types of coaxial cable normally used for communityradio the distance between thetransmitter and its antenna shouldnot exceed about 30 metres
Ideally the transmitter and studiowill be in the same building withthe antenna close to it or on theroof However the transmitter isbest put in a room separate fromthe studio equipment because if itis too close radio frequency emis-sions from the transmitter canaffect the studio equipment andcause noise and hum
A commercialy available load resistor
Typical studio layoutPh
oto
M A
llard
There will be occasions howeverwhen the site chosen for theantenna will be unsuitable for thestudio because of height consider-ations it is possible in the circum-stances to place the antenna on ahilltop with the transmitter nextto it and have the studio some distance away in a more favourablelocation All that is required is apower line up to the transmitterand a second line that carries theoutput from the studio to thetransmitter This programme lineas it is called should not be longerthan 1000 metres The ideal material for this line is telephonecable which is designed to carryvoice communication and to resistexposure to weather But evenhousehold electrical wire can beused though this is not designedfor outdoor use and will need tobe checked regularly
FUTURE POSSIBILITIES
A Studio in a Computer
Computers have long been used inradio studios for simple tasks suchas word processing of scripts andindexing and cataloguing recor-dings Radio studios accumulatelarge numbers of recordings overtime and it becomes difficult tofind specific items say parts ofpast coverage of a certain subject
required for a new programme ifrelying on human memory aloneComputerized index and catalogueon the other hand can provide a listand short description of all thematerial on that subject with thenumbers of the tapes and the location of each
Computerized ProgrammeProduction In recent years digi-tal technology has opened up newvistas for radio production It isnow possible to store all of thematerial for radio programmes -talks music sound effects jinglesetc - on the hard disk of a compu-ter whereas before these had to bestored on tape
Computer software now existsthat allows programme producers- as many as 15 at a time workingat separate terminals simulta-neously - to select the materialthey want from the hard disk andmix and edit it into a programmeWith the completed programmerecorded on its hard disk the computer can then be instructed
to put the programme or even aseries of programmes on air atpredetermined times without further intervention from studiostaff
This type of computerized produc-tion can replace the function ofmuch of the equipment in a tradi-tional studio and it is certainlyhighly efficient for programmeproduction In practice howevernot all of the traditional equip-ment is likely to disappear in thenear future for example audioequipment for recording materialand transferring it to the hard diskof the computer later will certainlycontinue And for outside programme production the remotemicrophone mixer described earlieris cheap and convenient even iffinal production in the studio iscomputerized
In addition it should be rememb-ered that good community radioalso relies on participation fromthe audience in live on-air sessionsin the studio rather than on
The Pastapur community in India built their own radio studio using locally firedclay bricks The tower is a professionally fitted self-standing mast with an omni-directional antenna crafted under the guidance of a profesional broadcasting technician Adjacent are five school rooms for lsquolearning withoutfrontiersrsquo also built from the same kind of bricks
41
Com
mun
ity
Rad
io H
andb
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o J
im B
entl
ey
Maximum Distance from the Studio to the Transmitter is 1000 M
pre-recorded productions only Forlive programmes in the studiosuch traditional equipment is stillthe most practical
Community Radio and theInternet
The Internet holds enormouspotential for development especial-ly in rural areas For example infor-mation about health agriculture or
42
the environment can be down-loaded from it it can be used toconnect health workers agriculturalextensionists or ordinary villagerswith technical experts to discusssome particular problem and it canbe used to put communities incontact with each other for on-linediscussions and debates aboutissues that affect them or aboutproblems and their solutions
The Village Trail and theInformation SuperhighwayUnfortunately in most developingcountries up to now Internetaccess and the valuable informationit can provide have been availableonly to a relatively small and privi-leged minority For example inAfrica less than 15 percent of thepopulation had Internet access atthe end of 1998 And nowhere arethe rural poor a part of that privile-ged Internet-using minority Theproblem can be summed up in thequestion How can poor ruralpeople living along the village trailbe connected to the informationsuperhighway
Integrating community radio pro-gramming with the Internet is oneway to reach out to villagers If theradio station has a computer withInternet access programme produ-cers can call on an enormous spectrum of information on sub-
jects of general concern to theiraudience as well as being able tolook for replies to specific queriesraised by members of the comm-unity Broadcasting such informationcan effectively bring the Internetinto any home even into thosewhere the family could never aspireto having a telephone withoutmentioning the computer to gowith it
The Internet and ProgrammeProduction The Internet can bevery useful for programme produc-tion A station can obtain a vastquantity and range of informationfrom it For example material frommajor news agencies is available onthe Internet as is information fromdevelopment agencies non-governmental and governmentalorganizations universities and thelike In addition more and more
audio programmes can be down-loaded from the Internet for re-broadcast The themes of theseproductions often cover issues ofgreat importance to communityradios such as health educationwomenrsquos rights and so on
The Internet is also a forum for the exchange of programmesServices such as OneWorldGlobalRadioService and A-Infosallow producers to deposit programmes for other producers to pick up and broadcast and vice-versa
A community radio may also wantto offer information about itself toother Internet users It can open asite on the World Wide Web todescribe its organization program-ming staff etc in as much detail asit wants 3
Bringing the Internet to Rural People in Sri Lanka
Kothmale is a constituency covering a cluster of ruralcommunities with a total population of about150000 Its community radio station is the basis foran innovative experiment to use radio as an effectiveinterface between local people and the Internet
Each day the radio station airs a programme calledlsquoRadiobrowsing the Internetrsquo during which communitybroadcasters discuss and interpret the informationon selected Internet sites The local language is usedmaking the information easily accessible to peoplewho understand no English and would be unable touse the Internet directly
Listeners can request information on specific topicsOf particular benefit is information on markettrends agriculture life skills for poverty alleviationformal and informal educational materials healthand medicine
This UNESCOGovernment of Sri Lanka pilot projectis also providing free Internet access through in anInternet Cafeacute and two terminals in community librariesfor people who wish to browse in person
In addition the radio station is developing a community database of the information frequentlyrequested by listeners Much of this is in the locallanguage and is particularly suited to local develop-ment interests and needs This is important becausepackaged information on the Internet is seldom suitable
Kothmale lsquoradio browsingrsquothe on-air announcerbrowses the Internet inEnglish and simultaneouslyreports her findings inSinghala She can alsorespond to questions in the studio or from livephone calls
Phot
o M
Sen
anay
aka
Rural Multi-Purpose Telecentres
Speculation about the use ofmicrochips and satellite communi-cation as tools in rural develop-ment goes back to the early 1980sOne of the ideas that has beenmaturing since then is that of ruralmultipurpose telecentres whichhave also been called lsquorural infor-mation shopsrsquo
The basic principle is to create aplace where villagers can go forinformation - either free or for afee - on agriculture health familyplanning and other developmentalor social topics In its fullest andmost logical form a communityradio station would form thenucleus for a rural telecentre providing a variety of services
This telecentre would of coursehave an Internet connection toprovide the services outlined inthe previous section related toaccessing databanks and sourcesof expertise and connecting com-munities to each other In additionit could offer other functions suchas public telephone and fax as wellas building libraries of videosaudio-visual materials books andpublications In one of the formsproposed for India under a WorldBank programme the centreswould sell records and cassetteshire out videos and audio-visualequipment and provide servicessuch as desktop publishing and
photocopying These serviceswould aim to help the centresbecome self-sufficient
In Bangladesh it is highly signifi-cant that the Grameen Bankfamous for its imaginative micro-credit programmes for the ruralpoor especially women startedGrameen Telecom in 1996 Thisprovides loans for women to buycellular phones and set up a publicservice and it also providesInternet connections in majorcities It plans to put telephoneservices into all of Bangladeshrsquos50000 villages and also to expandits Internet-access services This isa first step along the path towardsrural multi-purpose telecentresHowever it is sad that broadcast-ing in Bangladesh is still a govern-ment monopoly and there is nosign that community radio will beallowed to begin any time soon
Digital Technology
Digital technology has steadilytransformed the way in which pro-grammes are made and distribu-ted in recent years Many broad-casters have already invested indigital systems for contributionand production Now the switchfrom analogue to digital is movingalong the broadcasting chain intotransmission At the same timethe digital developments are draw-ing together the broadcasting
telecommunications and compu-ter industries in a process ofconvergence For all broadcastersthis is leading to a new and chal-lenging business environment inwhich they are searching for a clearlsquomultimediarsquo role The InternationalTelecommunications Union (ITU) isediting a publication on this subject
SPECIALIST ADVICE
This chapter has provided an over-all guide to the technical aspects ofsetting up a community radio ser-vice Nevertheless anyone embar-king on such a project should seekspecialist advice on the technical
In Kothmale Sri Lanka Buddhist monks surf the net for religious texts at the Kothmale Community Radio on the Internet and on the air
43
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aspects of the particular circum-stances before going ahead withthe investment Such advice canusually be obtained from the tech-nical staff in a nearby state or com-mercial radio station and it neednot be costly 1 Much of the material in these sections is based on
Community Radio Station - A Technical Manual by staff ofthe UNESCODANIDA supported Tambuli CommunityMedia Project Philippines That manual provides moretechnical detail than can be included in this more general handbook
2 Martin Allard in a personal communication (1999)
3 Philippe Beacutechamp The ABCs of ICTs InteRadioVol10No 2 (Montreal December 1998)
4 Colin Fraser and Sonia Restrepo-Estrada Communicatingfor Development - Human Change for Survival 1B Tauris(LondonNew York 1998)
5 Laurie Hallett provided the following information onDAB in a personal communication (1999)
44
BOX 4 Basic Equipment for a UNESCO-supported Community Radio Station (Prices in US Dollars)
Item No Description Unit price Total
TRANSMISSION EQUIPMENT
1 2 FM Stereo Transmitters 100 Watt
Note one as a standby transmitter 800 1600
2 1 Wide-band Omni-directional Antenna (four layer with splitter set for the allotted FM Frequency of the station) 1200 1200
3 1 Heliax antenna cable (50 Meter) and connectors 550 550
4 1 A1000 Two channel compressor and limiter 545 545
5 1 Locally fabricated antenna mast and anchors 1200 1200
Transmission equipment total US$ 5095
STUDIO AND FIELD EQUIPMENT
6 1 Professional Studio Console with built in telephone hybrid 10+10 watt amplifier for studio monitors stereo monitor output for cue talkback microphone VCA feeders with a total of 7 mono inputs9 stereo inputs 3 mono outputs8 stereo outputs 2000 2000
7 2 PMC Studio Monitor Speakers ( Power ouput 150 watts) 515 1030
8 2 Dual Auto Reverse Cassette Deck 570 1140
9 1 CD Changer 900 900
10 4 Headphones 100 400
11 5 Dynamic Microphones with Windshields 390 1950
12 2 Utility Mixer with XLR input 400 800
13 3 Microphone stand with swinging arm 55 165
14 2 Microphone desk stand (flexible) 115 230
15 5 Portable cassette recorders with XLR mic inputs and carrying case 515 2575
16 5 Dynamic Microphones for portable casette recorders 170 850
17 2 Quartz Clock Diameter 25 cm hoursminsseconds 25 50
18 40 XLRMF Canon connectors (20 Male and 20 Female) 10 400
19 20 Phono connectors Male 3 60
20 20 Phono connectors Female 3 60
21 25 RCA connectors 1 25
Item No Description Unit price Total
22 1 MIC cable (100 m role) 260 260
23 1 Audio cable (100 m role) 150 150
24 4 Automatic voltage regulators 50 200
25 1 Multi-tester + assorted repair equipment set 50 50
Total Studio and Field Equipment US$ 13295
COMMUNITY RADIO BASIC EQUIPMENT TOTAL US$ 18390
Additional Costs Support to community fo building remuneration and studiofabrication - US$ 2500(Consumables and costs for energy source not included)
Item No Description Unit price Total
OPTIONAL (Computer based Audio and news processing)
1 2 Digital Audio Computer Workstation PIII-700 with 20 GBHDDCD-R Drive (SCSI) USB port Speakers and a Sound Card (Sound Blaster) with Windows 982000 1500 3000
2 2 USB Interface controller with two XLR inputs two balanced 14rdquo TRS inputstwo unbalanced 14rdquo inputs and SPDIF IO Four channels of audio in and two out simultaneously via USB 600 1200
3 1 Editing software package 400 400
4 100 CD-R Media (CD re-writeble) 3 300
5 1 Internet ready Computer withWindows 98 + MS-WORD 1100 1100
6 1 Laser Printer 750 750
Total Optional Computer Equipment US$ 6750
Chapter 5Getting Started
45
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T his chapter sets out the various practical steps involved in setting up a community radio service
beginning with ascertaining the legislative context and conducting a proper consultation and
analysis process in the community A qualitative research method based on Focus Group
Discussions is outlined for this process
The value of drawing up a Mission Statement for the radio station is explained and the involvement
of religious authorities local educational institutions and politicians is discussed
The technical and social criteria for choosing the site in the community for the studio and the
transmitter and antenna are outlined Alternative models including loudspeaker systems are
described as are the main factors governing the choice of power of the transmitter
Later sections deal with ownership and management staff sustainability and looking for outside
funding The issue of advertising and its implications where permitted are discussed in some
detail
Box 6 at the end of the Chapter provides a checklist of questions to which answers are required for
the successful setting up of a community radio
Reading this Chapter will enable the reader to
bull Obtain a good grasp of the various steps involved in setting up a community radio service
bull Appreciate the need for the careful consideration of social factors and relationships in the
community as well as for a full analysis and consultation in the community of its needs and
expectations in respect of a community radio
bull Assume a leadership role or participate in ensuring that all of the necessary preparations are
properly conducted and that informed decisions are taken by the community
Proper research and planning areessential for starting a communityradio service The process should beginwith the gathering of information fromvarious sources but in particular fromthe community itself
A series of questions that need answersis provided in Box 6 at the end of theChapter The sections that follow hereexpand on those questions and areintended as guidance for in-countrypeople groups or organizations thatare planning a community radio
LEGAL CONTEXT
A first step for setting up a communityradio is to find out what the nationalbroadcasting legislation sets out for thelicencing of independent radio stationsIf there is no mention of non-profitcommunity broadcasting there may beother avenues to explore For examplethe provisions for commercial radiomay also apply to a community serviceand in some countries many communityradios have commercial licenses Thisshould not however lead to a situationwhere profit is the main or sole motiva-
46
tion of the station There may alsobe licences for cultural radio Insome cases people simply proceedwithout a licence However care isneeded because this can have penalconsequences (See Chapter 3 forthis and for more informationabout applying for licences) Wherecommunity radio is still forbiddenthere may be other options that donot involve radio transmission (Seethe section below on models)
PREPARATORY WORK INTHE COMMUNITY
Answering the questions laid out inBox 6 will call for much ground-work in the community Thisgroundwork consists of consulta-tion processes within the commu-nity to analyze its situation existingmedia access how a communityradio might usefully serve theinterests of the community in whatways and so on
Clearly the leaders of the commu-nity - which include the elected andthe religious authorities as well theinformal but also influential opin-ion leaders - must be part of theconsultation process
But equally if not more importantis a consultation process thatinvolves the community at largeGroup discussions with the various
sectors in the community areessential These could include forexample farmers fishermen shopowners teachers artisans etc It isalso crucial to consult women andyouth who are traditionally margi-nalized in many rural societies Norshould any minority cultural andlinguistic groups be left outPeoplersquos attitudes towards the exist-ing situation towards the desirabi-lity and possibility of change anddevelopment and towards the pos-sible role of a community radio ser-vice must be ascertained and hope-fully confirmed This is the realbasis of community radio socialwill not technical equipment
Experience has shown that in some
cases merely holding participatoryworkshops to discuss the situationof the community and exploreways of improving access to basicservices may lead spontaneously tothe idea that better communica-tion within the community couldbe a first prerequisite for changeand development A communityradio may then emerge naturally asthe most appropriate communica-tion medium
Preliminary Results The initialconsultation process should indicate
bull The level of enthusiasm for andcommitment to the notion ofhaving a community radio service
Phot
o M
Alla
rd
On Defining the Future Radio Station
ldquoIt must be decided what the station will be and forwhom Will it be a tool to be used by a selected fewor by only one sector of the community talking downto the many Will it be monopolised by disc jockeysOr will its main function be to empower the community as a whole to learn more about issuesthat directly affect its members such as primaryhealth care religious tolerance basic education teenage pregnancy etcrdquo 1
Before doing the technical work of setting up radio in Western Nepal it is essential to encourage the community to discusstheir idea of radio and their aspirations in focus group discussions
Faith in the capacity of all people
ldquoCommunication is a vital process for everyone concernedwith development It is a process not an end It is a meansto sustainable development The role of communication in the development process is to make people consciousof the reality of their situation and make them aware thatthey have the power to change their social realities It assumes that people are equal that they have a right toknowledge and culture and that they can criticize theirsituation and act on it It also implies having faith in thecapacity of all people including the illiterate to discusssocial issues intelligentlyrdquo
Ed Moyo
bull What its overall objectivesshould be especially in terms ofchange and development
bull How in general terms it shouldoperate
If no broad consensus on theseissues can be reached the future ofthe idea may be compromised orthere could be a need for more andbroader discussion
As the consultation processescontinue answers to the moredetailed issues laid out in Box 6should be sought
Contacts will also need to be madewith people and institutions outsidethe community who could have abearing on the project These willinclude among others any state orcommercial radio channels thatalso reach into the communitydevelopment institutions NGOsconcerned with communitydevelopment and local officials ofgovernment services in healthagriculture education and thelike
A Method for Conducting theConsultations
Among the most powerfulmethods for researching peoplersquosopinions and ideas are FocusGroup Discussions (FGDs) and
this technique can be successfullyused for the community consulta-tions being described hereOriginally used for market researchFGDs have more recently beenapplied with outstanding results indevelopment work when qualitativeinformation about peoplersquos opinions perceptions ideas andaspirations is required 2
What is an FGD An FGD bringstogether from six to12 people whoare homogeneous in terms of theireducation life-style and economicstatus and who therefore sharesimilar problems They need to behomogeneous to reduce the chancethat one or more persons of a levelthat the rest perceive as beingsuperior dominate the discussionThere should not be less than sixpeople in the group or it will bedifficult to get a dynamic discus-sion going and to gain a meaning-ful consensus and there shouldnot be more than twelve so thateveryone will have a chance to speak but also to avoid the formation of sub-groups and sub-discussions
These community consultationscould also include groups of sayunemployed youths or motherswith small children or small farmers
The Facilitator The group discussion is run by a facilitatorwhose principal task is toget members of the grouptalking among themselvesabout the subject in ques-tion This might for examplebe what types of radioprogrammes would beuseful to help youngmothers safeguard andimprove their infantsrsquohealth
The facilitator adopts a lowprofile and a very informal stan-ce so that the group feels relaxedHeshe also uses special tech-niques to encourage members ofthe group to talk among them-selves and not to respond tohimher directly The facilitatorguides the discussions with pre-pared open-ended questions thatbegin with words such as lsquoWhatdo you think aboutrsquo or lsquoHowwould you suggest that wersquo iequestions that cannot be answeredwith a simple lsquoyesrsquo or lsquonorsquo
Stimulating In-depth AnalysisA further key function of the facili-tator is to stimulate the group intodeeper analysis of the issues beingdiscussed For example heshemust never let a statement ofopinion by a member of the grouppass without probing it to find out
what lies behind that statement A group member might say some-thing like lsquoI really like that pro-gramme and I never miss itrsquo Or agroup member might say the exactopposite to the effect that heshethoroughly disliked the program-me In either case the facilitatorshould immediately say - but in amild manner ndash something likelsquoThatrsquos an interesting opinion Tellus why you think thatrsquo In factquestions using lsquoWhyrsquo are the keyfor provoking deeper analysis andreaching a fuller understanding ofthe issues at stake as the groupsees them
The Observer While the FGD isin progress an observer is sitting
The participation oflocal institutions whether government or nongovernmentcontributes to makingthe stationrsquos programming relevantand dynamic
47
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48
quietly taking notes of the mainpoints that are being made Whenthe discussion is finished it is agood idea for the observer to takeover the proceedings and to readthe main points back to the groupIt is very important that hesheseeks their confirmation of eachpoint in order to ensure that it hasbeen correctly noted This leadsmore easily to a broad consensus
Effectiveness of FGDs Especiallywith people of low educational sta-tus FGDs are remarkably effectiveThe group feels at ease becausethey are talking with their peersand because the facilitator deliber-ately creates a totally informalatmosphere Once the members ofthe group start discussing among
themselves they spark reactionsideas and opinions off each otherin a way that provides true insightsinto what is in their minds andhearts FGDs are generally far moreeffective for gaining these insightsthan are one-on-one interviews forall too often the interviewee herewill say what he or she thinks theinterviewer wants to hear At theother extreme general and mixedgroup discussions can easily bedominated by a few people - not tomention that women and youthhardly ever speak out freely at suchgatherings The facilitator shouldbe aware of this guard against itand encourage the less outspokento air their feelings without embar-rassing them
Some FGDs with different sectorsof the community backed up withkey informant interviews withopinion leaders local authoritiesand the like will normally providethe desired information with whichto plan a community radio serviceBut whatever methods are used forthe consultation within the com-munity and with other interestedparties the process should neverbe rushed Mistakes or misunder-standings that are not put right orclarified in the early stages maycome back to haunt the communi-ty radio operation later on
Furthermore during the planningphases and indeed at all stagesone must be very alert to the possi-
bility that special interest groupsmight have hidden agendas that inthe end could result in their high-jacking the radio service for theirown interests
IMPORTANCE OF A MISSION STATEMENT
It is important to begin drafting a short and concise mission statement about the objectives ofthe planned community radio ser-vice at an early stage This providesa basis for discussion and it can bemodified and refined during theconsultation phase
Once a final version of the missionstatement is agreed by the variousstakeholders this constitutes abasis for common understandingand a platform on which to buildThis is not to say that the missionstatement is carved in stone it mayneed modification in the light ofexperience but any changes shouldalways be the result of a communi-ty consultation process
What the station does once opera-ting to adhere to its mission state-ment will depend largely on theindividuals chosen to direct andmanage it There must be regularassessments perhaps by a specialcommittee within the communityof how the operations are fulfillingthe stationrsquos mission
In Senegal women are very active in disussing issues of the daythey make for anatural forum face-to-face or on the air
Phot
o C
Fra
ser
On the Mission Statement
ldquoThe mission [statement] of a radio station definesits aims it is the map that provides directiontowards the achievements of its objectives it is theinstrument to measure its success it is thefoundation on which everything else is built it is the star that guides us The entire programming must be based on the principles established by the missionrdquo 3
ROLE OF THE RELIGIOUSESTABLISHMENT
Special consideration should begiven to the role of the religiousauthorities in the community Innumerous communities they havebeen crucial in helping to start andrun a radio service Their commit-ment to genuine community parti-cipation and to ensuring that theradio is run in the best interests ofthe people is often outstanding
However it should not necessarilybe assumed that all religiousauthorities are free from influencepeddling or political interests Soeven if the religious establishmentcan often be of pivotal importancein starting and running a commu-nity radio service detailed discus-sions are necessary to establish itsposition and its perceptions beforeautomatically seeking a partner-ship with it
ROLE OF LOCAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
The staff of local schools may havea particular interest in communityradio and help to get it started For example they may see it as away of increasing the involvementof parents in the education of theirchildren
In addition schoolteachers canplay a major role as volunteerbroadcasters They often broad-cast a daily programme to remindchildren about their homeworkand assist them with it And insome communities the operationof the radio station is handed overto schoolchildren once a week
INVOLVEMENT OF POLITICIANS
There are varying points of viewabout the role of politicians incommunity radio or whether theyshould have one at all (See Box 5for the opinion of an experiencedcommunity radio broadcaster)
CHOOSING A LOCATION IN THE COMMUNITY
Technical and social considerationsdetermine the appropriate loca-tion of the radio infrastructure in acommunity
Technical Criteria
Position of the antenna and transmitter
bull Given the line of sight character-istics of FM radio waves theantenna should be as high aspossible on an elevated site oron a mast not less than 30metres high and not obstructedby tall buildings
bull The transmitter and antennashould not be close to high-tension power lines
bull There should be an availablepower source
bull The transmitter and antennashould be as close as possible toeach other and not more than30 metres apart
Position of the antenna and transmitter relative to the studio
bull The studio may be up to 1000m from the antenna and trans-mitter but it must be connectedto them by a cable ndash the pro-gramme line Alternatively theprogramme could be fed fromthe studio to the transmitter sitevia a small power link VHF trans-mitter
Position of the studio
bull The studio must have an available power source
bull It should be away from uncon-trollable sources of noise
Social Criteria
bull The studio should be as close aspossible to the centre of popula-tion
bull It should be in a site easily accessibleto members of the community
bull It should have low or no rentalcharges
bull It should be in a site that is freeof vested interests
bull It should be secure from vandalsand pilferers 49
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A Comment on the ReligiousEstablishment and Community Radio inthe Philippines
ldquoThe religious establishments are not
expected to have political or business
interests A majority of them are genuinely dedicated
missionaries who have a deep understanding of the
problems of the poor It is a shame however that
some individual members of the clergy overtly carry
their own personal idiosyncrasies and social biases
and in some cases political partiality into the com-
munity
In [a] community where we actually set up a radio
station the priest happened to be named
chairperson of the Community Media Council
Unfortunately he had never shown fondness
in getting the people to participate in decision
making He distrusted local leadership motives
He ran the station management by himself and
conferred involvement to his minions
When the election campaign period came
the priest threw his support behind the candidate
whom he deemed the peoplersquos favourite
As the station was conveniently located in the
convent the priest took the occasion to use
the programmes to build up the favoured candidate
and downsize the opponentrdquo 4
ldquoAfter 22 years as a broadcast journalist I have a
generally sceptical attitude towards politicians
Whenever I listen to a politician speaking
I try to figure out what is at the back of his mind but
often in vain
The question in the project was whether we should deal
with politicians or leave them out totally After numer-
ous discussions in our team as well as consultations
with professional sociologists the conclusion was that
politicians needed to participate in operating the radio
station After all politicians are inescapable elements
of community life They could be influential cogs in the
development of the community
The project cannot totally do away with politicians
even if the opportunist ones are quick to see the poten-
tial of a community-wide medium to get them votes
and public admiration Our approach is to place the
politicians role in logical perspective If for instance
partisan politicians agree to be involved in the
Community Media Council all the important political
parties must be represented
Certain politicians may publicly manifest a desire to
keep their hands off the project while some may
volunteer resources and heavy personal involvement
However even among those who ostentatiously adopt a
hands-off policy they could have lackeys in key
positions in the station - perhaps either as a generous
benefactor an intellectual or a domineering station
manager Thus the extension of his personality and
interests could creep into sensitive station decision-
making
Some politiciansrsquo pronouncements may indicate
unconditional concern for the masses and they may
well include a candid pledge of non-interference in the
stationrsquos affairs However few make good their
promises Some will ostensibly adhere to their public
commitment particularly when the project manage-
ment makes its presence felt But the shrewd politician
may intervene surreptitiously
Quite often the saying lsquoHe who has honey in his
mouth has a sting in his tailrsquo is confirmed This may
apply not only to the typical impassioned politician
but also to certain other eloquent members of the
community
However I grant that these are general observations
and there are certainly exceptions to them
The way programmers and broadcasters respond to
political manoeuvres will be determined by their
ethical foundation and trainingrdquo
Louie Tabing Manager of the UNESCODANIDATambuli Project Philippines
BOX 5 Involvement of Politicians in Community Radio
50
CHOOSING A MODEL
Most community radios aspire tohaving their own broadcasting facilities and frequency but this isnot always possible due to the prevailing legislation or to a lack ofeconomic resources The alterna-tives at least initially are
bull To obtain airtime for communityprogrammes from an existinggovernment or commercial sta-tion that covers the area
bull Rent an existing frequency butthis solution is normally confinedto urban areas
bull To install a lsquocommunity radiorsquo sys-tem that uses loudspeakersconnected to the studio and situa-ted to cover the communityrather than broadcasting by atransmitter
Whatever model is used it is generally a good idea to start withonly a limited number of hours aweek of broadcasting and then tobuild up slowly In this way therewill be time to plan and prepare thebroadcasts properly As experienceis gained and as the programmeproducers and other staff becomeaccustomed to their roles thehours of broadcasting can beexpanded
Loudspeaker Systems
Community radios often begin by usingloudspeakers and some even remain withthat system because of unfavourable legislation Loudspeaker systems have twodrawbacks firstly the sound quality is notgood and secondly people are compelled to listenwhether they want to or not This can produce tensions in the community
Part-Time Broadcasting
ldquoIt is usually thought that radio must operate on adaily basis but this is purely a presumption derivedfrom mainstream media Given the usual staffingand resource problems of daily operations in a ruralcommunity it could be more effective for its radioservice to operate on a limited but regular basisHistorically the socio-political programming of alternative media has not been continuous Regular intervals between programming increaseaudience loyalty and attention They also give broadcasters the time they need to plan and producemore relevant programmesrdquo 5
One good strategy for the start-upperiod is to broadcast at weekendsonly This will make it easier to findvolunteers who have weekendtime available However theaudience must be informed andreminded that the station will beon air only each weekend Thisshould be done through weeklypublicity efforts using means suchas a mobile loudspeaker announce-ments by the religious establish-ment posters etc
POWER OF THE TRANSMITTER
A broadcast pattern that coverstoo wide a physical area compli-cates the operations of a commu-nity radio and may make it difficultto concentrate on the immediatecommunity that is to be servedGiven that community radiodepends to a large extent onvolunteer participation a largetarget area may result in workloads that are difficult to maintainlsquoSmall is beautifulrsquo in communityradio too and it is often better tohave more small transmitterscovering specific communitiesthan one more powerful one thatspreads its signal widely
In rural areas a 20-watt transmit-ter should normally provide suffi-
cient power but there may be jus-tification for an amplifier to boostthe output to 100 watts In a citywhere there is competition fromother stations transmitters maygo up to 300-500 watts
It is important to ensure that thebroadcast pattern covers a com-munity having between 5000 and25000 potential listeners To besuccessful a community radiomust be able to rely on variousforms of support from its listenersless than 5000 may not providethe critical mass that will allow theradio to sustain itself and muchmore than 25000 means that theradio begins to become imperson-al and difficult to manage with aresultant loss in the communitycharacter of the service
OWNERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT
These are crucial issues that needcareful thought Even if the overallconcept is that the communityowns the radio there usuallyneeds to be some body such as afoundation or association whichrepresents the communityrsquos inter-ests and also provides the juridicalentity to apply for the licence andto hold it In some cases it may bepossible to plan for a community
media cooperative This couldallow each member of the com-munity to buy a share
With regard to management theconcept of community radio isthat the community itself shouldbe in overall control Obviouslyhowever the whole communitycannot be involved all the timeand therefore some sort of manage-ment body needs to be formedthat represents the different sec-tors in the community In manycases a community media com-mittee is created to assume themanagement role Whatever thebody is called its members mustrealize that they are accountableto the community at large and tothe particular sector they repre-sent Their decisions regarding therunning of the station and its programming must be democraticand transparent
PROGRAMMING
Programming policies are coveredin the next chapter Howeveranyone planning a communityradio should give early thought toprogramming issues especiallywith regard to mechanisms that willensure the maximum possible com-munity access and participation 51
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mun
ity
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Reach of the Station
ldquoHow far the station reaches is less important than where the station reaches A station with atransmitter that has a long reach may be situated ina sparsely populated region whereas a station situated in a densely populated region may have atransmitter that doesnt reach very farrdquo 6
52
As a tactic for starting communityradio programming it is useful tofind out what people enjoy andappreciate about other radio pro-grammes they listen to and whythey like them Focus GroupDiscussions would be an idealmethod for obtaining this qualitativeinformation
STAFF
Few if any community radio sta-tions can afford to pay staffbeyond perhaps the station mana-ger if they are lucky Thus mostcommunity radios rely extensivelyon volunteers as programme pro-ducers reporters and studio tech-nicians However the use of volun-teers is not simply to get cheaplabour for a poorly funded opera-tion On the contrary volunteersgive a special and positive characterto community radio creating animage of goodwill commitmentand service for the common goodThose same characteristics arerequired in the community at largefor it to change and develop alongdemocratic lines
SUSTAINABILITY
Generating Income
While many community radios indeveloping countries are launched
with support fromsome outside donor -national or interna-tional - anyone plan-ning and promoting acommunity radioshould bear in mindfrom the very begin-ning how to sustainthe service once it isup and running
There are severaloptions for raisingrevenue to cover run-ning costs as follows
bull Commercial adverti-sing when this is allowed underexisting national legislation
bull Sponsorship which may also bedebarred by national legislation
bull Donations
bull Fees for private announcementsmade over the radio as lsquothe peoplersquos telephonersquo
bull Membership fees paid by listeners
The Advertising Issue In manycountries that have recently intro-duced legislation for non-profitcommunity radio the commercialmedia are so strong and influentialthat they have succeeded in ensur-ing that community radio is prohi-bited from accepting advertisingthus preventing it from infringing
on their lucrative domain But des-pite the revenue problem that thismay present it may have someadvantages for the image and cre-dibility of community radio forcommunity radio is essentiallypublic-service broadcasting and itshould be seen to be free fromcommercial interests andinfluences
Thus even where advertising isallowed careful thought should begiven to the type of advertisers thatwould be acceptable within thecharacter of a community radioservice These would normally onlybe local providers of goods and ser-vices the multinational soft drinksindustry and goods that are dama-ging to health such as tobacco andalcohol should be avoided
A Conversation with the Manager of a CommunityRadio about Sustainability
During the preparation of this handbook theauthors telephoned the manager of a successful community radio station in one of the poorest partsof Colombia Towards the end of a long conversationabout the radiorsquos character and operations theauthors asked lsquoHow do you sustain the radio How does it survive
The lady burst out laughing and then said cheerfullylsquoBy miracle or rather by one miracle after anotherrsquo
This same manager had the clever idea when theradio was started to organize a party to whichpeople were asked to bring cassette tapes or recordsof their favourite music These were played at theparty She then asked to borrow then so that shecould make copies for use by the radio In this wayshe started the stationrsquos collection of popular music7
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o C
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On the Government of Ecuadorrsquos Ban on Advertisingby Community Radio
ldquoWe are not for profit but we are not for bankruptcyeitherrdquo 8
The carabo or water buffalo as it is known in most parts of Southeat Asia is a preciousanimal It ploughs the field it transports goods it provides music and community
programmes through the radio strapped to its horns Some people call this lsquocar-abao stereorsquo
On Keeping Staff - the Case of CrispinZarate a Liability Turned to an Asset in thePhilippines
ldquoCrispin was a farmerrsquos son an unem-ployed school dropout Pinny as he wasfamiliarly called could usually be seenhanging around in his neighbourhood bar He wouldinvariably go home drunk His lifestyle and drinkinghabits hardly made him an eligible bachelor Norcould anyone consider him handsome The only talentthat Pinny exhibited was playing the guitar well
When the training for volunteers for the radio sta-tion was announced Pinny was among those to signup Since he was jobless he fitted the criterion thattrainees should be available for a three-week crashcourse
Pinny was an ardent trainee and became a dedicatedvolunteer broadcaster People expressed admirationfor his voice Indeed he had a knack for radio and hisinnate good nature came to the surface
His friends would tease him alluding to his lookslsquoYou sound like a real human being when you go onthe air Pinnyrsquo He would take the teasing with aproud smile
Everybody was struck dumb when they heard thatPinny was getting married and even more so whenthey learned that it was to one of the most amiableteachers on the island
I was delighted about Pinny Radio work had turneda derelict into one of the most appreciated and lovedpersons in the community
Then I received the bad news he had left the non-paying job in the station to find work in a construc-tion project on the mainland His wife was expectinga child so he could not afford to be jobless
But perhaps the loss to the station was a gain to thecommunity We had converted a liability into a usefulfamily manrdquo 9
Conflicts of Interest Sponsorshipcan also be plagued by problemsrelated to conflicts of interestsespecially when the sponsors arecommercial organizations
On the other hand sponsorshipfrom community-based associa-tions say of women farmers orfishermen can be extremelyimportant and so can sponsorshipfrom development organizationsand NGOs The same applies todonations from similar associa-tions or organizations
In the long term however relianceon outsiders will always put sustain-ability at risk Thus sustainabilityshould be seen as the ultimate res-ponsibility of the communityitself and the challenge to themanager of the station and to histeam of producers reporters andtechnicians is to make the serviceso enjoyable useful and valuableto its listeners that they will bewilling to support it through sub-scription fees voluntary donationsin cash or kind and the like
Keeping Staff
Sustainability is not only related tofunding the sustainability of staffis equally important Most person-nel working with a communityradio are volunteers and the men
volunteers are usually unemployedand looking for a paid job Thushigh staff turnover is a constantconcern Training which givespeople job satisfaction and careerprospects is one inducement (Forvolunteer work on a communityradio see Chapter 7 on training)Having women on staff may alsohelp reduce turnover because theyare less likely to be looking for jobsoutside the community
An innovative idea used in theUNESCODANIDA-supportedTambuli project in the Philippineswas to include livelihood-genera-ting activities for the staff of theradio stations The principle was to
provide small credits that wouldallow staff to start some commer-cial activity to support themselveswhile they continued to work asvolunteers with the radio In somestations this idea has worked wellbut in others it has been more dif-ficult to put into practice
53
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The radio station is excepted to address withintegrity and fairness the main issues andproblems in the community Sponsors and
donors with vested interests may potentially draw away the
station from its avowed directions or undulysway its programming decisions
54
LOOKING FOR OUTSIDE FUNDING FOR START-UPCOSTS
Community radios often manageto obtain funding from outsidedonors - such as national or inter-national NGOs or bilateral or multilateral development agencies- for the investment required forthe initial purchase of equipmentand to train staff The mission statement of the proposed com-munity radio is an essential ele-ment in any request for externalfunding It is also useful to puttogether a brief dossier that detailsall the important points about theproposed station in order toencourage a donor to invest in itCare is needed however not toproduce an over-glossy presenta-tion that could give the wrongimpression
Donors do not part easily withtheir funds and they will scrutinizethe proposed community radioproject with care They will want tosee how the points raised in Box 6have been answered and they willcertainly conduct their own on-siteenquiries
It should by now be clear that starting a community radio stationthough not particularly complica-ted does require a considerableamount of preparation and hardwork For the initiative to succeedit is vital not to skimp any of it
1 Legislation
bull What is the current legal situation for non-profit com-munity radio
bull If it is provided for in the legislation what are the termsfor obtaining a licence and the necessary qualificationsof the applicant
bull Is the cost of the licence affordable how long will ittake to obtain and what will be the terms for renewal
bull Can the transmitter be purchased and installed withouta licence or will prior approval of the telecommunica-tion authorities be needed
bull If community radio is not allowed for in the legislationwhat other avenues exist For example are the sameconditions for private commercial radio stations appli-cable to non-profit community stations Are there pro-visions for culturaleducational channels
bull If it is not possible to set up a proper radio station coulda community loudspeaker system be used instead
2 Location Criteria
bull Does the area planned for the broadcast pattern - 10-15km in radius - have a large enough population to sustaina community radio say from 5000 to 25000 people
bull Is the terrain suitable for low-power line-of-sight FMbroadcasting or is it too hilly
bull What mainstream commercial or state radios reach thecommunity If many do it may be difficult to sustain acommunity radio service Alternatively are there anymainstream media that could support or be linked intothe proposed community radio service
bull What cooperation and support can be mobilized fromlocal institutions and organizations eg local councilsgovernmental and non-governmental organizations
bull Is the site selected for the station centrally placed andeasily accessible to the community
3 Characteristics and Capabilities of Promoters ofCommunity Radio
bull What is the credibility level and the previous experienceof the people promoting the project
bull Are they generally acceptable to the stakeholders in theproject
bull What is their capacity to mobilize human and financialresources to sustain the operations of a communityradio
bull What is the level of democracy in their decision-making processes
bull Have they been accepted as credible and non-partisanactivists in the community with a reputation for integrityand transparency in their dealings
bull What are the constraints and opportunities for organizinga representative community radio council (Board ofDirectors) or a cooperative society for communitycommunication
4 Context for Setting the Objectives and Drafting a Mission Statement
bull How does the community perceive its situation and theneed for change and development Are people unhappywith the present circumstances and if so to what extentdo they see change as good and also as possible
bull What are the principle obstacles to those changes inattitude and behaviour that could help to promotedevelopment
bull What are the traditional decision-making processes inthe community and how might these be affected byopening a democratic forum for discussion in the shapeof a community radio
bull Who are the formal and informal opinion-leaders in thecommunity and are there any that hold explicit orimplicit leadership roles in relation to the proposedcommunity radio
BOX 6 Main Factors to Consider When Planning a Community Radio
1 Quote Zane Ibrahim and Ms Adams Bush Radio 895 FM(See Case Study 4)
2 Colin FraserSonia Restrepo-Estrada Focus Group Discussions inDevelopment Work Some Field Experiences and Lessons Learned Journal of Development Communication Number One Volume Nine(Kuala Lumpur June 1998) This article provides details of this subjectand technique for which there is only space for an outline here
3 Quote Bill Siemering US public radio activist (1997)
4 Quote Louie Tabing Manager of the UNESCODANIDA TambuliProject Philippines (1999)
5 Based on a written statement by W Jayaweera UNESCO Project Officer(1999)
6 Comment Zane Ibrahim and Ms Adams Radio by Bush Radio South Africa(See Case Study 4)
7 Personal communication Cilia Mosquera Manager of Radio CanaleteIstmina Colombia (1999)
8 Comment community broadcaster in Ecuador (See Case Study 5)
9 Quote Louie Tabing Manager of UNESCODANIDA Tambuli ProjectPhilippines (1999) 55
Com
mun
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bull What points of resistance - either from individuals orgroups - might the community radio be expected toencounter in pursuing its declared objectives
bull Why and how could a community radio service help tobring about change and development In particularwhat impact could it have in mobilizing local resourcesfor development and in increasing community partici-pation for good governance
5 Technical Aspects
bull What is the situation regarding an electricity source forthe studio and for the transmitter
bull What transmission power is likely to be needed to coverthe community
bull Can the antenna be installed at least 30 m above theground firmly anchored to prevent wind damage andwith a lightning conductor
bull Can the antenna and transmitter be installed next toeach other - not more than 30 m apart
bull Can the studio and transmitter be installed far enoughapart to prevent radio frequency emissions from gettinginto the studio equipment
bull Is the place selected for the studio - as well as beingcentrally located and easily accessible to the population -free of uncontrollable noise and free of vested interests
6 Ownership and Management
bull What type of ownership structure can be envisaged
bull How is the community to be involved in managementand programming
bull To what extent do the plans for the community radiointegrate the traditionally vulnerable and marginalizedgroups - ie women youth and ethniclinguistic minorities - in the management and operations of theproposed community radio
7 Programming for the Community Radio Service
bull As an initial guide what programmes do people listento now which do they like most and why
bull What mechanisms can be set up to ensure regularconsultation and feedback with the community to ensurethat programmes meet their likes and needs
bull What special measures will be necessary to ensure thatprogramme producers respect the desires of theiraudience
bull Are there any particular programme formats that arelikely to be especially favourable or unfavourable inhelping to meet the objectives of the radio service
bull What mechanisms can be set up to identify individualsor groups that could produce their own programmes forbroadcast and how will they need to be encouraged andhelped
8 Staffing and other Resources
bull Is there enough interest and enthusiasm to be able tomobilize human and material resources to start and runthe station
bull Who can assume the task of the day-to-day manage-ment of the radio station
bull Is the proposed manager of the station acceptable to allsegments of the community and does heshe have thenecessary managerial and interpersonal communicationskills
bull What will the role of volunteers be in running the operation
bull What resources can be mobilized to ensure the start upof the community radio
bull What resources can be mobilized to sustain the com-munity radio over time
56
The church as a major institution of society has a major role to play
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Moneky Bay Radio Station
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Chapter 6Programme Policies
57
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T his chapter stresses the need for participation of the audience in establishing programmingneeds and preferences in programme production (as presenters and performers) and in evaluation
It describes the crucial role of community news as part of an ongoing process of change and development discusses the ethical standards required by journalists and goes on to emphasize theimportance of balancing views in all programming
Later sections deal with policies for coverage of religiouscultural events local election broadcastsand educational broadcasts
The final section is on the importance of audience surveys and outlines how to conduct them
After absorbing the Chapter the reader will
bull Be able to establish programming policies and operations that will achieve maximum partici-pation of the community and its various sectors at all stages
bull Be able to set up mechanisms to ensure that programming meets audience needs and wishes
bull Know the ethical principles for news gathering and reporting and for maintaining a balance ofviews in a programme
bull Be aware of the possible legal conditions surrounding coverage of local elections and knowhow to handle coverage fairly and objectively
bull Gain insights into the use of radio as an educational medium and know the requirements tomake it effective
PARTICIPATORY PROGRAMMES
Any successful radio station mustappeal to the interests tastes anddesires of its audience What makesprogrammes for a community radiodifferent is that in addition to pleasingentertaining and perhaps providingsome general enlightenment for itsaudience they also seek to facilitatechange social progress and betterliving conditions in the community thatthe radio serves
It needs high numbers of listeners andaudience loyalty to achieve this but theunique advantage that communityradio has over any other type of broad-casting in winning audience is its abilityto be specifically relevant to the particular needs interests and desiresof its relatively small audienceHowever it can only reach this level ofrelevance through the constant invol-vement and participation of thataudience in the planning operationand evaluation of its programming
58
Participation in AscertainingNeeds and Preferences
A consultation process is requiredto establish certain things abouteach of the main audience sectors(eg women men youth farmerscooperative members etc) Themain points to be ascertained are
bull Listenersrsquo needs
bull Listenersrsquo preferences
bull Listening habits (ie times of daywhen people mainly tune in)
This information is the basis fordeciding on programme contentformat and the scheduling of pro-grammes at times that best suit thevarious segments of the audience
Participation in ProducingProgrammes
Everything possible should be doneto encourage individuals andgroups to participate in program-me production In this contextgroups might also be NGOs working in the community or staffof government services The principle role of the station staffapart from encouragement shouldbe to provide technical support andfacilities to the producers
In the Philippines an interestingp ro g ra m m e fo r m a t c a l l e dBaranggayan sa Himpapawid
roughly lsquoVillage on the Airrsquo hasbeen developed by the UNESCO-DANIDA supported Tambuli ProjectThe programme is produced in adifferent village each week in thearea covered by the communityradiorsquos broadcast pattern
In essence it is a variety show inwhich the villagers take the lead assingers musicians humorists poetsinterviewers and interviewees panelmembers and so on Althoughmost of the programme consists oflocal culture and entertainment italso contains a section that givesthe community the chance to discuss relevant issues and villageconcerns in public with local leaderscalled on to respond and maketheir opinions and position clearThis often gives rise to a debate onthe subject
A k a r a o k e s y s t e m - t h erecorderplayback lsquosing-alongrsquomachine which is very well knowneven in Philippine villages - usuallyserves as the outside recording studio Its familiarity to the villagershelps to reduce possible inhibitions
The programme is normally broad-cast the day after it is recorded andit is enormously popular even if thevillagers who produced it had noprevious experience of talking orsinging in front of a microphone
Participation of Individuals andGroups as Presenters orPerformers
Obviously programme formats like lsquoVillage on the Airrsquo in thePhilippines provide occasions forordinary people to present and perform in front of a microphoneBut even without such a program-me format it is important to solicitand support performances thatinvolve ordinary people These cantake a variety of forms includingfor example musical presentationsreadings of poetry comic skits orquite simply interviews round-tables or discussions in whichpeople present their ideas and opinions about any issue that is ofinterest to the communityProgramme formats that inviteparticipation from people in thecommunity should be a regular feature of the stationrsquos broadcasts
Every effort should also be made tohave the radio station seen as afocal point in the communitywhere people are free to come andtalk to the staff and discuss ideasfor programmes in which theycould be involved
An Overview of Programming
Programming decisions are among the most sensitiveand challenging tasks in a station This activity isnecessary when starting a radio station or whenmodifications are called for Periodic evaluation exercises usually trigger a programming revamp
Long hours of consultation and brainstorming sessions are devoted to programme planning A cunning programme manager serves to facilitate aparticipatory deliberation ndash rather than dictateideas - to determine the thrust format content andphilosophies By participating the staff [too] becomeenthusiastic implementers of the programme planIndeed participation makes the station a genuinecommunity radio 1
This graph shows the time avilability of various target groups for radio listening Different localities may show slightly varying trends from this
hypothetical illustration To determine the time slots of programmes designed for specific groups the programmers must at least figure
out if not make a formal research on the habits of their target listeners
Time Availability Chart
BROADCAST TIME
Participation in Evaluation ofProgramming
Community radio stations normallyreceive considerable numbers ofletters andor telephone callsfrom listeners These often providefeedback from the audience aboutthe stationrsquos programmes Thisprocess is very useful to the stationpersonnel and the audience shouldtherefore be encouraged by theannouncers and presenters towrite or call with their comments orsuggestions
However in addition to this routinefeedback a community radioshould conduct periodic evalua-tions of its programming with theparticipation of members of itsvarious audience sectors TheFocus Group Discussion techniqueoutlined earlier is an excellentmethod for eliciting peoplersquos opin-ions about existing programmestheir effects on community lifeand their ideas as to how programmes could be improved
Individual programmes may alsobe evaluated in conjunction withthe audience Programmes arenormally analyzed from two basicviewpoints
bull The formal structure of the programme including its technicalquality (the sound effects used
performance of the announcersand other participants controlof extraneous noise etc)
bull The content of the programmewith specific relation to
Information sources - were theywell selected credible and suffi-cient in number
Context - were the themes of theprogramme pertinent to the specific situation and needs of theaudience
Timeliness - were the themes ofthe programme pertinent in thesense of covering an actual orongoing situation
Actors and roles - did the physicalactors (persons) and the non-physical actors (institutions) eachplay their appropriate role in theprogramme
Communication approach ndash wasthe programme one-way or participatory Did it lead to anycritical analysis by the audience
bull Message formulation - did thecentral message come out clearlyWas there a good balance bet-ween rational emotional andaffective elements Was the format suitably matched withthe content
It is vital that a community radiomanager and his or her staff realize from the beginning thatprogramming decisions must bepart of a dynamic processFeedback and evaluations shouldbe constantly driving the processof improving and adapting theprogramming to meet the needsand preferences of the listenersAnd it must be remembered thatthese are not necessarily constantTo fall into a programming routineand to assume that listeners aresatisfied with what is on offer isthe short road to listeners desert-ing the frequency And that in turnis the short road to the death ofthe community radio
Peoplersquos views and opinions are important for strenghtheningdemocratic practice and for arriving at a cooperative approach tocommunity development Hence in Olutanga a small island in thesouthern part of Zamboanga Philippines the Village on the Airprogramme is the most popular of all It exemplifies the key themeof community radio- participation of the people
59
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60
COMMUNITY NEWS
Community news is a unique feature and a prime strength thatgives a community radio station theinside track in competing againstlarger commercial or government stations However it must beremembered that the news provided by community radio incontrast to that of the mainstreammedia is not an isolated story orevent alone rather it should bepart of an ongoing and future process that is supporting progressand development in the communityRegular local news broadcasts inthe context of a process are thereforethe lifeblood of a community radioProgramming policies and opera-tions need to give them maximumimportance
Gathering local news is not alwayseasy especially when limitedresources make transportation andmobility for station personnel diffi-cult The idea of lsquopopular reportersrsquo- essentially a few volunteers scat-tered in the community - whoreport in to the studio by telephonecellular phone or VHF radio isalways worth pursuing
However journalistic ethics are justas important in community newsgathering and reporting as they arefor any major news organization
Indeed these ethics can be evenmore important in a communityradio For given the more intimaterelationship that exists betweenthe radio and its audience and thefact that the audience is also inter-related because it is part of a com-munity incorrect or tendentiousreporting or misrepresentation ofan event or issue can have moreimmediate and damaging effectsthan they would in a larger and lessinvolved audience
Thus a community radiorsquos programming policy with regard tocommunity news needs to be basedon having personnel and outsidereporters who have been properlyinitiated into the ethics of journa-lism These cover such aspects ashonesty fairness and objectivityand verification of sources beforeissuing a news item It is difficultnot to make the occasional mistakebut if it does happen an immediateacknowledgement and correctionshould be broadcast (See also the Code of Conduct in the next chapter)
Many community radios also pre-sent news bulletins that includeregional national and internationalitems The source for these is usuallythe mainstream media ndash newspapersradio and TV It is sometimes possible to arrange a link up with a
state or commercial radio stationand re-broadcast its news bulletinto the community Some communityradios make a point of having newsitems discussed on air by listenerseither through telephone calls orby 2-3 member panels in the studio
Whatever approach is used for out-side news the overall policy shouldbe to present or comment on it in away that makes it accessible andmeaningful to the communityaudience
BALANCING VIEWS
The main thrust of a communityradio should be to try to promotefair discussion and debate that canlead to resolution of conflictingviewpoints and to democraticconsensus The personnel of thestation and the way they work arefundamental in achieving this (Theterm lsquopersonnelrsquo of course includesvolunteers)
The staff of the radio station mustof course appear to be neutral Thisis not to say that they will not havetheir own personal points of viewbut they must on no account lettheir opinions influence the waythey stimulate and conduct any dis-cussions or make presentations onair A station manager should bewatchful for any manifestations of
DECLARATION OF PRINCIPLES ON THE CONDUCTOF JOURNALISTS
Adopted by the Second World Congress of theInternational Federation of Journalists at Bordeaux25-28 April 1954 and amended by the 18th IFJ WorldCongress in Helsingoumlr 2-6 June 1986 This interna-tional declaration is proclaimed as a standard of pro-fessional conduct for journalists engaged in gathe-ring transmitting disseminating and commentingon news and information and in describing events
1 Respect for truth and for the right of the public to truthis the first duty of the journalist
2 In pursuance of this duty the journalist shall at all timesdefend the principles of freedom in the honest collectionand publication of news and of the right of fair commentand criticism
3 The journalist shall report only in accordance with factsof which heshe knows the origin The journalist shallnot suppress essential information or falsify documents
4 The journalist shall use only fair methods to obtainnews photographs and documents
5 The journalist shall do the utmost to rectify any publishedinformation which is found to be harmfully inaccurate
6 The journalist shall observe professional secrecy regardingthe source of information obtained in confidence
7 The journalist shall be aware of the danger of discrimination being furthered by the media and shalldo the utmost to avoid facilitating such discriminationbased on among other things race sex sexual orientationlanguage religion political or other opinions and national or social origins
8 The journalist shall regard as grave professional offencesthe following plagiarism malicious misrepresentationcalumny slander libel unfounded accusations theacceptance of a bribe in any form in consideration ofeither publication or suppression
9 Journalists worthy of that name shall deem it their dutyto observe faithfully the principles stated above Withinthe general law of each country the journalist shall recognize in professional matters the jurisdiction of colleagues only to the exclusion of every kind of interference by government or others
bias by his staff while on air as wellas in hisher normal socialcontacts for if any staff are knownto have a strong position on somesubject and express it openly insocial conversations it will bemore difficult for them to presenta position of neutrality while onair Furthermore station managersshould take seriously and lookinto any complaints from listenersabout bias or manipulation ofinformation in the work of the stationrsquos personnel
The balancing of views also callsfor equal opportunity and time toallow different viewpoints to beexpressed on air The managementshould have a rigid policy thatensures this
It must always be rememberedthat the credibility and integrity ofthe service and of the personnelwho run it are crucial to its successand sustainability
COVERAGE OF RELIGIOUSAND CULTURAL EVENTS
Religious functions in a communi-ty are often cultural events as wellAdequate coverage of these occa-sions has to be included in theradio stationrsquos programme In amulti-religious community theradio station should take the
necessary steps to ensure reason-able access to all the different reli-gious institutions and denomina-tions To achieve this it is oftengood to have a committee of differ-ent religious leaders to agree onand advise the station on airtimeallocation for different religiousprogrammes The basic thrust ofreligious programming should betowards promoting religious harmony in the community deni-gration of other peoplersquos religiousbeliefs must be avoided at all costs
LOCAL ELECTION BROADCASTS
Some countriesrsquo legislation specifi-cally forbids community radio tobecome involved in any way withpolitical campaigning Othersallow campaigning under strictlycontrolled conditions only duringspecified election periods Themanagement of a communityradio should examine carefully theparticular legal situation withregard to electioneering
If a community radio is involved inpolitical campaigns it is essentialthat no party or candidate derivesundue advantage or suffers unduedisadvantage A transparent sys-tem of providing equal opportuni-ty and equal time to duly register-ed political parties and candidates
must be established The conceptof equality in opportunity andtime must take into account thelength of the broadcast the qualityof presentation and any advantagesthat might accrue from the timeand day of the broadcast If noagreement can be reached betweenthose concerned drawing of lotsor some similar system may beused
Any programme of a politicalnature which is sponsored or paidfor with the intention of influen-cing voters in a certain directionmust be properly identified as suchat the beginning at regular intervalsduring the programme and againat the end (See also the section onpolitical broadcasts in the Code ofConduct in Chapter 7)
Community radio can effectivelymonitor and ensure good conductof elections and thus support thisvital democratic process
EDUCATIONAL BROADCASTS (School on the Air)
In the 1960s and 1970s when ruralbroadcasting was being widelypromoted by development agen-cies there was much emphasisgiven to the educational possibilitiesoffered by radio a strategy
Everywhere religion plays a major role in the lives of people Community radiobroadcasters must also learn to appreciate this role while keeping radio free
from undue religious influences
61
Com
mun
ity
Rad
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rd
62
pioneered by Radio Sutatenza inColombia However experienceshows that as an educationmedium radio alone is weak itneeds to be supported by othermedia such as printed materials aswell as by inter-personal contactsto form a complete educationalpackage
A community radio may well decidethat part of its programmingshould consist of educationalbroadcasts for example for farmerson agricultural techniques or formothers on childcare and nutritionIf such a policy decision is takenthe best results will be achievedwhen it is based on proper adulteducation methodology Thisbegins with careful structuring of
the educational content of thebroadcasts in accordance with thetraineesrsquo circumstances needs andcapacities It should also involvesome sort of enrolment and recog-nition award for successful comple-tion of a course in order to enhancepeoplersquos sense of commitmentAnd the radio programmes shouldbe supported by other materialsgroup discussions and inter-personalfollow-up
Setting up a programme of educa-tional broadcasts can be a veryworthwhile objective for a commu-nity radio but it needs to be care-fully thought out planned andwork in conjunction with theappropriate services in say healthor agriculture Advice and support
from an adult education specialist
can help to ensure successful
programmes
Whether or not a community radio
decides to broadcast educational
programmes per se its policy
should take into account that edu-
cation in the broad sense of the
word and in the context of helping
people to improve their lives is one
of the fundamental objectives of
community radio Thus educa-
tional content will always be present
though it may be built into a variety
of formats including reportage
interviews panel questionanswer
sessions or discussions entertaining
drama etc
School on the Air ndash Girandurukotte CommunityRadio Sri Lanka
ldquoThe School on the Air was an action-oriented programme whose primary objective was to provideinstructional education in a manner that would leadto action It also attempted to develop a coordinatedapproach in which all those concerned with thedevelopment of the area could work together We
believed that such an approach would pave the wayfor our listeners to put into practice the instructionsthey received through radio and other channels ofcommunication
The radio producer in charge of agricultural pro-grammes worked with the agricultural extension officers in the area and with the committee thatadvised on the farming programme of the School onthe Air to develop an agricultural calendar and toidentify on-farm activities and their technicalcontent for the coming season
The calendar with the relevant technical informationwas produced and circulated among 115 farmers whoenrolled in the agricultural programme of the Schoolon the Air These farmers were asked to listen to theradio programme and to make notes in the blankspace provided in the calendar itself
A question was asked at the end of each programmeto which the farmers sent in their reply either bymail or during a visit to the radio stationThe programme received an average of 200-250replies many of which were from farmers not enrolled in the programme
The correct answers were discussed in the follow- upprogramme and those who had provided correct answers received marks
A seasonal course usually lasted 2-3 months and atthe end of the course farmers who had collected anaggregate of pass marks were awarded a School onthe Air certificaterdquo 3
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In Laurel Batangas a police officer runs the lsquoTraffic and Good Behaviourrsquo programmeThe studio is an abandoned classroom at the local high school
Phot
o L
Tab
ing
Some stations like Radio Voice of Manduyog in Banga Aklan Province are fortunate tobe linked to an educational institution In this instance the Aklan State College ofAgriculture serves its community with agricultural and technical programmes as well aspublic service womenrsquos programmes children stories good behaviour Students volunteerfor station duty as researchers or announcers
AUDIENCE SURVEYSA community radio that has goodfeedback from its audiencethrough letters telephone callsand visits to the studio and whichregularly conducts participatoryevaluations of its work as describedearlier will have access to muchqualitative information Howeverthis may not be enough to providea full picture of a radio stationrsquosperformance and standing Theindependence of an outside surveyteam is required to obtain reliableanswers to questions such as
bull Does the station have credibilityamong its listeners
bull Is the station seen as a reliablesource of information
bull What image and status do thestaff have in the eyes of the community
bull To what extent does the com-munity depend on the stationfor information and develop-ment materials
bull What do listeners do with theinformation they gain Do theyuse it store it pass it on toothers or look for additionalinformation
bull What impact is the radio havingin the community Whatchanges can be essentially attributed to the radio
In addition some quantitativedata may be needed about howmany people listen to the station
and when compared to other stations and how many listen toparticular programmes This infor-mation provides a picture of howthe community radio stands inrelation to other media channelsavailable to the audience
The type of information mentionedabove is often difficult to obtainThere are specialized companiesthat conduct audience researchusually for large commercial stations They have a natural tendency to inflate the listeningfigures so that the radio stationthat contracted the survey can usehigh ratings as a basis for chargingmore for advertising time In addition the experience of thesecompanies is mainly urban
Unfortunately the gadgetry usedby mainstream media to electronic-ally record the number of receiverstuned into a programme and evenwhen the channel is changed isbeyond the reach of communityradio stations So other methodsneed to be used to obtain thequantitative data
The commonest method is to takea sample of the audience - specialsampling techniques exist for theselection - and have them answer aquestionnaire either by mail orduring an interview The resultsare extrapolated to give a picturefor the whole community
The radio station itself canuse certain techniques totry to determine listeningpatterns One of these isto invite the audience tosend in entries to acontest or to make contri-butions to a communitycampaign The announce-ment is systematicallyrepeated throughout thedayrsquos programming andthe respondents are askedto say at what time ortimes they heard theannouncement
In most countries one candiscard the use of com-mercial media research organiza-tions for community radio It isbetter to enlist the help of NGOsuniversity students or volunteerswho are unknown in the commu-nity to conduct surveys and inter-views (If interviewers are knownin the community respondentsmay feel conditioned in the waythey answer) What is ideal is toget help from the staff of anothercommunity radio station for suchan outsider view They also learnfrom the experience
However difficult it may be toarrange surveys by outsiders fromtime to time are important to beable to gauge the way a communi-ty radio is functioning and thestanding it enjoys among itsaudience
Bus stops provide unique opportunities to gain feedback from audience and conduct interestinginterviews In Punka the Chief of Programmes of Bhutan Radio interviews an expectant passenger While waiting for the bus his handy radio helps pass the time
63
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1 Louie Tabing Programming Tips for a Community Radio Station UNESCO-DANIDA Tambuli Project (Manila 1998)
2 Louie Tabing et al Neighbourhood Radio Production UNESCO-DANIDATambuli Project Manila undated
3 Based on MJR David Mahaweli Community Radio A Field ProducerrsquosNotebook Institute of Development Communication Laguna(Philippines 1993)
Interviewing for Agricultural School on the Air Sri Lanka Recordingtraditional songs for transplanting rice
Phot
o W
Jay
awee
ra
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64
Homa Bay Radio Station
Phot
o U
nesc
o
Chapter 7The Community Broadcaster
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T his chapter provides a prototype code of conduct for community broadcasters A community
radio service could use it as it stands or it could modify it according to any special local needs
or conditions It includes sections on programme production and on ethics conduct and
teamwork during operations and in the studio on the care of equipment and on the general conduct of
broadcasters in their normal life in the community
Other sections deal with conduct related to financial matters and provide details of how these can
be handled Appropriate policies and conduct for political broadcasts and for advertising
and sponsorship are also covered
Sections on the selection and training of community broadcasters give advice on selection criteria
on the content and categories of training required and describe various types of training modalities
There is a discussion of the pros and cons of on-site in-country and overseas training and a final
section on the financing of training
The reader can expect to
bull Gain an understanding of the need for and content of a code of conduct for community
broadcasters
bull Have a model code of conduct to apply as it stands or to modify to suit local circumstances
bull Learn about the different types and content of training needed by community broadcasters
and have guidelines for the general planning and organizing of training activities
CODE OF CONDUCT
The conduct of the personnel whowork with a community radio is centralto achieving the levels of efficiencyintegrity and positive image requiredfor its success Some national broadcasting legislations that includecommunity radio also provide a codeof conduct for broadcasters In additionthe UNESCODANIDA supportedTambuli Project in the Philippines hasdrawn up a code of its own 1
Although most codes of conduct arealmost identical in their generalapproach there may also be a need forspecial points to cover aspects that arespecific to a certain country For exam-ple where community radios areallowed to accept advertising or becomeinvolved in political campaigns theproper ethical conduct of these willneed to be included in the code
It is a useful idea therefore for community broadcasters in a countryto form associations and agree on acommon code of conduct appropriateto their circumstances In essence the 65
66
code of conduct should be a professional instrument for self-regulation and not a law or regula-tion enforced by government Thecommunity being served by thestation should also be informed ofthe code being applied
The code of conduct which followsbelow brings together elementsfrom several sources but it is basedon the structure of the Tambulidocument It is provided as a proto-type which community radios mayuse or modify as they wish
A PROTOTYPE CODE OF CONDUCT
Preparing and ConductingBroadcasts
General
bull Programmes should be well pre-pared in order to present newideas new information and newpoints of view
bull Broadcasters should obtain infor-mation from reliable sources andorganize their programmesproperly before going on air
bull A good balance should be main-tained between news entertain-ment and public-service programmes
bull Programming should maintain abalance that properly reflects the
differing interests of the variousmajority and minority sectors inthe community
Research
bull Broadcasters should actively andconstantly be researching newinteresting and comprehensiveinformation The most persistentresearchers and enquirers willultimately be the most reliablesources of information for otherpeople
Decency and Good Taste
bull Programmes should excludematerial that is indecent obsceneor offensive to public morals orto the religious convictions of anysector of the community
bull Programmes should promotegood relationships between differ-ent sectors of the community andshould most certainly avoid pre-judicing them
bull Justifiable material that relates tobrutality violence atrocitiesdrug abuse and obscenity shouldbe presented with due care andsensitivity and always in contextnot gratuitously Special care isnecessary when children are likelyto hear the programme
bull Broadcasters should rememberthat listeners especially children
and youth may make radioannouncers and presenters theirrole model and therefore theyshould behave accordingly
Respect for Privacy
bull Broadcasters should use care andconsideration in matters involv-ing the private lives and concernsof individuals The interest andeven the right to know of a com-munity is not a licence to invade apersonrsquos privacy But there can becases of exceptional overridingand legitimate public interestthat waive the right to privacy
bull Information provided by an inter-viewee as off-the-record shouldbe treated as such by a reporter
Preference for a Positive andConstructive Approach
bull Broadcasters should stronglyavoid the temptation to includerumours gossip slurs criticismsconflicts and indirect propagan-da in their programmes
bull Where the public interest is atstake and a controversy must bediscussed on air the broadcastersshould do everything in theirpower to present all sides of thestory
Responsibilities
ldquoLike every bestowed opportunity the privilege touse radio carries with it responsibilities - towards theinstitution and more than this towards society It isthe responsibility of anyone using the power of communication to uphold the dignity of the stationand his co-workers Radio is a powerful tool withwhich one person can manifest care for the community dependent on him for fair honest andtruthful communication rather than serve selfishmotives It is easy to detect whether a broadcaster isrepresenting his interest or that of the communitywhere he belongsrdquo 2
lsquoHate Radiorsquo A Warning
The former Director-General of UNESCO AmadouMahtar MrsquoBow stated ldquoBecause radio can be verypowerful it may sometimes be detrimental to thepeople it aims to serve We saw in Rwanda that aradio station Radio Mille Collines contributedgreatly and criminally to the tragedy that hit thatcountry To avoid human rights abuses even minorones community media practitioners and humanrights activists are trying to rally internationallyaround a Peoples Communication Charter that pro-vides guiding principles to prevent such potentialabuses Inter alia the Charter states that ldquorestrictions on access to information should be permissible only for good and compelling reasons as when prescribed by international human rightsstandards or necessary for the protection of a democratic society or the basic rights of othersrdquo
A Real Emergency is the Only Valid Excuse
ldquoIt is only in emergency cases that an announcer maybe allowed to absent himself without previous noticeThis would need to be on the level of a deathof a member of his household or the need tobring to the hospital a member of the familywho is running a fever of 40 degreesrdquo 3
bull Broadcasters should emphasizeinteresting and useful informa-tion rather than dwell onunsavoury conflicts
bull When dealing with a problemrather than bemoaning it thestress should be placed on dis-cussing it in the positive light ofwhat possible actions could betaken and by whom to solve it
Conduct During Operations
Teamwork
bull The personnel of a communityradio are all part of a team andshould act and work as such Thismeans among other thingsbeing willing to help a colleaguewho is in difficulty for any reasonand co-operating by providinginformation contacts andmaterials to colleagues who mayneed them
bull Individuals should participate inevaluations and discussions andencourage their colleagues toassess and criticize their work
bull Individuals should be willing toaccept and act upon evaluationcritiques
bull Broadcasters should be willing tomake announcements that promote other programmes inthe stationrsquos schedule
bull In live programmes it should benormal practice for a broadcasterto stand in for the programmefollowing hishers if the nextbroadcaster should be delayedThe broadcast should never beleft unattended
Respect for Management
bull Personnel should respect themanagement and comply fullywith the administrative andoperational procedures it hasput in place
bull Any disagreements betweenstaff member(s) and the man-agement should be first discussed with the station manager If the problem cannotbe resolved at that level thematter should be referred to themanagement body of the community radio whose decisionshould be final Respect fromboth sides and a democraticprocess should be observed inthese discussions with the inter-ests of the radio station and thecommunity it serves as the dominating criterion
Punctuality and Reliability
bull Personnel who are to go on airmust be punctual leaving suffi-cient lead-time to prepare them-selves and their materials and to
confer with the station manageror with guests or interviewees asnecessary An absolute mini-mum of ten minutes beforebroadcast time should beobserved though consider-ably longer lead-time isusually advisable
bull If an individual anticipates notbeing able to fulfil a broadcastcommitment heshe shouldinform the station manager atleast one day before so that areplacement can be appointedand have time to prepare properly
Conduct in the Studio Premises
bull No personnel should be allowedto bring firearms into the studioeven if they are members of thepolice or military
bull Drinking or taking of illicit drugsin the studio premises should betreated as a violation of the sta-tionrsquos standing and integrity Soshould coming to the stationintoxicated or under the influenceof drugs
bull Broadcasters should not inviteguests and relatives to the studiopremises without briefing themon proper behaviour especiallywith regard to orderliness andsilence 67
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Broadcasters mustbecome a reliablesource of information for people
In no case should the announcer cometo the sudio less than10 minutes
before broadcast time
68
bull Guests should not be allowed todistract broadcasters disruptactivities or tamper with or pilferstation equipment and property
bull Children visiting the stationshould always be accompanied by aparent or other responsible adult
Care of Studio Equipment
bull Every member of the stationrsquos staffshould participate in preserving itsequipment and property
bull The operation of studio equip-ment should only be by peoplewho have been trained qualifiedand authorized to use it
bull All equipment not in use shouldbe switched off All personnelshould be obliged to clean recapcover and store equipment theyhave used in their proper place
bull No piece of equipment should betaken out of the studio premiseswithout the prior approval of thestation manager or the person towhom heshe has delegated con-trol of such matters Ideally thisapproval should be in writing
bull Any equipment taken out of thestudio premises should bereturned promptly after use
bull Systems of usage and borrowingshould be set up A userrsquos log anda borrowerrsquos log should be kept
bull Broadcasters should immediatelyreport to the station manager orothers in authority any malfunc-tion loss or damage to equip-ment they were using noting thetime and circumstances in whichit happened
bull Based on the points outlinedabove the station manager inconjunction with the rest of themanagement body of the com-munity radio should establishregulations for the use of itsequipment and ensure that allpersonnel are aware of them
Conduct of Personnel Outsidethe Radio Station
bull Community broadcasters arereformers and agents of positivechange and development Theircomportment in their social andfamily life and in their life in gen-eral in the community shouldmatch the image they project asstaff of the community radio
bull Any member of the staff shouldbe automatically dismissed iffound guilty of any criminal orillicit activity The managementof a community radio shouldhave the constitutional right tosuspend or dismiss any such person especially when it isdeemed that keeping himher
would prejudice the image andstanding of the station
bull No member of the staff shoulddivulge classified information
Solicitation of FundsAdvertising or Sponsorship
bull Only personnel who have beenspecifically designated to do soby the management should beallowed to solicit or receive donations grants sponsorship orany other form of financial support for the community radioor for specific programmes Theauthorization to solicit or collectfunds should be in writing
bull No radio station should acceptfunds from any illegal source orfrom any source whose activitieshave a negative effect on thecommunity society or the countryeg gambling rings smugglersdrug traffickers producers orpurveyors of tobacco and alcoholconcerns that are damaging orpolluting the environment etc
bull No funds should be acceptedfrom political parties or otherinterest groups that could latercompromise the stationrsquos editorialindependence
Caution with Record Companies
ldquoCommunity stations can end up playingmusic all day The music industry makes iteasy to lsquospin discsrsquo instead of providing thecommunity with the programming it needsWhen a record company gives a station freemusic the station becomes a record sales outlet for the only place people hear new music is on radioIn South Africa record sales increased dramaticallywhen community radio began Another problem isthe gifts and unsolicited attention that many recordcompanies lavish on the individual who is responsiblefor the lsquoplay listrsquo of tunes that are broadcast to givethe station its identityrdquo 4
Management of FinancialResources
bull The community radio shoulddesignate a treasurer whoshould open a bank account forthe safekeeping and disbursementof its financial resources Thechoice of bank should be madein conjunction with the manage-ment body of the radio
bull Two signatures should berequired for withdrawal of fundsfrom the bank account
bull All funds grants earnings collections and other incomeshould be remitted to the desig-nated treasurer as soon as possibleand never later than 24 hoursafter being received Any personnel who keep funds forlonger should be considered tohave misappropriated them andbe disciplined accordingly
bull The treasurer should keep arecord of all receipts and payments This should be avail-able for inspection at any timeby any member of the manage-ment or by the authorities
bull Only after income has beengiven to the treasurer and itsreceipt duly recorded should itbecome expendable No staffshould be permitted to use
unrecorded incomeeven to reim-burse legitimateexpenses theym a y h a v ei n c u r r e d
bull The stationm a n a g e rshould haveaccess to ap e t t y c a s hf u n d T h i ss h o u l d b ereplenished bythe treasurer whenever it fallsbelow a predetermined amountFull records of the petty cashexpenditures and replenish-ments should be kept
bull The community should be keptinformed at regular intervals ofthe financial state of their radiostation and also have the rightto ask for related information atany time
Political Broadcasts (where allowed)
bull The community radio manage-ment should ascertain in detailany provisions in the nationalbroadcasting legislation con-cerning radio coverage duringpolitical campaigns and abide bythem scrupulously
bull bull
bull Broadcasters should not giveundue advantage or disadvan-tage to any political party orcandidate
bull Equal opportunity and equaltime should be accorded to dulyregistered political parties andcandidates Equality in this con-text takes into account thelength of the broadcast thequality of presentation and anypossible advantages from thetime and day of the broadcast
bull If no agreement on such equalitycan be reached between thoseconcerned drawing of lots orsome similar system may beused
bull News and other informationprogrammes should be edited 69
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70
for strictly factual informationand should avoid bias in favour oragainst any political party or candidate
bull Any personnel of a communi-ty radio including the man-agement body should resigntheir post and refrain fromany regular activity as a broad-caster before or at the time ofdeclaring their intention ofbecoming involved in any politicalor partisan activity
Advertising and Sponsorship(where allowed)
bull The management body shoulddecide whether advertisingwhen allowed under the existinglegislation is compatible with the aims and objectives of the community radio
bull If it is decided to accept advertisingthe management body shouldestablish criteria for the types ofcommercial interests whose publicity will be broadcast
bull Preference should be given toevents goods and services beingorganized or offered by commer-cial concerns within the area inwhich the community radio is situated
bull Advertising should not be accepted
from concerns offering goods thatare harmful to individuals to thecommunity or to society especiallyin terms of health or behaviour(eg tobacco and alcohol) Norshould advertising be accepted foritems that are generally detrimentalto the socio-economic welfare ofthe poor (eg junk food carbonat-ed drinks and other items that are low in nutritional value and relatively high in cost)
bull In respect of sponsorship - whereallowed - and advertising careshould be taken to ensure thatthere is no potential conflict ofinterest between the sponsor oradvertiser and the change anddevelopment objectives of theradio station
Advertisements by PoliticalParties and Candidates
Advertising by political interestsduring election campaigns - asdistinct from party politicalbroadcasts - presents a specialproblem The communityradio management body
should take one of three possible decisions
bull Apply the principle of equaltime and opportunity to politicaladvertisements as in the caseof party political broadcasts
bull Allow each party the freedom tobuy as much air time as it wantsand can afford
bull Not accept advertisements frompolitical parties or candidates
Some community radios chargehigher rates for political advertise-ments than they do for commercialones and it is tempting to solvemany of the sustainability problemsthat afflict all community radios byselling air time willy-nilly to all thepolitical interests that want it andcan pay for it Nevertheless it isdubious whether a communityradio should help the alreadystrong parties to get strongeragainst the weaker alternative par-ties that might bring greater socialprogress From an ethical view-point it is probably better to apply
Some Typical Examples of Potential Conflicts ofInterest between Advertising Revenue and theGeneral Good
bull Revenue from infant formula producers or retailersversus promoting the healthier practice of breast-feeding
bull Revenue from farm pesticide manufacturers versusthe need to promote integrated pest management
bull Revenue from international bottlers of carbonateddrinks versus promoting the use of locally grownfruit-based drinks
bull Sponsorship for a farming programme fromcommercial dealers or outlets of farm produce ver-sus support to farmers to obtain better prices
bull Sponsorship from a mining company with localoperations versus the need to reduce its negativeenvironmental impact
The Commercial Radio Viewpoint
After a series of elections in Ecuador spread over a short time the owner of a commercial stationin Cuenca said only half joking These politically unstable times have saved half of us frombankruptcy 5
Training Experience at Radio Sagarmatha Nepal
Two types of training have been conducted the firstfocusing on broad concepts and techniques has successfully upgraded general skills and brought people into the fold the second has been integratedinto the stations specific needs and context workingwith producers and developing new programmes
The first type has been done with foreign resourcesgenerally the training centres of international broadcasters This training was important for identifying and developing human resources While Nepal has excellent media resources of its ownthe expertise of these international broadcasters hasbeen extremely beneficial
The second type has used local resources and integrated the needs of the station and of thetrainees into the planning and conducting of trainingcourses using a more hands-on on-the-job approachThis has proved appropriate to the overall development of the station and to existing and available technologies This training has beenconducted by station personnel and internationaltechnical advisers working locally It has concentrat-ed on existing station staff rather than new recruits
the equality principle or not toaccept any political advertisingeven if this means loss of revenue
SELECTION OF COMMUNITY BROADCASTERS
Some community radios arestaffed by people chosen mainlyfor their commitment to the wel-fare and improvement of theirown community and for theirinterest in radio as an instrumentfor social progress Other commu-nity radios are able to draw onpeople who have some experienceor training in the area of commu-nication or journalism but whomay be outsiders to the communi-ty Although they may have a bet-ter education and more skills thanordinary members of a communi-ty they may well be at an initialdisadvantage until they havegained full insight into how thecommunity functions
When selecting people from thecommunity it is usual to apply certain other criteria besidesthese peoplersquos sense of commit-ment They should be residents ofthe community with no immediateintention of migrating away fromit they should have good oralcommunication skills they shouldbe of good moral standing and
have leadership potential theyshould be representative of anyethnic and religious groupings andof political affiliations in the com-munity and they should have timeavailable for the initial training andfor a volunteer job
The balance between women andmen is particularly important Inmany countries it is usually mainlymen who come forward whentraining is being offered but it isessential that women be integratedinto the operation in balance withmen Quite apart from fundamentalissues of gender equity most com-munity radios have high numbersof listeners among women whoneed information that is best supplied by other women Womenon the air will also help others toassume an equitable and respectedrole in the affairs of the communi-ty and its development Staff sustainability will usually beimproved by having womenbecause they are less likely to leavethe community in search of work
In one community radio in SouthAfrica which provides training forbroadcasters no training course isallowed to go ahead unless at leasthalf of the participants arewomen (See Case Study 4) Insome countries it may be difficultfor cultural reasons to insist on this
condition immediately but itshould certainly be a target every-where
TRAINING OF COMMUNITY BROADCASTERS
Community radio stations veryoften begin with people who havenever been inside a radio studionever held a microphone andnever had any involvement withthe world of media or journalismTraining such people presents anoteworthy challenge but experi-ence has shown that it is not as difficult as one might expect
Content of Training
Many skills are involved in broad-casting The principal ones thatstaff collectively of a station needto have fall into three main types
Technical - use of equipment andsimple repairs
Programme production - coveringelements such as radio talk voiceperformance script writing inter-view techniques news gatheringwriting and delivery magazineprogramme production produc-tion of radio spots jingles andpublic-service announcementsproduction of participatory pro-grammes in the community basic
Martin Allard on Technical TrainingldquoI think that the future of community radio is theelimination of the role of the technician as aseparate activity and the inclusion of a limitedamount of technical training in the functions ofstation managers and programme producersrdquo 6
71
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c o m m u n i c a t i o ntheory and practice
Management andOperations ndashincluding manage-ment skills overallprogramming for acommunity radiomarketing the station audienceresearch methodsradio laws andethics
In addition every-one working with acommunity radiomust be well
versed in the Code of Conductbeing applied
Categories and Phases ofTraining
The training required for broad-casters falls into two broad categories
bull Introductory training needed forthem to able to function at theminimum level of competencerequired
bull Refinement of their skills untilthey become fully competent inone or more broadcasting roleeg programme producerannouncer reporter studio
technician etc In many smallcommunity radio stations peoplehave to learn to function in any orall of these roles
Introductory Training
This should cover three basic typesof content
bull The philosophy of communityradio and its role in news enter-tainment and education andparticularly in change and development
bull The principle factors in the codeof conduct for community broadcasters
bull The use of broadcasting equip-ment and basic programme production
Some community radios manage toprovide this basic training in anintensive introductory course lasting about three weeks and heldin the community The courseshould include a large amount ofhands-on training as indeed shouldall types of broadcaster training
The introductory training providedwhen starting a community radioservice will of course need outsidesupport both in terms of trainersand funding The trainers can comefrom other well-established com-munity or public-service broadcast-ing stations in the country
The introductory training can be
used to help the selection process
for staff It is useful to include more
trainees than the staff actually
needed and to select the best of
them at the end of the course
Once a community station is up
and running new personnel can
often be given their basic training
by working with the already
competent staff learning by doing
supplemented with sessions to
cover aspects such as the philosophy
code of conduct and other
conceptual issues of community
radio
Refinement of Skills
Community broadcasters need to
take part in a continuous process of
learning Even veterans often learn
something new from others from
reading or from some reaction in
the community to a programme
they have produced In addition
new technology is being intro-
duced all the time
Refinement of skills to a certain
extent comes naturally through
learning-by-doing but this is not
enough There are several ways that
broadcasters can be helped to
improve their performance
Listening is all important listening to feedback listening to opinions listening togood music and to onersquos own singing At the Childrenrsquos Center in Olongapo
Philippines Shirley listens to a recording for the morning show
Phot
o C
A A
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Formal Training Courses EitherOn-site or In-country Usingnational or international trainersshort training workshops can beorganized on specific aspects ofbroadcasting and programme pro-duction
This type of training is most effec-tive and economical if traineesfrom several different communityradio stations can be broughttogether This has the additionalbenefit of opening doors forfuture contacts cooperation andinterchange between various stations For example it is veryuseful to have staff from one community radio help to evaluatethe programming and work of another Their outsider percep-tions can be invaluable and at thesame time they learn from theexperience
Training Attachments toOther Radio Stations It is oftenpossible to come to an arrange-ment with another more experi-enced community radio or public-service station to send trainees fora period of work with them Insome countries notably SouthAfrica the station that pioneeredcommunity radio has become atraining centre for other stationswith less experience This has several advantages particularly in
terms of low costs and sharing ofexperience If the attachment is toanother community radio and toa successful one the trainees mayalso learn how certain problemshave been solved and how innova-tive and creative ideas are beingapplied in programming
Care should be taken aboutattachments to commercial stations Their philosophy is so different from that of communityradio that even if a trainee learnssome technical aspects of programme production heshewill learn nothing about using radioas part of social development
Overseas Fellowships Many ofthe worldrsquos major broadcastingorganizations run training coursesin their home country Amongthese are Radio Netherlands theB B C a n d D e u t s ch e We l l e Governments and developmentagencies are sometimes willing toprovide fellowships for communitybroadcasters to follow a course atone of these training centres Thiswill certainly give the trainees avaluable learning experience in allaspects of radio production butthere may be certain disadvantagesas explained in the next section
On-Site In-Country or OverseasTraining
There are pros and cons to each ofthe above
On-site training in the communitywhere the radio station operatesprovides the most realistic possibletraining venue the group oftrainees work with the equipmentwith the people and in the circumstances of their futureactivities It also saves the cost oftravel and subsistence for thetrainees
The main disadvantage of on-sitetraining is that the trainees part ofwhose motivation may well becareer prospects may feel that thisis ldquosecond-classrdquo training compared to going say to thecapital city for a course or to acourse in another country Thusthey may feel less motivated
In-country training in a courserun in a location other than theirown community has more prestigevalue to the trainees as does atraining attachment with anotherradio station Other advantagesare the contacts and interchangethat can develop for the futurefrom a period of working withother professionals in the samefield
ldquoMost people think of radio as a lsquoone-to-onersquo
medium reaching out to a single anonymous
mass public This concept is reflected in early
communication research on air-dropping
leaflets lsquoinjectingrsquo information into what is
considered a population basically characterized
by its sameness
And yet at the other end of radio transmission at each
listening set there are usually only two or three individual
people real persons And sometimes our ears are captured
by the natural talent of interpersonal communication
voices addressing each individual in a large audience ndash
politicians religious leaders a person-oriented
disc-jockey or even an outstanding news announcer
They speak with natural charm a built-in capacity
to hold an audience a charisma to catch even
non-believers in their spell They speak from a inner core
of conviction and draw others to them by appealing to
their inner core of questioning of doubt and of hesitation
One might say that theses broadcasters are successful
because they defy the conventional rules of media
They do not read scripts they read meaning the script
acting only as a prompt to the deeper significance of their
messages The microphone is only an electronic
intermediary between them and the persons in the
mass audience
They speak not to the microphone but through the
microphone to people with people They use media
despite media to reach people This is a very particular
sense of interpersonal media that seems to have
been lost todayrdquo
Carlos A Arnaldo
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mun
ity
Rad
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74
Overseas Training is the mostprestigious and expensive of alland it will almost certainly opencareer opportunities beyond theradio station of the traineersquos community This is precisely one ofthe disadvantages of overseastraining in terms of staff stabilityBut there are other disadvantagestoo notably that the technical andworking conditions of an overseassituation may cause the trainee tobecome dissatisfied when heshereturns to the simpler community
station at home increasing theprobability that heshe will acceptan offer from a mainstream stationFinally overseas training howevertechnically rewarding is outsidethe traineersquos normal cultural context and this may reduce itsapplied value
Financing of Training
There are a variety of sources offunding for training of communitybroadcasters When internationaldevelopment agencies or NGOshelp to finance the initial equip-ment for a station they usuallyinclude a training component inthe project This will normallycover at the very least the introduc-tory training for the start-up phasebut it may also include refinementof skills over a longer period oftime
Development agencies and NGOsmay also grant fellowships to com-munity broadcasters Some ofthese may be for overseas trainingbut many are also for in-countrytraining courses or for assignmentsthat are part of a training experi-ence
Specific development projectswithin a country may be anothersource For example when a pro-ject - say one for environmentalprotection or health - wants support from radio programmesthe funding agency may wellfinance the training of broadcastersso they will make the best possibleprogrammes on that project
Whatever the sources and types oftraining in a given country themanagement of a community radio
should be constantly alert to thetraining needs of the staff On theone hand increased competenceleads to increased job satisfactionand tends to enhance staff stabilityOn the other hand there willalmost inevitably be high staffturnover in a situation where mostof the staff are unemployed volun-teers The management musttherefore be ready to arrange forthe fairly constant training ofreplacements
1 Tambuli Project Management Community Broadcasters -Code of Conduct UNESCO-DANIDA Tambuli Project(Manila 1998)
2 Op cit
3 Op cit
4 Quote Zane Ibrahim and Ms Adams Bush Radio 985 FMSouth Africa (See Case Study 4)
5 Quote Bruce Girard Radio Chaguarurco(See Case Study 5)
6 Martin Allard Technologiacutea Adaptada InteRadio Volume 9No1 1997 AMARC (Montreal 1997)
7 See the Case Study 4 Bush Radio 895 FM
Phot
o U
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o
Homa Bay UNESCO project fixing the transmitter
Chapter 8Case Studies
75
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T he following section contains five casestudies of community radio stations inAsia (Philippines and Nepal) Africa
(Ghana and South Africa) and Latin America(Ecuador) Their authors are all intimatelyconnected with the stations and provide inter-esting insights into how they set up their oper-ations how they handled the problems theyencountered and what the results have beenFor this reason they are important to anyoneinvolved - or who wants to become involved - incommunity radio
The case studies were edited by the authors ofthe main body of the handbook They were for-ced to reduce their length considerably whilemaintaining their original structure They hopeto have left the essential information intactCertain parts especially of an anecdotal naturewere taken out of the original case studies andput into the main body of the handbook
Olutanga an Unlikely Community for a RadioStation
In the 1970s the island of Olutanga in MindanaoProvince was the scene of frequent heavy fightingbetween warring Muslims and Christians Towncentres were razed to the ground following onesuch encounter
However two decades after the bloody conflictsMuslims and Christians now live peacefullytogether on the island The minority Muslims areconcentrated in the north-east and southern sec-tions The island has a sparse population ofapproximately 35000 people mainly concentra-ted in three towns
Despite todayrsquos relative calm however a heritageof past instability and danger still shows mosthouses are built of light materials as if no one isreally happy to settle permanently on the islandThe 18-kilometre dusty or muddy road dependingon the season of the year stretches the length of theisland and is used only by a few four-wheelvehicles Carabao-drawn sleds tricycles horsesand travellers on-foot share the thoroughfare
Most of the residents of Olutanga eke out a livingfrom non-irrigated agriculture and marginal fishcapture in the over-exploited marine grounds
A few traders have established businesses by catering to what the majority of poor people canproduce or buy
There are two high schools both run by religiousmissionaries The one that serves the northerntowns of Mabuhay and Talusan is attended by lessthan 300 students Another high school in thetown of Suba-Nipa at the southern end of theisland also has limited enrolment There are no tertiary or vocational schools Very few parentscan afford the high cost of sending their childrenfor tertiary to metropolitan centres on the largersurrounding islands
Government services in education health lawenforcement etc are minimal No bank operateson the island and there are very poor communica-tion facilities except for numerous hand-held veryhigh frequency (VHF) transceivers
Visitors to the island are therefore astonished tofind that this island eight hours away by boat fromthe city of Zamboanga operates a radio stationThe islanders themselves were incredulous whenthe facility was proposed to them in 1993 by theTambuli Project They became even more doubtfulwhen full control of the station were also offeredto them
RADIO IN FOR ABOUT AND BY THE COMMUNITY IN THE PHILIPPINES
by Louie N Tabing
Olutanga - a Perfect Location for a Tambuli RadioStation
The first community radio station in Mindanao wasinitially recommended by some local Catholic leadersto be in Ipil not in Olutanga But Ipil did not meetTambulirsquos criteria it was too prosperous and it wasalready a centre of economic growth
Tambuli was looking for communities that were infor-mation-poor economically depressed conducive toFM signal propagation with good prospective coope-rators and where a community radio station wouldmake the most impact Olutanga 40 kilometres outto sea met those criteria perfectly It was certainlyimpoverished and isolated It was also relatively flatso signal propagation for a low-power FM transmitterwould not be a problem One thing however wouldbe missing - a local cooperating institution Onewould have to be developed
Initial Visit and First Meetings
A first consultative conference held at the Catholicconvent was a hurriedly arranged by VHF radio Lessthan ten leaders attended Several of them weremunicipal officials including the vice-mayor of thetown the parish priest and others who expressedtheir suspicions of the project They were quick topoint out that only a month before somebody fromManila had collected money from people allegedlyfor theatre training The stranger had then left withthe money and was never heard of again I had to assurethem that no person equipment or money would leaveOlutanga during the proposed radio project
What is really your objective then They asked Areyou selling the equipment Will you be selling radio
sets If you are really from UNESCOwhy dont you build schools for usWhere is the catch
Such questions were freely aired after we told thelocals that Tambuli would like to help them set up acommunity radio station Nevertheless the prospectof having the facility and operating it was inviting tocommunity leaders The municipality could use it fordissemination of information The station could be aconvenient vehicle for public service The youngpeople could use it for requests and dedications
During the one-and-a-half-hour meeting somecopies of our Tambuli Primer an illustrated comic-likepublication explaining the project were passedaround and the radio idea was discussed further Wemanaged to arouse the interest of the locals and atthe same time we heard some salient information onthe political and social dynamics of the area I was notworried by the people who questioned the genuine-ness of our intentions It is understandable for animpoverished community to be wary and suspiciouswhen something is offered for nothing
It was agreed that before the next meeting each ofthe sectors represented at the first would consult witha wider number of people And they might submit aresolution reflecting the views and feelings of theirsectors The interim period would give them time toconsult with their constituencies It would give themtime to check on our true identity and objectives as well
Some 25 key sectoral leaders attended the secondmeeting a few weeks later Educators farmers fisher-men women people from different religious groupstricycle operators and motorcycle drivers cameContending political parties were also presentSurprisingly the early doubts about the project haddisappeared Many leaders brought resolutions welcoming the setting up of the radio station
Succeeding meetings established a core group of leaders who would handle the affairs of the project
An interim body was constituted from among thosepresent The leaders elected a set of officers andthese were eventually registered as the OlutangaIslanders Media Development Foundation (OIMDF) A dynamic municipal councilwoman Meriam Aranasheaded it
One of the first decisions to be made by theFoundation was the location of the station Followingthe recommendation that a community radio stationshould be free from the control of political parties andreligious groups the local leaders decided that thestation should not be housed in the convent Norshould it be located in the municipal building whichwas perceived as a political place The offer by muni-cipal officials to accommodate the station would onlybe accepted if a building or a lot were donatedwithout strings attached In order to accept dona-tions enter into agreements employ personnel andadminister the station the organization needed to bea juridical entity It was therefore decided that OIMDFwould need to be registered with the Securities andExchange Commission
Soon a new group emerged from among theFoundation members It was pointed out that theTambuli Primer states that there can be a CommunityMedia Council (CMC) - separate from the formallyregistered organization - to make decisions about theradio and its operations They contended that theFoundation members were permanent whether theywere performing well or not whereas the Councilmembers could be replaced yearly if they did not per-form well Hence a CMC of about 11 members wasalso formed It was headed by Napoleon Aboc a businessman who was also a retired policeman
It soon became evident that the CMC and theFoundation were contending factions polarizedtowards either Aboc or Aranas who were each identi-fied with a distinct political grouping Tambuli Project76
Management recognized that instead of workingharmoniously together frictions would divide the leaders as a result Re-uniting the leadership thusbecame a long and delicate process
Locating and Setting up the Technical Facility
During the initial stage of the project there was someobvious lobbying from certain leaders of Suba-Nipato have the station placed in that southern town Theycontended that Suba-Nipa had the biggest populationof the three towns
The Tambuli Project Management provided criteriafor the selection of the studio site including accessi-bility to participants and community members secu-rity of the equipment low rental or expenses eg forrenovation technical factors related to signal propa-gation availability of power proximity to an elevatedsite for the antenna and neutrality such that no particular groups could monopolize or dominate nordeter the participation of other groups
Long and agitated discussions took place on wherethe station should be located Since the majority ofthe participants were from Mabuhay and Talusanthese prevailed The station would be in the northernpart of the island A 20-watt transmitter in Mabuhaywould provide the best coverage of the island Anauxiliary station might later be considered for Suba-Nipa
With the leaders of the Catholic Church as the projects initial contacts our main host in the islandbecame the parish priest of Mabuhay He consentedto our using the convent as a temporary project siteThe parish priest and later his successor both took anactive role in the project while at the same timeadopting an unassuming stance The involvement ofthe clergy added status and dignity to the project and
helped to dissipate speculations that it was politicallymotivated
The station became operational in June 1993 its provisional studio being located in the convent Someof the leaders close to the Catholic Church hoped thatthe convent would become the permanent studiosite Others contending that there were certain publicissues on which the Church held manifest positionsexpressed reservations on using the convent perma-nently Religious leaders of other denominations theysaid would have second thoughts about participatingin broadcasts
After drawn-out discussions it was decided that thestation would temporarily be operated at the premises of the Catholic Church However it wouldeventually relocate to a neutral permanent site
Installation of Equipment
The Project engineer Romy Carballo personally installed the equipment About five local techniciansto whom he gave orientation and training assistedhim The equipment was basically the same as that listed in Box 4 in Chapter 4
The radio station was operating on a test-broadcastbasis in time for a training course on community radioprogramming and production to be held It coveredapproximately a 10-kilometre radius reaching all corners of the island although the signal reaching thetown of Suba-Nipa was rather weak The engineerassured the residents that the signal would reach further when the station was transferred to a newbuilding where the antenna could be raised to about100 feet
Training Islanders to be Broadcasters
It was agreed that some 15 broadcast volunteerswould be trained for three weeks A set of criteriafor the selection of trainees was agreed betweenthe CMC the Foundation and Tambuli The localleaders - the Foundation and the CMC - wouldscreen the applicants If possible there would a bereasonable balance between women and menethnic groupings religious denominations andpolitical affiliations
Of the 35 people who applied for the trainingcourse only 15 were selected Three of those notchosen offered to attend the course as observersFarmers fishermen women Muslims and youngpeople were represented Two elementary schoolteachers a para-military soldier and the electionregistrar were also in the group
Two of the participants had to walk seven kilo-metres daily to the training site and sometimesthey had to be at the radio station at five am inorder to start the programme of test-broadcastsMost of the other trainees walked at least a fewkilometres
The training team was led by an instructor fromthe University of the Philippines Institute ofDevelopment Communication who works withradio DZLB of Los Bantildeos Laguna He was supportedby the Project staff The course consisted of lectures practical work evaluation and actualbroadcasts The training subjects included radiotalks voice performance scriptwriting newsgathering writing and delivery magazine programme production production of radiospots jingles public-service announce-ments participatory productions in the community radio laws and ethics basic
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communication theories and practices and program-ming for a community radio station A one-day exposure visit was made to existing radio stations inPagadian City
The trainees were given the chance to recommendprogramming formats and broadcast hours for theradio station as well as to choose their leader ValToto Samonte who was elected station manager wasa seemingly unlikely choice as a member of the para-military unit in the area We in the TambuliManagement could not see that a soldier would besuitable to run a community radio station But it turned out that Toto was the right choice for he hadleadership qualities with a balanced social outlookHe proved dedicated volunteer
Building the Studio
Recognizing the potential importance of the stationin the community the local government of Mabuhaydonated a 400 sq m plot to the Foundation for a proper studio to be built
A drive to raise money for the construction of the stu-dio building was launched The fact that the radio sta-tion was already going on air helped to convince com-munity members to contribute Initially a Piso-piso(one peso per person) campaign was conductedMany were happy to give not one but five or tenpesos each
A raffle was also organized Tickets were distributedto local residents and visitors as well as to the nearbytowns Each ticket in booklets of twenty tickets wassold for 100 pesos (US$ 350) Among the prizes werea cow sacks of rice and home appliances In spite of
hopes for bigger proceeds the drawnetted only around P50000 (US$1500) for the Foundation
With contributions from the provincial governmentand from the Tambuli Project a 25-square meter studio building and 100-foot antenna tower wereerected in May 1994 Carpenters as well as volunteerstaff and other residents helped construct the bungalow-type concrete building
This was partitioned into an announcers booth technicians post and receiving-working area Withoutadequate ventilation the announcers booth becametoo hot during the day and particularly in the summermonths So a local politician pledged an air-conditioningunit It took more than two years however for thepromise to materialize
As well as providing a new home for the studio thebuilding accorded the radio station an independentstatus It also served as testimony to the communityrsquosenthusiastic participation in the project Moreover itgave every Olutangan a rightful claim to ownership ofthe station
Eventually a 20-watt relay station had to be installedto cover the portion of Suba-Nipa that was not recei-ving the Mabuhay transmissions properly But therewere also occasions when the second station genera-ted its own programmes using a karaoke player-recorder to cater to the people of Suba-Nipa Thetransmitter was installed in the house of the localyouth leader
An Island that Survives on Radio
One astonishing discovery was that despite thepoverty of the island many people owned portableVHF amateur transceivers In the coverage area of theOlutanga station there were about 100 of thesetransceivers known generically as Icoms thecommonest brand name Some had been distributedby the government to Barangay leaders but amazingly
many were privately owned Many of them were not properly licenced and is not clear where they all camefrom Some may have been illegally smuggled inwhile others may belong to informers for rebel orMuslim secessionist groups in the region
Regardless of whether or not they were covered bygovernment permit the VHF receivers were soon putto a good purpose Toto Samonte seizing the oppor-tunity to organize a radio club among VHF radioowners More than 50 people attended the first callfor an organizational meeting where officers wereelected In 1995 I conducted a two-day workshop onhow the radio club members could participate in thebroadcasts
Today the Icom owners make up a wide network ofnews gatherers information feeders and regular participants in the programmes of the station(Tambuli supplied the radio station with a VHF base unit)
These VHF radio owners have multiplied the capacityof ordinary citizens to access the station by makingtheir equipment available to everybody in the neigh-bourhood either for serious information or for simplesocializing purposes such as song dedications andgreetings The radio station has served as the nervecentre for this regular and dynamic interaction
By incorporating the VHF transceivers the station hasstimulated the participation of hundreds of people onthe island in a similar way to using the telephone inthe big cities The portable transceivers allow a variety of people from all corners of the communityto discuss individual and community problems on aircovering everything from romance to politics or theeconomy78
Programming the Voice of Olutanga
Tingog sa Olutanga (The Voice of Olutanga) goes on theair daily on broken schedule from 0500 to 0700 h1100 to a 1300 and 1800 to 2000 hours
The station runs mainly news and public-affairs pro-grammes anchored by a main personality Other pro-ducers and reporters join in with features news tipsand regular programme segments
Field reports coming from residents who own VHFtransceivers make up most of the news and public-affairs programmes The volunteer reporters havebeen instrumental in bringing more timely informa-tion news and public service to the islandersCredited to the radio reporters are news of delaysand cancellations of ferry services information on theavailability of fruit tree seedlings piglets or otherfarm inputs for farmers information about agricultu-ral meetings details on lost items and help for thesick On one occasion a jail escapee was quickly recap-tured thanks to the radio
A popular programme is the weekly Baranggayan saKahanginan This features items produced in the vil-lages using the karaoke or song playbackrecordingmachine Thus ordinary people with absolutely notraining in radio organize programmes in their ownneighbourhood the taped programme consisting ofsongs panel discussions interviews homemakingtips poetry etc While programme elements aremainly entertainment and cultural community pro-blems are also discussed openly The taped program-me is then sent to the station for immediate airingFreely ventilated opinions and criticisms keep leadersand government officials constantly on the alert Andthey find an opportunity to respond to peoplesviews
Since people have been conditioned by commercialradio to want entertainment listeners demand that
the station air music programmes Some evening slotsare therefore devoted to music requests and dedica-tions which include valuable life thoughts for reflectionReligious programmes find their place at weekendswhen the various denominations are given air timeThe Sunday Mass is broadcast live for the predomi-nantly Catholic community as are services by otherreligious leaders whether Muslims or Protestants As in other Tambuli stations the programming is proposed by the staff and approved by theCommunity Media Council
Volunteer Staff
There are some six people who regularly anchor thedaily programmes with about a dozen others contri-buting portions and materials All the anchors inclu-ding the station manager work on volunteer basisThey have other sources of livelihood such as fishingteaching farming tending a store or working in themunicipal government The main anchors receive asmall allowance to cover their transportation to andfrom the studio
Seven volunteer technicians who have received training both on production and equipment opera-tion take daily turns at the station One of them is alicenced radio communication operator Others areeither electricians or electronics repairmenAnnouncers and technicians who participate regularlyare given a small honorarium from the regular contri-butions received by the station from the community
In addition however most announcers and techni-cians are the beneficiaries of a livelihood loan grantedby Tambuli and administered by the OlutangaIslanders Media Development Foundation This liveli-hood project aims to help them become engaged in achosen livelihood project with a cost on average of
approximately P5000 (US$120) For this purposea workshop on entrepreneurship and micro-projectswas conducted by an expert from the University ofthe Philippines Institute for Small Scale Industries
Most of the recipient volunteers chose an activitywith which they were familiar and which wasappropriate to their situation such as duck raisingrice trading upholstery making operating amechanical repair shop fish farming pig raisingetc Ninety percent of the staff livelihood projectparticipants were successful in their endeavourand have expressed readiness to pay back theirloans
The rest of the participants in the radio projectincluding members of the Community MediaCouncil work on a purely voluntary basis Indeedas at most other Tambuli sites staff members donot receive any honorarium or allowance
Olutanga Dreaming
Olutanga will be the best island in the PhilippinesGreat optimism is present in Toto Val Samontersquosvoice every time he makes this statement over theradio But for some islanders the hope thatOlutanga will be able to extricate itself from economic and geographic disadvantage is still a dream
However Toto exudes confidence as he discusseshow self-help projects and perseverance can putthe islanders forward on the air The probability ofOlutanga becoming the most highly developed ofthe regionrsquos islands may still be smallbut I for one am an admirer of Toto forhis selfless dedication and tirelessefforts
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Political and Legislative Context
In 1990 Nepal changed from a monarchical non-partysystem to a parliamentary model A new constitutionenshrined the right to freedom of expression specifi-cally the right for citizens to demand and receiveinformation on any matter of public importance Thiswas followed by policy and practical guidelines in1992 a National Communications Policy in 1993 aNational Broadcasting Act and in 1995 BroadcastRegulations
Prior to 1995 radio broadcasting was the exclusivedomain of Radio Nepal the state broadcaster establi-shed in 1951 An attempt in 1984 to establish an independent station with support from UNESCO andGermany was not approved Even after 1990 theauthorities were slow to relinquish monopoly controlof broadcasting The first licence was granted in 1997four-and-a-half years after the initial application toRadio Sagarmatha Nepalrsquos first independent community-based public-interest radio
The Media Environment in Nepal
The mountainous nature of Nepal is ill suited to cover-age by electronic media or to the mass circulation ofprint media Access to all types of media is also limited bywidespread poverty low literacy levels - especially amongrural women - and a very low level of electrification
Until the coming of a democratic system in 1990 theelectronic media - Nepal Radio Nepal Television(established in 1984) and the official print media -two daily newspapers - were controlled by thegovernment Programmes and content mainly gene-rated in Kathmandu are considered largely irrelevantto the rural population who make up some 80 ofthe total Private media have increased in number butgenerally suffer the same limitations
The liberation of the airwaves from state controlbrought commercial radio to Nepal Initially RadioNepal established a FM frequency designed to generate revenue to subsidize its national AM serviceThe channel was sub-let to five commercial operatorsbroadcasting mainly pop music aimed at youngaffluent urban dwellers
Given the limitations and constraints of nationalmedia and the commercialized and non-indigenouscharacter of the new FM ventures many journalistsindependent media organizations and developmentagencies now envision small community-basedpublic-interest radios throughout the country as analternative Radio Sagarmatha is a start in this direc-tion (Sagarmatha is the Nepali name for Mt Everest)
The Long Battle for a Licence to Broadcast
The battle for the licence was long and hard The mainorganization in the campaign was the Nepal Forum ofEnvironmental Journalists (NEFEJ) joined later byother organizations committed to seeing some inno-
vation in the countryrsquos communication system toaddress the needs of the new democracy Theirstrategy was local FM radio and their goal becameRadio Sagarmatha (RS)
The main obstacles were an unstable political environment conservative politicians bureaucratsdisinclined to change and the monolithic presence ofRadio Nepal Drawn into the fight were figures ofnational prominence professional associationsNGOs the print media - including the government-owned dailies - foreign embassies and UN organiza-tions There were four changes of government duringthe struggle and with each new one the lobbying andpersuasion had to begin again
In 1993 there was an international symposium onCommunity Broadcasting in South Asia held inKathmandu The then Minister of Communicationswas a principle guest He was positively impressed andengaged NEFEJ in discussions about the next steps forlegislative guidelines and regulations But then theGovernment fell and his successor was less receptive
NEFEJ wrote an open letter concerning the situationand appealing for support from local groups as well asfrom foreign delegations to Nepal The strategy yielded results but just as the Minister seemed to becoming around the government again fell
While the struggle was in progress practical prepara-tions were being made to set up the radio stationUsing the resources and radio production experienceof NEFEJ and with financial support from UNESCOand others training and equipment acquisition was80
RADIO SAGARMATHA A CASE STUDY FROM NEPAL
by Ian Pringle
begun By the end of 1996 the foundations for a radiostation were soundly placed Only a licence was missing it was still not forthcoming despite the legislation in its favour
By early 1997 the battle had been carried into theinternational media The station had equipment andtrained staff but almost five years of struggle waitingand playing by the rules had brought no licence The key players were emboldened to take risks ofpunishment for unlicenced broadcasting one year injail and a heavy fine
In early April 1997 NEFEJ requested a temporarylicence to test its set-up The request was met withsilence Acting on legal advice NEFEJ decided tobegin five days of test broadcasts anyway The govern-ment was confused as to who was transmitting untilon the third day RSrsquos programme director deliberate-ly informed the authorities After a few hours a letterarrived from the Ministry of Communicationsdemanding who had provided permission for thebroadcasts The government threatened strongaction reminding the station that their transmissionswere illegal
These events made news Local and internationalmedia publicized the confrontation The two govern-ment-owned dailies even published sympathetic stories on their front page With the offer of free legalcosts NEFEJ was prepared to take the case to court
During the controversial test broadcasts the stationannounced that it would begin full broadcasting withor without a licence on 22 May 1997 the LordBuddharsquos birthday a day of peace The governmentwas informed that if legal action was taken against thestation public and media support would be usedagainst it in the upcoming local elections
Three days later four-and-a-half years after the appli-cation the licence finally came As the Government
official handed it over he said lsquoYou have won thewarrsquo To which the RS programme director repliedlsquoLately you have obeyed the lawrsquo
The licence that had taken so long to come had 14conditions and restrictions including no commercialprogrammes no political commentary or news onpolitical events broadcasting for only two hours perday and submission of a weekly report to theMinistry Nevertheless Radio Sagarmatha beganbroadcasting as promised on 22 May 1997 the firstindependent station in South Asia
Organizational Establishment
NEFEJ the driving force behind RS focuses onenvironmental development and human rightsissues working in a variety of media In the late 1980sNEFEJ began producing a weekly radio programmeon environment and development that was aired onRadio Nepal Space for a radio studio was includedwhen NEFEJ moved to a new location in the early1990s but there was almost no equipment and thebulk of radio programme production was done at thestudios of Radio Nepal
In 1993 after the international symposium onCommunity Broadcasting in South Asia held inKathmandu a UNESCO mission to Nepal conducteda one-week course for journalists from NEFEJ andparallel organizations in basic radio production skillsThough operating with a minimum of equipment thetraining was successful in focusing skills and promo-ting the idea of the station
Both the symposium and the UNESCO mission solidi-fied local and regional support for the project drawing in other media organizations and producing a
more detailed proposal for the station than thatcontained in the application submitted the pre-vious year
The studio equipment for RS began to arrive in1994 For the first time NEFEJ was able to produceprogrammes in their own studio Though consideredto be without a licence RS was producing programmes In early 1997 when the transmissionequipment arrived it began moving its operationsto a more technically suitable and clandestine sitethe house of one of the key players
Relations with the Government Since theLicence
Despite the innumerable difficulties in obtaining alicence subsequent official relations have beennon-interventionist and productive
By late 1998 the Minister of Communications wassympathetic to community radio and many pen-ding and new applications had been approved RShad its licence extended to 13 and then to 24hours per day it was granted permission to acceptcommercial advertising and to rebroadcast theBBC Nepali Service and BBC World Service inEnglish and it was licenced to provide a mobileservice to be broadcast anywhere in the country
Training and Recruitment
These have been integrated in the sense that per-formance during training courses and fellowshipshas been used to select staff Most ofthe current staff and volunteers comefrom a journalistic background
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Following the first UNESCO-supported training course (1)
in 1993 further courses and fellowships were organizedin 1994 and 1995 NEFEJ and the Nepal Press Instituteworked with UNESCO Panos (London) DANICOMand Worldview International Foundation for theseactivities The fellowships provided opportunities fortrainees to produce radio programmes on specifictopics Thus there was an integrated plan for trainingfellowships programme production andselection for employment
Further training in 1996 and 1997 was supported byODA (Great Britain) and Deutsche Welle (Germany)The former required programmes on communityforestry The partnership included training in inter-viewing skills producing issue-based radio programmeassemblage and production Deutsche Welle supporteda training course for less experienced staff from RSand from other FM stations on basic radio production
In October 1997 a small focused on-the-job trainingprogramme was organized for RS production staffwith the assistance of a Danish journalist working inNepal The three weeks of training honed traineespractical all-round skills The programme was moreindividually-oriented than previous courses had beenand it involved instruction assignment of tasks andcritique
A second such course which included more womenwas conducted six months later for ten new recruitsIn addition another group of Panos fellowships wasprovided to produce programmes on AIDSHIV
Other support comes from Radio Netherlands whoprovided a fellowship in 1998 for a person to go totheir training centre in Holland for four months The
Centre for International Studies andCooperation a Canadian NGO supports RS with a general adviser
Future Training and Recruitment The station hasyet to implement systematic training for volunteersbut it has prioritized this in plans for 1999 DeutscheWelle has confirmed its support for an in-house on-the-job workshop There will also be regular locally-driven training courses with or without external fund-ing or resources Developing RS as a training resourcefor Nepal and for other countries in the region is astated objective
Organizational Structure
NEFEJ is the organizational umbrella for RS thoughthe station has officially become a partnership of fourNepali NGOs NEFEJ Himal Association WorldviewNepal and the Nepal Press Institute
The station is headed by a seven-member autono-mous Board of Directors constituted by NEFEJ TheBoard has representation from all four partner NGOsand meets monthly to review and plan activities setpolicy and provide broad direction for the station
RS is headed by a station managerprogramme directorHe sits on the Board of Directors as a membersecre-tary and is responsible for all day-to-day operations
Staff
RS has the following staff station managerprogrammedirector six full-time producers two technicians amusic librarian an engineer (on retainer) an accountsofficer and a station helper There are some 26 volun-teers who are an increasingly important part of RSsprogramming and operations A significant number ofthem are reimbursed for expenses or paid a smallhonorarium
Womens Participation
RSs informal policy is to develop the capacity andconfidence of women within the organization provideopportunities to women and through broadcasts toinfluence change in the orientation of womens rolesBut despite this policy the cultural bias in Nepal haskept womenrsquos participation low though there havebeen recent improvements Women make up about afifth of the production staff and a third of volunteers
Audience
There has been much audience feedback in the formof letters phone calls and drop-in visits from whichsome picture of the stations listening audience can bedrawn There are listeners among societys decision-making elite as well as in the shops of small mer-chants There are listeners in rural sectors of the Valleyas well as in urbanized households of the capital Itappears that listeners are mostly in the over 25 agerange and that they possess some higher educationinterest in events and issues in the public domain orin local music and culture
Some programmes on RS have targeted specificaudiences including children and parents as well asthe Tamang (a minority language) community andwomen working in the home
Listenership and audience are difficult if not impos-sible to estimate without a comprehensive survey Butwhat is already clear is that RS has a strong profile asa serious broadcaster and one whose programming isall-Nepali and in the public interest - the thinking persons radio82
Community Access and Participation
Community participation has been limited comparedto community stations in other parts of the worldThe mainstays of production are paid journalists andprogramming is centrally planned organized anddirected In many respects RS sees itself as a publicrather than community broadcaster a responsiblepublic spokesperson and facilitator as opposed to avehicle for open community participation
Nevertheless RSs programming has given hundredsperhaps thousands the opportunity to have theirvoices and opinions heard in a public forum On adaily basis the station takes its listeners to the streetsand into locations of everyday life as lived by realpeople
The stations daily public-affairs magazine alsoincludes two regular access spots the first featuringcomments from listeners who phone in and recordtheir feedback onto an answering machine thesecond is a vox-pop segment in which producersrecord opinions on a particular topic from people inthe streets
In a daily segment called Its My Turn Now differentmembers of the community speak their mind on atopic of their choice The segment is pre-recorded andbroadcast without editing To date the platform hasbeen shared by people from a variety of backgroundsand occupations
Interactive phone-in programming has been delayedby the lack of a hybrid system to interface phone lineswith the studio RS expected to introduce this in 1999
Community access exists in co-productions with localgroups Community groups and local NGOs produceweeklymonthly programmes with technical and production assistance from the station This is animportant source of programmes as well as a link todifferent segments of the community
Technical Considerations
The Kathmandu Valley an almost level basin of some25 by 30 kilometres framed by hills is an ideal loca-tion for FM broadcasting The historical economicand political capital and centre of the country is hometo the largest concentration of people 15-2 million
The test broadcasts in April 1997 used a locally madeantenna and were from a low elevation as were thefirst proper broadcasts beginning a month later InNovember 1997 the station began looking for a newsite which at a higher elevation could improve recep-tion The one selected after several tests is on the sideof a hill overlooking Kathmandu it has line of sight tomost areas of the 25 x 30-kilometre basin A housewas rented and a new studio built
Since it first went on air officially the station hasbroadcast daily even during moves to new sitesexcept in early 1998 when the transmitter a 500-wattAllard model caught fire and was damaged The sta-tion went off the air for 40 days until a 20-wattChinese-made transmitter and a 100-watt amplifierarrived through UNESCO from the Tambuli project inthe Philippines
The studio and its equipment are essentially the sameas when RS began apart from some small items and asatellite dish with a tunerdecoder Upgrading thebroadcast studio and establishing a production facilitywith digital components is now a priority
Programming
From the outset Radio Sagarmatha has worked topresent listeners with a combination of issues andentertainment social discussions and music as well asbeing a conduit for the variety of voices and opinionspreviously unheard on Nepals radio channels
For the daily two hours initially accorded under itslicence the new station chose 0700-0900 hoursRS introduced itself to the valleys listeners withtwo hours of Nepali music from rare folk recordings to contemporary popular selectionsinterspersed with short messages and stationannouncements
Public Interest Public-affairs broadcasting iscentral to RSrsquos mission for a more responsiblemedia and a more pluralistic society Using fellow-ships RS early on produced a series of programmes about environmental conditions cultural and social aspects of different regions ofthe country AIDSHIV community forestry drinking water democracy in Nepal etc Sinceautumn 1997 RS has been broadcasting a dailymagazine programme called Haamro Khaldo (OurValley) which covers topical issues and brings invoices from a broad cross-section of society Someof the issues covered have been meter tamperingby taxi drivers thieves and pickpockets prostitu-tion AIDS leprosy TB increasingly declining airand water quality child labour abortion andchanging gender roles
In addition there is a weekly discussion of socialcultural and development issues called Dabali(Community Meeting Place) a blend of the tradition-al Nepali medium and space for public dialogue anddiscussion and the modern medium of radio
Recently RS has begun Safa Radio (Clean AirCampaign) Five days a week it broadcasts theresults of air pollution measurements in differentparts of the city Once a week the cumulativeresults are discussed on air
Music and Culture RS provides a clearalternative to commercial stationsplaying largely pop music it broadcasts
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83
almost entirely Nepali traditional folk and modernmusic with some classical music from other parts ofthe world It presents one daily and four weekly pro-grammes devoted exclusively to music A Tamangcommunity group also co-produces a programme inboth languages with Tamang music
The station has an impressive music collection withmany rare recordings and pieces of authentic nationalcultural and historical significance The collection hasbeen obtained free of cost with about half of itrecorded from the library of Radio Nepal and theother half from donors
Nepal has a long tradition of oral folk media Untilsome 50 years ago one source of news for communi-ties were artists who spread the word about eventsentertained and educated through specially com-posed songs RS utilizes these traditions in a dailyserial The station once invited a musical group from avillage to record some of their music in the studioThey recorded ten songs in the traditional style adaptedto contemporary issues While in Kathmandu theyrecorded a new song about an alarming aspect oftheir capital city the pollution
Co-productions Local interest groups produce programmes for a particular audience on a particulartopic The editorial responsibility for the programmeusually lies with the community group with RS provi-ding technical support and airtime In addition to helping to fill the stationrsquos broadcast schedule theseprogrammes are also an important element of community participation
Childrens Programming Sponsored by UNICEFRS commissioned and broadcast a ten-minute serial
an educational soap opera involving agrandfather tree and a baby parrotThey interact with children who play
and listen at the base of the tree It is produced by afamed Nepali comedy troupe The serial is presentedtogether with 20 minutes produced in-house of stories poetry discussion and participation by children themselves
Mobile Radio On the Road
In November 1998 RS received permission to run amobile radio service anywhere in Nepal using the sta-tions Kathmandu frequency 1024 FM The idea wasnot to extend RSs Kathmandu service but rather tobring the idea of local radio to some of the 80 ofNepals people who live in rural areas and in smallcommunities
In 1999 a vehicle with a small studio transmitter anda team of facilitators began to visit rural communitiesto do basic training and demystify radio so that localpeople could become interested in starting their ownstations RS has always been seen as a starting pointfor wider community-based radio services in NepalIndeed momentum is now building fast with severalcommunities outside the Kathmandu Valley alreadyon the way to starting stations
Funding and Costs
The facility set-up initial operations training and fel-lowships were financed with international supportUNESCO provided about US$ 65000 About half ofthis was for equipment DANIDA provided operatingfunds in the second year and as already noted manyother organizations have provided fellowships andtraining Self-reliance is a priority and after two yearson air RS was beginning to operate on locally earnedrevenues The main strategy for achieving sustainability
is building partnerships with local organizations thatwill provide support as sponsors and co-producers ofprogrammes The recent lifting of the initial restrictionon commercial advertising has also opened a potentialsource of revenue
In 1999 the operational budget was US$ 2750 permonth of which salaries absorbed about US$1300Revenue was estimated at US$ 1075 mainly from co-productions and sponsorship The balance of US$1675 was provided by an operating grant from DANIDA
1 For a complete view of this basic training and preparation for broadcast see Carlos A Arnaldo and Kjell Linder Establishment of a FM Community Radio (Nepal IPPC ndash 352 ndashNEP 01 Technical report) UNESCO (Paris 1994)
84
ldquoSagarmatha is the old Nepali name for Mount
Everest and literally means lsquohead in the heavensrsquo
This is what Radio Sagarmatha intends to be an
intelligence permeating community thinking on
issues of health environment education social
well-being and development of the community by
sharing ideas with all through the radio wavesrdquo
Carlos A Arnaldo
Introduction and Origins
Radio Ada is a rural community radio station in eastern Ghana The station started broadcasting on 1 February 1998 and it has won a loyal followingamong its predominantly illiterate audience
The origins of the station can be traced back to the1950s and 1960s when the founders got their start inbroadcasting one with a small radio station inMonrovia Liberia that has since been washed awayby the sea and the other with one of the very firstcommunity radio stations in the Philippines DZJOthat continues to operate today from its base inInfanta Quezon In 1982 one of the founders was instrumental in starting the first community radio inAfrica the ill-fated Homa Bay station in Kenya on theshores of Lake Victoria an experience that drovehome the risks of such a venture in a continent hostileto independent information
Indeed there had been an earlier brush with this hostility in 1974 when broadcasting in Ghana was agovernment monopoly Encouraged by private discussions with key officials in the Government thefounders of Radio Ada submitted a formal applicationfor what if approved would have preceded HomaBay as the first community radio in Africa The appli-cation was turned down
Legal Context
It took nearly two decades following this event toopen the way for independent media in Ghana In1992 constitutional government was restored andwith it the possibility of a new communicationsscene The new Constitution which came into effectin January 1993 states that ldquoThere shall be no impediments to the establishment of private press or media and in particular there shall be no law requiring any person to obtain a licence as a prerequisiteto the establishment or operation of a newspaperjournal or other media for mass communication orinformationrdquo
The process of establishing private broadcasting didnot however start until February 1995 That waswhen the Ghana Frequency Registration and ControlBoard (GFRCB) issued guidelines for the submissionof applications to operate private broadcasting stations
Frequency Allocation
The application for Radio Adarsquos frequency was submitted on 17 March 1995 by its legal entity GhanaCommunity Broadcasting Services previously registeredas a non-profit company However it was not until 16 April 1996 that the application for Radio Ada wasaccepted
A positive aspect of the delay was that in the interimperiod private broadcasting companies had negotiatedmajor reductions in the fees levied for the allocationof a frequency originally set at the equivalent of
about US$ 13000 for all stations In the eventRadio Ada as a community radio only had to paya tenth of this and on 3 May 1996 it was allocatedthe frequency 937 FM for a period of five yearsThis was later changed to 933 for reasons that willbe explained later
Main Factors Considered when Starting Radio Ada
The information in Radio Adas application to theGFRCB reflected the stationrsquos very specific sense ofidentity in accordance with the following elements
Objectives The key elements that make upRadio Adarsquos sense of identity are embodied in itsmission statement This was crystallized from theexpressed objectives and expectations of the stationrsquos volunteers and from other members ofthe community The mission statement includesthe following items
bull To support the development aspirations andobjectives of the Dangme people in every sphereof life
bull To give a voice to the voiceless in every contextand at all levels
bull To sustain the dynamic growth of Dangme culture within the national and the global polity
bull In all of this to encourage promoteand contribute to informed dialogueand reflective action
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RADIO ADA GHANA - A BLESSING ON THE DANGME PEOPLE
by Alex and Wilna Quarmyne
Coverage area and target audience The primarytarget audience of Radio Ada resides in the fourDangme-speaking districts of Ghana These are in theeastern sector of the country within 100 km of AccraLarge parts of them still lack or have only recentlyreceived such basic infrastructure as piped water andelectricity The estimated total population of thecoverage area is 600000 over 60 of whom areilliterate Poverty is widespread
Language Radio Ada broadcasts exclusively in thevernacular of its audience Dangme Dangme comprises five mutually intelligible languages - AdaGbugbla Klo Ningo and Se There are marked culturaldistinctions between the speakers of these languagesHowever the linguistic interface and the marginaliza-tion hitherto of the language in the national discoursegive them a special bond as a people In recent yearsthere has been an effort in the educational and reli-gious institutions to develop ldquostandard Dangmerdquo auniform version of the languages The policy at RadioAda however is to use Dangme in its various originaland native spoken forms
Location - base area The station is in Ada in theDangme East District Theoretically it could havebeen based anywhere in the coverage area but one ofthe founders is a native son of Ada which meant thatthe station started out with a reserve of trust thatfacilitated getting community support and localresources At the estuary of the Volta River Ada comprises two contiguous towns Big Ada and AdaFoah and their surrounding villages in a virtual cul-de-sac that gives residents a particularly intimate sense ofcommunity Most residents in the area are engaged infarming and fishing
Actual site The site of the station building was chosen because of its easy access to the surrounding
community It sits in full view on the mainfeeder road to the national highway atthe junction to Big Ada and Ada Foah
Name The stationrsquos on-air name Radio Ada isdrawn from its location although it is a radio stationfor the Dangme-speaking community as a whole notjust Ada Because of this it has often been suggestedthat the stationrsquos name should be ldquoDangme RadiordquoThe station has however retained the name RadioAda because while it promotes strong local culturesas a basis for sound national development it alsoguards against chauvinism
The building The Radio Ada building was purpose-designed and built It provides one on-air studio twoproduction studios with adjacent control rooms twooffices and a few small service rooms The decision toconstruct was taken after it was established thatconverting an existing building whether purchased orleased would not be cost-effective
The design tries to blend the essential elements of aprofessional broadcasting operation with the specialrequirements of a community radio station especiallythe need for access and the realities of working in arural area For example rather than being sealed offthe on-air studio looks out onto the main road allow-ing anyone who comes to the station to see theannouncer or even passers-by on the road to ex-change a wave with him The ceilings are lined with ldquotsatsardquo a local mat woven out of reeds which hasproven satisfactory acoustically while also giving thestudios a cool and indigenous feel
Equipment selection The equipment chosenreflects the stationrsquos dual character as a rural community-based yet professionally complete broad-casting operation The items of equipment are thebest options technologically for their price offeringhigh performance with ease of operation low energyconsumption and minimum maintenance
Transmitter The transmitter a 350-watt Mallard unithas performed exceedingly well in covering the target
area but it will soon be used only as a standby unit Itwill be replaced by a 1-KW transmitter to enable thestation to get a stronger signal into the nearby metro-politan areas where there are sizeable Dangme-spea-king populations thus expanding its market potential
Antenna Tower The tower stands 150 feet high rightnext to the station building It was built out of piecesof scrapped antennas after the cost of a shorter (100-foot) new tower proved prohibitive It was hoisted byprofessional riggers working during their own time
Studio equipment Two of the three studios are fullyequipped the third is expected to be equipped soonThe on-air studio equipment consists of two sets eachof professional compact disc players minidisc and cas-sette recordersplayers and a 12-channel audio mixerThe production studios have the same equipmentbut of a semi-professional standard The mix and performance of the equipment has proven entirelysatisfactory
Field recording equipment Radio Ada attaches greatimportance to field recording equipment because ofits emphasis on programmes originating in the community Currently it has four portable minidiscrecorders and two professional and one semi-professional audiocassette recorders After some initial resistance to the minidisc recorders becausethey seemed too high-tech staff now favour them fortheir greater portability recording quality precision ofoperation editing facility and efficient in-built rechar-geable batteries The high cost of minidiscs has lead toa policy of using them as masters with most programmes being dubbed on to audiocassette
Funding With long-term sustainability in mind itwas decided early that requests for donor fundingwould be limited to equipment Land and the buildingwere provided from the limited resources of the foun-86
ders For sentimental reasons Radio Ada first solicitedfunds for its equipment from UNESCO1 a pioneeragency in community radio UNESCO regarded therequest favourably but was able to meet less than halfthe cost The shortfall for the equipment except forone studio was covered by the Stem van AfrikaFoundation of the Netherlands and the WorldAssociation for Christian Communication
Major Elements in Running a Community Radio
At the heart of running this community radio stationare the following elements
Programmes Radio Ada broadcasts 17 hours a daybetween 0500-2200 hours The programmes can bebroadly divided into the following categories newsand current affairs socio-economic developmentlocal culture religious youth and general interestGuiding programming is the stationrsquos holistic viewthat regards every programme as a potential tool fordevelopment The main news offerings are three daily15-minute bulletins and a daily 110-minute newsmagazine programme The bulletins emphasize localnews especially stories filed by the stationrsquos volunteerstringers A 10-minute market report is also broadcaston market days
Programmes that are specifically development-orien-ted include four weekly half-hour programmes forfour key occupational groups - farmers (women andmen) fishermen fishmongers (ie fishsellers who arealso fish smokers) and drivers - as well as programmeson health the environment and on literacy and deve-lopment All these programmes are produced andrecorded in the field based on the participantsconcerns and interests and they typically include
discussions interviews and spontaneous perfor-mances of traditional worksongs or other music
The occupational as well as the literacy programmesapply the principle of ldquonarrowcastingrdquo and are sandwiched between general-interest programmesduring the optimum listening time for the targetgroup More occupational programmes are beingdeveloped eg for artisans traders and teachers withthe idea that every group in the coverage area shouldfeel it has a ldquopiece of the actionrdquo in the station Inaddition to its news and development-oriented programmes the station produces a weekly total ofapproximately 30 half-hour programmes in the othercategories Its programmes on local culture includestorytelling traditional cookery Dangme bookread-ing discussions on various aspects of culture and adaily half-hour of traditional music featuring localgroups recorded either at the studio or in the field
One development-oriented programme on the envi-ronment is designed as a travelogue with the producergoing from village to village each week highlightingits special features of interest and in the process calling attention to environmental problems Despitethe soft-sell approach the message seems to getthrough Arriving at a village one day the producernoticed a sudden flurry He had been recognized andchildren were sent scurrying by their elders to fetchbrooms and tidy up the area While this was flatteringconfirmation that the producerrsquos words were beingheard the ultimate objective of the station is thatprogrammes should lead to sustained communityaction This requires attractive contextual presenta-tions that build on peoplersquos knowledge and that areclosely integrated with interventions on the ground
Staff Radio Adarsquos staff consists of about 50 volun-
teers Fourteen work full-time Twenty producers operate mainly in the field and come tothe station at least once a week to discuss programmes edit recordings etc Ranging in agefrom the early 20s to the early 50s the volunteersinclude farmers teachers hairdressers masonscivil servants traders school leavers and extensionworkers Approximately a third are women Abouthalf of the volunteers have full-time jobs outsidethe radio station while the rest are self-employedor unemployed When resources permit theremuneration of a core group of staff will be consi-dered The founders of the station serve as itsvolunteer executive directors
Staff training Prior to their involvement withRadio Ada none of the staff had had any expe-rience or training in broadcasting Except for fivewho went for short-term courses in radio produc-tion in Kaduna Nigeria all received their entiretraining through courses organized by Radio AdaThis was for two reasons first conventional training courses do not emphasize a developmentphilosophy and community-based approachsecond conventional training normally requiresqualifications that are unnecessary or even irrele-vant for a community radio station The basic criteria for volunteers at Radio Ada are simple andinclusive commitment to the community willing-ness to work as a volunteer and ability to speakDangme and English - the latter because the majority of the trainers did not speak Dangme
All formal training was organized through a seriesof participatory workshops coveringparticipatory research tools basic pro-gramme production news production
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and announcing The workshops conducted by specialists who support Radio Adarsquos objectives started out with its development philosophy and thenecessary professional concepts and they offeredpractical hands-on experience Training organized invarious forms has continued as a permanent activityof the station
Management Much of the management of the station is done by a committee of seven of the moresenior volunteers This establishes implements andmonitors policy on all aspects of the station and alsomaintains the stationrsquos bank account A station coor-dinator is the acknowledged head but refers routinelyto the executive directors The decision-making of thecommittee is based on constant consultation witheach other and with other volunteers Team spirit andself-appraisal are fostered in monthly evaluationworkshops involving all the volunteers except for thenews stringers who are not resident in the immediatecatchment area
Community support access and participationPrior to its application for a licence the idea of settingup Radio Ada was discussed with and informallyendorsed by the appropriate traditional leaders andgovernment authorities in the intended host commu-nity With the allocation of its frequency the first taskwas to widen the process of building community support This was concentrated on the stationsimmediate catchment area from which it wouldnecessarily draw its main resources Built into the pro-cess was the recruitment and training of volunteers
A community survey was conducted by these volun-teers in July 1996 Its purpose was to introduce the
idea of a development-oriented ver-nacular station and solicit the ideas ofthe community on programming and
operations The survey involved over 1200 respon-dents in 42 villages who gave virtually unanimousalmost emotional support to the idea of the stationTypical responses from the survey during a communi-ty meeting were
ldquoYes FM in Ada will be helpful We do not hear aboutthings happening on the radio Anybody who rejectsthis idea must be jailed In the old days we never hadthis chance Now when it comes we must embrace itNow all of us can listen to our own voices We cannow listenin our own mother tongue It shouldcome now nowrdquo
The enthusiastic response of the community to theidea of the station has been sustained by the partici-patory character of its programming and operationsTo give yet another opportunity for community participation five minutes are set aside after the midday and evening news for a commentary wherelisteners may record their views on any subject withthe only proviso that they do not make slanderous orderogatory statements
One commentary involved the leader of an associa-tion of women fishmongers Traditionally it is onlythe men who fish and it is from them that their wivespurchase fish to smoke and sell The men sell at theirprice and the women keep any profits they make ontheir sales to consumers for the maintenance of theirhousehold
In her commentary the leader of the fishmongers bitterly criticized Radio Adarsquos market report and protested against the beating of some members ofher association by their husbands This is becausewhen Radio Ada started broadcasting the marketnews the husbands of the fishmongers angrily claimed that their wives were cheating them by sellingat far more than the price they had paid to them
In a presentation on Radio Ada it was explained thatthe market prices reflected the cost and time of the12 different processes involved or value added bet-ween the time of purchase and the time of sale of thefish The presentation elicited respect and calmed thesituation
Audience reaction Lacking the necessary resourcesRadio Ada has not been able to conduct a formal lis-tener survey However feedback is constant throughthe staffs interaction with listeners on their recordingtrips and the influx of letters and visits to the stationThe feedback is consistent in characterizing Radio Adaas a blessing on the Dangme community Lettersand comments from a variety of sources quote precise details indicating that listeners pay attentionmeticulously to programme content Many offerconstructive criticism and make suggestions for otherprogrammes As many letters as possible are respondedto in a weekly mailbag programme
Reports from the field indicate that whole sections oftowns and villages stop for certain programmes suchas the series of an indigenous street musician whoweaves local legend and moral tales into song Formany the station is clearly their only source of infor-mation of the outside world It has also become aplayer in the life of the community being called uponfrequently to establish the veracity of issues andmediate in disputes
Operational costs Radio Ada has not solicited anysubsidies for its operational costs These are intendedto be funded entirely from income from commercialadvertising and from low-priced social announce-ments (eg obituaries) Currently expenditure ismainly for utilities supplies and in the absence of astation vehicle transport allowances which are calculated88
at actual cost After nearly a year in operation andeven with an all-volunteer staff income is running atabout half of expenditure This is mainly because withthe many other tasks involved in establishing the stationnot enough attention was focused on marketing It isexpected that with more aggressive marketing thestation will at least break even by the end of its secondyear of operation
Problems and Difficulties Encountered
Problems There were delays in the arrival of mater-ials for the construction of the building but even so itwas completed in 13 months The transmission frequency was the most serious problem After RadioAdarsquos successful test broadcasts in August 1997 apowerful FM station in Lagos Nigeria began opera-ting on the same frequency effectively jammingRadio Ada and making it impossible to begin fullbroadcasting at Christmas 1997 as planned Radio Adahad to apply for a new frequency and 933 MHz wasgranted in mid-January 1998 postponing broadcast-ing until 1st February
Sixteen days later Radio Ada was surprised by suddenand severe electricity rationing For a while it tried tooperate with generators borrowed firstly from anNGO and later from a local government departmentbut neither provided enough power for full opera-tions The programme schedule was cut to 10 hours aday But listeners made impassioned pleas throughthe radio station to the local government authoritiesto provide it with a generator Without Radio Adarequesting it the Dangme East District Assemblydonated a generator to the station in recognition ofits vital services to the community The station nowoperates seamlessly through power cuts
Difficulties The management of a large corps ofvolunteers presents special difficulties These areaddressed through dialogue mentoring and self-criticism and evaluation However even with paidstaff there would be a shortage of the necessary qual-ities and skills At the same time there is a shortage oftrainers with participatory development experiencecompetence in radio programme production and relevant vernacular language skills
Another difficulty is that the development servicesare too weak to be able to support and follow up onradio programmes properly In the circumstances andsince the task is too important to be postponed thestation has to try to energize and facilitate those services Accessing resources to meet all these needs isa full-time job for several people - who do not at present exist
The station has not yet developed the marketing strategies required for accessing the advertisingpotential of the market There is a need to introducethe ldquoculture of advertisingrdquo to the small enterprisesand traders in the coverage area to generate revenuefor the station This advertising drive is a task that willrequire care to ensure that the objectives of the station are not compromised
Main Lessons Learnt
The first year of operation has been an important les-son in validation for the community that radio canplay an essential and developmental role in their day-to-day lives for the volunteers that they have thecapacity to run and maintain a broadcasting stationand for the station itself that it provides a vital andappreciated service
The main lesson learnt is that in the interests ofsustainability the commercial aspects should havebeen addressed from the very beginning Therewas so much pressure to get the station up andrunning that no staff were assigned to ldquosellrdquo thestationrsquos services
This is particularly urgent now because theachievements of Radio Ada have carried their ownmomentum Overnight the station outgrew itscapacities The community response has beensuch that the station is called upon for a greatervariety of outreach services than ever anticipatedThe necessary resources exist but the station mustnow help to mobilize them
The final lesson is more of a reminder in additionto material resources knowledge and skills itneeds faith and solidarity to carry an idea forward- as Radio Adarsquos volunteers have amply demon-strated Admonishing a fellow volunteer for hispriorities in giving more time to party politics thanto the station a volunteer said ldquoParty politics is forfour years Radio Ada will be here foreverrdquo
1 Alex Quarmyne worked with UNESCO for many years promoting community radioOn retirement he and his wife returned to his home community to start Radio Ada
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The Context for Community Radio
After years of broadcast monopoly by the (then)Apartheid states South African BroadcastingCorporation (SABC) the struggle to free the airwaves has been won SABC was restructured andin 1993 an Independent Broadcasting Authority (IBA)was established Since the first licences were issued in1995 South Africa now has more than 85 indepen-dent radio stations and community radio is here tostay (See Chapter 3 for details of South African legislation)
The presence of community radio has changed theface of broadcasting in South Africa It has recruited acountless number of volunteers and community workers who actively participate in their stations Inaddition the sector has managed to attract advertisersand in certain instances stations are generating a fairincome from selling airtime and promoting eventsHowever the stations that have achieved most interms of financial independence are in one sense victims of that success they are often seen as toocommercial to belong fully to the developmentalcommunity radio sector
The community radio sector has shown in its shortexistence a tremendous ability to survive Howeverthe need to continue developing training and mostimportantly to work toward self-sustainability is clear
Donor support has been excellentover the last few years especially forbroadcast equipment Some stations
also receive core funding for daily operations It seemsclear that for now donor funding remains one of thefew dependable options for start-up support Inmoving toward self-sufficiency many stations haveidentified other possible income sources the mostprominent of which apart from advertising aremembership fees and community fund-raisers
Getting Started
In the late 1980s a small group of people interestedin the development of an alternative audio communi-cation system formed an organization that recordedinformation on cassettes in radio format made dupli-cates and distributed them in and around Cape Town
The organization was called CASET (CassetteEducation Trust) located in a small office in Salt RiverIts objective was to inform and educate the poor onsubjects like literacy hygiene health and of courserelevant political issues Since its humble beginningsthe initiators of the project always knew that broad-casting would be integral to its long-term educationaland empowerment objectives CASET began to discuss the idea and its potential and eventually proposed establishing a community radio facility atthe University of the Western Cape (UWC) just outside Cape Town
After much deliberation however it became clearthat the UWC campus would not be a suitable location it was too far away to be accessible to theblack community as a whole In fact UWC had been
built in 1960 for coloured people a racial definitionthat defined persons of a hybrid origin The Collegelocated far from the city and surrounded by densebush soon became known as Bush College and its campus cafeteria radio station was known as Bush Radio
In due course CASET was dissolved and recreated asan aspirant community radio initiative Keeping theoriginal campus name Bush Radio was bornConstituted in 1992 as a Voluntary Associationowned and operated by its members it focused ongetting the community on air The objective was togive black people the opportunity to be broadcastersMoney was needed to keep the initiative afloat Manydonors were approached until finally the FriedrichEbert Stiftung (FES) a German foundation involved inbroadcasting training provided support
News of the FES support spread The concept of com-munity radio was exciting and applications for trainingfrom all over started to flood in Bush Radio soonestablished itself as a key trainer and lobbyist for theestablishment of community radio in South AfricaPressuring the government to grant it a licence tobroadcast and training fledgling stations across thecountry Bush Radio slowly established both itself andthe concept of community radio as a significant force
Defiance
After a number of licence applications were rejectedBush Radio decided to broadcast illegally In May1993 a group of volunteer activists took the stationrsquos90
BUSH RADIO 895 FM SOUTH AFRICA - PAST PRESENT AND FUTURE
by Zane Ibrahim and M Adams
equipment including its illegally obtained transmitterinto a room set it up and prepared to switch on Apress release was circulated a short programme sche-dule was designed and a song was composed After afew test runs Bush was ready Interspersing shortdrama talks short poems and comic turns BushRadio went on air
The broadcast lasted four hours before the authoritiesinvaded the premises and seized the equipment BushRadios two key members were charged on threecounts illegal broadcasting illegal possession ofbroadcast apparatus and obstructing the course ofjustice The case dragged on but friends and support-ers nationally and internationally understood whyBush Radio members would risk being jailed for theright to be heard After tremendous pressure fromindividuals and organizations world-wide the statedropped the charges eight months later
Training and Activism
During the next two years the country witnessedmassive political change and prepared for its firstdemocratic elections Meanwhile Bush Radio contin-ued its quest to get the community on air It pursuedand vigorously implemented its national training acti-vities It became the first South African communityradio initiative to join the World Association ofCommunity Radio Broadcasters (AMARC) and contin-ued to champion the cause for the establishment ofcommunity radio in South Africa
At the beginning of 1993 the FES donated a fullyequipped studio for the primary purpose of trainingIt was indeed a wonderful sight Bush Radio was starting to look like a real radio station
A full-time training co-ordinator was brought onboard The courses included introduction to commu-nity radio features and documentary productionwomen and technology and managing communityradio The activities were in essence the training oftrainers Participants were expected to return to theirstations and gradually train their volunteers Otherorganizations soon became involved and partner-ships and exchange programmes were establishedwith Deutsche Welle Radio France InternationaleUSIS and the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation
National institutions including the Institute for theAdvancement of Journalism and the Media TrainingCentre also started to offer radio courses So a resourceof basic radio production and management skills wasslowly established Radio training networking andlobbying were together sowing the seeds for todayscommunity radio movement in South Africa
To promote the cause of community radio further aNational Community Radio Forum (NCRF) was estab-lished in 1994 to lobby government and co-ordinateand guide the sector Initially operating from theoffices of Bush Radio the NCRF later raised its ownfunds and set-up an office in Gauteng By the end of1994 more than a hundred licence applications forcommunity stations had been submitted to the IBA
Licence at Last
In June 1995 exactly seven years after CASET madeits first commitment to get the people on air BushRadio received its licence But the IBA had to workwith an inherited frequency plan that could notaccommodate the flood of licence applications Andbecause of Cape Towns notorious Table Mountain
they offered Bush Radio a shared frequency a5050 split with a community station called C-Flat Although not perfect everyone was happyBush Radio broadcast daily from 1400 to 0200hours and C-Flat took over until 1400 hours andso on
Getting Ready to Broadcast
The mission to get a licence was achieved and thepeople now had to go on air Until that time BushRadio had three full-time staff a pool of trainedand enthusiastic volunteers and a well-equippedtraining studio
Activity now needed to be focused on successfulprogramming marketing and fund-raising for anoperational station In July 1995 Bush Radio helda strategic workshop to assess plan and establisha common vision for its future activities BushRadio membership had grown to 1000 and therewere about 100 active and trained volunteersCountless NGOs were also keen to support andget involved in the service of community radio
A schedule of programmes including both enter-tainment and education was debated with themembers Strong emphasis was placed on repre-senting the culture language and aspirations ofour local communities with honesty and prideThe three dominant languages in the Cape(Xhosa English and Afrikaans) were naturallyapproved as the broadcast languages for the sta-tion The motto we agreed was Its yours itsmine itrsquos ours
With a programme schedule agreed andwith less than eight weeks before going
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91
on air volunteers rushed to attend brush-up coursesprogramming meetings and other preparations TheSoros Open Society Foundation funded a state-of-the-art broadcast facility
Finally Bush Radio began broadcasting at 1400 hourson 1 September 1995 This is National Womens DayAs a mark of the importance the station gives towomen in the countryrsquos development the station haddeliberately chosen to start on that day
Bush Radio recently relocated to new and larger premises still in Salt River The 300 sqm location ontwo floors is twice as big as the previous one Thecomplex is a sophisticated analogue training produc-tion and broadcast facility probably the most techno-logically advanced community station in the country
Sound Management and Community Participation
Bush Radio was originally structured as a VolunteerAssociation guided by an appointed board of trusteesand an executive committee Once on air it was deci-ded that in order to move toward self-sufficiency anew structure was needed The Board opted to createnon-profit company and this has facilitated operatingthe station It also puts it in a position to attract spon-sorship and support from the business communitybecause a company has a better organizational base
One of the legal requirements is that a seven-memberboard of directors be set up to account for the assetsand operation of the company Bush Radios newlyappointed directors are both highly skilled and fullycommitted to the station Their portfolios include
fund raising programming market-ing staff etc The board comprisessome of Cape Towns top achievers
Community participation is at the core of BushRadios operations At the outset it was made clearthat the station is in existence for only one reason toserve the community Everyone from the communityis eligible for membership and training Through itsbroadcasts productions and training the stationmaintains contact with its target communities
In addition outside broadcasts held in these commu-nities give access for participation as well as maintain-ing and expanding the volunteer base which at present numbers about five hundred many have beena part of Bush Radio since its inception
Members come from all sectors of the communityrepresenting various interests cultures and languages They include students single mothers thedisabled gay activists the unemployed and therecently retired The members have direct access to allaspects of the station from administrative and financialmatters to programme content and training needsPolicy discussions and workshops are held once amonth and the community is invited to give theirinputs for running the station Community controland ownership is thus assured
Overview of Programming
The challenge is to offer identifiable voices and rolemodels on air Music programmes focus on non-mainstream music eg hip-hop reggae RampB jazzblues and jungle as well as on popular local musicThe music slots often include competitions call-insinterviews gig guides music charts and even comedyAn objective is to promote local artists and perfor-mers as well as genres of music not usually availableon commercial radio
While music is a vital component the station remainscommitted to tackling issues that engage and educatethe community It therefore prefers to host discus-sions and air features that facilitate informationexchange critical thought and debate In features andtalk shows Bush Radio makes available a broadcastplatform for members of the community who ascribeto the objective of true development Recently itlaunched a refugee programme run by refugees withthe aim of informing the public of their plight
Some specific regular programmes are
Backchat Representatives of various communityorganizations explain the role they play and how thecommunity can access their services From discussionsand calls during these programmes it appears thatnot enough has been done to inform the communityof the various organizations that can help themThese services include help for rape victims healthchildcare pensions for the aged etc
Community Law Produced by 4th and 5th year UWClaw students factual information that the generalpopulation seldom has explained to them is providedon a variety of issues Care is taken to carefully outlineeven the simplest of laws or human rights Phone-insegments of the show have proved to be extremelypopular while written requests for information arealso encouraged
Everyday People This daily 3-hour programme is inmusic magazine format It uses mainly local music andits emphasis is on township developments The musicis interspersed with public-service announcementsinformation bulletins notice-board news competi-tions and call-ins It has a high profile in the commu-nity and it is the only local youth programme thatreflects the dialect and personality of Cape TownrsquosXhosa speaking people92
TRC Report The Truth and Reconciliation
Commission (TRC) was established to help the nation
heal itself after Apartheid Bush Radio hosted a member
of the commission on a fortnightly basis The commis-
sioner would elaborate on the stationrsquos news report on
the TRC happenings of the week The discussions often
clarified and provided missing detail on the
Commissionrsquo hearings On several occasions the
stationrsquos guests were asked questions by callers that
they found to be important and worthy of further
investigation
TAXI TALK Minibus taxis are the only reliable means
of transport to and from the townships However
escalating rivalry amongst taxis have led to gun
battles where passengers are also shot and killed Bush
Radio and the Shell Oil Company joined forces and
produced Taxi Talk a programme where all involved
were invited to the station to discuss their grievances
The Federal Minister of Transport also played a major
role in mediating between the parties
Rape and Alcoholism Rape of women of all ages has
reached epidemic proportions Bush Radio has estab-
lished groups doing in-depth studies to find the best
way to develop programmes that will assist in helping
to reduce and even eliminate this social disease
Alcoholism plays a major part in it and for this reason
the station refuses to advertise alcoholic products
Similarly it does not carry tobacco advertising
for health reasons Once produced the rape and
alcoholism programmes will be offered to all other
community radio stations
A Training Station
As important as broadcasting is to Bush Radio the
station remains essentially a training centre Emphasis
is placed on developing potential broadcasters from
the community rather than on just filling airtime
Apart from the manager and administrator all of Bush
Radios staff are in-service trainees gaining valuable
on-the-job experience in areas like news music
features and programming
Each year the station receives hundreds of applica-
tions for training from communities nationally and in
some cases from initiatives abroad Much attention is
paid to the selection criteria for trainee candidates
and their future ability to pass on their skills Bush
Radio has developed training methodology and basic
curricula to suit traineesrsquo varied cultural linguistic and
educational backgrounds
During its first two years on air much of the activity of
the station was directed at building and maintaining
solid programming and management This meant that
training had to take a back seat Now that the station
is more settled in its broadcast ability and in response
to much demand from the sector it has returned to its
training focus In September 1998 Bush Radio laun-
ched a new fully equipped facility streamlined and
geared toward a comprehensive radio training
programme Training involves broadcast journalism
and technical and management skills These are
sophisticated fields of study and Bush Radio
continues to offer much-needed introductory level
training programmes in them
Overview of Courses
Introductory courses These cover differentforms of radio community radio and its role anintroduction to field recorders reel-to-reelmachines studios basic editing various programmeformats and the role of producers presentersreporters engineers etc At the end of the coursetrainees have enough knowledge to be able tofunction at a minimum level of competence
In-service trainees A practical one-year on-the-job experience structured to offer young graduates or others an opportunity to learn whileworking in the field of radio They work in the following areas
News In-service trainees are required to gatherinformation log edit and read the news live onair
Music The trainees are expected to ensure thatthe local content quota as stipulated by the IBA isadhered to They also help to maintain the musiclibrary develop links with record companies andensure that the station is offering a balanced variety of music on air
Production Apart from technical aspects of programme production trainees spend muchtime learning about the communitys develop-ment needs eg in health safety education etcThe amount of research is sometimes over-whelming but trainees gain essential skills for programme planning
Programme management Many stations haveproblems in the area of programmingexpertise The programme managementpart of the course assists the trainee in
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carefully assessing the needs of the station theresources available to it and the make up of the community The trainee is enabled to design implement and evaluate a comprehensive program-ming schedule
Prison Radio
Bush Radio was approached by the CriminologyDepartment of the University of Cape Town to develop a training programme for young prisoners tobe trained to operate a radio station After months ofnegotiations with prison officials a viable plan thatwould enable prisoners to operate a simple radio station within the facility was drawn up The enthusiasm shown by the participants convinced theauthorities that the therapeutic effect the programmehad on the inmates were beneficial to their rehabilita-tion The project continues and it is expected thatseveral other prisons will be receiving equipment aswell to duplicate the project
Lessons Learnt
Management and operation For the station tooperate efficiently there must be constant develop-ment through training and other professional activities Internal communication is essential Regularstaff meetings should be held to make sure that everyone has a clear understanding of where they fitinto the organization These meetings can also beused to encourage resource and idea sharing amongthe staff
Staff members should be encouragedto form strong contacts with thevolunteers In Bush Radio we have
learned that staff members tend to develop feelings
of superiority over the volunteers probably because
we are situated in an area with a high unemployment
rate To be employed at a radio station also has an
element of glamour
Marketing the station is also very important if the
station is to become self-sustaining
Volunteers Most of the volunteers at Bush Radio
come from deprived communities ie from the
stationrsquos target audience They often have limited
educational levels and most are unemployed The
communities that many of them have grown up in are
very tough They have a dire lack of role models
facilities and amenities Thus community radio often
is subjected to a high level of theft abuse resistance
to authority and change a lack of self-confidence
pride and commitment and an inherent apprehensive
attitude towards training and education Very few
volunteers understand the concept of volunteerism
its responsibilities and limitations In effect most of
the community radiorsquos target constituency simply
cannot afford to volunteer They are so poor
that some travel to the station on public transport
illegally
Nevertheless the commitment of some of the
volunteers is astounding but despite their energy and
vigour and even when they get on air it is difficult to
depend on their input Without compensation they
run out of steam and often just when programmes
have reached a steady following the volunteer
participants are drawn to job offers family commit-
ments or other more viable activities
Women in training and recruitment Women are
often excluded from areas that require technical
knowledge For this reason Bush Radio has a policy
that no training programme can begin unless at least
50 of the trainees are women
Community access and participation A commu-
nity radio station must be constantly trying to find
ways of providing the community with easier access
to it Apart from encouraging staff volunteers and
interested parties to come forward with ideas Radio
Bush encourages visits to the station However these
have had to be limited to certain days and hours If
not too many people hang around and disrupt
operations
Fund-raising The expectations of the donor and
those of the project have to be carefully discussed and
agreed upon before any funding takes place Many
projects suffer as a result of misunderstandings The
station must abide by its mission statement in any
application for funding Too often projects compromise
their mission statement in order to receive funds In
the long run this creates confusion
There are many different formats used for applying
for funding There is nothing wrong with contacting a
potential donor and asking what information is needed
whether there is a regular application form and so on
Many donors also expect to be kept informed on a
regular basis This should be done whether it is asked
for or not It is good to keep a donor or programme
sponsor up to date on developments at the station94
The Roots in Latin America
It was in Latin America that the worlds first communityradio experiences were initiated 50 years ago whentwo very distinct movements turned to radio as a wayof both increasing their influence and of contributingto community development These were RadioSutatenza in Colombia and the Minersrsquo Radios inBolivia (see boxes 1 and 2 in Chapter 1)
From these roots of rural Christian social develop-ment and militant trade unionism community radiohas grown to have significant presence in LatinAmerica church commercial university trade unionand indigenous peoples radio stations have combinedto make the regions radio the most dynamic anddiverse in the world
A Need to Communicate
Radio Chaguarurco located in a rural part ofEcuadors southern province of Azuay is a young station that continues in the tradition of LatinAmerican community radio The idea of setting it upstarted with a series of workshops in 1990 Thesewere organized by campesino organizations and bythe local churches in the counties of Santa Isabel andPucaraacute in the province of Azuay
The workshops were intended to organize the communities so that they might gain access to basicservices such as drinking water and electricity and toensure that human rights were being respected
A document written by the stations foundersexplains the process that launched the radio station
ldquoWe started to talk about what we needed first we mentioned electricity and drinking water but after that westarted talking about communication about being able toshare a common reality and being able to analyse it in orderto improve it That was how Radio Chaguarurco startedSome people who didnt live in the countryside asked why acommunity radio station was necessary when there were somany other priorities Isnt a radio station a luxury Sure there are lots of other needs health nutrition education day-care better agricultural techniques toimprove production But rather than patching things up tofulfil our needs temporarily its important to think aboutthe causes of the problems about the injustice andinequality that cause poverty and marginalizationrdquo
The director of the station says that the idea grew outof the need to communicate Because of RadioChaguarurcrsquos location it is very difficult to receiveradio stations from the region Few people haveaccess to television and even fewer to newspapersTelephones are still unavailable in many of the townsand they are not available at all in the countrysidewhere most people live
The communities are very scattered Some are only 30minutes from the county centres where the politicalstructures and the markets are located but others arebetween one and 12 hoursrsquo walk away with no roadsFor the population of such communities it is practi-cally impossible to be in daily or even weekly contactwith the centres
Communication began to be seen as a necessity bythe Church and campesino organizations in thearea The idea of a community radio station thuscaught on quickly and within a few months itbecame one of the main topics of discussionduring workshops People in rural areas were usedto being excluded from the media so they wereexcited about having their own radio station aplatform for talking about the necessities of theircommunities and about the problems in gettingbasic services
No doubt the idea of a radio station was a goodone but who would make it a reality A frequencyand government permission would be requiredEquipment would have to be bought Who wouldown the station Where would the station belocated Which communities would it serve
The local Church and the peasant organizationProyecto Norte quickly emerged as the two mainbackers of the project They had collaborated onprevious development projects and had participa-ted in the discussions about a radio station fromthe outset Helped by the areas representative inCongress they started laying plans
The first problem was obtaining a broadcast licenceIn 1992 Ecuadorrsquos law did not recognize commu-nity radio Getting a commercial licence involved acomplex process that even after years of waitingcould easily fail But there had been astation in Santa Isabel in the past Eventhough the man it belonged to had died
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RADIO CHAGUARURCO ECUADOR - NOW YOUrsquoRE NOT ALONE
by Bruce Girard
and the station had been off the air for many yearsthe commercial licence was still valid Buying a stationwith a licence still requires government permission aprocess almost as complicated as being assigned anew frequency But it was a definite possibility
With the process of legalizing the ownership of thefrequency underway the next step was decidingwhere the station should be located
Santa Isabel and Pucaraacute
Santa Isabel is a county capital with a population of3000 people It seemed the logical place for the station for it was the largest town in the region andan important market centre Apart from the Churchthe central plaza is ringed by banks doctors officesand shops It is less than two hours from the provincialcapital of Cuenca and because it has a telephone service it is an important communications centre forthe region At an altitude of 1500 metres it has a perfect climate for growing tomatoes onions andeven sugar cane products that are sold throughoutEcuador
The village of Pucaraacute also a county capital has apopulation of less than 1000 and is only 40 kilometres from Santa Isabel However the non-stopbus takes two hours to climb the unpaved road tomore than 3100 metres above sea level In the rainyseason the road can be closed for days at a timeThere are no telephones and when the road is closedthe village is incommunicado
Pucaraacute where the road ends has a single street in atear-shaped loop with a brightly pain-ted Church in the middle and a per-imeter of breath-taking mountains
and valleys This majestic view camouflages a harsherreality With an average annual temperature of only12 degrees and nights that drop to near zero Pucaraacutesclimate supports little more than subsistence agricul-ture - the staples of beans and potatoes - and a precarious living But Pucaraacute did have one importantadvantage for a possible radio station its altitude andmore central location meant that from a technicalperspective it was a better place to locate the transmitter than Santa Isabel In any event the townrsquosresidents only make up 20 of the total populationand the main target audience would be among therural 80
However the question of where to put the stationalso had a political dimension The community wherethe station was located would be more likely to haveits concerns broadcast its members on air and tobenefit most from it
The solution was to put the transmitter in Pucaraacute theadministrative centre in Santa Isabel and to put studios linked via microwave in both communitiesThus when Chaguarurcos director talks about theradio he says it is actually two stations sharing a singlefrequency and a single identity
Local information is gathered at both News programmes are also duplicated with two anchorsone in Pucaraacute and one in Santa Isabel Some inter-views are also duplicated with the interviewer in onecommunity and the person being interviewed in theother Some music programmes are produced only inPucaraacute and others only in Santa Isabel but many programmes are produced in both locations
At the time of writing a third studio was underconstruction in the village of Shaglly This has a population of only 250 but it is the nearest
community for 2500 rural dwellers There are plansto continue the decentralization process by establi-shing new studios in other communities
The Chaguarurco Foundation
The issue of ownership of the station was as importantas that of location From the beginning it was agreedthat it would not be owned by the local priest or bythe parish or by any single person It was to be ownedby the people In September 1992 the ChaguarurcoFoundation for Rural Development was establishedwith representatives from campesino organizations inthe two counties from the Catholic parishes andfrom the workers and volunteers of the radio stationThe radio is under the care and supervision of theFoundation ensuring that the people who in effectown it will always be in control and have access to it
The Chaguarurco Foundations board meets everythree months with extraordinary meetings held whennecessary The board receives reports from the stationdirector and makes the important programming andbudget decisions
By the time the Foundation was set up the dream ofthe radio station had been circulating for almost twoyears Nobody foresaw that they would have to waitanother two-and-a-half years to see how theFoundation would function obtain funding for theequipment get approval for a frequency and trainpeople for the station
Funding in the region is difficult and the project wasgoing to be an expensive one The areas geographiccharacteristics called for an AM transmitter whichwas substantially more expensive than an FM oneThe 5 kW Nautel transmitter including its antenna96
and installation was going to cost US$80000 morethan the community could ever put together on itsown Once the Foundation was established it startedthe slow process of getting the money together fromlocal and international sources However even thoughthey needed the money the community was not pre-pared to sacrifice the stations independence for it
Practically all new equipment was needed what wasavailable in the old station was not even good enoughto put in a museum The transmitter antenna and installation were donated by the Spanish aid agencyIntermon Caritas Manos Unidas some Spanishvolunteers and a solidarity group in Madrid also helped The Church in the provincial capital Cuencadonated a pickup truck
Donations were only sought for equipment and installation The Foundation was determined that thestation would pay its way and that is what has happened
Training the Community
While the process of legalizing the purchase of thefrequency crept slowly ahead a group of volunteersbegan training people from the community One problem was that nobody working on the project hadhad any experience in radio apart from two Spanishvolunteers who had a little experience in communityradio stations in Madrid
In essence those involved had to train themselvesfirst in order to be able to train others They read whatever books they could find and travelled to otherstations to see how these were run Experienced radiopeople were invited to speak and to give courses Inthe end a manual and a trainers package were produced based on what had been learned Then the
newly-trained trainers went out to start training thecommunity volunteers
Serious training started in December 1993 The ideawas that each community would look for a personthat they considered to be an appropriate correspon-dent In addition there was a general invitation toanyone who was interested to participate in thecourses
Four trainers divided the work between December1993 and October 1994 going to different communi-ties week by week There was no shortage of volun-teers Many of them walked four five or even sixhours to get to the place where the courses were heldThere was particular enthusiasm in one village wherethere had been many conflicts and much abuse ofpower by the authorities Some people had even beenkilled People believed that the radio would help themput an end to such abuses
In November 1994 the staff was selected fromamong those who had been trained In Decemberthey underwent a month of intensive and more specialized training The ongoing training and discus-sions about the radio kept the project moving forward and people involved However five years hadpassed since the project was first discussed and thewait had a cost Some people had got discouraged andhad left
However the station finally went on the air on 1 January 1995 As one participant remembers
ldquoIt was the most beautiful thing With lots of people listen-
ing We were crazy Greeting all the people Thanking the
ones who had been with us since the beginning those who
had taken courses with us the correspondents Making
calls to Cuenca to see if the signal reached the city There
were people who knew we were going to be on the air
and they called us We played lots of music and every
few minutes announced lsquoThis is Radio Chaguarurco
Were on the air Listen to us on 1550 kilohertz Tell
your neighbours to listenrsquo It was crazyrdquo
lsquoNow youre not alonersquo
After years of waiting peoples expectations werehigh They were not going to be satisfied with astation that sounded like all the rest They wantedto hear their own experiences and concerns toldin their own voices and in their own languageNow there was a communication medium wherepeople could talk say what they felt and denounceofficials who were giving them a hard time The phrase lsquoNow you are not alonersquo summed upthe sentiment produced by the station
To produce the kind of radio that the communitywanted called for a special kind of radio producerOnly four of the eight full-time staff and 20 volun-teers had ever formally studied journalism Theothers learned their skills in Chaguarurcos owncourses but all of them now work as journalistsand programme producers Five of the full-timestaff are based at the station in Santa Isabel andthe other three are based in Pucaraacute
The staff in the station are in fact almost volunteers Their salaries are not even the minimum that the law requires Howeveras the radios income rises their salarieswill also increase gradually
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Role of Volunteers
In addition to the paid staff there are some 20 volun-teer producers Six of them are correspondents in surrounding villages They gather the news in theirareas and periodically travel to the station with theirstories and tapes The station supplies them with taperecorders and rechargeable batteries Proceeds froman annual raffle are used to pay their bus fares
One volunteer produces a one-hour music programmesix days a week It features Ecuadorian music which isa special interest she developed at a time when thiswas unavailable on the radio She uses her personalcollection of records and tapes and says that the radioprogramme has collectivized it
Other volunteers produce a weekly market programmehosted simultaneously in Pucaraacute and Santa Isabel Thislooks at prices and trends in the areas markets It hasplayed an important role in controlling speculation
There is a constant turnover among the volunteersand for this reason the station continues to offerregular training courses to new ones
Participation and Programming
There are important characteristics that distinguishChaguarurco from other stations in the region Themost important is the priority the station gives tolocal voices language and culture Unlike radio stations in the city which have announcers who try tohide any regionalisms in their accents or their languageChaguarurcos announcers celebrate their own way ofspeaking Another important distinction is that the
station actively seeks the participationof people from the countryside invi-ting them to visit the station to tell
their stories to sing or just to greet their friends andfamily over the air
The station also plays an important role as a commu-nication channel at the service of the communities -a telephone service for those who do not have itWhen places in the radiorsquos coverage area are withoutroads and are difficult to reach the people who livethere listen to the station for information aboutimpending visitors so they can be ready for them
For example the community health project has amedical team which periodically visits remote communities Before the radio went on air this wouldtravel to a community and lose hours or even dayswaiting for the news of its arrival to get out to thepeople in the countryside and for the people to travelin to where the team was waiting to attend themNow the radio announces visits ahead of time andthe community is ready and waiting for them
Health matters are very important to the stationThey are covered for example in radio dramas thatthe station produces and broadcasts daily The dramashave characters that the people in the countryside canidentify with They chat with each other and tell stor-ies about health and related matters They talk abouttreating garbage vaccinations nutrition and aboutthe environment Some of the dramas also deal withpolitics culture and human rights These dramasacted by the stations own staff provide a valuableway of explaining complex issues in everyday languageand in a way that people can easily understand
A recent addition to the stationrsquos programming is theinclusion of news from Latin America and the worldthat the station gets from ALRED (Latin AmericanAssociation for Radio Education) and the Puacutelsar newsagency A satellite dish at the Pucaraacute station receives
ALREDs programmes and news from Puacutelsar arrivesvia the Internet
This information from other countries and conti-nents which people did not have before has met withfavourable comment ldquoWe see that there are people outthere just like us campesinos like us Were exchanginginformation with them In the same way we receive information here from other countries we also send newsfrom here to them And this is interesting to communicatelike brothersrdquo
A Minga for Chaguarurco
The way the Chaguarurco Foundation meets its objec-tive of covering the stationrsquos running costs is to keepcosts low using resources freely offered by the communities it serves In addition to the volunteerservices the studios in Pucaraacute and Santa Isabel are inspace provided free by the local churches When a studio needs a handyman or when a pot of soup isneeded for a minga (a day of volunteer labour for acommunity project) there are always people aroundto offer their skills or help Even so Chaguarurco hasto generate some US$2000 per month to cover itsoperational costs
The stations financial situation is healthy It managesto generate enough revenue to cover its fixed costs aswell as putting aside a few thousand dollars a year toimprove its equipment or cover unforeseen costsSources of revenue include advertising communitymessages production services and broadcasts of cultural events
Advertising which brings in about 20 of the stations revenue has always been a controversial subject Some people argued that commercials had no98
place in community radio Others said that the survivaland growth of the station was the most importantthing and that all advertisers should be welcome Thecompromise policy is to advertise only local goodsand services The philosophy is to promote what istraditional and local rather than the consumption ofimported products developed through high technologyand chemicals The message of the commercial radiosis seen as promoting these at the expense of homeproduce Thus the station does not give advertisingspace to carbonated drinks produced by multinationalsNor in the interests of health does it broadcast commercials for alcohol or tobacco
Political advertising is also controversial For most ofthe countrys radio stations elections are a bonanzaMore than a dozen parties buy airtime and it is customary for stations to put a surcharge of 20 to150 on it The temptation is strong During recentelections one party offered to buy time fromChaguarurco at a price that would have paid the billsfor months The offer was not accepted it was notthought beneficial to the community The station prefers to give equal possibilities to all political partiesrather than allowing the more powerful ones to gainfurther advantage through commercials
Community announcements and personal messagesaccount for about 40 of the stations revenue Yetanother source of income is the production of pro-grammes on health and other issues for local NGOsand government The station also continues to gethelp from the solidarity group in Spain organized byone of the volunteers who helped set up the stationThis raises funds through bingo sessions dinners andthe sale of handicrafts
Is Anyone Listening
Between June and November 1996 a team of students from Santa Isabel under the guidance of aDutch volunteer designed and conducted a survey of400 people in the stationrsquos coverage area The mainconclusions were
bull Radio is the most used medium In the towns 64also watch television especially in the evening Inthe countryside only 40 of people have access totelevision
bull Radio Chaguarurco is number one in terms ofaudience in both the towns and the countryside Itis however most popular in the countrysideamong adult listeners and among people with lesseducation
bull Forty percent of respondents from the villages claimto listen to Radio Chaguarurco everyday In thecountryside this rises to almost 50
bull The most popular programming is music followed bynews programmes and community announcements
The survey showed that the radio station was wellreceived by its audience but it also showed whereimprovements could be made by adjusting the sched-ule providing better training to the announcers andputting more agricultural information in the programming
In addition to the figures however the survey alsoshowed that after only four years on the air RadioChaguarurco has helped to make a number of important changes in community life It has improvedcommunication helped bring about more democracyand less abuse made a positive contribution by promoting the sharing of experiences and solutions toproblems and made people more aware of and proudof their own culture
How the Radio Station Has Helped theCommunity
The station has a system of announcements andcommuniqueacutes For three half-hour periods a day -morning noon and evening - people can send allkinds of messages concerning the situation ofpatients in hospital deaths lost animals invitationsto meetings etc The radio is thus the telephonefor those who do not have one
As a result of the stationrsquos existence the authoritiesinstitutions and merchants have become moredemocratic Before it was an everyday practice toabuse campesinos charge them more than theright price sell material that was intended forpublic-works projects and so on Now everybodyhears about such abuses on the radio and theyhave practically disappeared as a result
The radio has served to share experiences and problems For example a community that has succeeded in the struggle to obtain a service suchas electricity or drinking water explains on theradio how they went about it the procedures andwhat public offices they had to go to making itmuch easier for others to follow In addition solu-tions to everyday problems are shared eg ideasabout farming techniques or latrine building areexchanged
The radio is also helping to revalue the local culturemusic and way of speaking Songs that had practic-ally disappeared and that were only sung by theoldest people during family gatherings are onceagain heard on the radio Programmes containingsuch songs are among the most popular programmes on the radio and they aregenerating renewed pride in the localculture
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COMMUNITY RADIO HANDBOOKThis Community Radio Handbook aims to show that ordinary people even non-technical rural folk
can plan set up manage and produce radio programmes by themselves with a minimum of depen-dence on outside help whether for technical advice and training or for funds and equipment Althoughquite a number of radio stations began with a big helping hand from outside many community stationsthat on the air today were lsquoself-start-upsrsquo They began with a minimum of equipment and technicalknowledge but a strong community organization and a group will to push ahead and succeed
The Handbook highlights the case-stories of several such stations including Homa Bay Radio inKenya Radio Apam in Ghana Minersrsquo Radio in Bolivia Radio Sagarmatha in the Kathmandu valleyNepal Tambuli Community Radio in the Philippines and several others in order to share these creativeexperiences with others preparing to set up similar radio stations
As a handy reference for planning management technical background group dynamics broadcas-ting legislation and radio production formats based on pioneering experiences this book is a basic yetcomprehensive and practical reader for communication students researchers and planners and a lsquomustrsquofor prospective community broadcasters
1rue Miollis 75732 Paris Cedex 15
Further information Tel (331)45684025 bull Fax (331)45685585
e-mail ipanevskaunescoorg
- Contents
-
Preface helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip iii
Introduction helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 1Any Community Can Start its Own Radio Station helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 1
Chapter 1 Community Radio in the Broadcasting Scene helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 3
Community Radio in the Context of the Globalization of Media helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 5
The Evolution of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 6
An Important Initiative by UNESCO helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 8
Box 1 The Minersrsquo Radio in Bolivia helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 12
Box 2 Radio SutatenzaACPO in Colombia helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 13
Chapter 2 Features and Functions of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 15
Essential Features of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 15
Functions of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 18
Box 3 Involvement of Women helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 23
Chapter 3 Legal Aspects helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 25
Uneven and Haphazard Legislation helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 25
Most Progress in Africa helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 25
Asia and Indiarsquos Lengthy Debate on Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 27
Legislation in Some Latin American Countries helliphelliphelliphelliphellip 28
Some Examples from Western Europe helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 30
Convergence and Divergence in Legislation helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 31
Applying for a Licence helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 32
Chapter 4 Technical Aspects helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 33
Technical Background helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 33
Broadcasting Equipment helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 35
Reliability and Maintenance helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 39
Studio Premises helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 40
Spatial Relationship Between the Components of the Radio Station helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 40
Future Possibilities helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 41
Specialist Advice helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 43
Box 4 Basic Equipment for a UNESCO-supported Community Radio Station helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 44
Chapter 5 Getting Started helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 45
Legal Context helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 45
Preparatory Work in the Community helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 46
Importance of a Mission Statement helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 48
Role of the Religious Establishment helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49
Role of Local Educational Institutions helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49
Involvement of Politicians helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49
Choosing a Location in the Community helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49
Box 5 Involvement of Politicians helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 50
Choosing a Model helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 50
Power of the Transmitter helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 51
Ownership and Management helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 51
Programminghelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 51
Staff helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip52
Sustainability helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip52
Looking for Outside Funding for Start-up Costs helliphelliphelliphellip54
Box 6 Main Factors to Consider When Planning a Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip54
Chapter 6 Programme Policieshelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 57
Participatory Programmes helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 57
Community News helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 60
Balancing Views helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 60
Coverage of Religious and Cultural Events helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 61
Local Election Broadcasts helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 61
Educational Broadcasts helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 61
Audience Surveys helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 63
Chapter 7 The Community Broadcaster helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 65
Code of Conduct helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 65
A Prototype Code of Conduct helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 66
Selection of Community Broadcasters helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 71
Training of Community Broadcasters helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 71
Chapter 8 Case Studies helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 75
Radio Olutanga (Tambuli Project) Philippines helliphelliphelliphelliphellip 75
Radio Sagarmatha Nepal helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 80
Radio Ada Ghana helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 85
Bush Radio South Africa helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 90
Radio Chaguarurco Ecuador helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 95
Table of contents
Communities and Communication
ldquoPeople live in a community by virtue of the thingswhich they have in common and communication isthe way in which they come to possess things in commonrdquo 1
T here are more than 20000radio stations in the worldand more than 2 billion
radio receivers Any notion thatTV and other sophisticated communication technology willreplace radio is unfounded forradio is in constant expansion Itswaves reach almost every cornerof our planet It is the prime electronic medium of the poorbecause it leaps the barriers of isolation and illiteracy and it is themost affordable electronic mediumto broadcast and receive in
The last two decades have seen arapid expansion in the number andpopularity of community radiostations Among the reasons forthis are the democratization anddecentralization processes in manyparts of the world deregulation ofthe media and the relaxing ofbroadcasting monopolies by stateinstitutions and disaffection withcommercial radio channels
Furthermore awareness is growingof the social and economic benefitsthat can result when ordinarypeople have access to appropriateinformation And it is also evidentthat when people especially the
poor can participate incommunica-tion processesand consensusbuilding aboutissues thataffect theirlives it helpsthem to cast off their traditionalstate of apathy and stimulatesthem to mobilize and organize tohelp themselves
ANY COMMUNITY CANSTART ITS OWN RADIO STATION
To start a small radio station is notas complicated and expensive asmany people think There isenough experience in many countries to prove that it is withinthe reach of almost any community
Community Will is the Key
The primordial condition for acommunity to start its own radiostation is a sense of internal cohe-sion and community consciousnessThere must be willingness forcooperative work and to poolresources and enthusiastic consensus
that the people want their own radioin order to advance their community
As part of the consensus buildingthat leads to the decision to establisha community radio the communitymust analyze its communicationneeds and determine how radiocould help to resolve them Thetraditional approach to develop-ment is to provide support to agriculture health education andso on and a radio station may notnormally be seen as a priority Buta community that analyzes itsneeds in detail and thinks aboutthe causes of its problems andmarginalization will often cometo the conclusion that it needscommunication processes to helppeople share common understan-ding and common goals This is thefirst step towards a communitytaking action to establish its ownradio station
ldquoEveryone has the right to freedom of opinion andexpression this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek receiveand impart information and ideas through any mediaand regardless of frontiersrdquo
Right of information section Article 19 of theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights
ldquoCommunity radio is a social process or eventin which members of the community associatetogether to design programmes and produce andair them thus taking on the primary role of actorsin their own destiny whether this be for something as common as mending fences in theneighbourhood or a community-wide campaign on how to use clean water and keep it clean or agitation for theelection of new leaders The emphasis is on the ownership of democratic and development efforts by the members of the communitythemselves and the use of media in this case radio toachieve it In every sense this is participatory communication(not programmes made about them by somebody else) It is above all a process not a technology not merely ameans because the people are part of that means and sois the message and the audienceCommunity radio is most relevant to a group of peoplewho live and act as a community and this could be severalfamilies several neighbourhoods or even several villagesor communities but the important thing is that theyinteract That is why I think of community radio as the
community speaking to each other and acting together forcommon goalsrdquo
Carlos A Arnaldo
Introduction
A basic Community Radio Studio in Burkina Faso
1
Com
mun
ity
Rad
io H
andb
ook
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oduc
tion
Phot
o U
NES
CO
2
Producing Programmes does notneed Magical Skills
The professional tasks of managing astation and producing programmesare not beyond the reach of typicalcommunities Unfortunately expo-sure to commercial andor stateradio leaves many people with theimpression that such professionalstandards are the norm and theydo not realize that good and effec-tive radio broadcasting can bemuch less formalized Nor do theyrealize that the usefulness andimpact of any media productiondepends much more on its relevan-ce to the audience than on its for-mal quality
This is not to say that quality ofprogrammes in terms of theirstructure and their technical level isunimportant For example impro-per use of recording equipmentmay result in programmes of suchpoor sound quality that they aredifficult to understand Howeverexperience with community radioshows that when people are moti-vated and enthusiastic the mini-mum technical levels required forbroadcasting can be masteredduring only a few weeks of trainingAnd as they gain hands-on produc-tion experience their skills developmarkedly They quickly reach fullysatisfactory levels of performance
The Cost and Technologyare not Prohibitive
The equipment requiredfor community radio isrobust and easy to main-tain and it does not needsupport from broadcastingengineers beyond some ini-tial training Its cost isconstantly falling For atypical community radiostation the normal cost ofthe equipment is little morethan US$20000 For minimalbroadcasting there is even asuitcase available weighing 16 kgwhich contains a five-watt trans-mitter a six-channel audio mixertwo compact disc players two cas-sette taperecordersplayers and anantenna The total cost is aboutUS$3000
There are also FM radio receiverswith a solar strip that can eitherpower the radio or charge a batteryAt night the radio can be poweredby a dynamo winding up the radioby hand for two minutes provides30 minutes of listening time
The tendency among those produ-cing equipment for communityradio has been to focus on simplicityof installation use and maintenanceAnd local people often show extra-ordinary capacity to adapt andbuild for themselves For examplein Cape Verde UNESCO helpedlocal technicians to install a single
transmitter on one islandHowever the technicians were soeager and enterprising that after-wards they built two more trans-mitters so that they could have oneon each of the three main islandsThis was despite the fact that thecomponents originally made avai-lable were scarcely enough for onestation Furthermore they also linkedthe three stations over seeminglyimpossible distances to form a net-work that shares programmes in acomplicated schedule every day5
Media and Development
ldquoDeveloping communities are characterized by isolation from ideas and information as well as services At the simplest level before people canconsider a question they need to be fully aware of allthe facts the short-term effects and the long-termimplications ways in which decisions taken in onearea will affect future planning Communicationmedia could present this informationrdquo 2
Phot
o C
A A
rnal
do
The Judges are the Listeners
ldquoIt is unfortunate that the so-called radio professionals have set certain artistic productionstandards which could intimidate the regular villagepeople The irony is that the so-called professionalproductions cannot compete with programmes doneby the inexperienced village people The professionalsforget that the ultimate judge of a radio programmeis the listenerrdquo 4
Donrsquot be afraid of radio
ldquoNo one should be afraid to use radio I have been abroadcaster for almost a quarter of a century andI know nothing about the electronics side of radio
Even today I cannot explain how my voice in the studio is processed and passed on finally to the family radio maybe hundreds of kilometres awayrdquo 5
1 John Dewey (1916) cited by Elizabeth Blanks HindmanldquoCommunity Democracy and Neighbourhood NewsrdquoInternational Communication Association (1998)
2 Frances J Berrigan ldquoCommunity Communications - the role ofcommunity media in developmentrdquo Reports and Papers onMass Communication no 90 UNESCO (Paris 1981)
3 Louie Tabing Neighbourhood Radio ProductionUNESCODANIDA Tambuli Project Philippines
4 Martin AllardrdquoOn the AirhellipThe Development of CommunityRadiordquo UNESCO Sources no 21 (1990)
5 Louie Tabing Manager of the UNESCODANIDA TambuliProject Philippines
Mang Vicente of Ibahay on Aklan Island in Southern Philippines plays traditional melodies on a flute made from PVC plumbing pipe
Chapter 1Community Radio in the Broadcasting Scene
3
Com
mun
ity
Rad
io H
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1
T his chapter describes the place of community radio in the broadcastingscene and explains the essential
difference in its approach compared to conventional public service or commercialbroadcasting A rationale is put forward for itsimportance in the scenario of increasing mediaglobalization
The evolution of community radio from itsfirst experiences some 50 years ago is tracedand set in the context of broadcast mediaownership patterns technical developmentsand the recent trends towards democratization and decentralization
The reader will acquire
bull An understanding of the special nature ofcommunity radio compared to other types ofradio broadcasting
bull An understanding of its place and importan-ce in the trend towards media globalization
bull Knowledge about its background specificfield experiences and the factors that havedetermined its evolution
This theoretical framework provides the long-term foundation for practical knowledge andskills to be gained in later chapters
Broadcasting can be divided into three general categories
bull Public-service broadcasting is generally conductedby a statutory entity which is usually - though notnecessarily ndash a state-supported or a state-ownedcorporation Its broadcasting policies and programmingare often controlled by a public body such as a councilor a legally constituted authority This body ensuresthat broadcasting operates to provide informationeducation and entertainment to the citizens andsociety in general and independently of governmentparty politics or other interests Much of the fundingfor the operation comes from licence fees that the listenersviewers pay for the receivers they have intheir homes
bull Commercial or private broadcasting providesprogrammes designed primarily for profit fromadvertising revenue and is owned and controlled byprivate individuals or by commercial enterprises
bull Community broadcasting is a non-profit servicethat is owned and managed by a particular communityusually through a trust foundation or association Itsaim is to serve and benefit that community It is ineffect a form of public-service broadcasting but itserves a community rather than the whole nation asis the usual form of public broadcasting describedabove Moreover it relies and must rely mainly on the resources of the community A community is considered to be a group of people who share
A Declaration of Principle
ldquoCommunity radio responds to the needs of the community it serves contributing to its developmentwithin progressive perspectives in favour of socialchange Community radio strives to democratizecommunication through community participation indifferent forms in accordance with each specificsocial contextrdquo
World Association of Community Broadcasters(AMARC) 1988
4
common characteristics andorinterests The commonality ofinterests may be based on
- The sharing of a single geographicallocation that is to say those livingin a specific town village orneighbourhood
- The sharing of economic and sociallife through trade marketingexchange of goods and services
Unfortunately this tidy classificationinto three categories of broadcastingis less than tidy in practice forthere can be combinations andoverlapping situations For examplea local commercial radio stationmay also broadcast some communityservice programmes a station ownedand managed by an NGO such as areligious institution may fill most ofits air time with such programmesand state-owned public-servicebroadcasting has increasingly beendecentralizing to the local level andproviding programming for thecommunities around it
Not surprisingly there is still nosingle definition or description ofcommunity radio And to complicatematters further there have beenvarious terms applied to small-scaleradio broadcasting such as lsquolocalrsquolsquoalternativersquo lsquoindependentrsquo or lsquofreersquoradio All of these lack precision Forexample the term lsquolocal radiorsquo
could also cover the decentralizedoperation through a local stationof a state-controlled broadcastingsystem or even a small commercialstation Terms such as lsquoalternativersquoand lsquofreersquo are also imprecise even ifin the context of radio they arenormally taken to mean alternativeto the mainstream mass media andfree from government ownershipand control Logically thereforethey include community radio butthey do not necessarily include it
The various definitions of communityradio that have been formulatedshare many common elements Thesimple and catchy phrase lsquoRadio bythe people and for the peoplersquo isoften used as a good summary Thisphrase captures well the essentialprinciple that must be in place for abroadcasting service to be consideredtrue community radio It must firstlybe managed by the communitysecondly be to serve that community
Strict application of these two principles would mean that a radiostation owned by a non-profitNGO and also managed by thatNGO would not necessarily qualifyas a true community radio even ifmuch of its programming wereaimed at community developmentThis is the case for many broadcastingservices run by religious organiza-tions and in practice the term
lsquocommunity radiorsquo is often used tocover this type of operation as wellOne example is Radio Maria whichbeginning from a single parish inNorthern Italy in 1983 now coversall of Italy and also has stations in21 other countries It is essentiallyan evangelical operation but it alsodoes a great deal in social servicesand community developmentusing volunteers and supported byspontaneous contributions fromlisteners
The somewhat confusing situationregarding what constitutes truecommunity radio can perhaps bestbe understood by considering thefollowing quotation this sums up aphilosophical approach that makescommunity radio different fromcommercial or public-service radio
ldquoCommunity radio emphasizes thatit is not commercial and does notshare what it would call the prescriptive and paternalistic attitude of public-service broadcas-tinghellip The key difference is thatwhile the commercial and public-service models both treat listenersas objects to be captured foradvertisers or to be improved andinformed community radio aspiresto treat its listeners as subjects andparticipantsrdquo 4
One Definition
ldquoA community radio station is characterized by itsownership and programming and the community it isauthorized to serve It is owned and controlled by anon-profit organization whose structure provides formembership management operation and programming primarily by members of the community at large Its programming should bebased on community access and participation andshould reflect the special interests and needs of thelistenership it is licenced to serverdquo 1
On Radio Work for Ordinary People - a Practitionerrsquos View
ldquoRadio is simply people talking with people The Tambuli stations have merely expanded theopportunity for people to talk more to a wideraudience and to listen to a more expansive array ofideas on matters that directly concern themrdquo 2
On Community Ownership and Management
ldquoTo qualify as a community radio the ownership and control of the station must rest squarely and unquestionably with the community it claimsto serverdquo 3
Commercial Media Antagonism Towards Community Media
ldquoMainstream commercial media continue to harbournegative feelings about community media and areconvinced that they are adequately able to servecommunity needs They have not yet come around toaccepting that the special character of communitymedia is complementary rather than antagonisticand mutually exclusiverdquo 5
This placing of both public andcommercial broadcasting into aprescriptive category treating listeners as objects is significantfor even when they broadcasttheir so-called community serviceprogrammes they usually remainin the same prescriptive modeThis is contrary to the participatoryessence of community radio programming
COMMUNITY RADIO IN THE CONTEXT OF THEGLOBALIZATION OFMEDIA
Recent years have seen a strongtrend towards the globalization ofmedia Colossal media enterprisesof a commercial nature have beenformed and increasingly span theglobe with their programmesCertain countries have also becomecentres of highly successful mediaproduction mainly of an enter-tainment character and sell theiroutput to TV channels worldwideObvious examples are soap operasfrom the USA However audienceresearch has shown that peopleprefer to watch programmes withtheir own cultural orientationsrather than those imported fromothers For this reason media productions from developing
countries such as Brazil ChinaEgypt India and Indonesia arenow gaining wider distribution inlarge-scale commercial media
While some people argue that theglobalization of the media disruptslocal cultures others state thatglobal media intensifies theconsciousness of the world as awhole and is therefore beneficialThey see global media and community media as complemen-tary each forming important functions that the other cannotAnd this is certainly the case
By definition global media arecommercial and need to attractlarge audiences for their adverti-sing content Thus they broadcastprogrammes that attempt to satisfya common thread of sensitivitiesamong large numbers of peopleusing well-tried and rather standardif not banal entertainment formatsThe lack of variety in programmeorientation is therefore generallyattributed to the lsquoself-censorshiprsquoof the market which uses entertainment as the sole criterionfor selection However it is alsotrue that governments tend to bemore comfortable with privatebroadcasters limiting themselvesto entertainment rather thanbecoming involved in the moreproblematic area of news and
current affairs For these reasonsthemes reflecting socio-politicalinterests are often insufficientlycovered or deliberately ignoredby private broadcasters
Clearly given their characteristicsand orientation commercial andglobal media can hardly meetsocio-economic and developmentneeds of the countries they coverThe excessive entertainment provided by commercial televisionhas often provoked a call for areappraisal of the potential ofpublic broadcasting stressing theneed for quality programmes anddemanding more possibilities ofchoice and access for audiences A logical step in this direction is toexpand the democratization ofmedia to the community levelespecially through communityradio in which accessibility is thenorm
Furthermore community radioworks in the cultural context ofthe community it serves it dealswith local issues in the local language or languages it is relevantto local problems and concernsand its aim is to help the commu-nity to develop socially culturallyand economically This is not onlyin contrast with global media operations it is also in contrastwith centralized urban-based 5
Com
mun
ity
Rad
io H
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pter
1
Global Communication
ldquoGeorge Orwell in Nineteen Eighty-Four warned us ofa society controlled by Big Brother Is that what weare encountering today when we see so many peoplein poor communities tuning into western dominatedideals of the rich consumer society Orwell was veryconcerned about the socialist drives of the industrialage But perhaps he was also warning about the takeover of society by a democratic political power drivento degradation by these very industrial drives and bythe easy resort to globalization of mediardquo 6
The Power of the Local Approach
ldquoAn effective strategy for the community radiostation is to present what cannot be offered by any
other radio station that is local content with a localflavour The local radio station must dwell on itsstrongest reason for existence - local events issuesconcerns and personalities If a local station can doan exhaustive reportage of what goes on in its community on a regular basis there is no way aregional or national broadcast outfit could competefor listenership The element of proximity is the mostpotent quality that the community radio should capitalize on People will be enthusiastic to know ona daily or even hourly basis about the people andevents unfolding next to their place of aboderdquo 7
6
national media even of a publicservice nature for they are oftenremote from the realities of ruralcommunities and their needs
THE EVOLUTION OF COMMUNITY RADIO
The pioneering experiences fromwhich todayrsquos community radio hasevolved began some 50 years agoin Latin America Poverty and socialinjustice were the stimulus forthose first experiences one beginningin Bolivia in 1947 and known as theMinersrsquo radios and another inColombia in the same year knownas Radio SutatenzaAccioacutenCulturalPopular (See boxes 1 and 2 at the end of this Chapter for descriptions)
These experiences in Bolivia andColombia set a trend even iftodayrsquos concept of communityradio has evolved considerably Forexample the Minersrsquo radios inBolivia were working in thedecades of ideological clash between Marxism and capitalismThus their principal focus was tounite the community of miners tobattle for better and fairer workingconditions They were generallyconsidered to be trade unionradios even if the miners providedmuch of the finance for the purchase
of equipment and running costs
Radio SutatenzaACPO in Colombiaalthough inspired by the aim ofsupporting the community of peasants was not owned or directlymanaged by them There was muchfeedback from peasants - some50000 letters a year ndash and thesecertainly ensured the integration ofthe peasantsrsquo desires and needsinto the radiorsquos programming Butit was not truly lsquoradio by the peoplefor the peoplersquo which is todayrsquosaim
Even so this first systematic effortby Radio Sutatenza to educate byradio created a movement thatldquohellipspread and was later consolidatedthrough ALER the Latin AmericanEducational Radio BroadcastingAssociation This inter-linkage ofradio and education is basic to theidea of public service and markedthe birth of community media inLatin Americardquo 8
However even if the groundbreak-ing work was in Latin America itwas in Europe that communityradio first became a vital phenome-non an alternative to ndash or a critiqueof ndash mainstream broadcast mediaThe first challenges to state public-service broadcasting were in the1960s-70s when ldquoswashbucklingentrepreneurs boarded the airwavesillegally and seized as much of the
audience as they could carry awayfrom the treasure chest monopolycontrolled by the staterdquo 9 In theWest these pirate stations proved acatalyst in motivating governmentsand national broadcasting systemsto introduce legitimate local radio
In Africa the establishment ofcommunity radio became in abroad sense a social movementafter the demise of the apartheidregime in South Africa This wasfollowed by democratizationdecentralization and to someextent structural adjustmentelsewhere in that continent10
The pressure groups that have instigated community radio inmany parts of the world (egminers pirate radio operators missionaries and democracy movements) have been less presentin Asia In their place internationalagencies such as UNESCO andother external donors have oftentaken initiatives to help get community radio off the groundAnd in some cases it has been thenational broadcasting organizationthat has itself started communityradio services
Vision of Joaquiacuten Salcedo founder of RadioSutatenza and Accioacuten Cultural Popular
ldquoWithin weeks of arriving in Sutatenza Salcedo as ajunior priest had challenged the peasantry from thepulpit to take up arms against the poverty and backwardness that afflicted them and had offered hishand and vision in a partnership They respondedand so a pact was formed
Salcedo pioneered a concept known as lsquointegralfundamental educationrsquo similar to what today is
often called lsquolife educationrsquo The core of the conceptis that the educational process must be the development of the individual as a whole person and as a member of society
It became an ACPO slogan that lsquodevelopment is inthe mind of mankindrsquo And providing people witheducation in the broadest sense would enable themto make informed decisions and become proactivein taking control of their livesrdquo 11
The Influence of DifferentBroadcasting Ownership Systems
Latin America adopted the NorthAmerican system of mainly privateand commercial broadcastingwith multiple stations of variedpower and reach In this context itwas relatively easy for new stationsto start up And several thousandhave done so in Latin Americaoften initially as illegal or piratestations
In Western European countriesthe public-service state broadcastingmonopolies which had been setup when radio and later TV werefirst introduced usually had management mechanisms throughstatutory public bodies Thesecontrolling bodies ensured thatbroadcasting policies and programmes were as independentas possible of government partypolitical or other influences
European countries that adoptedthis public-service broadcastingapproach through state networksdid so because from the very firstdays of radio in the 1920s and TVsome 30 years later the electronicmedia were considered by leadingthinkers as marvellous instrumentsfor expanding culture educationand information and for improvingsocieties According to that thinkingthe mass media could not be
allowed to function principally ona commercial basis and as a vehicleto be taken over by the advertisingindustry to market products
Many countries in the developingworld especially in Africa and Asiawhere European countries hadheld influence as colonizers adoptedthe European model at least as faras the state monopoly on broad-casting was concerned Howeverthey did not always allow broad-casting policy to be controlled by astatutory and independent publicbody preferring complete controlby government of all aspects oftheir electronic media Thus manygovernments especially those ofcentrally planned economies usedtheir broadcasting networks tofurther their political aims and inparticular to consolidate theirpower base
In such circumstances and fullyrealizing that information ispower these governments withfully state-controlled broadcastingwere extremely reluctant to allowany electronic media to operateindependently This made it difficultfor community media initiatives toget started Only in the early 1980sdid some governments begin torelax their opposition to indepen-dent media but even today manygovernments still effectively oppose
the idea of relinquishing theirmonopolistic control of the broad-casting media
On the other hand it has becomeclear in the last decade or so thatattempts to control information ina society are doomed to fail The fax machine on a desk thecomputer connected to theInternet electronic mail andsatellite television are underminingall the efforts of repressiveregimes to control and conditionthe information that their peoplereceive This situation coupledwith the spread of democracy andfreedom of expression in mostparts of the world is opening thedoor to community media initiativesand particularly to communityradio And governments in countriesthat have already opened the doorare able to see for themselves thatcommunity radio has great potentialfor promoting and supportingd e ce n t ra l i ze d e n d o g e n o u sdevelopment
Technical Evolution
In addition to the political aspectsof decentralizing broadcastingthere are technical factors thathave played and continue to playa very important part in the evolu-tion of community radio 7
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mun
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1
Alternative Media as Antibodies
ldquoSome fifteen years ago I described alternative media as antibodies producedas a protection against the neglect insensitivity and insanity of the conventional mediardquo 12
8
Two important breakthroughs haveallowed major progress firstlycheap transistor receivers andsecondly low-powered and cheaptransmitters
Until the invention of the transistorin the mid-1950s radio receiversused valves and were expensive andcumbersome Until that time mostof the worldrsquos radio receivers weremanufactured in North Americaand Europe but the arrival of thetransistor paved the way to massiveradio ownership in developingco u n t r i e s Fo r e xa m p l e i n Sub-Saharan Africa India andChina the number of radio receiversexpanded from two million in 1956to 90 million in 1975 And the number of radios has continued toexpand dramatically worldwide tothe two billion or more of today
The availability of cheap receivershas played a key role in the evolu-tion of community radio with apush-pull effect in the sense thatonce a community station starts tobroadcast there is often a significantrise in radio ownership This is anindication that radio listening maybe as much a function of peoplersquosinterest in what is being broadcastas their ability to afford a radioreceiver For example in a poorrural area of Mali where a communityradio station began to function
radio ownership rapidly rose by 140 percent 13
The second technical breakthroughwas low-power transmitters using abroadcasting system known asFrequency Modulation (FM) Thesebecame increasingly available in the1970s and 1980s (See also Chapter4) Small companies in severalcountries began to produce equip-ment that was designed specificallyfor community radio operationsMuch of it was in kit form and sorobust and simple that it was idealfor use in the often harsh conditionsof developing countries
AN IMPORTANT INITIATIVE BY UNESCO
Among UNESCOrsquos missions areldquothe free exchange of ideas andknowledgerdquo and promoting ldquofreeflow of ideas by word and imagerdquoIn this context UNESCO launchedan initiative to support communityradio in 1980
The initiative began with discussionsin 1980 between UNESCO and theEconomic Commission for Africaon local radio broadcasting Thesehighlighted the fact that very fewAfrican countries had a commonlanguage that enabled nationalbroadcasting to effectively reachthe rural people who made up as
much as 80 percent of the popula-tion The best broadcasters coulddo was to select perhaps ten of themain local languages and broadcastdaily programmes in them on atime-sharing basis Thus no singlecommunity could listen to a languageit understood for more than a shortperiod each day
There were also problems of physi-cal and mental distance the centralbroadcasting facilities were oftentoo far away from their ruralaudiences for their broadcastsignals to be received intelligiblyand the urban-based programmeproducers were too far away mentally to know and understandtheir rural audiences properly
The discussions in those early daysand for many years afterwardsassumed that the state broadcastingsystems would be decentralized tolocal stations These would mainlyrelay the signal from the capital but would also originate some programmes locally This systemwould keep the local radio underthe control of the national broad-casters and as such it cannot beconsidered as an example of thecommunity broadcasting model oftoday
On the Potential of Community Broadcasting in Africa
ldquoCommunity-based radio broadcasting could be theleast costly mass medium for development in media-starved rural Africa It could promote positivecultural identity using local languages which areineffectively used on national broadcasting stationsand are usually accessible only to urban and eliteaudiencesrdquo 14
Big Boxes are More Impressive
ldquoIntegrated circuits and new componentsenable us to make smaller pieces of equipment but some manufacturers justlike to use big boxes open them up andthey are practically empty insiderdquo 15
Equipment Factor A first needwas for cheap and simple equip-ment quite different from the kindof equipment used by state orcommercial radio stations SoUNESCO organized a workshop atBrighton Polytechnic in 1980 thatbrought together British ChineseCuban French and Ghanaian engi-neers The purpose was to identifypriorities and outline designconcepts A first requirement wasa 10-watt FM transmitter thatcould run off a 12-volt car batteryor even solar panels and thesecond was for a simple and cheapaudio mixer similarly powered forbringing together sounds (voicesmusic and sound effects) into asingle programme for broadcast-ing The other necessary itemssuch as tape recorders and recordturntables could be purchased atreasonable prices in the market
The transmitter was designed andbuilt by Mallard Concepts inBritain and the six-channel audiomixer was designed and its pro-duction supervised by Jake Mills aGhanaian who was for many yearsthe technical director of GhanaBroadcasting Corporation
Based on integrated circuitry theMallard transmitter was onlyslightly larger than a home hi-fiamplifier It could be deliveredeither in kit form or fully assem-bled The largest component in theequipment was the transformer the
device for conver-ting power from110- or 220-voltalternating currentto 12-volt directcurrent
The cost of theMallard equipmentpackage was aroundUS$2000 comparedto about US$15000or more for com-mercial transmittersof similar power
Tests with theMallard transmittershowed that itssignal could beheard on a normalradio at a range ofup to 12-20 km Itwas so light androbust that it could easily be takenout into the countryside in a carPowered from the carrsquos batteryand with an antenna hoisted into atree an outside broadcast stationcould be set up
UNESCO also worked on solar-powered receivers and onproblems such as the cheapconversion of existing AM receiversso that they could also pick up FMbroadcasts Despite some promisingdesigns for solar-powered receiversit proved impossible to find amanufacturer that could mass-produce them on the scale necessaryto make them cheap enough for
Soldering circuits for 20-watt FM transmittersin Brixham UK
9
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of the FM community radiotransmitter designed byMallard ConceptsLtd UK forUNESCO
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Jay
awee
ra
10
even the very poor to buy Bothsolar and wind-up generator radiosets are manufactured today but atprices still prohibitive to most ruralfolk
Political Factors Solving thetechnical problems was often lessdifficult than overcoming the political ones in promoting thespread of community radioUNESCOrsquos push in the area of community radio was essentiallyradical based on concepts ofhuman rights and freedom ofexpression But the world of theearly 1980rsquos was still divided byideological conflict between Leftand Right and state monopolies onbroadcasting were the norm inmany developing countries
It is easy to think that governmentssimply wanted to repress all formsof self-expression that could pose athreat to their authority or to theirstable hold on power However closer consideration shows thatmany governments especially incountries with a multiplicity of ethnic groups and languages feltthat national identity and unitywould be strengthened throughhaving a single broadcasting voicefrom the centre and through promoting a national languageWhatever the reason for govern-ments to defend their broadcasting
monopolies UNESCO faced anoteworthy challenge in promotingcommunity radio
The First Community RadioStation in Africa
The government of Kenya was thefirst to open the door to UNESCOrsquosproposal for setting up a communityradio In May 1982 a Mallard 10-watt transmitter as well as anaudio mixer designed by Jake Millsand related broadcasting equipmentof a total value of less thanUS$25000 were supplied to thecommunity of Homa Bay on LakeVictoria This is a poor area withmany problems of underdevelop-ment Local people were givenbasic training in how to use theequipment and the station beganbroadcasting for two hours a day inLuo one of Kenyarsquos principle lan-guages but not that of the dominantethnic and political group
Homa Bay was successfully on airfor only two-and-a-half years beforethe government closed it down forit was said to be working contraryto the official policy of makingSwahili and English the nationallanguages Furthermore despite itsvery local coverage it was said tobe increasing tensions between different ethnic groups
Building on Homa Bay
Despite this political setback theHoma Bay experience proved that asmall community radio operationcould be effectively set up withequipment costs of less thanUS$25000 and that it could function in a low-technology environment without encounteringtechnical problems
UNESCOrsquos initiative in communityradio coincided with some worldtrends that favoured it The mostimportant of these was the growingawareness of the limitations of centrally planned economies leadingultimately to the collapse of theideology that had built them But innon-Marxist countries too demo-cratization decentralization andneo-liberal policies were on themarch and this was also leading toa greater willingness to decentralizenational broadcasting systems
In Sri Lanka the Sri LankaBroadcasting Corporation hadalready regionalized its services andthe notion of starting communityradio was a natural next step Thusin 1983 the second UNESCO community radio initiative wasbegun in the context of a largemulti-purpose irrigation schemethe Mahaweli DevelopmentProject About a million peoplewere being resettled on newly
Excerpt from 1988 Evaluation of MahaweliCommunity Radio
ldquoIt has animated settlers into participation in activities that not only encouraged self-actualizationbut also community identify and development Intandem with Mahaweli development workers it hasmotivated the settlers to try innovative practices inagriculture and health It has likewise motivatedlocal development workers to take the settlers andtheir problems more seriously ensuring a more palpable degree of service to the peoplerdquo
Some Achievements of Mahaweli Community Radio
ldquoIn one area we came across a group of teenagedelinquents who had no land and were desperately insearch of something to do Through our programmesand discussions we motivated them to clean up thevillage pond and set up an ornamental fish production enterprise In another village we arranged a mass wedding to solemnize the marriageof elderly couples who were living togetherTheir offspring had faced many hardships as theirparents were not legally married I produced manyprogrammes on gambling and alcoholism which helped the addicts to reflect upon themselves andgive up the vicerdquo 16
Bamako Declaration on Radio Pluralism(President Konareacute of Mali 1993)
ldquoRadio pluralism is an essential componentin the deepening of the democratic processnow under way it allows people greateraccess to a diversity of information andguarantees increased popular participation for sustainable human developmentAfrican statesmust speed up the ending of the monopoly over ofthe airwaves and give priority to national proponents of independent radio when allocatingbroadcasting frequenciesrdquo 20
irrigated land and these familiescame from various parts of thecountry Originally no media element was included among thevarious rural development inputsfor Mahaweli However it waslater realized that a communityradio service could help the sett-lers to integrate and to take initia-tives to improve their living stan-dards In effect they needed todevelop a sense of community aswell as learn more about improvedagricultural practices health andso on
Community radio offered greatpotential for this so with financialsupport from Danish InternationalDevelopment Assistance (DANIDA)and UNESCO the MahaweliCommunity Radio was set up Itsfirst station covered about 20000settlers in the major developmentregion surrounding the town ofGuirandurokotte but it was latercomplemented by several othersmall FM stations in the area
Although the Mahaweli CommunityStations were all under the controlof the Sri Lanka BroadcastingCorporation they used a truecommunity radio style This wasquite different from the style usedby the national broadcaster
One of the main thrusts ofMahaweli Radio in addition toproviding settlers with information
was to obtain feedback from themabout development activitiesthrough recordings made in thecommunities which were laterincluded in programmes orthrough having settlers come intothe studios to talk on air Withsuch participation in the radio programming and dealing as it didwith local problems and issues theradio became a vital andpersonalized link in the life of thecommunity
Community Radio Expanding ata Fast Pace
Riding on the flood tide of changethat has been sweeping the worldtowards democratization anddecentralization in the 1980rsquos and1990rsquos community radio has beenexpanding at a fast pace UNESCOfollowed its Kenyan and Sri Lankanexperience with support to otherstations in a wide variety of coun-tries among them Ghana TongaHaiti Cape Verde St LuciaTrinidad and Tobago SurinamJamaica Guyana the Philippinesand many others However UNESCO is now far from beingalone in promoting communityradio A wide range of internationaldevelopment agencies and nationaland international NGOs are involvedin many parts of the world
The rapidity of the spread of community radio is remarkableand Mali provides an interestingexample In 1991 after 23 years ofmilitary dictatorship severe socialdisturbances finally overthrew thegovernment and a multi-partydemocracy was formally establishedA transition government came topower pending democratic elections
Mali is a primarily rural society andthe transitional government orga-nized consultations with represen-tatives of the rural people It wasfound that after more than twodecades during which the nationalmedia had been the channel forissuing instructions and exhorta-tions and with government staffin rural areas equally distant thepeasantry was disaffected and alienated by the governmentrsquosimposed development programmesThey preferred to ignore them 17
The transitional government andthe elected one that took its placedecided to install with the help ofUNDP and the Food and AgriculuralOrganisation (FAO) a policy ofusing communication systemati-cally for Malirsquos development thefirst country in the world to do soMali also took a lead in media libe-ralization in Africa notablythrough organizing a crucial confe-rence in Bamako in September1993 called ldquoFreedom for AfricanRadiosrdquo 18 19 11
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12
Mali had itself just liberalized its state TV andradio which ever since they began had broadcastexclusively in French a language only understoodby the countryrsquos elite And with illiteracy levelsof about 70 percent the majority of the peoplehad had no access to media-based information
In the five years after Mali liberalized its mediamore than 60 independent radio stations beganto operate providing access in local languagesto people for the first time since the dawn ofradio broadcasting And many other countriesare becoming similarly involved with communityradio Much has happened to improve thesituation for community broadcasting since theHoma Bay community transmitter was closeddown by the government of Kenya some 15 yearsago And as an endnote Kenya today is also discussing legislation that would recognizecommunity radio as part of the countriesbroadcasting scene
The Bolivian experiencebegan with a radio servicecalled the lsquoVoice of the
Minerrsquo linked to the Siglo XXmine in the Department of PotosiacuteIn subsequent years 23 stationsin the various mining areas of thecountry were set up and came tobe known collectively as theMinersrsquo Radios
These radio stations were born asa trade union response to theappalling conditions of workersin the mines most of which wereowned and operated until 1952 bya few rapacious and fabulouslyrich families the lsquotin baronsrsquosuch as the Patintildeos who wereknown world-wide for their extra-vagant lifestyles Meanwhile theminers who were the source oftheir wealth and of the mainnational export were being inhu-manely exploited Living in primitive mining camps often inthe cold of very high altitudespoorly paid and suffering fromtypical minersrsquo afflictions such assilicosis they were already oldmen by the age of 40 Their lifeexpectancy was further reducedby the lack of safety precautionsin the mines and frequent accidents In 1952 the mineswere nationalized but little chan-ged for the miners becausegovernments lacked socialconscience
Unfortunately historical factsabout the Minersrsquo Radios remainsomewhat vague for the mainsource of information is the
memory of the people involvedHowever it is certain that theradios were a crucial element inhelping to lead the struggle ende-mic in Bolivia for many years - aconfrontation that saw massacresof miners and their families civilwar and revolution
The radios helped to unite theminers in the struggle and provided them with news andinformation that countered thenegative propaganda against theirinterests that was being put out bymost of the mainstream mediaThe importance of the MinersrsquoRadios is evident from the num-ber of times they were systemati-cally destroyed or their equip-ment confiscated by the militarysent in by one or other of the succession of governments thatruled the country
It was in fact the miners that initiated the massive strike in1981 that finally led to the end ofdictatorship in Bolivia As on allprevious occasions of seriousconfrontation with the authoritiesone of the principle demandsmade by the miners was thereturn of the equipment for theirradio stations or in cases wherethe equipment had been destroyed the right to start themup again with new equipmentThe miners usually contributedmost of the cost a further illustra-tion of the importance of theseradio stations in their lives
Although the main role of theMinersrsquo Radios was the defence
and promotion of minersrsquo rightsthey were also central to a widerange of cultural and educationalactivities They promoted andbroadcast festivals of minersrsquopoetry discussions about theaesthetic value of popular songsand other art forms and discus-sions about education issueseven including a discussion ofwhether minersrsquo children shouldlearn to play chess
The miners themselves contributedto the costs of establishing andrunning their radio stations but inmost cases the management andprogramming policy was in thehands of their unions And therewas little participation by minersin the kind of radio programmesthat would be promoted by com-munity radio today However theintegration of the radio stationsinto the mining community wasto a great extent ensured by theirphysical location close to themine they served and peoplecould generally visit the studioand say their piece if they wanted
Most Minersrsquo Radios were set upin the second half of the 1950sbut their most flourishing yearswere between 1963 and 1983After that world tin prices beganto drop and in 1985 a neo-liberalgovernment passed a decree tolsquorelocatersquo miners throwing about20000 of them out of miningwork forever This cut the groundfrom under the feet of their radiosSome were passed to peasantgroups but today less than tenare still operating
BOX 1 The Minersrsquo Radio in Bolivia
BOX 2 Radio SutatenzaAccioacuten Cultural Popular in Colombia
This initiative was launchedin 1947 by a priest JoaquiacutenSalcedo in an Andean
village called Sutatenza It beganusing a home-made transmitterwith a range of two to three kmbut from this Radio Sutatenzagrew into Colombiarsquos mostpowerful broadcasting network
Salcedo an atypical priest wasmore concerned about the socialand economic status of Colombiarsquospeasants than about conventionalChurch matters Driven by his mission to bring education to peasants to help them develop herealized that radio could reacheven into the most isolated parts ofmountainous Colombia Thus theidea of the Radio Schools ofSutatenza was born and from thatAccioacuten Cultural Popular (ACPO)
The educational broadcasts byRadio Sutatenza expanded untilthey covered a wide range oftopics including literacy numeracyhealth farm production housingimprovements family and personalrelationships sport and leisureand - crucially as it turned out - theresponsibilities of parenthood andpractising responsible procreation
People listened to these programmes in informal RadioSchools - in effect small groupswho came together each eveningThe groups were assisted by moni-tors people with more knowledge
and experience than the group Atany one time there was usually anenrolment of some 200000 peasants in about 20000 RadioSchools
To complement the radio programmes ACPO produced arange of textbooks and a PeasantrsquosLibrary of 100 books on topics forrural communities And a weeklymagazine with an estimated readership of 600000 people waspublished Furthermore trainingof peasant leaders and technicaltraining courses in communitieswere a part of the activities
The Roman Catholic Church supported the operation from thebeginning mainly with funds fromCatholic groups in Europe butACPO also attracted world-wideattention and many internationalagencies also became involved infinancing it
Ultimately Radio Sutatenza wasthe victim of its own successW h e n i t i n t r o d u c e d i t s programmes on lsquoresponsible procreationrsquo the Church begansystematically to undermine itSalcedo declared that the problemwas to convince the masses that itwas not sinful to discuss these matters and that it was difficult toeducate people for human dignityand for responsible maternity in acountry dominated by religiousrules ACPO held no position on
chemical or physical methods ofbirth control Its task was only tocreate the basis on which indivi-duals could take their own respon-sible decisions
This position infuriated the Churchhierarchy in Colombia which heldthat the only purpose of humansexual intercourse was procreationof the species So it convinced theEuropean Catholic groups to with-draw their support HoweverACPO continued to function withother international funding passedthrough the government
The operation struggled on usingmainly borrowed funds until 1985when its powerful and valuableradio infrastructure was sold to acommercial network In 1987 after40 years successfully dedicated tohelping peasants develop theirminds knowledge and life skills itfinally folded completely Itsassets which included a publi-shing house a plant for pressingmusical records a 14-storey officeblock in the capital as well as peasant training centres were soldto meet its debts
13
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1 Independent Radio and Television Commission of Ireland1988
2 Quote Louie Tabing Manager of the UNESCODANIDATambuli Project Philippines
3 Zane Ibrahim and Ms Adams Bush Radio 895 FM (See CaseStudy)
4 P M Lewis and J Booth The Invisible Medium PublicCommercial and Community Radio MacMillan (London 1989)
5 Jocelyn Josiah Presentation on Media for Community Buildingin the Caribbean during Roundtable on Communication forDevelopment Brazil (Bahia 1998)
6 Carlos A Arnaldo Localism and the Displacement of Politics Placebased Communication Development (Globalism and the Politicsof Place) Vol 41 No 2 1998 Sage Publications and SID (Rome June 1998)
7 Louie N Tabing Programming Tips for a Community Radio StationUNESCO-DANIDA Tambuli Project (Manila 1998)
8 Rafael Roncaglio lo Public Service Broadcasting ndash Cultural andEducational Dimensions UNESCO (Paris 1995)
9 T McCain and F Lowe Localism in Western EuropeanBroadcasting Journal of Communication Vol 40-1 (1990)
10 Moncef M Bouhafa Child Survival and Broadcasting ndashOpportunities and Challenges paper presented at internationalconference on Broadcasting for Child Survival Voice ofAmericaUSAID (Washington April 1998)
11 Colin Fraser and Sonia Restrepo-Estrada Communicating forDevelopment - Human Change for Survival IB Tauris (LondonNew York 1998)
12 Peter Lewis in Alternative Media Linking Global and LocalReports and Papers on Mass Communication No 107 UNESCO (Paris 1993)
13 Mary Myers The Promotion of Democracy at the Grass-roots The Example of Radio in Mali Frank Cass Journal Vol 5 No 2 (London 1998)
14 Jake Mills of Ghana the designer of the cheap 6-channelaudio mixer (1990)
15 Martin Allard designer of a simple and cheap FM transmitter
16 Interview Sunil Wijesinghe broadcaster of MahaweliCommunity Radio (1999)
17 Colin Fraser and Sonia Restrepo-Estrada op cit
18 Moncef M Bouhafa Grassroots Media and CommunityEmpowerment in West Africa paper presented to theInternational Conference on Media and Politics CatholicUniversity of Brussels Belgium 1997 (revised 1998)
19 Mary Myers op cit
20 Ibid
14
In Barbados after running the experimental UNESCO community radio for the 1995 World Environmental Conference students took over the radio station and continued programmes ever since from the Barbados Community College as Radio GED
Phot
o U
NES
CO
Kin
gsto
n
Chapter 2Features and Functions of Community Radio
15
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T his chapter describes the special featuresand programming approach of communityradio in terms of public access and partici-
pation ownership management funding editorial independence and credibility as wellas its representation of different groups andinterests in the community and its inclusion ofmarginalized and minority groups
The section on functions covers the role of community radio in reflecting local identity andculture in providing a diversity of voices opinionsprogrammes and content on air and in promotingdemocratic process social change developmentcivil society and good governance Its functionas a lsquopeoplersquos telephonersquo and its contribution tothe training of human resources for the broad-casting industry are also touched on
After absorbing the content the reader will
bull Have a clear picture of the many features andfunctions of community radio
bull Be able to act as a resource personleaderduring discussions in a community about the possibility of setting up a radio stationproviding the necessary background informa-tion for decisions on ownership manage-ment programming policies and the benefitsthat can be expected from a communityradio
ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF COMMUNITY RADIO
The Audience asProtagonists
While community radio is a form of public-servicebroadcasting it has anapproach that is differentfrom conventional broad-casting Its specific focus isto make its audience themain protagonists by theirinvolvement in all aspects of its management and programme productionand by providing them withprogramming that will helpthem in the developmentand social advancement oftheir community
A Special Slant on News Entertainment and Education
News on a community station unlike that on the mains-tream media is not an isolated story or event alone ratherit aims to be part of an ongoing and future process whichsupports change and development in the community
Special Sunday treat for Radio Ibahay - actress Chin ChinGutierrez visits the station during the childrenrsquos programme
and sings a song in Aklanon
Phot
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16
Entertainment is provided in aform that is a collective culturalexpression rather than a featuringof refined performers It is morelike singing Karaoke than listeningto a professional artist
Education is more the sharing ofexperiences and learning from othersin the community than listening toan expert or teacher talking
Principles of Public Access andParticipation
Citizens have a democratic right toreliable accurate and timely infor-mation Based on this right it is apublic interest of broadcasting thatit should incorporate the principlesof access and participation
Access implies the availability ofbroadcasting services to all citizensparticipation implies that the publicis actively involved in planning andmanagement and also providesproducers and performers
In concrete terms for communityradio these concepts mean that
bull A community radiorsquos broadcastpattern reaches all members ofthe community it aims to serve
bull The community participates informulating plans and policies forthe radio service and in definingits objectives its principles ofmanagement and its program-ming
bull The community participates indecisions concerning programmecontent duration and schedulesPeople se lect the types ofprogrammes they want ratherthan having them prescribed bythe producers
bull The community is free to commentand criticize
bull There is continuous interactionbetween producers and receiversof messages The radio itself actsas a principal channel for thisinteraction but there are alsomechanisms that allow easycontact between the communitythe programme producers and themanagement of the radio station
bull There are unrestricted opportu-nities for members of the com-munity as individuals or groupsto produce programmes and behelped by the radio station staffusing the technical productionfacilities available
bull The community participates inthe establishment managementadministration and financing ofthe radio station
Ownership
The facilities of community radioare almost invariably owned by thecommunity through a trust founda-tion cooperative or some similarvehicle However there could becases where formal ownership wasin the hands of a body external tothe community but which has passedthe facility to the community for itsindependent and exclusive use
Management
Irrespective of formal ownershipthe stationrsquos policies managementand programming must be the responsibility of the community inorder for it to be considered a truecommunity radio There will usual-ly be a representative communitycommittee or Board of Directors toset overall policies while day-to-day
Radio quickly and easily becomes he link in society between poor and rich between rural and urban groups between agricultural routine and city leisure At Radyo Ibahay one of the smallest Tambuli stations film and TV actress Chin Chin Gutierrez share her ideas on development in an interview for the Sunday programme
Phot
o C
A A
rnal
do
administrative andoperational decisionsare left to a stationmanager selected by thecommunity
Funding
A community radio service is set up and run asa non-profit organization Itrelies on financial supportfrom a diversity of sourceswhich may include donationsgrants membersh ip fees sponsorsh ip or advert i s ing A combination of these is themost desirable in order to ensureindependence Many communityradios also organize fund-raisingevents among their audience Theoverall aim is always to reach astate of financial self-sufficiency
Editorial Independence andCredibility
Community radio is editoriallyindependent of central and localgovernment of political partiesand of commercial and religiousinstitutions in determining its policies and programming Overallpolicy is set by the aforementionedrepresentative community-levelcommittee but with day-to-day
operational decisionsabout programming taken by thestation manager hisher role as acredible and non-partisan personbecoming crucial
Representation of DifferentGroups and Interests in theCommunity
Communities are inevitably madeup of different groups and inter-ests Community radio broadcastsprogrammes that cater to theseand also encourages them toexpress themselves on air Clearlyhowever programme and timeallocation are approximately pro-portional to the size of any parti-cular group or interest in the com-munity taking into account anyspecial circumstances or needs
Inclusion ofMinority and MarginalizedGroups
Community radio includes minorityand marginalized groups on equalterms rather than giving them an
17
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mun
ity
Rad
io H
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Even the smallest children haveaccess to the radio on the
Radio Ibahay Sunday childrenrsquosprogramme
Carol Singing for a Tape Recorder
Community radio stations often organize communityevents such as community fairs cultural eveningsand other fund-raising activities One Tambuli community radio station in the Philippines organizeddoor-to-door carol singing at Christmas to raisefunds to buy a new tape recorder
18
occasional voice as in the case of many public broadcasters Its programming ensures a wide diversity of voices and views frommarginalized groups such aswomen and youth and it promotesand protects the interests cultureand linguistic diversity of ethnicminorities in the community
FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNITY RADIO
Community radio aims to fulfil thefollowing functions
Reflect and Promote LocalIdentity Character and Culture
Co m m u n i t y ra d i o p ro v i d e s programming that is particular toits communityrsquos identity and character Thus it relies principallyon local content It includes outsidenews and events that have a specialinterest or implications for itsaudience
It also focuses on local cultureCulture is what a community saysto itself and what it says to othersIt is how the people the individualmembers of a community expresstheir dreams and hopes and howthey talk about their past and theirfuture It is what they care aboutLike life itself culture is infinitelyvariable and constantly evolving Itis the result of a process not of
definitions And that is why indemocracies governments areexpected only to establish broadframeworks for cultural expressionby the people Governments mustnot get involved in content or style 1
Community culture is also of courseartistic expression through localmusic dance poetry theatre storytelling and so on and these arefeatured strongly by most commu-nity radios Local performers areencouraged to go on air uninhibitedby considerations of the lsquoprofessionalstandardsrsquo they may have acquiredfrom mainstream media The valueof content and lsquolocalnessrsquo usuallyoutweighs formal quality and lsquoprofessionalismrsquo though thisshould not be used as an excuse forsub-standard technical production
Culture is also Language Locallanguages and expressions are theraw material that feeds communityradios They are the cement of cultural diversity which is as important for the successful futureof humanity as biological diversityThere are some 6700 languages inthe world and 63 percent of theseare in Africa and Asia Nationalbroadcasting and media globaliza-tion combined with other factorssuch as urban migration threatenhalf of the worldrsquos languages with extinction during the nextgeneration And with them will go
their cultures Community radio is aprime defence against this gravetrend towards the impoverishmentof cultural diversity 2
Create a Diversity of Voices andOpinions on the Air
Community radio through itsopenness to participation to all sectors and people in a communitycreates a diversity of voices andopinions on the air
Some discord is present in all communities they are not the peaceful harmonious groupingsthat outsiders may idealisticallyimagine Discord may be caused bydiffering interests by differing ethnic linguistic or religious backgrounds or even by someancient feud The acknowledgementof conflict is necessary for democracyand for democratic communitiesThrough an understanding of whyconflict exists communities canunderstand themselves better andpave the way to resolve conflicts A function of community radio is totry objectively to air all sides of a dis-cussion without itself taking sides
Main Functions of Community Radio as Formulatedin South Africa
Community radio stations should
bull Promote and reflect local culture character andidentity
bull Assist in creating a diversity of voices and opinionsand encourage individual expression
bull Increase access to a diversity of voices on air
bull Assist in creating a diversity in broadcastingownership
bull Be responsive to the needs of their community
bull Contribute to human resources development forbroadcasting and where appropriate to job creation
bull Encourage members of the relevant community toparticipate in programming and production matters
bull Encourage innovation and experimentation in programming 3
Preserving Linguistic Diversity in IndustrializedCountries too
Community radio stations in New York broadcast inWolof on Sundays for people of the Senegalese community Two other stations broadcast in Koreanwhile in France the Arab population has demandedthe right to set up media channels that meet its specific needs 4
Provide a Diversity ofProgrammes and Content
Community radio provides a diversity of programmes in a varie-ty of formats and styles Forexample roundtable discussionsreportage interviews talks call-inprogrammes live broadcasts ofmeetings in the community etcAudience preferences are takeninto account in deciding what formats are most suitable
Content also covers a wide rangeof topics again in accordance withthe expressed desires and needs ofthe audience Content is mainlydetermined by the lifestyles andlivelihood of the community andby the problems it faces In ruralareas themes such as health farming fishing environmentcredit marketing of producesmall-scale enterprises etc usuallyfeature prominently but always setin the context of the communityrsquosactual situation
News broadcasts may also focuson different types of contentThey may cover only local eventsand issues or they may includenational items that have local relevance or they may evenbroadcast national and internatio-nal news per se in the case of aremote community with no accessto other media channels
Encourage Open Dialogue andDemocratic Process
The ancient Greeks who inventeddemocracy conducted their politi-cal debate in public All those whowished could be present at themeetings to listen and voice theirviews Sheer numbers of peoplemake this impossible today andfor this reason democratic processhas become distant from ordinarycitizens Typically once politiciansare elected their contact withtheir electorates is limited andthey go about their tasks withoutmuch further consultation ordebate with them
It is a function of community radioto provide an independent platformfor interactive discussion aboutmatters and decisions of importanceto its community This is in keepingwith the decentralization processesnow being implemented in manycountries a purpose of which is tobring democratic decision-makingcloser to the people concerned
However for social and economicprogress to take place democraticprocesses cannot start and finish inthe community They must reachinto the government and privateinstitutions operating in the community as well as to policymakers and authorities at thelocal regional and even nationallevel
The public debates aired by thecommunity radio will certainlybe heard by locally-basedstaff of government andprivate institutions and theradiorsquos content should berelayed by them to theirsuperiors This lays the foun-dation for development initia-tives that are responsive to thecommunityrsquos felt needs andpossibilities In additionrecordings by the communityradio service can be used inmeetings or even broadcast byother stations to make betterknown what is happening at thegrassroots level
In sum the core of democraticprocess is the ability of people tohear and make themselves heardCommunity radio provides theforum for that to happen
Promote Development andSocial Change
People in poor communities tendto be fatalistic about their situationThey will all have individual perceptions but developmentcannot take place on the basis ofthese What is needed is a collectiveperception of the local reality andof the options for improving itThis can only be achieved throughinternal discussions within the
Connections
ldquoLocal radio stations have the responsibility toconnect people with people people with peoplersquosorganizations and people with officials and govern-ment functionariesrdquo 5
19
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mun
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Rad
io H
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ook
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2
While group listening is not the norm among radio audience radioachieves a certain level of similarity among people living in rural areasProblem-solving becomes easier when there is ldquocommonnessrdquo in knowledge perceptions aspirations goals and processes
20
community about its situation thecauses and possible actions forimprovement
Community radio provides the perfect platform for these internaldiscussions and for reaching a collective perception of the situationSpecific problems can be analyzedremedies discussed and thosemost affected - or who can helpwith the solution - mobilized tocollective action
Anti-social behaviour by minoritiesin a community can also be modifiedby exerting pressure from themajority through community radioprogrammes
Promote Civil Society
Civil society is that multiplicity ofsocial institutions that allows asociety to live in harmoniouscoexistence It creates its own stan-dards and values for individual andgroup behaviour rather thanhaving them imposed from above
Especially in countries that haverecently adopted democratic systems after decades of single-party or authoritarian rule theyounger generations have littleidea about what democracy entailsor about the civil society thatmakes democracies function
Some community radios focus onexplaining the implications ofdemocracy and civil society raisingawareness about peoplersquos rightsbut also about their obligationsThey work to explain how a civicsense is needed if new-found freedoms are to result in harmonyand social progress
Promote Good Governance
In poor communit ies loca l authorities and politicians can easily take advantage of citizenseither individually or as a group inpart because the marginalized andoppressed have no way to complain Community radio helpspeople to obtain their just rights bygiving them a platform to air theirgrievances And through playing acommunity watchdog role it makeslocal authorities and politiciansmore conscious of their public responsibilities
Broadcasting of discussions orquestions and answers betweenmembers of the community andlocal authorities about some issuethat i s exerc i s ing them i s a technique that is often usedAnother technique is to broadcastlive the discussions of local government meetings
This function of community radiois not always easy to fulfil In veryremote communities and wherepower has been held by a few familiesfor generations the people may bereluctant to speak their mindbecause they all have a debt of onesort or another to those familiesAnd equally the powerful familiesmay be unwilling to take criticism
Encourage Participation Sharingof Information and Innovation
Participation is a key word in development circles but it is notalways appreciated that participationand communication are two sidesof the same coin for when peoplecommunicate about their situationand about options for improving itthey are in effect participating Andthey are also laying the foundationfor collective action in which theywill participate Community radioencourages participation by providing a platform for debateanalysis and the exchange of ideasand opinions
In addition community radioallows for the sharing of informationand innovation For example onefamily or group in a communitymay have solved some problemthat is common to many otherpeople such as obtaining farm
Some of the Social and Development Benefits ofTambuli Community Radio Stations in thePhilippines
bull There is a new vibrancy and will to change in thecommunities
bull Men gave up their passionate pastime of gamblingafter a series of discussions over the radio clearlyshowed its negative economic impact on their fami-lies and on the community
bull Butchers were prohibited from bringing live ani-mals to the market and slaughtering them there
bull A large poultry farm was cleaned up to reduce itssmell and pollution
bull Creeks were dredged to reduce risks of flooding
bull A footbridge and extra lighting were installed
bull A day care centre for children was created by thelocal authorities
bull Illegal logging and fishing were stopped as a resultof community pressure 6
A Statement by the Programme Director of the Independent Radio Bamakan in Mali
ldquoThere are a lot of aspects of democracy that peopledonrsquot know about and we are obliged to raise awa-reness to explain that democracy is not anarchythat democracy involves rights and obligations Wehave the right to demand but we also have obliga-tions to the Staterdquo 7
credit from a new bank in the
nearest city A broadcast account
by them explaining how they went
about it and the procedures required
would be the stimulus for other
families to do the same Another
example might be providing infor-
mation about a farmer in the area
who had multiplied seed of an
improved vegetable variety and
was willing to sell it
Give Voices to the Voiceless
In many traditional societies
women and youth and ethnic and
linguistic minorities are virtually
ignored in community affairs But
no community can change and
develop equitably and satisfactori-
ly without the active and informed
participation of its women youth
and minority groups (See Box 3 at
the end of this Chapter)
Therefore community radio gives
voice to the voiceless in the
community This of course is in
addition to giving the community
in general a voice after years of
having been inert recipients of
state or commercial broadcasts
Provide a Social Service asa Replacement for theTelephone
In poor rural areas where
telephones hardly exist
community radio replaces
them to an important extent
by broadcasting messages
For example a family living
in a remote part of the
community can be informed
that a relative living in the
main agglomeration has
been taken ill and would they
please come to visit Or a
farmer with an animal he
wants to sell can have the
fact announced over the radio
replacing the series of calls he
would make if telephones were
available Again a person looking
for temporary labour to help with
some farm task could alert those
people who were interested to
offer their services through a
broadcast announcement
The efficiency of government ser-
vices say in health is improved by
broadcasting the schedule for field
visits ahead of time so that people
will be waiting for these on arrival
Contribute to Diversity inBroadcasting Ownership
Community commercial andnational or state broadcasting allhave roles in society though com-munity broadcasting is the onethat has generally lagged behindthe others Community radio helpsto redress this and provides thebalance of broadcast informationsources needed by democraticsocieties for their advancement
In Benin children participate directly in literacy courses on the air
21
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mun
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In October 1992 Bhutan Broadcasting Corporation was transformed from a statebroadcaster to a public corporation with a much decreased subsidy Above at thenew Punaka market a broadcast trainee talks with the people about prices travelalong country roads quality of the harvest and news of the village This project was financed by DANIDA
Phot
o U
NES
CO
Phot
o C
A A
rnal
do
Difficulties in Achieving Transparency - a Case Studyfrom the Philippines
The more remote the community the more hesitantpeople are to speak out People rely on their leadersfor the smallest problems and they all owe a debt tothe few political families To criticise them wouldseem ungrateful
The local council told the community radio to acceptcalls from listeners with queries or comments duringlive broadcasts of the weekly council sessions Butwhen the calls began to come in the council toldthem to stop accepting them The council also beganto chose which portions of the sessions could bebroadcast and told the radio team to leave the roomwhen budget discussions were under way 8
22
Contribute to theDevelopment of HumanResources for theBroadcasting Industry
Community radio arguablydemystifies the broadcasterrsquosprofession by taking communitymembers as message producersIt is also a school for fledglingbroadcasters where they ofcourse acquire valuable technicalskills
But there is another factor that makes people trained in community radio particularlyvaluable They are broadcasterswho live among their listenersshare many of the same problemsand get constant feedback ndash positive and negative - on the formats of their programmes andon their interest and usefulnessThis gives them unique insightsinto the broadcaster audiencerelationship and into radio as a toolfor change and development It isnot uncommon therefore forcommunity broadcasters go on tojoin the staff of mainstream broadcasting
lsquoThe Peoplersquos Telephonersquo in Haiti
ldquoWhen the bandits sped off on their motorcycle leaving a cloud of dust a dead body and a distressedvillage in their wake they thought they were on theroad to freedom They hadnrsquot heard about the villagersquos radio station Radyo Flanbo In Haiti community radio stations such as Flanbo are knownas lsquothe peoplersquos telephonersquo and as the bandits prepared to terrorize the next village Flanborsquos newsreader broadcast a warning of their imminentarrival The bandits might as well have drivenstraight to the police stationrdquo 10
Phot
o U
NES
CO
Kin
gsto
n
Radio Muye the first community radio run bywomen in the Caribbeanunder the UNESCO specialproject lsquoWomen Speaking toWomenrsquo
One of the youngest womenrecruits of the community
radio station in CuyoPalawan DYMC Radio
1 Adapted from Pierre Juneau GeneralIntroduction Public ServiceBroadcasting - the Challenge of the21st Century Reports and Papers on Mass Communication No 111 UNESCO (Paris 1997)
2 Sophie K Ly El Recuerdo delConocimiento Perdido InteRadio Vol 9 No 2 AMARC (Montreal 1997)
3 Triple Enquiry Report IndependentBroadcasting Authority Republic ofSouth Africa (1995)
4 Ibid
5 B S S Rao during the Consultationon Media Policy and Community RadioBangalore India (1996)
6 Colin FraserSonia Restrepo-Estrada Communicating forDevelopment - Human Change for Survival IB Tauris (LondonNew York) 1998
7 Mary Myers The Promotion ofDemocracy at the Grass-roots The Example of Radio in Mali FrankCass Journal Vol 5 No 2 (London Summer 1998)
8 Adapted from Cecile Balgos The Sounds of Silence UNESCOSources No 89 UNESCO(Paris 1997)
9 Felix Librero in Communication forPeople Power Ed Maslog NavarroTabing Teodoro UNESCOTambuliProject Institute of DevelopmentCommunication College of MassCommunication UNESCO NationalCommission Philippines (Manila 1997)
10 David Shanks Voices for the VoicelessA feature prepared by WorldAssociation for ChristianCommunication (WACC) (London March 1999)
Information as a Commodity for Decisions
ldquoThe appropriate use of community broadcasting isto satisfy community and social needs In the processof doing so people are able to access the very important commodity called information on whichthey base their day-to-day decisionsrdquo 9
Phot
o L
Tab
ing
23
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mun
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ook
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2
Filipino women - particularly
those in the countryside
where socialization has been
limited by poverty and inadequate
educational attainment - are often
shy reserved and timid In addition
rural families are often resistant to
changing the traditional position of
women as housekeepers and
women would generally prefer that
their husbands participate in
community projects
It is very evident that the issue of
collectively pursuing womens rights
and empowerment has been relegated
to the lowest priority among rural
people So it often takes cajoling and
reassurances before women will
come out of their shells
However increased readiness to
participate in community projects
can be seen among those who have
been exposed to mass media culture
and our initial talks in communities
regarding special radio programmes
for about and by women were met
with much eagerness I attribute this
to the fact that some family and
social institutions that had been
trying to promote womenrsquos activities
in the community felt threatened and
welcomed the support that radio
could provide
Once involved women are highly
dependable They adhere to rules
Compared to men they are more
meticulous They are less subject
to anomalous behaviour and
malfeasance They are consistently
enthusiastic And where the women
are mixed with men the men also
become more enthusiastic if not to
say better performers
Meriam Aranas the president of
the Olutanga Islanders Media
Development Foundation was a
strong-willed leader of an active
womens group promoting livelihood
and conservation projects She
registered the association and led the
drive to erect a building for the radio
station
A schoolteacher Rosario Gozos was
appointed as station manager in
Partido Camarines Sur She is
single-handedly running a family
because her husband works abroad
She spearheaded the
successful drive against illegal
gambling in the district Among
other things she has initiated an
all-women Saturday programme
Her infectious dedication
has inspired all the other
volunteers in her radio
station In less than three
years the station became
an institutional power in
the community It has
contributed greatly to
the progress and well
being of Partido
Lyn Villasis a soft-
spoken beautician has
been running a story-
telling program for
children for years and has become
one of the most popular personalities
in the station in Banga Aklan
Malou Angolluan is a youthful
college graduate who has taken
voluntary activity as a vocation Her
exemplary work and dedication to
service have earned her profuse
admiration from her listeners She
has turned down several offers to
work in bigger commercial radio
stations
BOX 3 Involvement of Women
In Ibahay Aklan province PhilippinesAte Meds rushes from Sunday mass tothe Studio for her weekly childrenrsquosprogramme
Phot
o C
A A
rnal
do
24
In Pastapur Hyderabad India women discuss local problems for airing on a regional radio station of All India Radio They are also advocating for new legislationto enable them to broadcast on their own antenna
Phot
o J
im B
entl
ey
25
Chapter 3Legal Aspects
T his chapter gives an overview of the legis-lation governing community radio in avariety of countries world-wide Special
attention is given to South Africa wherebroadcasting legislation is in many ways exem-plary and could be used as a model by othercountries The main common factors and themain differences that exist in national commu-nity radio legislation are described as are typi-cal requirements for obtaining a licence
The reader will gain
bull An awareness of the wide variations in legisla-tion and of the obstacles that communityradio may face in some parts of the world
bull An understanding of the need to examine clo-sely the existing legislation before embarkingon a community radio project
bull Knowledge of the likely information andconditions that the authorities will requirebefore issuing a community radio licence
UNEVEN AND HAPHAZARD LEGISLATION
The airwaves or the frequencies for broadcastingare a public asset It is therefore incumbent uponnational administrations in line with the decisionsof the administrative planning conferences organizedby the International Telecommunications Union(ITU) to regulate and allocate their use with thepublic interest in mind as well as with fairness andtransparency And general national media policiesshould meet the same criteria
Unfortunately this does not always happen andthe legislation governing community radio is veryuneven In several regions of the world communityradio suffers because current legislation is eithernon-existent inconsistent or basically hostile Thishandbook is not the place for an exhaustive description of the legislation country-by-countrybut a brief overview of the situation in a few countries world-wide will give a feel for the situation
MOST PROGRESS IN AFRICA
Many countries in Africa have made good progress inlegislating for community radio This is particularlyinteresting because at first sight it would appearto be a paradox on the one hand communityradio certainly has a natural role to play in cateringto the information needs and interests of the wide
ethnic cultural and linguistic diversity present inmost African countries but on the other handgovernments fear that freedom of ethnic and linguistic expression might undermine nationalunity It will be remembered that this was partlywhat brought the Homa Bay community radioexperience in Kenya to a premature end in 1984
However it seems that the lesson has now beenlearned about authoritarian suppression of diverselinguistic and cultural expression within a countryThis ultimately produces strong resentment andtensions in society Indeed even in industrializedcountries the last two decades have seen a changeof heart by governments that now try to preservethe traditional linguistic and cultural identity of theirminority groups They have realized that a pluralisticsociety can also achieve national identity and unity
This is the case in many parts of Africa too Sincethe early 1990s countries such as Mali BurkinaFaso Namibia and South Africa have all embarkedon a course of freeing their airwaves and promo-ting community radio as part of the nationalbroadcasting spectrum backing the policy withappropriate legislation in most cases
South Africarsquos progress towards new broadcastingpolicies and community radio legislation is consideredexemplary Some countries have already copied itand many others could also find it a useful modelIt is therefore outlined in the next section
Com
mun
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26
Broadcasting Legislation inSouth Africa ndash an ExemplaryCase
The government of post-apartheidSouth Africa realized that the countryrsquos media could help toresolve many socio-economicdevelopment needs and at thesame time help to build a democraticand pluralistic society But newbroadcasting policies and opera-tions would be needed
An Independent BroadcastingAuthority
The first step taken in 1993 wasthe creation of an IndependentBroadcasting Authority (IBA) ajuridical body to formulate broad-casting policy plan the use of thefrequency spectrum issue licencesadjudicate in the case of com-plaints and in general regulate thebroadcasting industry It functionsindependently of the State and ofgovernmental and political partyinfluences It is a non-profit entitythat is financed partly by the Stateand partly from fees that itreceives
The IBA is run by a Council madeup of seven people appointed bythe State President They arepeople with expertise in fields thatinclude broadcasting policy media
law marketing journalism enter-tainment and education They arealso selected on the basis of theircommitment to fairness freedomof expression the right of thepublic to be informed opennessand accountability
Overall Objectives of theBroadcasting Legislation
Among the main objectives ofSouth Africarsquos broadcasting legisla-tion are the following
bull Promote the provision of a diverserange of broadcasting services ona national regional and local levelwhich cater for all language andcultural groups and provideentertainment education andinformation
bull Promote the development ofpublic private and communitybroadcasting services which areresponsive to the needs of thepublic
bull Develop and protect a nationaland regional identity culture andcharacter
bull Encourage ownership andcontrol of broadcasting servicesby persons from historicallydisadvantaged groups
bull Ensure that private and commu-nity broadcasting licences are
Western Media Models a Disservice toDevelopment
ldquoBroadcasting media have developed into aone-way model in Third World countrieswith information news and massive dosesof entertainment flowing from large urbancentres The uniform prescription designed by theaffluent minority at decision-making level does notaddress the issues of development which require alocal perspective for each county and each community The concepts and use of the media as developed in industrialized societies have not proved conducive to the development needsof our countryrdquo 1
controlled by persons or groupsfrom a diverse range of commu-nities in the Republic
bull Ensure equitable treatment ofpolitical parties by all broadcas-ting licencees during any electionperiod
bull Ensure that broadcasting licenceesadhere to a code of conductacceptable to the IBA
Categories of Radio Broadcasting
The legislation foresees three categories of radio service
bull A public service ndash A serviceprovided by the South AfricanBroadcasting Corporation or byany other statutory body or person that receives revenuefrom licence fees paid by listenersfor their receivers
bull A private service - Operatedfor profit and controlled by aperson who is not a publicbroadcasting licencee
bull A community service - A broadcasting service which
Is fully controlled by a non-profit entity and carried onfor non- profitable purposes
Serves a particular commu-nity
Encourages members of thecommunity served by it orpersons associated with orpromoting the interest ofsuch community to partici-pate in the selection andprovision of programmes tobe broadcast
May be funded by dona-tions grants sponsorshipadvertising or membershipfees or by any combinationof these
The term lsquocommunityrsquo includes ageographically founded communityor any group of persons or sectorof the public having a specific andascertainable common interest
South African LicencingArrangements
In keeping with the general andcommunity radio policies outlinedabove the legislation providesdetailed requirements that mustbe met by applicants for commu-nity radio licences It also laysdown the procedures to be follo-wed These are complex anddemanding in terms of the detai-led information that is called forCommunity radio licences areawarded for four-year periodsalthough shorter temporarylicences can also be issued
Licences are not granted to anyparty movement organizationbody or alliance which is of a politi-cal nature
Readers may wish to browse theIBArsquos website (httpibaorgza)for more details on South Africancommunity radio policy legislationand licencing
ASIA AND INDIArsquoSLENGTHY DEBATE ON
COMMUNITY RADIO
The situation in Asia is far lessfavourable than in Africa andIndia provides a good illustration ofthe problems Nepal and Sri Lankashow ways of solving problems
All India Radio (AIR) was establishedas a state broadcasting monopolyin 1935 in line with the Britishmodel the BBC The debate aboutbreaking that monopoly beganmore than 30 years ago with theChanda Committee reportSubsequent committees have spe-cifically recommended decentrali-zing broadcasting to institutionalizethe process of participation and tomeet peoplersquos fundamental rightto information The SupremeCourt passed a landmark judge-ment in 1995 declaring that theairwaves were a lsquopublic goodrsquo andstressing the importance of main- 27
Com
mun
ity
Rad
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3
28
taining a balance in broadcastingbetween market (commercial)forces government monopoly andmeeting the peoplersquos needs andrights to receive and impart infor-mation This judgement openedthe door to the granting of licencesto local stations for public partici-pation and territorialsectoralbroadcasts but the legislationnecessary to allow this to happenhas still not been passed It seemshowever that it is under prepara-tion at the time of writing
The main results so far of thedecades of debate on the subjecthas been some decentralization byAIR to lsquolocalrsquo stations and a recentand rapid expansion of commercialstations using FM frequenciesbelonging to AIR that have beenleased to private operators Someof the AIR lsquolocalrsquo stations try to getcloser to the community and usecommunity radio styles But for themost part these lsquolocalrsquo stationsmerely relay urban-oriented pro-grammes from the national or fromregional capitals rather than pro-ducing locally relevant materials
Commercial broadcasting is onlyallowed to provide entertainmentNews and current affairs and evensex education are banned Thusthe private FM stations which havebeen expanding in response to mar-
ket forces have created a profile aslsquoelectronic discosrsquo for urban youth 1
A consultation session attended bymore than 60 broadcasters legalspecialists university staff anddevelopment communicators metin Bangalore India in September1996 and signed the BangaloreDeclaration urging the governmentto take steps to legitimatize andpromote community radio Sopressure has been building andthere appears to be light at the endof the tunnel
In Nepal the Government-ownedradio service was the only onebroadcasting until May 1997 whenRadio Sagarmatha came on air (SeeCase Study 2) Present govern-ment policy on broadcasting whichgoes back to legislation passed in1993 favours a mix of governmentcommercial and communitybroadcasting but even so it tookfrom 1994 to 1997 before the firstcommunity radio licence was awar-ded to Radio Sagarmatha Its successhas been such that community radiois now set to expand in the country
In Sri Lanka another country witha government-owned broadcastingservice it was this service itself thatbegan community broadcasting in1983 with Mahaweli Radio asdescribed in Chapter 1 It laterexpanded community radio to
cover other parts of Sri Lankamainly in support of rural develop-ment However in mid-1997 aSupreme Court ruling put an end tothe government monopoly of theairwaves and a parliamentary committee was established to pre-pare a new broadcasting bill Thiswill certainly recognize and promotecommunity radio for it is a branchof broadcasting that has becomewell entrenched in Sri Lanka basedon the long experience ofMahaweli Community Radio
In Asian countries that have essen-tially followed the North Americanpattern of commercial broadcas-ting such as the Philippines com-munity radio stations often func-tion without licences
LEGISLATION IN SOMELATIN AMERICAN COUNTRIES
Despite Latin Americarsquos pioneeringrole in community radio todayrsquoslegislation leaves much to be desiredThere are about 6000 registeredradio stations on the ContinentAbout 85 per cent of these are privatecommercial about 7 percentare governmental and the remain-der are in the hands of the ChurchSome of the latter consider them-
Nepalrsquos National Broadcasting Act (1993) Prioritiesfor Programming Should Include These Themes
bull Development oriented programmes agricultureeducation industry commerce science and technology health family planning forest andenvironmental protection
bull Harmony among all classes languages castes religions and religious groups equality and goodwill among all
bull Growth of different languages and cultures inNepal
bull Growth of national interests and unity
bull Growth of moral and national awakening
bull Awakening of social awareness
bull Non-detrimental influence on Nepalrsquos relation withneighbouring and friendly countries
bull Foreign policy pursued by the nation
bull Growth of folksongs folklore and culture
bull Important activities on national and internationallevels
Success Breeds Success in Nepal
In less than a year of operations the value of RadioSagarmatha in improving information flow and creating a forum for democratic dialogue among stakeholders in development issues was so evidentthat the government which had initially restrictedhours of broadcast to only two per day increased itto 13 and then to 24 hours daily The initial andtotal ban on advertising was also lifted the licencewas expanded to include mobile broadcasting and itsfrequency was reserved for its exclusive use throughout the whole country
selves to be community radios In addition there are very largenumbers of unregistered stationsthat have been in existence foryears many of them communityradios which are in formal senseillegal
It was only in the mid-1990s thatsome Latin American countriesbegan to pass legislation on com-munity radio and that legislationis often unfavourable
For example Brazilrsquos very recentlegislation limits the power ofcommunity stations to five wattsseldom enough to cover a typicalpoor peri-urban settlement of 10-20000 people It also makescommunity radio impossible inscattered rural communities ofwhich there are many in Brazilrsquosvast interior Nor is any advertisingpermitted which makes sustaininga community radio even more difficult than it is usually
In Ecuador community radio wasnot legally acknowledged until1996 Most community radios arelicenced as commercial or culturalstations The law in 1996 finallyrecognized community radio as adistinct part of the broadcastingscene but the legislation imposedrestrictions on the power of transmitters that could be used -500 watts at the antenna - andprior approval from the army was
required Any commercial activitywas prohibited as in Brazil
T h e n a t i o n a l o rg a n i z a t i o nrepresenting community radio inEcuador brought a constitutionalchallenge to the law and managedto remove the clause requiring theprior approval of the army but thelimits on transmitter power andcommercial activities remain inforce As late as early 1999 therewere still no community radiostations operating under the newlegislation they all had commercialor cultural licences
After its leadership role in communi-ty radio there is now a paradoxicalsituation in Bolivia In 1995 a lawwas passed under which licenceswould be granted in future only toradio and television stations of acommercial nature that werepublic or private limited compa-nies in accordance with the coun-tryrsquos commercial code Among themore than 500 radio stations inBolivia there are a number ofwell-established educational radioservices that will be allowed tocontinue operating for 20 yearsunder the new law but scores ofcommunity and peasant radiosbecame illegal in 1996 If closeddown their frequencies are sold tothe highest bidder
The contradictory aspect of all ofthis is that it occurred shortly afterthe passing of another law that on
Popular ParticipationThis in effect is part of adecentralization processwhich delegates deci-sions to the local leveland provides funds to implement themCommunity radio couldevidently have enor-mous potential for assis-ting the decentralizationprocess by arousinginterest and participa-tion in local policy anddevelopment decisionsHowever this will not bepossible under the newlegislation which discri-minates against commu-nity radio
In Argentina a situa-tion somewhat similar tothat in Bolivia exists De facto there have beennumerous community popularcultural and university radios stations in existence for manyyears But in 1998 a governmentdecree on broadcasting frequen-cies was issued and a NationalFrequency Plan approved Anarticle in the decree stipulated theimmediate closure of radio stations that were not officiallyrecognized Furthermore theNational Frequency Plan did nottake into account the frequenciesalready being used by many small
Radio Sagarmatha in Kathmandu Nepal led a five year legal battle to obtain itsauthorisation to broadcast It began in 1990 with a communication policy lsquowhitepaperrsquo wich eventually led in 1994 to a new broadcasting act which opened the airwaves to non-governmental organisations or private individualsand organisations for the purposes of education and culture
29
Com
mun
ity
Rad
io H
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ook
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Phot
o J
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ngle
30
radios that had been working foryears throughout the country
Most serious of all however wasthe fact that the overall broadcast-ing legislation the context for frequency applications remainedunchanged and this is legislationthat goes back to the days of thedictatorships that used to rule thecountry The legislation excludesany form of social organizationfrom having a broadcasting frequency and specifies that onlycommercial organizations canapply for them
In 1996 a decree modified thato lder leg i s lat ion for i t was recognized as unconstitutional anddiscriminatory But this correctivedecree of 1996 was cancelledwithin days of its publication Thusby default the old legislation fromthe days of the dictatorships wasleft in force
This situation threatens the wholesector of community and popularradios in the country At the time ofwriting the community and not-for-profit broadcasting sectoris fighting tooth and nail for newlegislation that recognizes its rightto exist and its role in democraticsociety
SOME EXAMPLES FROMWESTERN EUROPE
For the purposes of comparisonthe situation in Europe is worthexamining Western Europeancountries were all models of nationalpublic-service broadcasting untilsome of them began to allow inde-pendent and commercial radio andtelevision channels to operate inthe 1960s However even thengovernments applied regulationsto the operations of those channelsThen in the early 1980s there wasa general deregulation of broadcast-ing in most of Western Europewhich resulted in a free-for-all inmany countries Privately ownedcommercial radio expanded likewildfire but so did communityradio in many countries
The Scandinavian countries parti-cularly Sweden were among thelast in Europe to bow to pressurefrom the commercial media firm intheir belief that their nationalpublic broadcasting systems werebest for their societies - societiesthat are world famous for theirdemocracy and strong civic senseBut even if it proved impossible toresist the commercialization andprivatization of the electronicmedia in Scandinavia the door wasopened at the same time to a vastexpansion of community radio
There are more than 2000 commu-nity radios in Sweden the majoritycatering to special-interest commu-nities
In Denmark the 300 or so com-munity radios provide access to 96percent of the population Many ofthese community radios even ifthey have been allowed to broad-cast commercials and receive sponsorship since the late 1980swork in financially difficult circum-stances Most also receive supportfrom various sources such as membership fees bingo listenerdonations and contributions fromorganizations such as trade unionsreligious groups or the local municipality Community radio isseen as a cultural activity that iscomparable with other culturalactivities It has even been suggestedthat a government fund be createdto subsidize community radio likeother cultural areas
In Ireland the 1988 Radio andTelevision Act included licencingprocedures for community radiobut the Act did not go into anygreat detail on the subject In theearly 1990s the issue of broadcas-ting policy attracted much attentionand in 1995 a Government PolicyPaper on Broadcasting was published
Democracy without Communication
ldquoWithout democratic communication democracy is not possible The broadcasting spectrum must beregulated and normalized [in Argentina] but thiscannot be done using criteria from the days of dictatorshiprdquo 3
As part of the general concernabout achieving suitable broadcast-ing policies for Ireland theIndependent Radio and TelevisionCommission launched an 18-month community radio pilot pro-ject It began operating in 1995and it was designed to explore andevaluate the potential of commu-nity radio in the country Animportant element favouring theproject was the surge in communi-ty and voluntary activity in Irelandthat had resulted from increasingnational and international concernabout issues such as poverty andunemployment
Eleven community stations wereestablished under the project tooperate until the end of 1996 Thisexperience showed that communi-ty radio stations could developinto a viable and distinct strand inIrish broadcasting Certain difficul-ties were encountered during theproject and realizing the potentialof community radio will call for asubstantial level of ongoing com-mitment from support agenciesand from the communities servedHowever there can be little doubtthat community radio will developand assume its appropriate role inthe Irish broadcasting scene in thefuture 4
CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCE IN LEGISLATION
National community radio legisla-tion where it exists usually sharessome common factors but thereare also significant differences between countries
Main Common Factors
bull Community radio must beowned and controlled by a non-profit entity
bull It must be run as a non-profitoperation
bull It must serve the interests of aparticular community whichmay be a geographical commu-nity or a community of peoplewith common interests
bull It should provide programmingthat promotes socio-economicand cultural development forthe different sectors in the community at the same timefostering civic integration andsolidarity
Factors that Vary in CommunityRadio Legislation
Power of the TransmitterSome countries place an upperlimit on the power of the transmitter
that may be used by a communityradio usually in the range of five to500 watts Such limitations couldbe unrealistic in mountainousareas where transmission over difficult terrain can require higherpower
Creation of Networks Somecountries specifically forbid thecreation of networks betweencommunity radios even if theyallow occasional link-ups for special events of interest to thecommunities involved
Advertising andor SponsorshipRegulations about this vary consi-derably Some countries forbid allcommercial advertising on orsponsorship of community radioswhile others allow it but put a limiton the minutes in an hour that canbe devoted to it This usuallyranges from six minutes to up to15 minutes per hour
In some cases there are restrictionson the type of advertising that maybe broadcast When this is casethe usual tendency is to limit thescope to matters directly linked tothe community served by theradio for example local workopportunities events that are totake place and business and services that are carried out in thatarea Even when legislation doesnot specify such restrictions about
the type of advertising some com-munity radios impose it them-selves They may for examplerefuse to advertise items that aredamaging to health such as alcoholand tobacco
Some legislation specifies a ceilingon the proportion of total stationrevenue that can be derived fromadvertising usually setting it at 50percent
Other Sources of FundingMembership fees from listenerscontributions from individualsorganizations or local authoritiesand charges for personal announ-cements are other sources of funding but in keeping with theCharter of the World Associationof Community Radio (AMARC)some legislation specifies that nosingle source should provide morethan 50 percent of a stationrsquosrevenue Funding from politicalparties or from other special interestgroups is forbidden in some legislation
Political Broadcasts These areforbidden at all times in somelegislation while in others they areallowed in designated pre-electionperiods When they are allowedthe principle of lsquoequal time andequal opportunityrsquo for all parties isusually stipulated In some casescommunity radios have to report
31
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32
to the nationrsquos independent broadcasting authority any politicalspeech that lasts for more thanthree minutes providing the actual duration date and time of broad-cast and the name of the politicalparty concerned
APPLYING FOR A LICENCE
Anyone anywhere who hasserious intentions of starting acommunity radio should ascertainwhat existing legislation is in forcebeginning with licence require-ments Some countries apply quitesevere sanctions to punish illegalbroadcasters heavy fines andorconfiscation of the equipment arethe commonest
The procedures for applying for alicence vary between countries butin any event entities that apply willusually be expected to provideinformation about the followingwith supporting documentation asappropriate
bull The juridical and non-profit sta-tus of the entity making theapplication
bull The probity of the individualsmanaging the entity
bull The community to be served andthe size of the potential audience
bull An explanation of how the com-munity could benefit from aradio service
bull The demand in the communityfor such a service
bull The technical features of the proposed radio station and theheight and location of its antenna
bull The community managementstructures and the personnel thatwill be put in place to run the service
bull The type of programming thatwill be featured the productionarrangements foreseen and howcommunity participation will beensured
Some countries that have recentlyintroduced legislation that coverscommunity radio have drawn uplists of available FM frequencies ineach of the smallest administrativeareas of the country such as muni-cipalities or counties In somecountries especially in LatinAmerica periodic announcementsof the frequencies that are availablefor community radio are made bythe broadcasting authorities andrequests for their use are solicitedIf there is an excess of requests forthe available frequencies the win-ners are adjudicated on the basis ofthe quality of their proposals theexperience of the applicant in
community development work theradio programming planned andthe size of the community
Licencees normally pay a one-offfee for the frequency they are allocated and a much smallerannual fee thereafter For examplein Colombia which introduced itscommunity broadcasting legisla-tion in 1995 the typical one-off feefor the frequency ranges from theequivalent of about US$900 toUS$2000 depending on the size ofthe potential audience The annualfee averages about US$150
1 Report of Consultation on Media Policy and Community Radioorganized by VOICES (Bangalore India 1996)
2 Ibid (Intervention by Hasmukh Baradi)
3 From statement issued by the not-for-profit broadcasting sector in Argentina demanding new legislation (1999)
4 Independent Radio and Television Commission IRTC Policyon Community Radio Broadcasting IRTC (Dublin 1998)
5 Personal communication from Alida Becerra Director of the Social Development Department Ministry ofCommunications (Colombia 1999)
Community Misconceptions about Costs
ldquoQuite a lot of the applicants who have been grantedcommunity radio licences here in Colombia since 1995could not find the funds to pay for the frequencyOthers thought that the Ministry of Communicationwould provide them with the equipment These aresome of the reasons why of the 560 licences we havegranted only about 150 community radios areactually functioning Of course we have had to revoke many of the licences because they were notput to use within the prescribed time periodrdquo 5
Chapter 4Technical Aspects
33
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4
T his chapter opens with a brief explanation of the scientific principles underlying radio
broadcasting including the differences between AM and FM propagation It then describes
the range of equipment required for FM broadcasting under four categories transmitters
antennas studio programme production equipment and field programme production equipment
It explains the role of each The practical implications of the lsquoline-of-sightrsquo characteristics of FM
broadcasting are discussed
A section covers issues of reliability maintenance and precautions to reduce the risk of damage
The requirements for a community radio studio (size layout soundproofing acoustical balance etc)
and suitable spatial arrangements for the various components of the radio station are described
A section on future possibilities discusses the role of computers in programme production merging
community radio with the Internet and new technologies
A box provides a basic list of equipment required for a community radio service and its cost
In the main the reader will
bull Learn about the basic technicalities of broadcasting and the equipment needed for an FM service
bull Be able to make an initial assessment of the technical suitability of a specific area for setting
up a community radio service
bull Know about the technical requirements for the siting of the components of the broadcasting
system and be able to consider how best to meet them in given circumstances
bull Know the approximate investment required for equipment
Nevertheless the knowledge gained will not necessarily eliminate the need for early advice from a
technical specialist nor hands-on or formal training
TECHNICAL BACKGROUND
Radio broadcasting creates electro-magnetic waves that travel in anapproximately straight line and at thespeed of light about 300000 km persecond
A radio wave that is being propagatedoscillates each side of the straight lineHow far these oscillations go beforereturning to the centre line and movingout to the other side of it is known asthe amplitude of the wave The distancefrom the crest of one wave to the crestof the next is known as the wavelength
How long the cycle of each oscillationtakes is known as the frequency It isexpressed in Hertz named afterHeinrich Hertz a German radio pioneerA cycle time of one second is one Hertz(1Hz) a thousand cycles in a second isa kiloHertz (kHz) and a million cyclesin a second is a megaHertz (mHz)
Radio waves are propagated from thetransmitterrsquos antenna system like theripples in a pond when a stone is drop-ped into it Waves from a broadcastingstation are known as carrier wavesbecause they are carrying information
34
that has been attached to themThe process of attaching informa-tion to the wave is achieved bymodulating or varying one of itscharacteristics either its amplitudeor its frequency Hence the termsAmplitude Modulation (AM) andFrequency Modulation (FM) for thetwo methods of wave transmission
Radio broadcasting uses four frequency bands Their names derive from whether their wavelengths are measured in kilometres hundreds of metrestens of metres or metres
bull The kilometric band ndash long waves(Frequency 150-280 kHz)
bull The hectometric band ndash mediumwaves (Frequency 525-1600 kHz)
bull The decametric band ndash short waves(High Frequency 6-25 MHz)
bull The metric band (Very HighFrequency 875 ndash 108 MHz)
AM Broadcasting
For the first three bands the signalis attached to the wave by amplitudemodification (AM) AM signals travel great distances For examplelong waves can be propagated forup to about 1000 km before fadingout and medium waves travel several hundred kilometres
Short waves even if limited by thecurvature of the earth can travelenormous distances because theybounce off the ionosphere an invisible layer of electrically charged particles at the outer edgeof our atmosphere from wherethey return to earth far from thetransmitter
The main layer of the ionosphereresponsible for long distance communications is the ldquoF layerrdquoAfter dark this layer is a singledense one about 250 km above theearth and it reflects short wavesignals very effectively But duringthe day the ldquoF layerrdquo splits into twothin layers ldquoF1rdquo about 200 kmabove the earth and ldquoF2rdquo about350 km above the earth Thesetwo layers are less effective inreflecting radio signals and that iswhy reception of short wave broad-casts is better after darkWorldwide radio services like RadioFrance Internationale the BritishBroadcasting Corporation or theVoice of America use short wave toobtain the geographic coveragethey require It can also be particu-larly useful in mountainous countries
AM broadcasting is subject tomuch atmospheric interferenceand distortion and it is thereforeunsuitable for stereo services It
also requires a considerable inputof electrical power and otherinvestments For example thewhole mast of the antenna of anAM medium wave station is chargedwith current and therefore it has tobe insulated from the ground
FM Broadcasting
The fourth frequency band themetric band uses FrequencyModulation (FM) to attach thesignal to the carrier wave This system varies the frequency - speedof oscillations of the waves - butkeeps their amplitude or breadthconstant
FM was invented in 1933 in theUSA and the first station to use itwas built in 1939 It has advantagesover AM especially in its freedomfrom distortion and interference Itrequired different broadcastingtransmitters and radio receivers tothe ones in general use in the 1930sand 1940s and so it was slow toexpand Indeed it really only beganto take off in the 1950s and 1960sin industrialized countries and inthe 1970s and 1980s in developingcountries ndash and even as late as the1990s in some of these
FM broadcasting requires muchless electrical power than AM anduses a very simple antenna The
Frequency modulation (FM)
Amplitude modulation (AM)
wavelength
ampl
itud
e
The Inventor of Frequency Modulation
Edwin Armstrong an American scientistresponsible for much of the earliest technical development of radio broadcasting in the first two decades of the20th century made the FM breakthroughin 1933 Born in 1890 he was enthused as a boy by the exploits of Guglielmo Marconi who in 1901had managed to send the first radio signal across the Atlantic At the age of 14 Armstrong decided to become an inventor
In 1939 he financed the first ever FM station fromhis own pocket at a cost of $300000 to prove itsworth Sadly Armstrong was forced to spend much ofhis life in litigation to protect his inventions and infighting the established radio industry which did notwant to embark on his new FM system Finally in1954 with most of his wealth gone in the battle forFM he took his own life
quality of the signal is excellentand it can be mono or stereo
However FM signals reach muchshorter distances than AM signalsbecause FM follows the line ofsight In other words the antennaand the radio receiver must beable to lsquoseersquo each other with noobstructions in the path - such ashills or high buildings - whichinterrupt the signal in the sameway as they interrupt sight Buteven with the transmitter andreceiver in line of sight the distancebetween them is important becau-se with radio signals each time thedistance is doubled the signalstrength is reduced to a quarter ofwhat it was Put another way inorder to reach twice the distancefour times the power is needed
BROADCASTING EQUIPMENT 1
In general terms the equipmentrequired for broadcasting falls intofour categories
bull The transmitter that generatesthe signal to be broadcast
bull The antenna through which thetransmitterrsquos signal is radiated
bull The studio equipment used toproduce the programmes
bull The equipment required for programme production in thefield and for linking outside locations to the studio eg forfield reporting
A complete list of equipment withcosts for a typical UNESCO-
supported community radio
project is provided in Box 4 at the
end of this chapter Reading the
following section in conjunction
with that equipment list and with
diagrams should provide an
appreciation of the role and
function of each part of the
system
Transmission Equipment
The power output of a transmitter
is measured in watts Community
radio relies mainly on low-power
FM transmitters with typically an
output of between 20 and 500
watts usually in the range of
20-100 watts However a
distinction must be made between
the power of the transmitter itself
and the power that actually leaves
the antenna which is known as the
Effective Radiated Power (ERP)
The design of the antenna affects
the ERP So-called lsquohigh-gainrsquo
antennas can result in considerably
more watts of ERP than the out-
put watts of the transmitter itself
A low power FM transmitter
35
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mun
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Mal
lard
Con
cept
s Ltd
U
K fo
r UN
ESCO
Met
ric
wav
es
Dec
amet
ric
band
(sho
rt w
aves
)
Hec
tom
etri
c ba
nd(m
ediu
m w
aves
)
Kilo
met
ric
band
(lon
g w
aves
)
100
MH
z
875
MH
z
25 M
Hz
6 M
Hz
1600
kH
z
525
kHz
280
kHz
150
kHz
Frequency modulation A m p l i t u d e m o d u l a t i o n
The four radio frequency
36
Several companies around theworld now produce cheap FMtransmitters for community radiousing frequencies between 875 and108 mHz the usual band for FMbroadcasting They range in pricefrom a little over US$ 500 to some$ 2000 and they are about the sizeof a thick paperback novel Not allof the models available especiallythose from the US are built withthe possible harsh conditions ofdeveloping countries in mind
The technology of FM transmittersis now so simple and well knownthat it is not beyond the capacity ofcompetent engineers in developingcountries to build them Usinglocally available materials the DANIDAUNESCO Tambuli community radio project in thePhilippines locally produced its firsttransmitter and successfully put itto work in 1998 though most ofTambulirsquos stations still use British orChinese transmitters The experi-ence of Cape Verde where localtechnicians built their own transmitters was mentioned in theIntroduction
Low-power transmitters may alsohave an amplifier or booster atta-ched to them to increase theirpower output Many of the UNESCO-supported communityradios have 20-watt transmitters
with a 100-watt booster Thistransmission equipment especiallythe booster generates considerableheat and so it is always accompan-ied by a cooling fan and it needs tobe installed in a well-ventilatedplace
Nearly all FM transmitters built forcommunity radio require a 12-voltDC power supply Thus they can berun either off an electrical mainsource with a transformer thatconverts this into a 12-volt DCoutput or a vehicle battery or solarpanels
It is important to keep the audiosignal from an FM transmitter atthe right level If the signal is overmodulated distortion will resultand possible interference withnearby stations A device called alimitercompressor is thereforeincluded in the audio chain to keepthe signal at its pre-set level
In a few cases community radiosuse AM broadcasting Setting upand running costs are generallymuch higher than they are for FMHowever the ability of AM toextend over a wider broadcast areaeven if one of lower sound qualitymay make it desirable in certain circumstances In some cases particularly in large towns wherethe competition for FM frequen-cies is very high obtaining one at
reasonable cost may be impossibleand therefore some communityradios have found it easier to rentor buy an existing AM frequencyThis will probably have a commer-cial licence but the communityradio management can lay down itsown policy in respect of advertising
The Antenna
The height position and adjust-ment of the antenna play a primor-dial role in achieving high qualityand the furthest possible reach ofan FM broadcast signal This isbecause as already noted FMsignals travel in a more or lessstraight line and follow the line ofsight The antenna that propagatesthe signal must therefore be as highas possible and there should befew obstructions that will block thesignal The higher the antenna isthe further its signal will reacharound the natural curvature of theearth
FM Problems in Hilly Areas FMhas limitations in hilly areas becau-se even if the antenna is placed ontop of a peak there may be areas ofsignal shadow in the valleys Theonly solution for using FM in hillyareas may be to install one or morerelay transmitters to cover theareas in shadow
Martin Allard explains Broadcast Coverage Patternin Relation to Watts and Antenna Height
All of the differing figures given for the coverageradius of FM are reasonable in their own way It is farfrom being an exact science however and opinionsvary considerably as to what is an acceptable signalstrength that is sufficient for a normal listener
The basic facts to understand are these
The Effective Radiated Power (ERP) of an FM stationis approximately the power of the transmitter multiplied by the number of elements in the antennaThere are practical limits as to how big an antennacan be and above a certain size losses in the cablesbecome significant
Of course VHF signals do not go far beyond the optical horizon They do bend around hills to a smallextent but otherwise they behave much like lightThe distance to the horizon depends on the height ofthe antenna and must take into account any largeobstructions
For an acceptable stereo signal you need 3-4 timesthe power of a mono transmission We have foundthat upgrading some of the early low-power stationswith a modern high-gain antenna and low-loss feedercable produces a good stereo signal over the samerange without an increase in transmitter power
Some typical range figures based on stereo transmission in a flat area with an antenna 25metres high would be
20 watts ERP - 5 km
100 watts ERP - 12 km
1200 watts ERP - 30 km
But each case is different We have one example of astation running 1200 watts ERP with regular listeners 80 km away 2
The height of the antenna willdepend on the terrain and on anyobstacles that the signal must passHowever it is usually at least 20-30 metres above the ground evenin flat terrain The antenna may beplaced on a building or hilltop togain the necessary height or amast may be constructed for it
Constructing the Mast Antennamasts can be built locally usingsteel uprights and lathes to createa lattice construction However asimpler and cheaper version canbe built using galvanized steelwater pipes Steps are welded tothem so that the broadcastingantenna itself fitted high on themast can be reached for adjust-ments and repairs
Both types of mast must be firmlyanchored in a concrete block in theground and they must be heldvertical by guy wires also anchoredin concrete
The Two Categories ofAntenna There are two broadcategories of antenna omnidirec-tional which as its name impliesradiates the signal in all directionsthrough 360 degrees around itselfand directional which radiates thesignal towards one segment of thecircle around it Almost all com-munity radio stations use an omni-directional antenna but there are
situations where a directionalantenna is better One example iswhere an antenna is placed on theside of a mountain overlookingthe community to be reached Adirectional antenna beaming thesignal only over the communitywould give added power compar-ed to using an omnidirectionalantenna that wasted part of itssignal against the mountainsidebehind it
Antenna Design Manufactureand Tuning FM antennas comein a variety of designs and thechoice and tuning of the antennato get the best signal is the work ofa specialist Antennas can bebought ready made but for mostcommunity radios they are fabri-cated on the spot by a metal worker using materials that canusually be bought in a local hard-ware shop such as copper piping 37
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Typical Antenna Mast Made from Water Pipes
and aluminium or PVC piping allheld together by hose-clamps and solder
Fine-tuning of the antenna to getthe best signal is done with an instrument called a power metrewhich measures the StandingWave Ratio (SWR) It costs lessthan US$ 100 This costs less thanUS$ 100 It is connected betweenthe transmitter and the antenna to
38
measure the ratio between thepower coming from the transmitterand the power being reflected backfrom the antenna If a lot of poweris being reflected back by theantenna it is not properly tunedand broadcast power is being lostThe specialist adjusts the lengthand position of the moveableradiating elements on the antennauntil the SWR meter shows thatthere is little or almost no powerbeing reflected back from theantenna Many modern transmit-ters incorporate an SWR powermetre
Studio Equipment
Recording and Playback Mostof the equipment used in a radiostudio would be familiar to any onewho had ever used home musicalequipment It consists in the mainof cassette recordersplayers andother tape recorders record turntables and compact discplayers However the quality of thisequipment in a radio studio ishigher than that of the commonrange of home equipment This isbecause firstly high-quality soundis needed so that even after theinevitable degradation of thesound between the studio and thelistenerrsquos ear the quality will still beof an acceptable level Secondly
studio equipment must withstandmuch heavier and more constantuse than its equivalent in the home
Some small community radios inindustrialized countries prefer tobuy cheap consumer electronicitems such as CD players and sim-ply replace them when they wearout This is seldom a suitableapproach in developing countrieswhere it is usually easier to obtainfunding for initial costs than it is forrecurrent costs Furthermore suchcheap consumer electronic itemsmay be less available here than theyare in industrialized countries
Control ConsoleMixer Themain unfamiliar item to mostpeople entering a radio studio forthe first time is the control consoleand mixer unit This allows the programme producer or his techni-cian to select the sound sourceswanted during the programme forexample a cassette or compact diskplayer or one or more of themicrophones in the studio It alsoallows him to raise and lower thevolume of each source graduallyand to superimpose one or moreover another as in the case of avoice with background music orsound effects This is calledlsquomixingrsquo the sound channels Theconsolemixer has sockets for head-phones through which the producer
can listen to the various channelshe has available or to the final mixedversion for broadcast An output linefrom the consolemixer goes to thetransmitter
All the studio equipment is power-ed from a local electricity sourcewhich should pass through anautomatic voltage regulator Thisreduces power fluctuations thatchange the speed of voices or music
Programme Production andNews GatheringEditing in theField
Remote Microphone Mixer Inthe simplest operations in the fielda single tape recorder can be usedto gather material or a microphonecan be connected by a long line tothe studio console for nearbyoutside coverage But any more elaborate programme productionoutside the studio when severalmicrophones and sound inputs arerequired needs a remote micro-phone mixer sometimes alsoknown as an auxiliary microphonemixer This functions in much thesame way as the studio mixer but itis smaller and usually runs off bat-teries In the field it is used toselect andor mix the varioussound inputs required for the programme that is being recorded
Linking Reporters and Othersto the Studio A second aspect ofoutside broadcasting is linking thefield reporter to the studio for livelyand interesting eyewitness reportson events and for news in outlyingparts of the community
In industrialized countries and inmajor towns in developing coun-tries the telephone is the mostcommon way of making this linkAll that is required is a device calleda telephone adaptor to patch theincoming phone call into the studioconsole from where it can bebroadcast or recorded for later use
However in rural areas of the devel-oping world where telephones arescarce other means must be usedto connect an outside reporter tothe studio Very High Frequency(VHF) or Ultra High Frequency(UHF) transceivers (lsquowalkie-talkiesrsquo)are one method Some countriesset aside certain frequencies in the200 mHz range - where the qualityof the sound is good - especially forconnections between outsidereporters and their studios Thisrequires a base station in the studioand handsets for the reporters inthe field
Cellular mobile phones for outsidereporters are another solutionwhen there are no fixed telephonelines
Mobilizing People with VHF Transceivers
In some deprived areas where there is notelephone service amateur VHF transceiversare abundant in fact they are a statussymbol This is the case in a remote islandin the Philippines where a community radioof the Tambuli project has managed to mobilizenumerous people with VHF transceivers to participatepersonally as reporters in radio programmes and alsoto lend their transceivers to others to do the sameThus without any investment from the communityradio a volunteer network of outside reporters hasbeen set up (See Case Study 1- Putting CommunityPeople in Charge)
Telephone Call-Ins Some com-munity radios especially in townswhere telephones are availableinstall a special telephone mixersystem which allows them to receivemultiple and simultaneous callsput them on hold in the order inwhich the calls came in and thenpass them in turn to the consolemixer to go on air at the commandof the programme producer Thissystem which of course can alsobe used by outside reporters phoning in is relatively expensiveand may not be justifiable in atypical rural area of a developingcountry In some developingcountries local technicians havedesigned their own telephonepatch system The cheapest way ofputting a telephone call on air is tohave a telephone with a speaker inthe studio and put a microphonenext to it but the quality of theresulting signal is not very good
RELIABILITY AND MAINTENANCE
Most of the equipment outlinedabove is inherently robust andreliable and is generally quitesimple to maintain by someonewith appropriate knowledge andtraining However certain simpleprecautions need to be taken toprevent accidental damage
Precautions against LightningExperience has shown that light-ning striking the antenna duringthunderstorms is a common causeof damage to transmitters It istherefore vital to weld a lightningconductor to the top of the antennamast And if the antenna is fixed ona roof an earthing wire of braidedcopper should be welded to it rundown the side of the building andfixed to an iron bar driven deepenough into the ground to findmoist soil
Handling Precautions Otherprecautions concern handling ofthe equipment Any radio trans-mitter that is switched on withoutbeing connected to its antenna
or to an equivalent load will be permanently damaged Thuswhen a transmitter has been disconnected from the antennasay for testing or repair a dummyload of the same resistance as theantenna must be attached to itLoad resistors as they are calledcan be purchased ready-made andcome with a variety of resistancesor they can be rigged up by using anormal electrical light bulb of theappropriate watts
Another handling issue of obviousimportance is always to take parti-cular care to respect the polarity -the positive and negative terminals -when connecting equipment Amistake here can burn it out
In Kothmale Sri Lanka the nationalgovernment providedland tower and antennas These madeit possible to set upmicrowave transception telephone twenty-fourhour link to Internetand FM transmission
39
Com
mun
ity
Rad
io H
andb
ook
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pter
4
Block Diagram of Studio Equipment
Phot
o M
Sen
anay
aka
3 M
40
STUDIO PREMISES
Size A simple radio studio can beset up in any existing house orroom having a minimum of ninesqm available This is needed toinstall the equipment and to givespace for the operators to use itHowever it is much more practical toaim for premises of at least 25 sqmwith 50 sqm or more as the ideal
The minimum practical size for anannouncerrsquos booth is about 12sqm If one can count on a total ofsome 50 sqm about half of thiscan be devoted to the announcerrsquosbooth which will then be bigenough for roundtable discussionssmall groups of performing musi-cians and the like The remainingfloor space in the building can betaken up by a technicianrsquos cubicleand receiving and working areas
Announcerrsquos Booth andTechnicians Cubicle Theannouncerrsquos booth is often separa-ted from the technicianrsquos cubicle bya window with carefully fitteddouble glass panes to prevent out-side noise reaching the micro-phones in the booth This arrange-ment means that the announceronly has to worry about the micro-phone in front of him or her whilethe technician works the consoleand the sound channels such astape recorders and record players
However not all community radiosseparate the announcerrsquos booth
from the technician and some-times the announcer likes to dohisher own production handlingthe equipment and talking into themicrophone as a lsquoone-personshowrsquo So there can be flexibility indesigning the studio layout
Soundproofing and AcousticalBalance The announcerrsquos boothmust be soundproof because themicrophones in it will pick up anyexternal noise that reaches themPartitions made of light board suchas plywood usually need to be dou-bled with a space in between thatcan be filled with sound-deadeningmaterial and spaces around doorsneed to be sealed with rubberstrips
The acoustical balance in theannouncerrsquos booth must be care-fully adjusted Sound bounces andreverberates off hard walls and pro-duces an echo or lsquocathedral effectrsquowhen picked up by the micropho-ne To avoid this parts of the wallsshould be covered with soft mate-rials While acoustic tiles are avai-lable commercially for this purpo-se the same effects can be achie-ved with simpler and cheapermaterials such as egg trays cur-tains mats or cardboard Howeverif too much of the wall space iscovered with these sound-absor-bing materials the lack of resonan-ce will make all programmes soundas if they are coming from an openfield
Air Conditioning If air condition-ing is to be installed it should be ofthe silent split type with the com-pressor in a place apart from therecording studio and where its humwill not be picked up by the micro-phones in the announcerrsquos boothCold air should be blown into theannouncerrsquos booth through a ductand a silent extractor fan shouldalso be fitted in the booth
SPATIAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COMPONENTS OF THE RADIO STATION
The transmitter is connected to theantenna by a coaxial cable Thiscable absorbs a considerableamount of the power coming fromthe transmitter and therefore thelength of the cable should be asshort as possible With the relative-ly cheap types of coaxial cable normally used for communityradio the distance between thetransmitter and its antenna shouldnot exceed about 30 metres
Ideally the transmitter and studiowill be in the same building withthe antenna close to it or on theroof However the transmitter isbest put in a room separate fromthe studio equipment because if itis too close radio frequency emis-sions from the transmitter canaffect the studio equipment andcause noise and hum
A commercialy available load resistor
Typical studio layoutPh
oto
M A
llard
There will be occasions howeverwhen the site chosen for theantenna will be unsuitable for thestudio because of height consider-ations it is possible in the circum-stances to place the antenna on ahilltop with the transmitter nextto it and have the studio some distance away in a more favourablelocation All that is required is apower line up to the transmitterand a second line that carries theoutput from the studio to thetransmitter This programme lineas it is called should not be longerthan 1000 metres The ideal material for this line is telephonecable which is designed to carryvoice communication and to resistexposure to weather But evenhousehold electrical wire can beused though this is not designedfor outdoor use and will need tobe checked regularly
FUTURE POSSIBILITIES
A Studio in a Computer
Computers have long been used inradio studios for simple tasks suchas word processing of scripts andindexing and cataloguing recor-dings Radio studios accumulatelarge numbers of recordings overtime and it becomes difficult tofind specific items say parts ofpast coverage of a certain subject
required for a new programme ifrelying on human memory aloneComputerized index and catalogueon the other hand can provide a listand short description of all thematerial on that subject with thenumbers of the tapes and the location of each
Computerized ProgrammeProduction In recent years digi-tal technology has opened up newvistas for radio production It isnow possible to store all of thematerial for radio programmes -talks music sound effects jinglesetc - on the hard disk of a compu-ter whereas before these had to bestored on tape
Computer software now existsthat allows programme producers- as many as 15 at a time workingat separate terminals simulta-neously - to select the materialthey want from the hard disk andmix and edit it into a programmeWith the completed programmerecorded on its hard disk the computer can then be instructed
to put the programme or even aseries of programmes on air atpredetermined times without further intervention from studiostaff
This type of computerized produc-tion can replace the function ofmuch of the equipment in a tradi-tional studio and it is certainlyhighly efficient for programmeproduction In practice howevernot all of the traditional equip-ment is likely to disappear in thenear future for example audioequipment for recording materialand transferring it to the hard diskof the computer later will certainlycontinue And for outside programme production the remotemicrophone mixer described earlieris cheap and convenient even iffinal production in the studio iscomputerized
In addition it should be rememb-ered that good community radioalso relies on participation fromthe audience in live on-air sessionsin the studio rather than on
The Pastapur community in India built their own radio studio using locally firedclay bricks The tower is a professionally fitted self-standing mast with an omni-directional antenna crafted under the guidance of a profesional broadcasting technician Adjacent are five school rooms for lsquolearning withoutfrontiersrsquo also built from the same kind of bricks
41
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mun
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4
Phot
o J
im B
entl
ey
Maximum Distance from the Studio to the Transmitter is 1000 M
pre-recorded productions only Forlive programmes in the studiosuch traditional equipment is stillthe most practical
Community Radio and theInternet
The Internet holds enormouspotential for development especial-ly in rural areas For example infor-mation about health agriculture or
42
the environment can be down-loaded from it it can be used toconnect health workers agriculturalextensionists or ordinary villagerswith technical experts to discusssome particular problem and it canbe used to put communities incontact with each other for on-linediscussions and debates aboutissues that affect them or aboutproblems and their solutions
The Village Trail and theInformation SuperhighwayUnfortunately in most developingcountries up to now Internetaccess and the valuable informationit can provide have been availableonly to a relatively small and privi-leged minority For example inAfrica less than 15 percent of thepopulation had Internet access atthe end of 1998 And nowhere arethe rural poor a part of that privile-ged Internet-using minority Theproblem can be summed up in thequestion How can poor ruralpeople living along the village trailbe connected to the informationsuperhighway
Integrating community radio pro-gramming with the Internet is oneway to reach out to villagers If theradio station has a computer withInternet access programme produ-cers can call on an enormous spectrum of information on sub-
jects of general concern to theiraudience as well as being able tolook for replies to specific queriesraised by members of the comm-unity Broadcasting such informationcan effectively bring the Internetinto any home even into thosewhere the family could never aspireto having a telephone withoutmentioning the computer to gowith it
The Internet and ProgrammeProduction The Internet can bevery useful for programme produc-tion A station can obtain a vastquantity and range of informationfrom it For example material frommajor news agencies is available onthe Internet as is information fromdevelopment agencies non-governmental and governmentalorganizations universities and thelike In addition more and more
audio programmes can be down-loaded from the Internet for re-broadcast The themes of theseproductions often cover issues ofgreat importance to communityradios such as health educationwomenrsquos rights and so on
The Internet is also a forum for the exchange of programmesServices such as OneWorldGlobalRadioService and A-Infosallow producers to deposit programmes for other producers to pick up and broadcast and vice-versa
A community radio may also wantto offer information about itself toother Internet users It can open asite on the World Wide Web todescribe its organization program-ming staff etc in as much detail asit wants 3
Bringing the Internet to Rural People in Sri Lanka
Kothmale is a constituency covering a cluster of ruralcommunities with a total population of about150000 Its community radio station is the basis foran innovative experiment to use radio as an effectiveinterface between local people and the Internet
Each day the radio station airs a programme calledlsquoRadiobrowsing the Internetrsquo during which communitybroadcasters discuss and interpret the informationon selected Internet sites The local language is usedmaking the information easily accessible to peoplewho understand no English and would be unable touse the Internet directly
Listeners can request information on specific topicsOf particular benefit is information on markettrends agriculture life skills for poverty alleviationformal and informal educational materials healthand medicine
This UNESCOGovernment of Sri Lanka pilot projectis also providing free Internet access through in anInternet Cafeacute and two terminals in community librariesfor people who wish to browse in person
In addition the radio station is developing a community database of the information frequentlyrequested by listeners Much of this is in the locallanguage and is particularly suited to local develop-ment interests and needs This is important becausepackaged information on the Internet is seldom suitable
Kothmale lsquoradio browsingrsquothe on-air announcerbrowses the Internet inEnglish and simultaneouslyreports her findings inSinghala She can alsorespond to questions in the studio or from livephone calls
Phot
o M
Sen
anay
aka
Rural Multi-Purpose Telecentres
Speculation about the use ofmicrochips and satellite communi-cation as tools in rural develop-ment goes back to the early 1980sOne of the ideas that has beenmaturing since then is that of ruralmultipurpose telecentres whichhave also been called lsquorural infor-mation shopsrsquo
The basic principle is to create aplace where villagers can go forinformation - either free or for afee - on agriculture health familyplanning and other developmentalor social topics In its fullest andmost logical form a communityradio station would form thenucleus for a rural telecentre providing a variety of services
This telecentre would of coursehave an Internet connection toprovide the services outlined inthe previous section related toaccessing databanks and sourcesof expertise and connecting com-munities to each other In additionit could offer other functions suchas public telephone and fax as wellas building libraries of videosaudio-visual materials books andpublications In one of the formsproposed for India under a WorldBank programme the centreswould sell records and cassetteshire out videos and audio-visualequipment and provide servicessuch as desktop publishing and
photocopying These serviceswould aim to help the centresbecome self-sufficient
In Bangladesh it is highly signifi-cant that the Grameen Bankfamous for its imaginative micro-credit programmes for the ruralpoor especially women startedGrameen Telecom in 1996 Thisprovides loans for women to buycellular phones and set up a publicservice and it also providesInternet connections in majorcities It plans to put telephoneservices into all of Bangladeshrsquos50000 villages and also to expandits Internet-access services This isa first step along the path towardsrural multi-purpose telecentresHowever it is sad that broadcast-ing in Bangladesh is still a govern-ment monopoly and there is nosign that community radio will beallowed to begin any time soon
Digital Technology
Digital technology has steadilytransformed the way in which pro-grammes are made and distribu-ted in recent years Many broad-casters have already invested indigital systems for contributionand production Now the switchfrom analogue to digital is movingalong the broadcasting chain intotransmission At the same timethe digital developments are draw-ing together the broadcasting
telecommunications and compu-ter industries in a process ofconvergence For all broadcastersthis is leading to a new and chal-lenging business environment inwhich they are searching for a clearlsquomultimediarsquo role The InternationalTelecommunications Union (ITU) isediting a publication on this subject
SPECIALIST ADVICE
This chapter has provided an over-all guide to the technical aspects ofsetting up a community radio ser-vice Nevertheless anyone embar-king on such a project should seekspecialist advice on the technical
In Kothmale Sri Lanka Buddhist monks surf the net for religious texts at the Kothmale Community Radio on the Internet and on the air
43
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mun
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aspects of the particular circum-stances before going ahead withthe investment Such advice canusually be obtained from the tech-nical staff in a nearby state or com-mercial radio station and it neednot be costly 1 Much of the material in these sections is based on
Community Radio Station - A Technical Manual by staff ofthe UNESCODANIDA supported Tambuli CommunityMedia Project Philippines That manual provides moretechnical detail than can be included in this more general handbook
2 Martin Allard in a personal communication (1999)
3 Philippe Beacutechamp The ABCs of ICTs InteRadioVol10No 2 (Montreal December 1998)
4 Colin Fraser and Sonia Restrepo-Estrada Communicatingfor Development - Human Change for Survival 1B Tauris(LondonNew York 1998)
5 Laurie Hallett provided the following information onDAB in a personal communication (1999)
44
BOX 4 Basic Equipment for a UNESCO-supported Community Radio Station (Prices in US Dollars)
Item No Description Unit price Total
TRANSMISSION EQUIPMENT
1 2 FM Stereo Transmitters 100 Watt
Note one as a standby transmitter 800 1600
2 1 Wide-band Omni-directional Antenna (four layer with splitter set for the allotted FM Frequency of the station) 1200 1200
3 1 Heliax antenna cable (50 Meter) and connectors 550 550
4 1 A1000 Two channel compressor and limiter 545 545
5 1 Locally fabricated antenna mast and anchors 1200 1200
Transmission equipment total US$ 5095
STUDIO AND FIELD EQUIPMENT
6 1 Professional Studio Console with built in telephone hybrid 10+10 watt amplifier for studio monitors stereo monitor output for cue talkback microphone VCA feeders with a total of 7 mono inputs9 stereo inputs 3 mono outputs8 stereo outputs 2000 2000
7 2 PMC Studio Monitor Speakers ( Power ouput 150 watts) 515 1030
8 2 Dual Auto Reverse Cassette Deck 570 1140
9 1 CD Changer 900 900
10 4 Headphones 100 400
11 5 Dynamic Microphones with Windshields 390 1950
12 2 Utility Mixer with XLR input 400 800
13 3 Microphone stand with swinging arm 55 165
14 2 Microphone desk stand (flexible) 115 230
15 5 Portable cassette recorders with XLR mic inputs and carrying case 515 2575
16 5 Dynamic Microphones for portable casette recorders 170 850
17 2 Quartz Clock Diameter 25 cm hoursminsseconds 25 50
18 40 XLRMF Canon connectors (20 Male and 20 Female) 10 400
19 20 Phono connectors Male 3 60
20 20 Phono connectors Female 3 60
21 25 RCA connectors 1 25
Item No Description Unit price Total
22 1 MIC cable (100 m role) 260 260
23 1 Audio cable (100 m role) 150 150
24 4 Automatic voltage regulators 50 200
25 1 Multi-tester + assorted repair equipment set 50 50
Total Studio and Field Equipment US$ 13295
COMMUNITY RADIO BASIC EQUIPMENT TOTAL US$ 18390
Additional Costs Support to community fo building remuneration and studiofabrication - US$ 2500(Consumables and costs for energy source not included)
Item No Description Unit price Total
OPTIONAL (Computer based Audio and news processing)
1 2 Digital Audio Computer Workstation PIII-700 with 20 GBHDDCD-R Drive (SCSI) USB port Speakers and a Sound Card (Sound Blaster) with Windows 982000 1500 3000
2 2 USB Interface controller with two XLR inputs two balanced 14rdquo TRS inputstwo unbalanced 14rdquo inputs and SPDIF IO Four channels of audio in and two out simultaneously via USB 600 1200
3 1 Editing software package 400 400
4 100 CD-R Media (CD re-writeble) 3 300
5 1 Internet ready Computer withWindows 98 + MS-WORD 1100 1100
6 1 Laser Printer 750 750
Total Optional Computer Equipment US$ 6750
Chapter 5Getting Started
45
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T his chapter sets out the various practical steps involved in setting up a community radio service
beginning with ascertaining the legislative context and conducting a proper consultation and
analysis process in the community A qualitative research method based on Focus Group
Discussions is outlined for this process
The value of drawing up a Mission Statement for the radio station is explained and the involvement
of religious authorities local educational institutions and politicians is discussed
The technical and social criteria for choosing the site in the community for the studio and the
transmitter and antenna are outlined Alternative models including loudspeaker systems are
described as are the main factors governing the choice of power of the transmitter
Later sections deal with ownership and management staff sustainability and looking for outside
funding The issue of advertising and its implications where permitted are discussed in some
detail
Box 6 at the end of the Chapter provides a checklist of questions to which answers are required for
the successful setting up of a community radio
Reading this Chapter will enable the reader to
bull Obtain a good grasp of the various steps involved in setting up a community radio service
bull Appreciate the need for the careful consideration of social factors and relationships in the
community as well as for a full analysis and consultation in the community of its needs and
expectations in respect of a community radio
bull Assume a leadership role or participate in ensuring that all of the necessary preparations are
properly conducted and that informed decisions are taken by the community
Proper research and planning areessential for starting a communityradio service The process should beginwith the gathering of information fromvarious sources but in particular fromthe community itself
A series of questions that need answersis provided in Box 6 at the end of theChapter The sections that follow hereexpand on those questions and areintended as guidance for in-countrypeople groups or organizations thatare planning a community radio
LEGAL CONTEXT
A first step for setting up a communityradio is to find out what the nationalbroadcasting legislation sets out for thelicencing of independent radio stationsIf there is no mention of non-profitcommunity broadcasting there may beother avenues to explore For examplethe provisions for commercial radiomay also apply to a community serviceand in some countries many communityradios have commercial licenses Thisshould not however lead to a situationwhere profit is the main or sole motiva-
46
tion of the station There may alsobe licences for cultural radio Insome cases people simply proceedwithout a licence However care isneeded because this can have penalconsequences (See Chapter 3 forthis and for more informationabout applying for licences) Wherecommunity radio is still forbiddenthere may be other options that donot involve radio transmission (Seethe section below on models)
PREPARATORY WORK INTHE COMMUNITY
Answering the questions laid out inBox 6 will call for much ground-work in the community Thisgroundwork consists of consulta-tion processes within the commu-nity to analyze its situation existingmedia access how a communityradio might usefully serve theinterests of the community in whatways and so on
Clearly the leaders of the commu-nity - which include the elected andthe religious authorities as well theinformal but also influential opin-ion leaders - must be part of theconsultation process
But equally if not more importantis a consultation process thatinvolves the community at largeGroup discussions with the various
sectors in the community areessential These could include forexample farmers fishermen shopowners teachers artisans etc It isalso crucial to consult women andyouth who are traditionally margi-nalized in many rural societies Norshould any minority cultural andlinguistic groups be left outPeoplersquos attitudes towards the exist-ing situation towards the desirabi-lity and possibility of change anddevelopment and towards the pos-sible role of a community radio ser-vice must be ascertained and hope-fully confirmed This is the realbasis of community radio socialwill not technical equipment
Experience has shown that in some
cases merely holding participatoryworkshops to discuss the situationof the community and exploreways of improving access to basicservices may lead spontaneously tothe idea that better communica-tion within the community couldbe a first prerequisite for changeand development A communityradio may then emerge naturally asthe most appropriate communica-tion medium
Preliminary Results The initialconsultation process should indicate
bull The level of enthusiasm for andcommitment to the notion ofhaving a community radio service
Phot
o M
Alla
rd
On Defining the Future Radio Station
ldquoIt must be decided what the station will be and forwhom Will it be a tool to be used by a selected fewor by only one sector of the community talking downto the many Will it be monopolised by disc jockeysOr will its main function be to empower the community as a whole to learn more about issuesthat directly affect its members such as primaryhealth care religious tolerance basic education teenage pregnancy etcrdquo 1
Before doing the technical work of setting up radio in Western Nepal it is essential to encourage the community to discusstheir idea of radio and their aspirations in focus group discussions
Faith in the capacity of all people
ldquoCommunication is a vital process for everyone concernedwith development It is a process not an end It is a meansto sustainable development The role of communication in the development process is to make people consciousof the reality of their situation and make them aware thatthey have the power to change their social realities It assumes that people are equal that they have a right toknowledge and culture and that they can criticize theirsituation and act on it It also implies having faith in thecapacity of all people including the illiterate to discusssocial issues intelligentlyrdquo
Ed Moyo
bull What its overall objectivesshould be especially in terms ofchange and development
bull How in general terms it shouldoperate
If no broad consensus on theseissues can be reached the future ofthe idea may be compromised orthere could be a need for more andbroader discussion
As the consultation processescontinue answers to the moredetailed issues laid out in Box 6should be sought
Contacts will also need to be madewith people and institutions outsidethe community who could have abearing on the project These willinclude among others any state orcommercial radio channels thatalso reach into the communitydevelopment institutions NGOsconcerned with communitydevelopment and local officials ofgovernment services in healthagriculture education and thelike
A Method for Conducting theConsultations
Among the most powerfulmethods for researching peoplersquosopinions and ideas are FocusGroup Discussions (FGDs) and
this technique can be successfullyused for the community consulta-tions being described hereOriginally used for market researchFGDs have more recently beenapplied with outstanding results indevelopment work when qualitativeinformation about peoplersquos opinions perceptions ideas andaspirations is required 2
What is an FGD An FGD bringstogether from six to12 people whoare homogeneous in terms of theireducation life-style and economicstatus and who therefore sharesimilar problems They need to behomogeneous to reduce the chancethat one or more persons of a levelthat the rest perceive as beingsuperior dominate the discussionThere should not be less than sixpeople in the group or it will bedifficult to get a dynamic discus-sion going and to gain a meaning-ful consensus and there shouldnot be more than twelve so thateveryone will have a chance to speak but also to avoid the formation of sub-groups and sub-discussions
These community consultationscould also include groups of sayunemployed youths or motherswith small children or small farmers
The Facilitator The group discussion is run by a facilitatorwhose principal task is toget members of the grouptalking among themselvesabout the subject in ques-tion This might for examplebe what types of radioprogrammes would beuseful to help youngmothers safeguard andimprove their infantsrsquohealth
The facilitator adopts a lowprofile and a very informal stan-ce so that the group feels relaxedHeshe also uses special tech-niques to encourage members ofthe group to talk among them-selves and not to respond tohimher directly The facilitatorguides the discussions with pre-pared open-ended questions thatbegin with words such as lsquoWhatdo you think aboutrsquo or lsquoHowwould you suggest that wersquo iequestions that cannot be answeredwith a simple lsquoyesrsquo or lsquonorsquo
Stimulating In-depth AnalysisA further key function of the facili-tator is to stimulate the group intodeeper analysis of the issues beingdiscussed For example heshemust never let a statement ofopinion by a member of the grouppass without probing it to find out
what lies behind that statement A group member might say some-thing like lsquoI really like that pro-gramme and I never miss itrsquo Or agroup member might say the exactopposite to the effect that heshethoroughly disliked the program-me In either case the facilitatorshould immediately say - but in amild manner ndash something likelsquoThatrsquos an interesting opinion Tellus why you think thatrsquo In factquestions using lsquoWhyrsquo are the keyfor provoking deeper analysis andreaching a fuller understanding ofthe issues at stake as the groupsees them
The Observer While the FGD isin progress an observer is sitting
The participation oflocal institutions whether government or nongovernmentcontributes to makingthe stationrsquos programming relevantand dynamic
47
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48
quietly taking notes of the mainpoints that are being made Whenthe discussion is finished it is agood idea for the observer to takeover the proceedings and to readthe main points back to the groupIt is very important that hesheseeks their confirmation of eachpoint in order to ensure that it hasbeen correctly noted This leadsmore easily to a broad consensus
Effectiveness of FGDs Especiallywith people of low educational sta-tus FGDs are remarkably effectiveThe group feels at ease becausethey are talking with their peersand because the facilitator deliber-ately creates a totally informalatmosphere Once the members ofthe group start discussing among
themselves they spark reactionsideas and opinions off each otherin a way that provides true insightsinto what is in their minds andhearts FGDs are generally far moreeffective for gaining these insightsthan are one-on-one interviews forall too often the interviewee herewill say what he or she thinks theinterviewer wants to hear At theother extreme general and mixedgroup discussions can easily bedominated by a few people - not tomention that women and youthhardly ever speak out freely at suchgatherings The facilitator shouldbe aware of this guard against itand encourage the less outspokento air their feelings without embar-rassing them
Some FGDs with different sectorsof the community backed up withkey informant interviews withopinion leaders local authoritiesand the like will normally providethe desired information with whichto plan a community radio serviceBut whatever methods are used forthe consultation within the com-munity and with other interestedparties the process should neverbe rushed Mistakes or misunder-standings that are not put right orclarified in the early stages maycome back to haunt the communi-ty radio operation later on
Furthermore during the planningphases and indeed at all stagesone must be very alert to the possi-
bility that special interest groupsmight have hidden agendas that inthe end could result in their high-jacking the radio service for theirown interests
IMPORTANCE OF A MISSION STATEMENT
It is important to begin drafting a short and concise mission statement about the objectives ofthe planned community radio ser-vice at an early stage This providesa basis for discussion and it can bemodified and refined during theconsultation phase
Once a final version of the missionstatement is agreed by the variousstakeholders this constitutes abasis for common understandingand a platform on which to buildThis is not to say that the missionstatement is carved in stone it mayneed modification in the light ofexperience but any changes shouldalways be the result of a communi-ty consultation process
What the station does once opera-ting to adhere to its mission state-ment will depend largely on theindividuals chosen to direct andmanage it There must be regularassessments perhaps by a specialcommittee within the communityof how the operations are fulfillingthe stationrsquos mission
In Senegal women are very active in disussing issues of the daythey make for anatural forum face-to-face or on the air
Phot
o C
Fra
ser
On the Mission Statement
ldquoThe mission [statement] of a radio station definesits aims it is the map that provides directiontowards the achievements of its objectives it is theinstrument to measure its success it is thefoundation on which everything else is built it is the star that guides us The entire programming must be based on the principles established by the missionrdquo 3
ROLE OF THE RELIGIOUSESTABLISHMENT
Special consideration should begiven to the role of the religiousauthorities in the community Innumerous communities they havebeen crucial in helping to start andrun a radio service Their commit-ment to genuine community parti-cipation and to ensuring that theradio is run in the best interests ofthe people is often outstanding
However it should not necessarilybe assumed that all religiousauthorities are free from influencepeddling or political interests Soeven if the religious establishmentcan often be of pivotal importancein starting and running a commu-nity radio service detailed discus-sions are necessary to establish itsposition and its perceptions beforeautomatically seeking a partner-ship with it
ROLE OF LOCAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
The staff of local schools may havea particular interest in communityradio and help to get it started For example they may see it as away of increasing the involvementof parents in the education of theirchildren
In addition schoolteachers canplay a major role as volunteerbroadcasters They often broad-cast a daily programme to remindchildren about their homeworkand assist them with it And insome communities the operationof the radio station is handed overto schoolchildren once a week
INVOLVEMENT OF POLITICIANS
There are varying points of viewabout the role of politicians incommunity radio or whether theyshould have one at all (See Box 5for the opinion of an experiencedcommunity radio broadcaster)
CHOOSING A LOCATION IN THE COMMUNITY
Technical and social considerationsdetermine the appropriate loca-tion of the radio infrastructure in acommunity
Technical Criteria
Position of the antenna and transmitter
bull Given the line of sight character-istics of FM radio waves theantenna should be as high aspossible on an elevated site oron a mast not less than 30metres high and not obstructedby tall buildings
bull The transmitter and antennashould not be close to high-tension power lines
bull There should be an availablepower source
bull The transmitter and antennashould be as close as possible toeach other and not more than30 metres apart
Position of the antenna and transmitter relative to the studio
bull The studio may be up to 1000m from the antenna and trans-mitter but it must be connectedto them by a cable ndash the pro-gramme line Alternatively theprogramme could be fed fromthe studio to the transmitter sitevia a small power link VHF trans-mitter
Position of the studio
bull The studio must have an available power source
bull It should be away from uncon-trollable sources of noise
Social Criteria
bull The studio should be as close aspossible to the centre of popula-tion
bull It should be in a site easily accessibleto members of the community
bull It should have low or no rentalcharges
bull It should be in a site that is freeof vested interests
bull It should be secure from vandalsand pilferers 49
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mun
ity
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A Comment on the ReligiousEstablishment and Community Radio inthe Philippines
ldquoThe religious establishments are not
expected to have political or business
interests A majority of them are genuinely dedicated
missionaries who have a deep understanding of the
problems of the poor It is a shame however that
some individual members of the clergy overtly carry
their own personal idiosyncrasies and social biases
and in some cases political partiality into the com-
munity
In [a] community where we actually set up a radio
station the priest happened to be named
chairperson of the Community Media Council
Unfortunately he had never shown fondness
in getting the people to participate in decision
making He distrusted local leadership motives
He ran the station management by himself and
conferred involvement to his minions
When the election campaign period came
the priest threw his support behind the candidate
whom he deemed the peoplersquos favourite
As the station was conveniently located in the
convent the priest took the occasion to use
the programmes to build up the favoured candidate
and downsize the opponentrdquo 4
ldquoAfter 22 years as a broadcast journalist I have a
generally sceptical attitude towards politicians
Whenever I listen to a politician speaking
I try to figure out what is at the back of his mind but
often in vain
The question in the project was whether we should deal
with politicians or leave them out totally After numer-
ous discussions in our team as well as consultations
with professional sociologists the conclusion was that
politicians needed to participate in operating the radio
station After all politicians are inescapable elements
of community life They could be influential cogs in the
development of the community
The project cannot totally do away with politicians
even if the opportunist ones are quick to see the poten-
tial of a community-wide medium to get them votes
and public admiration Our approach is to place the
politicians role in logical perspective If for instance
partisan politicians agree to be involved in the
Community Media Council all the important political
parties must be represented
Certain politicians may publicly manifest a desire to
keep their hands off the project while some may
volunteer resources and heavy personal involvement
However even among those who ostentatiously adopt a
hands-off policy they could have lackeys in key
positions in the station - perhaps either as a generous
benefactor an intellectual or a domineering station
manager Thus the extension of his personality and
interests could creep into sensitive station decision-
making
Some politiciansrsquo pronouncements may indicate
unconditional concern for the masses and they may
well include a candid pledge of non-interference in the
stationrsquos affairs However few make good their
promises Some will ostensibly adhere to their public
commitment particularly when the project manage-
ment makes its presence felt But the shrewd politician
may intervene surreptitiously
Quite often the saying lsquoHe who has honey in his
mouth has a sting in his tailrsquo is confirmed This may
apply not only to the typical impassioned politician
but also to certain other eloquent members of the
community
However I grant that these are general observations
and there are certainly exceptions to them
The way programmers and broadcasters respond to
political manoeuvres will be determined by their
ethical foundation and trainingrdquo
Louie Tabing Manager of the UNESCODANIDATambuli Project Philippines
BOX 5 Involvement of Politicians in Community Radio
50
CHOOSING A MODEL
Most community radios aspire tohaving their own broadcasting facilities and frequency but this isnot always possible due to the prevailing legislation or to a lack ofeconomic resources The alterna-tives at least initially are
bull To obtain airtime for communityprogrammes from an existinggovernment or commercial sta-tion that covers the area
bull Rent an existing frequency butthis solution is normally confinedto urban areas
bull To install a lsquocommunity radiorsquo sys-tem that uses loudspeakersconnected to the studio and situa-ted to cover the communityrather than broadcasting by atransmitter
Whatever model is used it is generally a good idea to start withonly a limited number of hours aweek of broadcasting and then tobuild up slowly In this way therewill be time to plan and prepare thebroadcasts properly As experienceis gained and as the programmeproducers and other staff becomeaccustomed to their roles thehours of broadcasting can beexpanded
Loudspeaker Systems
Community radios often begin by usingloudspeakers and some even remain withthat system because of unfavourable legislation Loudspeaker systems have twodrawbacks firstly the sound quality is notgood and secondly people are compelled to listenwhether they want to or not This can produce tensions in the community
Part-Time Broadcasting
ldquoIt is usually thought that radio must operate on adaily basis but this is purely a presumption derivedfrom mainstream media Given the usual staffingand resource problems of daily operations in a ruralcommunity it could be more effective for its radioservice to operate on a limited but regular basisHistorically the socio-political programming of alternative media has not been continuous Regular intervals between programming increaseaudience loyalty and attention They also give broadcasters the time they need to plan and producemore relevant programmesrdquo 5
One good strategy for the start-upperiod is to broadcast at weekendsonly This will make it easier to findvolunteers who have weekendtime available However theaudience must be informed andreminded that the station will beon air only each weekend Thisshould be done through weeklypublicity efforts using means suchas a mobile loudspeaker announce-ments by the religious establish-ment posters etc
POWER OF THE TRANSMITTER
A broadcast pattern that coverstoo wide a physical area compli-cates the operations of a commu-nity radio and may make it difficultto concentrate on the immediatecommunity that is to be servedGiven that community radiodepends to a large extent onvolunteer participation a largetarget area may result in workloads that are difficult to maintainlsquoSmall is beautifulrsquo in communityradio too and it is often better tohave more small transmitterscovering specific communitiesthan one more powerful one thatspreads its signal widely
In rural areas a 20-watt transmit-ter should normally provide suffi-
cient power but there may be jus-tification for an amplifier to boostthe output to 100 watts In a citywhere there is competition fromother stations transmitters maygo up to 300-500 watts
It is important to ensure that thebroadcast pattern covers a com-munity having between 5000 and25000 potential listeners To besuccessful a community radiomust be able to rely on variousforms of support from its listenersless than 5000 may not providethe critical mass that will allow theradio to sustain itself and muchmore than 25000 means that theradio begins to become imperson-al and difficult to manage with aresultant loss in the communitycharacter of the service
OWNERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT
These are crucial issues that needcareful thought Even if the overallconcept is that the communityowns the radio there usuallyneeds to be some body such as afoundation or association whichrepresents the communityrsquos inter-ests and also provides the juridicalentity to apply for the licence andto hold it In some cases it may bepossible to plan for a community
media cooperative This couldallow each member of the com-munity to buy a share
With regard to management theconcept of community radio isthat the community itself shouldbe in overall control Obviouslyhowever the whole communitycannot be involved all the timeand therefore some sort of manage-ment body needs to be formedthat represents the different sec-tors in the community In manycases a community media com-mittee is created to assume themanagement role Whatever thebody is called its members mustrealize that they are accountableto the community at large and tothe particular sector they repre-sent Their decisions regarding therunning of the station and its programming must be democraticand transparent
PROGRAMMING
Programming policies are coveredin the next chapter Howeveranyone planning a communityradio should give early thought toprogramming issues especiallywith regard to mechanisms that willensure the maximum possible com-munity access and participation 51
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Reach of the Station
ldquoHow far the station reaches is less important than where the station reaches A station with atransmitter that has a long reach may be situated ina sparsely populated region whereas a station situated in a densely populated region may have atransmitter that doesnt reach very farrdquo 6
52
As a tactic for starting communityradio programming it is useful tofind out what people enjoy andappreciate about other radio pro-grammes they listen to and whythey like them Focus GroupDiscussions would be an idealmethod for obtaining this qualitativeinformation
STAFF
Few if any community radio sta-tions can afford to pay staffbeyond perhaps the station mana-ger if they are lucky Thus mostcommunity radios rely extensivelyon volunteers as programme pro-ducers reporters and studio tech-nicians However the use of volun-teers is not simply to get cheaplabour for a poorly funded opera-tion On the contrary volunteersgive a special and positive characterto community radio creating animage of goodwill commitmentand service for the common goodThose same characteristics arerequired in the community at largefor it to change and develop alongdemocratic lines
SUSTAINABILITY
Generating Income
While many community radios indeveloping countries are launched
with support fromsome outside donor -national or interna-tional - anyone plan-ning and promoting acommunity radioshould bear in mindfrom the very begin-ning how to sustainthe service once it isup and running
There are severaloptions for raisingrevenue to cover run-ning costs as follows
bull Commercial adverti-sing when this is allowed underexisting national legislation
bull Sponsorship which may also bedebarred by national legislation
bull Donations
bull Fees for private announcementsmade over the radio as lsquothe peoplersquos telephonersquo
bull Membership fees paid by listeners
The Advertising Issue In manycountries that have recently intro-duced legislation for non-profitcommunity radio the commercialmedia are so strong and influentialthat they have succeeded in ensur-ing that community radio is prohi-bited from accepting advertisingthus preventing it from infringing
on their lucrative domain But des-pite the revenue problem that thismay present it may have someadvantages for the image and cre-dibility of community radio forcommunity radio is essentiallypublic-service broadcasting and itshould be seen to be free fromcommercial interests andinfluences
Thus even where advertising isallowed careful thought should begiven to the type of advertisers thatwould be acceptable within thecharacter of a community radioservice These would normally onlybe local providers of goods and ser-vices the multinational soft drinksindustry and goods that are dama-ging to health such as tobacco andalcohol should be avoided
A Conversation with the Manager of a CommunityRadio about Sustainability
During the preparation of this handbook theauthors telephoned the manager of a successful community radio station in one of the poorest partsof Colombia Towards the end of a long conversationabout the radiorsquos character and operations theauthors asked lsquoHow do you sustain the radio How does it survive
The lady burst out laughing and then said cheerfullylsquoBy miracle or rather by one miracle after anotherrsquo
This same manager had the clever idea when theradio was started to organize a party to whichpeople were asked to bring cassette tapes or recordsof their favourite music These were played at theparty She then asked to borrow then so that shecould make copies for use by the radio In this wayshe started the stationrsquos collection of popular music7
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o C
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On the Government of Ecuadorrsquos Ban on Advertisingby Community Radio
ldquoWe are not for profit but we are not for bankruptcyeitherrdquo 8
The carabo or water buffalo as it is known in most parts of Southeat Asia is a preciousanimal It ploughs the field it transports goods it provides music and community
programmes through the radio strapped to its horns Some people call this lsquocar-abao stereorsquo
On Keeping Staff - the Case of CrispinZarate a Liability Turned to an Asset in thePhilippines
ldquoCrispin was a farmerrsquos son an unem-ployed school dropout Pinny as he wasfamiliarly called could usually be seenhanging around in his neighbourhood bar He wouldinvariably go home drunk His lifestyle and drinkinghabits hardly made him an eligible bachelor Norcould anyone consider him handsome The only talentthat Pinny exhibited was playing the guitar well
When the training for volunteers for the radio sta-tion was announced Pinny was among those to signup Since he was jobless he fitted the criterion thattrainees should be available for a three-week crashcourse
Pinny was an ardent trainee and became a dedicatedvolunteer broadcaster People expressed admirationfor his voice Indeed he had a knack for radio and hisinnate good nature came to the surface
His friends would tease him alluding to his lookslsquoYou sound like a real human being when you go onthe air Pinnyrsquo He would take the teasing with aproud smile
Everybody was struck dumb when they heard thatPinny was getting married and even more so whenthey learned that it was to one of the most amiableteachers on the island
I was delighted about Pinny Radio work had turneda derelict into one of the most appreciated and lovedpersons in the community
Then I received the bad news he had left the non-paying job in the station to find work in a construc-tion project on the mainland His wife was expectinga child so he could not afford to be jobless
But perhaps the loss to the station was a gain to thecommunity We had converted a liability into a usefulfamily manrdquo 9
Conflicts of Interest Sponsorshipcan also be plagued by problemsrelated to conflicts of interestsespecially when the sponsors arecommercial organizations
On the other hand sponsorshipfrom community-based associa-tions say of women farmers orfishermen can be extremelyimportant and so can sponsorshipfrom development organizationsand NGOs The same applies todonations from similar associa-tions or organizations
In the long term however relianceon outsiders will always put sustain-ability at risk Thus sustainabilityshould be seen as the ultimate res-ponsibility of the communityitself and the challenge to themanager of the station and to histeam of producers reporters andtechnicians is to make the serviceso enjoyable useful and valuableto its listeners that they will bewilling to support it through sub-scription fees voluntary donationsin cash or kind and the like
Keeping Staff
Sustainability is not only related tofunding the sustainability of staffis equally important Most person-nel working with a communityradio are volunteers and the men
volunteers are usually unemployedand looking for a paid job Thushigh staff turnover is a constantconcern Training which givespeople job satisfaction and careerprospects is one inducement (Forvolunteer work on a communityradio see Chapter 7 on training)Having women on staff may alsohelp reduce turnover because theyare less likely to be looking for jobsoutside the community
An innovative idea used in theUNESCODANIDA-supportedTambuli project in the Philippineswas to include livelihood-genera-ting activities for the staff of theradio stations The principle was to
provide small credits that wouldallow staff to start some commer-cial activity to support themselveswhile they continued to work asvolunteers with the radio In somestations this idea has worked wellbut in others it has been more dif-ficult to put into practice
53
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The radio station is excepted to address withintegrity and fairness the main issues andproblems in the community Sponsors and
donors with vested interests may potentially draw away the
station from its avowed directions or undulysway its programming decisions
54
LOOKING FOR OUTSIDE FUNDING FOR START-UPCOSTS
Community radios often manageto obtain funding from outsidedonors - such as national or inter-national NGOs or bilateral or multilateral development agencies- for the investment required forthe initial purchase of equipmentand to train staff The mission statement of the proposed com-munity radio is an essential ele-ment in any request for externalfunding It is also useful to puttogether a brief dossier that detailsall the important points about theproposed station in order toencourage a donor to invest in itCare is needed however not toproduce an over-glossy presenta-tion that could give the wrongimpression
Donors do not part easily withtheir funds and they will scrutinizethe proposed community radioproject with care They will want tosee how the points raised in Box 6have been answered and they willcertainly conduct their own on-siteenquiries
It should by now be clear that starting a community radio stationthough not particularly complica-ted does require a considerableamount of preparation and hardwork For the initiative to succeedit is vital not to skimp any of it
1 Legislation
bull What is the current legal situation for non-profit com-munity radio
bull If it is provided for in the legislation what are the termsfor obtaining a licence and the necessary qualificationsof the applicant
bull Is the cost of the licence affordable how long will ittake to obtain and what will be the terms for renewal
bull Can the transmitter be purchased and installed withouta licence or will prior approval of the telecommunica-tion authorities be needed
bull If community radio is not allowed for in the legislationwhat other avenues exist For example are the sameconditions for private commercial radio stations appli-cable to non-profit community stations Are there pro-visions for culturaleducational channels
bull If it is not possible to set up a proper radio station coulda community loudspeaker system be used instead
2 Location Criteria
bull Does the area planned for the broadcast pattern - 10-15km in radius - have a large enough population to sustaina community radio say from 5000 to 25000 people
bull Is the terrain suitable for low-power line-of-sight FMbroadcasting or is it too hilly
bull What mainstream commercial or state radios reach thecommunity If many do it may be difficult to sustain acommunity radio service Alternatively are there anymainstream media that could support or be linked intothe proposed community radio service
bull What cooperation and support can be mobilized fromlocal institutions and organizations eg local councilsgovernmental and non-governmental organizations
bull Is the site selected for the station centrally placed andeasily accessible to the community
3 Characteristics and Capabilities of Promoters ofCommunity Radio
bull What is the credibility level and the previous experienceof the people promoting the project
bull Are they generally acceptable to the stakeholders in theproject
bull What is their capacity to mobilize human and financialresources to sustain the operations of a communityradio
bull What is the level of democracy in their decision-making processes
bull Have they been accepted as credible and non-partisanactivists in the community with a reputation for integrityand transparency in their dealings
bull What are the constraints and opportunities for organizinga representative community radio council (Board ofDirectors) or a cooperative society for communitycommunication
4 Context for Setting the Objectives and Drafting a Mission Statement
bull How does the community perceive its situation and theneed for change and development Are people unhappywith the present circumstances and if so to what extentdo they see change as good and also as possible
bull What are the principle obstacles to those changes inattitude and behaviour that could help to promotedevelopment
bull What are the traditional decision-making processes inthe community and how might these be affected byopening a democratic forum for discussion in the shapeof a community radio
bull Who are the formal and informal opinion-leaders in thecommunity and are there any that hold explicit orimplicit leadership roles in relation to the proposedcommunity radio
BOX 6 Main Factors to Consider When Planning a Community Radio
1 Quote Zane Ibrahim and Ms Adams Bush Radio 895 FM(See Case Study 4)
2 Colin FraserSonia Restrepo-Estrada Focus Group Discussions inDevelopment Work Some Field Experiences and Lessons Learned Journal of Development Communication Number One Volume Nine(Kuala Lumpur June 1998) This article provides details of this subjectand technique for which there is only space for an outline here
3 Quote Bill Siemering US public radio activist (1997)
4 Quote Louie Tabing Manager of the UNESCODANIDA TambuliProject Philippines (1999)
5 Based on a written statement by W Jayaweera UNESCO Project Officer(1999)
6 Comment Zane Ibrahim and Ms Adams Radio by Bush Radio South Africa(See Case Study 4)
7 Personal communication Cilia Mosquera Manager of Radio CanaleteIstmina Colombia (1999)
8 Comment community broadcaster in Ecuador (See Case Study 5)
9 Quote Louie Tabing Manager of UNESCODANIDA Tambuli ProjectPhilippines (1999) 55
Com
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bull What points of resistance - either from individuals orgroups - might the community radio be expected toencounter in pursuing its declared objectives
bull Why and how could a community radio service help tobring about change and development In particularwhat impact could it have in mobilizing local resourcesfor development and in increasing community partici-pation for good governance
5 Technical Aspects
bull What is the situation regarding an electricity source forthe studio and for the transmitter
bull What transmission power is likely to be needed to coverthe community
bull Can the antenna be installed at least 30 m above theground firmly anchored to prevent wind damage andwith a lightning conductor
bull Can the antenna and transmitter be installed next toeach other - not more than 30 m apart
bull Can the studio and transmitter be installed far enoughapart to prevent radio frequency emissions from gettinginto the studio equipment
bull Is the place selected for the studio - as well as beingcentrally located and easily accessible to the population -free of uncontrollable noise and free of vested interests
6 Ownership and Management
bull What type of ownership structure can be envisaged
bull How is the community to be involved in managementand programming
bull To what extent do the plans for the community radiointegrate the traditionally vulnerable and marginalizedgroups - ie women youth and ethniclinguistic minorities - in the management and operations of theproposed community radio
7 Programming for the Community Radio Service
bull As an initial guide what programmes do people listento now which do they like most and why
bull What mechanisms can be set up to ensure regularconsultation and feedback with the community to ensurethat programmes meet their likes and needs
bull What special measures will be necessary to ensure thatprogramme producers respect the desires of theiraudience
bull Are there any particular programme formats that arelikely to be especially favourable or unfavourable inhelping to meet the objectives of the radio service
bull What mechanisms can be set up to identify individualsor groups that could produce their own programmes forbroadcast and how will they need to be encouraged andhelped
8 Staffing and other Resources
bull Is there enough interest and enthusiasm to be able tomobilize human and material resources to start and runthe station
bull Who can assume the task of the day-to-day manage-ment of the radio station
bull Is the proposed manager of the station acceptable to allsegments of the community and does heshe have thenecessary managerial and interpersonal communicationskills
bull What will the role of volunteers be in running the operation
bull What resources can be mobilized to ensure the start upof the community radio
bull What resources can be mobilized to sustain the com-munity radio over time
56
The church as a major institution of society has a major role to play
Phot
o C
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Moneky Bay Radio Station
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Chapter 6Programme Policies
57
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T his chapter stresses the need for participation of the audience in establishing programmingneeds and preferences in programme production (as presenters and performers) and in evaluation
It describes the crucial role of community news as part of an ongoing process of change and development discusses the ethical standards required by journalists and goes on to emphasize theimportance of balancing views in all programming
Later sections deal with policies for coverage of religiouscultural events local election broadcastsand educational broadcasts
The final section is on the importance of audience surveys and outlines how to conduct them
After absorbing the Chapter the reader will
bull Be able to establish programming policies and operations that will achieve maximum partici-pation of the community and its various sectors at all stages
bull Be able to set up mechanisms to ensure that programming meets audience needs and wishes
bull Know the ethical principles for news gathering and reporting and for maintaining a balance ofviews in a programme
bull Be aware of the possible legal conditions surrounding coverage of local elections and knowhow to handle coverage fairly and objectively
bull Gain insights into the use of radio as an educational medium and know the requirements tomake it effective
PARTICIPATORY PROGRAMMES
Any successful radio station mustappeal to the interests tastes anddesires of its audience What makesprogrammes for a community radiodifferent is that in addition to pleasingentertaining and perhaps providingsome general enlightenment for itsaudience they also seek to facilitatechange social progress and betterliving conditions in the community thatthe radio serves
It needs high numbers of listeners andaudience loyalty to achieve this but theunique advantage that communityradio has over any other type of broad-casting in winning audience is its abilityto be specifically relevant to the particular needs interests and desiresof its relatively small audienceHowever it can only reach this level ofrelevance through the constant invol-vement and participation of thataudience in the planning operationand evaluation of its programming
58
Participation in AscertainingNeeds and Preferences
A consultation process is requiredto establish certain things abouteach of the main audience sectors(eg women men youth farmerscooperative members etc) Themain points to be ascertained are
bull Listenersrsquo needs
bull Listenersrsquo preferences
bull Listening habits (ie times of daywhen people mainly tune in)
This information is the basis fordeciding on programme contentformat and the scheduling of pro-grammes at times that best suit thevarious segments of the audience
Participation in ProducingProgrammes
Everything possible should be doneto encourage individuals andgroups to participate in program-me production In this contextgroups might also be NGOs working in the community or staffof government services The principle role of the station staffapart from encouragement shouldbe to provide technical support andfacilities to the producers
In the Philippines an interestingp ro g ra m m e fo r m a t c a l l e dBaranggayan sa Himpapawid
roughly lsquoVillage on the Airrsquo hasbeen developed by the UNESCO-DANIDA supported Tambuli ProjectThe programme is produced in adifferent village each week in thearea covered by the communityradiorsquos broadcast pattern
In essence it is a variety show inwhich the villagers take the lead assingers musicians humorists poetsinterviewers and interviewees panelmembers and so on Althoughmost of the programme consists oflocal culture and entertainment italso contains a section that givesthe community the chance to discuss relevant issues and villageconcerns in public with local leaderscalled on to respond and maketheir opinions and position clearThis often gives rise to a debate onthe subject
A k a r a o k e s y s t e m - t h erecorderplayback lsquosing-alongrsquomachine which is very well knowneven in Philippine villages - usuallyserves as the outside recording studio Its familiarity to the villagershelps to reduce possible inhibitions
The programme is normally broad-cast the day after it is recorded andit is enormously popular even if thevillagers who produced it had noprevious experience of talking orsinging in front of a microphone
Participation of Individuals andGroups as Presenters orPerformers
Obviously programme formats like lsquoVillage on the Airrsquo in thePhilippines provide occasions forordinary people to present and perform in front of a microphoneBut even without such a program-me format it is important to solicitand support performances thatinvolve ordinary people These cantake a variety of forms includingfor example musical presentationsreadings of poetry comic skits orquite simply interviews round-tables or discussions in whichpeople present their ideas and opinions about any issue that is ofinterest to the communityProgramme formats that inviteparticipation from people in thecommunity should be a regular feature of the stationrsquos broadcasts
Every effort should also be made tohave the radio station seen as afocal point in the communitywhere people are free to come andtalk to the staff and discuss ideasfor programmes in which theycould be involved
An Overview of Programming
Programming decisions are among the most sensitiveand challenging tasks in a station This activity isnecessary when starting a radio station or whenmodifications are called for Periodic evaluation exercises usually trigger a programming revamp
Long hours of consultation and brainstorming sessions are devoted to programme planning A cunning programme manager serves to facilitate aparticipatory deliberation ndash rather than dictateideas - to determine the thrust format content andphilosophies By participating the staff [too] becomeenthusiastic implementers of the programme planIndeed participation makes the station a genuinecommunity radio 1
This graph shows the time avilability of various target groups for radio listening Different localities may show slightly varying trends from this
hypothetical illustration To determine the time slots of programmes designed for specific groups the programmers must at least figure
out if not make a formal research on the habits of their target listeners
Time Availability Chart
BROADCAST TIME
Participation in Evaluation ofProgramming
Community radio stations normallyreceive considerable numbers ofletters andor telephone callsfrom listeners These often providefeedback from the audience aboutthe stationrsquos programmes Thisprocess is very useful to the stationpersonnel and the audience shouldtherefore be encouraged by theannouncers and presenters towrite or call with their comments orsuggestions
However in addition to this routinefeedback a community radioshould conduct periodic evalua-tions of its programming with theparticipation of members of itsvarious audience sectors TheFocus Group Discussion techniqueoutlined earlier is an excellentmethod for eliciting peoplersquos opin-ions about existing programmestheir effects on community lifeand their ideas as to how programmes could be improved
Individual programmes may alsobe evaluated in conjunction withthe audience Programmes arenormally analyzed from two basicviewpoints
bull The formal structure of the programme including its technicalquality (the sound effects used
performance of the announcersand other participants controlof extraneous noise etc)
bull The content of the programmewith specific relation to
Information sources - were theywell selected credible and suffi-cient in number
Context - were the themes of theprogramme pertinent to the specific situation and needs of theaudience
Timeliness - were the themes ofthe programme pertinent in thesense of covering an actual orongoing situation
Actors and roles - did the physicalactors (persons) and the non-physical actors (institutions) eachplay their appropriate role in theprogramme
Communication approach ndash wasthe programme one-way or participatory Did it lead to anycritical analysis by the audience
bull Message formulation - did thecentral message come out clearlyWas there a good balance bet-ween rational emotional andaffective elements Was the format suitably matched withthe content
It is vital that a community radiomanager and his or her staff realize from the beginning thatprogramming decisions must bepart of a dynamic processFeedback and evaluations shouldbe constantly driving the processof improving and adapting theprogramming to meet the needsand preferences of the listenersAnd it must be remembered thatthese are not necessarily constantTo fall into a programming routineand to assume that listeners aresatisfied with what is on offer isthe short road to listeners desert-ing the frequency And that in turnis the short road to the death ofthe community radio
Peoplersquos views and opinions are important for strenghtheningdemocratic practice and for arriving at a cooperative approach tocommunity development Hence in Olutanga a small island in thesouthern part of Zamboanga Philippines the Village on the Airprogramme is the most popular of all It exemplifies the key themeof community radio- participation of the people
59
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mun
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Rad
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Phot
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Tab
ing
60
COMMUNITY NEWS
Community news is a unique feature and a prime strength thatgives a community radio station theinside track in competing againstlarger commercial or government stations However it must beremembered that the news provided by community radio incontrast to that of the mainstreammedia is not an isolated story orevent alone rather it should bepart of an ongoing and future process that is supporting progressand development in the communityRegular local news broadcasts inthe context of a process are thereforethe lifeblood of a community radioProgramming policies and opera-tions need to give them maximumimportance
Gathering local news is not alwayseasy especially when limitedresources make transportation andmobility for station personnel diffi-cult The idea of lsquopopular reportersrsquo- essentially a few volunteers scat-tered in the community - whoreport in to the studio by telephonecellular phone or VHF radio isalways worth pursuing
However journalistic ethics are justas important in community newsgathering and reporting as they arefor any major news organization
Indeed these ethics can be evenmore important in a communityradio For given the more intimaterelationship that exists betweenthe radio and its audience and thefact that the audience is also inter-related because it is part of a com-munity incorrect or tendentiousreporting or misrepresentation ofan event or issue can have moreimmediate and damaging effectsthan they would in a larger and lessinvolved audience
Thus a community radiorsquos programming policy with regard tocommunity news needs to be basedon having personnel and outsidereporters who have been properlyinitiated into the ethics of journa-lism These cover such aspects ashonesty fairness and objectivityand verification of sources beforeissuing a news item It is difficultnot to make the occasional mistakebut if it does happen an immediateacknowledgement and correctionshould be broadcast (See also the Code of Conduct in the next chapter)
Many community radios also pre-sent news bulletins that includeregional national and internationalitems The source for these is usuallythe mainstream media ndash newspapersradio and TV It is sometimes possible to arrange a link up with a
state or commercial radio stationand re-broadcast its news bulletinto the community Some communityradios make a point of having newsitems discussed on air by listenerseither through telephone calls orby 2-3 member panels in the studio
Whatever approach is used for out-side news the overall policy shouldbe to present or comment on it in away that makes it accessible andmeaningful to the communityaudience
BALANCING VIEWS
The main thrust of a communityradio should be to try to promotefair discussion and debate that canlead to resolution of conflictingviewpoints and to democraticconsensus The personnel of thestation and the way they work arefundamental in achieving this (Theterm lsquopersonnelrsquo of course includesvolunteers)
The staff of the radio station mustof course appear to be neutral Thisis not to say that they will not havetheir own personal points of viewbut they must on no account lettheir opinions influence the waythey stimulate and conduct any dis-cussions or make presentations onair A station manager should bewatchful for any manifestations of
DECLARATION OF PRINCIPLES ON THE CONDUCTOF JOURNALISTS
Adopted by the Second World Congress of theInternational Federation of Journalists at Bordeaux25-28 April 1954 and amended by the 18th IFJ WorldCongress in Helsingoumlr 2-6 June 1986 This interna-tional declaration is proclaimed as a standard of pro-fessional conduct for journalists engaged in gathe-ring transmitting disseminating and commentingon news and information and in describing events
1 Respect for truth and for the right of the public to truthis the first duty of the journalist
2 In pursuance of this duty the journalist shall at all timesdefend the principles of freedom in the honest collectionand publication of news and of the right of fair commentand criticism
3 The journalist shall report only in accordance with factsof which heshe knows the origin The journalist shallnot suppress essential information or falsify documents
4 The journalist shall use only fair methods to obtainnews photographs and documents
5 The journalist shall do the utmost to rectify any publishedinformation which is found to be harmfully inaccurate
6 The journalist shall observe professional secrecy regardingthe source of information obtained in confidence
7 The journalist shall be aware of the danger of discrimination being furthered by the media and shalldo the utmost to avoid facilitating such discriminationbased on among other things race sex sexual orientationlanguage religion political or other opinions and national or social origins
8 The journalist shall regard as grave professional offencesthe following plagiarism malicious misrepresentationcalumny slander libel unfounded accusations theacceptance of a bribe in any form in consideration ofeither publication or suppression
9 Journalists worthy of that name shall deem it their dutyto observe faithfully the principles stated above Withinthe general law of each country the journalist shall recognize in professional matters the jurisdiction of colleagues only to the exclusion of every kind of interference by government or others
bias by his staff while on air as wellas in hisher normal socialcontacts for if any staff are knownto have a strong position on somesubject and express it openly insocial conversations it will bemore difficult for them to presenta position of neutrality while onair Furthermore station managersshould take seriously and lookinto any complaints from listenersabout bias or manipulation ofinformation in the work of the stationrsquos personnel
The balancing of views also callsfor equal opportunity and time toallow different viewpoints to beexpressed on air The managementshould have a rigid policy thatensures this
It must always be rememberedthat the credibility and integrity ofthe service and of the personnelwho run it are crucial to its successand sustainability
COVERAGE OF RELIGIOUSAND CULTURAL EVENTS
Religious functions in a communi-ty are often cultural events as wellAdequate coverage of these occa-sions has to be included in theradio stationrsquos programme In amulti-religious community theradio station should take the
necessary steps to ensure reason-able access to all the different reli-gious institutions and denomina-tions To achieve this it is oftengood to have a committee of differ-ent religious leaders to agree onand advise the station on airtimeallocation for different religiousprogrammes The basic thrust ofreligious programming should betowards promoting religious harmony in the community deni-gration of other peoplersquos religiousbeliefs must be avoided at all costs
LOCAL ELECTION BROADCASTS
Some countriesrsquo legislation specifi-cally forbids community radio tobecome involved in any way withpolitical campaigning Othersallow campaigning under strictlycontrolled conditions only duringspecified election periods Themanagement of a communityradio should examine carefully theparticular legal situation withregard to electioneering
If a community radio is involved inpolitical campaigns it is essentialthat no party or candidate derivesundue advantage or suffers unduedisadvantage A transparent sys-tem of providing equal opportuni-ty and equal time to duly register-ed political parties and candidates
must be established The conceptof equality in opportunity andtime must take into account thelength of the broadcast the qualityof presentation and any advantagesthat might accrue from the timeand day of the broadcast If noagreement can be reached betweenthose concerned drawing of lotsor some similar system may beused
Any programme of a politicalnature which is sponsored or paidfor with the intention of influen-cing voters in a certain directionmust be properly identified as suchat the beginning at regular intervalsduring the programme and againat the end (See also the section onpolitical broadcasts in the Code ofConduct in Chapter 7)
Community radio can effectivelymonitor and ensure good conductof elections and thus support thisvital democratic process
EDUCATIONAL BROADCASTS (School on the Air)
In the 1960s and 1970s when ruralbroadcasting was being widelypromoted by development agen-cies there was much emphasisgiven to the educational possibilitiesoffered by radio a strategy
Everywhere religion plays a major role in the lives of people Community radiobroadcasters must also learn to appreciate this role while keeping radio free
from undue religious influences
61
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mun
ity
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rd
62
pioneered by Radio Sutatenza inColombia However experienceshows that as an educationmedium radio alone is weak itneeds to be supported by othermedia such as printed materials aswell as by inter-personal contactsto form a complete educationalpackage
A community radio may well decidethat part of its programmingshould consist of educationalbroadcasts for example for farmerson agricultural techniques or formothers on childcare and nutritionIf such a policy decision is takenthe best results will be achievedwhen it is based on proper adulteducation methodology Thisbegins with careful structuring of
the educational content of thebroadcasts in accordance with thetraineesrsquo circumstances needs andcapacities It should also involvesome sort of enrolment and recog-nition award for successful comple-tion of a course in order to enhancepeoplersquos sense of commitmentAnd the radio programmes shouldbe supported by other materialsgroup discussions and inter-personalfollow-up
Setting up a programme of educa-tional broadcasts can be a veryworthwhile objective for a commu-nity radio but it needs to be care-fully thought out planned andwork in conjunction with theappropriate services in say healthor agriculture Advice and support
from an adult education specialist
can help to ensure successful
programmes
Whether or not a community radio
decides to broadcast educational
programmes per se its policy
should take into account that edu-
cation in the broad sense of the
word and in the context of helping
people to improve their lives is one
of the fundamental objectives of
community radio Thus educa-
tional content will always be present
though it may be built into a variety
of formats including reportage
interviews panel questionanswer
sessions or discussions entertaining
drama etc
School on the Air ndash Girandurukotte CommunityRadio Sri Lanka
ldquoThe School on the Air was an action-oriented programme whose primary objective was to provideinstructional education in a manner that would leadto action It also attempted to develop a coordinatedapproach in which all those concerned with thedevelopment of the area could work together We
believed that such an approach would pave the wayfor our listeners to put into practice the instructionsthey received through radio and other channels ofcommunication
The radio producer in charge of agricultural pro-grammes worked with the agricultural extension officers in the area and with the committee thatadvised on the farming programme of the School onthe Air to develop an agricultural calendar and toidentify on-farm activities and their technicalcontent for the coming season
The calendar with the relevant technical informationwas produced and circulated among 115 farmers whoenrolled in the agricultural programme of the Schoolon the Air These farmers were asked to listen to theradio programme and to make notes in the blankspace provided in the calendar itself
A question was asked at the end of each programmeto which the farmers sent in their reply either bymail or during a visit to the radio stationThe programme received an average of 200-250replies many of which were from farmers not enrolled in the programme
The correct answers were discussed in the follow- upprogramme and those who had provided correct answers received marks
A seasonal course usually lasted 2-3 months and atthe end of the course farmers who had collected anaggregate of pass marks were awarded a School onthe Air certificaterdquo 3
Phot
o C
A A
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In Laurel Batangas a police officer runs the lsquoTraffic and Good Behaviourrsquo programmeThe studio is an abandoned classroom at the local high school
Phot
o L
Tab
ing
Some stations like Radio Voice of Manduyog in Banga Aklan Province are fortunate tobe linked to an educational institution In this instance the Aklan State College ofAgriculture serves its community with agricultural and technical programmes as well aspublic service womenrsquos programmes children stories good behaviour Students volunteerfor station duty as researchers or announcers
AUDIENCE SURVEYSA community radio that has goodfeedback from its audiencethrough letters telephone callsand visits to the studio and whichregularly conducts participatoryevaluations of its work as describedearlier will have access to muchqualitative information Howeverthis may not be enough to providea full picture of a radio stationrsquosperformance and standing Theindependence of an outside surveyteam is required to obtain reliableanswers to questions such as
bull Does the station have credibilityamong its listeners
bull Is the station seen as a reliablesource of information
bull What image and status do thestaff have in the eyes of the community
bull To what extent does the com-munity depend on the stationfor information and develop-ment materials
bull What do listeners do with theinformation they gain Do theyuse it store it pass it on toothers or look for additionalinformation
bull What impact is the radio havingin the community Whatchanges can be essentially attributed to the radio
In addition some quantitativedata may be needed about howmany people listen to the station
and when compared to other stations and how many listen toparticular programmes This infor-mation provides a picture of howthe community radio stands inrelation to other media channelsavailable to the audience
The type of information mentionedabove is often difficult to obtainThere are specialized companiesthat conduct audience researchusually for large commercial stations They have a natural tendency to inflate the listeningfigures so that the radio stationthat contracted the survey can usehigh ratings as a basis for chargingmore for advertising time In addition the experience of thesecompanies is mainly urban
Unfortunately the gadgetry usedby mainstream media to electronic-ally record the number of receiverstuned into a programme and evenwhen the channel is changed isbeyond the reach of communityradio stations So other methodsneed to be used to obtain thequantitative data
The commonest method is to takea sample of the audience - specialsampling techniques exist for theselection - and have them answer aquestionnaire either by mail orduring an interview The resultsare extrapolated to give a picturefor the whole community
The radio station itself canuse certain techniques totry to determine listeningpatterns One of these isto invite the audience tosend in entries to acontest or to make contri-butions to a communitycampaign The announce-ment is systematicallyrepeated throughout thedayrsquos programming andthe respondents are askedto say at what time ortimes they heard theannouncement
In most countries one candiscard the use of com-mercial media research organiza-tions for community radio It isbetter to enlist the help of NGOsuniversity students or volunteerswho are unknown in the commu-nity to conduct surveys and inter-views (If interviewers are knownin the community respondentsmay feel conditioned in the waythey answer) What is ideal is toget help from the staff of anothercommunity radio station for suchan outsider view They also learnfrom the experience
However difficult it may be toarrange surveys by outsiders fromtime to time are important to beable to gauge the way a communi-ty radio is functioning and thestanding it enjoys among itsaudience
Bus stops provide unique opportunities to gain feedback from audience and conduct interestinginterviews In Punka the Chief of Programmes of Bhutan Radio interviews an expectant passenger While waiting for the bus his handy radio helps pass the time
63
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1 Louie Tabing Programming Tips for a Community Radio Station UNESCO-DANIDA Tambuli Project (Manila 1998)
2 Louie Tabing et al Neighbourhood Radio Production UNESCO-DANIDATambuli Project Manila undated
3 Based on MJR David Mahaweli Community Radio A Field ProducerrsquosNotebook Institute of Development Communication Laguna(Philippines 1993)
Interviewing for Agricultural School on the Air Sri Lanka Recordingtraditional songs for transplanting rice
Phot
o W
Jay
awee
ra
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o C
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rnal
do
64
Homa Bay Radio Station
Phot
o U
nesc
o
Chapter 7The Community Broadcaster
Com
mun
ity
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7
T his chapter provides a prototype code of conduct for community broadcasters A community
radio service could use it as it stands or it could modify it according to any special local needs
or conditions It includes sections on programme production and on ethics conduct and
teamwork during operations and in the studio on the care of equipment and on the general conduct of
broadcasters in their normal life in the community
Other sections deal with conduct related to financial matters and provide details of how these can
be handled Appropriate policies and conduct for political broadcasts and for advertising
and sponsorship are also covered
Sections on the selection and training of community broadcasters give advice on selection criteria
on the content and categories of training required and describe various types of training modalities
There is a discussion of the pros and cons of on-site in-country and overseas training and a final
section on the financing of training
The reader can expect to
bull Gain an understanding of the need for and content of a code of conduct for community
broadcasters
bull Have a model code of conduct to apply as it stands or to modify to suit local circumstances
bull Learn about the different types and content of training needed by community broadcasters
and have guidelines for the general planning and organizing of training activities
CODE OF CONDUCT
The conduct of the personnel whowork with a community radio is centralto achieving the levels of efficiencyintegrity and positive image requiredfor its success Some national broadcasting legislations that includecommunity radio also provide a codeof conduct for broadcasters In additionthe UNESCODANIDA supportedTambuli Project in the Philippines hasdrawn up a code of its own 1
Although most codes of conduct arealmost identical in their generalapproach there may also be a need forspecial points to cover aspects that arespecific to a certain country For exam-ple where community radios areallowed to accept advertising or becomeinvolved in political campaigns theproper ethical conduct of these willneed to be included in the code
It is a useful idea therefore for community broadcasters in a countryto form associations and agree on acommon code of conduct appropriateto their circumstances In essence the 65
66
code of conduct should be a professional instrument for self-regulation and not a law or regula-tion enforced by government Thecommunity being served by thestation should also be informed ofthe code being applied
The code of conduct which followsbelow brings together elementsfrom several sources but it is basedon the structure of the Tambulidocument It is provided as a proto-type which community radios mayuse or modify as they wish
A PROTOTYPE CODE OF CONDUCT
Preparing and ConductingBroadcasts
General
bull Programmes should be well pre-pared in order to present newideas new information and newpoints of view
bull Broadcasters should obtain infor-mation from reliable sources andorganize their programmesproperly before going on air
bull A good balance should be main-tained between news entertain-ment and public-service programmes
bull Programming should maintain abalance that properly reflects the
differing interests of the variousmajority and minority sectors inthe community
Research
bull Broadcasters should actively andconstantly be researching newinteresting and comprehensiveinformation The most persistentresearchers and enquirers willultimately be the most reliablesources of information for otherpeople
Decency and Good Taste
bull Programmes should excludematerial that is indecent obsceneor offensive to public morals orto the religious convictions of anysector of the community
bull Programmes should promotegood relationships between differ-ent sectors of the community andshould most certainly avoid pre-judicing them
bull Justifiable material that relates tobrutality violence atrocitiesdrug abuse and obscenity shouldbe presented with due care andsensitivity and always in contextnot gratuitously Special care isnecessary when children are likelyto hear the programme
bull Broadcasters should rememberthat listeners especially children
and youth may make radioannouncers and presenters theirrole model and therefore theyshould behave accordingly
Respect for Privacy
bull Broadcasters should use care andconsideration in matters involv-ing the private lives and concernsof individuals The interest andeven the right to know of a com-munity is not a licence to invade apersonrsquos privacy But there can becases of exceptional overridingand legitimate public interestthat waive the right to privacy
bull Information provided by an inter-viewee as off-the-record shouldbe treated as such by a reporter
Preference for a Positive andConstructive Approach
bull Broadcasters should stronglyavoid the temptation to includerumours gossip slurs criticismsconflicts and indirect propagan-da in their programmes
bull Where the public interest is atstake and a controversy must bediscussed on air the broadcastersshould do everything in theirpower to present all sides of thestory
Responsibilities
ldquoLike every bestowed opportunity the privilege touse radio carries with it responsibilities - towards theinstitution and more than this towards society It isthe responsibility of anyone using the power of communication to uphold the dignity of the stationand his co-workers Radio is a powerful tool withwhich one person can manifest care for the community dependent on him for fair honest andtruthful communication rather than serve selfishmotives It is easy to detect whether a broadcaster isrepresenting his interest or that of the communitywhere he belongsrdquo 2
lsquoHate Radiorsquo A Warning
The former Director-General of UNESCO AmadouMahtar MrsquoBow stated ldquoBecause radio can be verypowerful it may sometimes be detrimental to thepeople it aims to serve We saw in Rwanda that aradio station Radio Mille Collines contributedgreatly and criminally to the tragedy that hit thatcountry To avoid human rights abuses even minorones community media practitioners and humanrights activists are trying to rally internationallyaround a Peoples Communication Charter that pro-vides guiding principles to prevent such potentialabuses Inter alia the Charter states that ldquorestrictions on access to information should be permissible only for good and compelling reasons as when prescribed by international human rightsstandards or necessary for the protection of a democratic society or the basic rights of othersrdquo
A Real Emergency is the Only Valid Excuse
ldquoIt is only in emergency cases that an announcer maybe allowed to absent himself without previous noticeThis would need to be on the level of a deathof a member of his household or the need tobring to the hospital a member of the familywho is running a fever of 40 degreesrdquo 3
bull Broadcasters should emphasizeinteresting and useful informa-tion rather than dwell onunsavoury conflicts
bull When dealing with a problemrather than bemoaning it thestress should be placed on dis-cussing it in the positive light ofwhat possible actions could betaken and by whom to solve it
Conduct During Operations
Teamwork
bull The personnel of a communityradio are all part of a team andshould act and work as such Thismeans among other thingsbeing willing to help a colleaguewho is in difficulty for any reasonand co-operating by providinginformation contacts andmaterials to colleagues who mayneed them
bull Individuals should participate inevaluations and discussions andencourage their colleagues toassess and criticize their work
bull Individuals should be willing toaccept and act upon evaluationcritiques
bull Broadcasters should be willing tomake announcements that promote other programmes inthe stationrsquos schedule
bull In live programmes it should benormal practice for a broadcasterto stand in for the programmefollowing hishers if the nextbroadcaster should be delayedThe broadcast should never beleft unattended
Respect for Management
bull Personnel should respect themanagement and comply fullywith the administrative andoperational procedures it hasput in place
bull Any disagreements betweenstaff member(s) and the man-agement should be first discussed with the station manager If the problem cannotbe resolved at that level thematter should be referred to themanagement body of the community radio whose decisionshould be final Respect fromboth sides and a democraticprocess should be observed inthese discussions with the inter-ests of the radio station and thecommunity it serves as the dominating criterion
Punctuality and Reliability
bull Personnel who are to go on airmust be punctual leaving suffi-cient lead-time to prepare them-selves and their materials and to
confer with the station manageror with guests or interviewees asnecessary An absolute mini-mum of ten minutes beforebroadcast time should beobserved though consider-ably longer lead-time isusually advisable
bull If an individual anticipates notbeing able to fulfil a broadcastcommitment heshe shouldinform the station manager atleast one day before so that areplacement can be appointedand have time to prepare properly
Conduct in the Studio Premises
bull No personnel should be allowedto bring firearms into the studioeven if they are members of thepolice or military
bull Drinking or taking of illicit drugsin the studio premises should betreated as a violation of the sta-tionrsquos standing and integrity Soshould coming to the stationintoxicated or under the influenceof drugs
bull Broadcasters should not inviteguests and relatives to the studiopremises without briefing themon proper behaviour especiallywith regard to orderliness andsilence 67
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mun
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Broadcasters mustbecome a reliablesource of information for people
In no case should the announcer cometo the sudio less than10 minutes
before broadcast time
68
bull Guests should not be allowed todistract broadcasters disruptactivities or tamper with or pilferstation equipment and property
bull Children visiting the stationshould always be accompanied by aparent or other responsible adult
Care of Studio Equipment
bull Every member of the stationrsquos staffshould participate in preserving itsequipment and property
bull The operation of studio equip-ment should only be by peoplewho have been trained qualifiedand authorized to use it
bull All equipment not in use shouldbe switched off All personnelshould be obliged to clean recapcover and store equipment theyhave used in their proper place
bull No piece of equipment should betaken out of the studio premiseswithout the prior approval of thestation manager or the person towhom heshe has delegated con-trol of such matters Ideally thisapproval should be in writing
bull Any equipment taken out of thestudio premises should bereturned promptly after use
bull Systems of usage and borrowingshould be set up A userrsquos log anda borrowerrsquos log should be kept
bull Broadcasters should immediatelyreport to the station manager orothers in authority any malfunc-tion loss or damage to equip-ment they were using noting thetime and circumstances in whichit happened
bull Based on the points outlinedabove the station manager inconjunction with the rest of themanagement body of the com-munity radio should establishregulations for the use of itsequipment and ensure that allpersonnel are aware of them
Conduct of Personnel Outsidethe Radio Station
bull Community broadcasters arereformers and agents of positivechange and development Theircomportment in their social andfamily life and in their life in gen-eral in the community shouldmatch the image they project asstaff of the community radio
bull Any member of the staff shouldbe automatically dismissed iffound guilty of any criminal orillicit activity The managementof a community radio shouldhave the constitutional right tosuspend or dismiss any such person especially when it isdeemed that keeping himher
would prejudice the image andstanding of the station
bull No member of the staff shoulddivulge classified information
Solicitation of FundsAdvertising or Sponsorship
bull Only personnel who have beenspecifically designated to do soby the management should beallowed to solicit or receive donations grants sponsorship orany other form of financial support for the community radioor for specific programmes Theauthorization to solicit or collectfunds should be in writing
bull No radio station should acceptfunds from any illegal source orfrom any source whose activitieshave a negative effect on thecommunity society or the countryeg gambling rings smugglersdrug traffickers producers orpurveyors of tobacco and alcoholconcerns that are damaging orpolluting the environment etc
bull No funds should be acceptedfrom political parties or otherinterest groups that could latercompromise the stationrsquos editorialindependence
Caution with Record Companies
ldquoCommunity stations can end up playingmusic all day The music industry makes iteasy to lsquospin discsrsquo instead of providing thecommunity with the programming it needsWhen a record company gives a station freemusic the station becomes a record sales outlet for the only place people hear new music is on radioIn South Africa record sales increased dramaticallywhen community radio began Another problem isthe gifts and unsolicited attention that many recordcompanies lavish on the individual who is responsiblefor the lsquoplay listrsquo of tunes that are broadcast to givethe station its identityrdquo 4
Management of FinancialResources
bull The community radio shoulddesignate a treasurer whoshould open a bank account forthe safekeeping and disbursementof its financial resources Thechoice of bank should be madein conjunction with the manage-ment body of the radio
bull Two signatures should berequired for withdrawal of fundsfrom the bank account
bull All funds grants earnings collections and other incomeshould be remitted to the desig-nated treasurer as soon as possibleand never later than 24 hoursafter being received Any personnel who keep funds forlonger should be considered tohave misappropriated them andbe disciplined accordingly
bull The treasurer should keep arecord of all receipts and payments This should be avail-able for inspection at any timeby any member of the manage-ment or by the authorities
bull Only after income has beengiven to the treasurer and itsreceipt duly recorded should itbecome expendable No staffshould be permitted to use
unrecorded incomeeven to reim-burse legitimateexpenses theym a y h a v ei n c u r r e d
bull The stationm a n a g e rshould haveaccess to ap e t t y c a s hf u n d T h i ss h o u l d b ereplenished bythe treasurer whenever it fallsbelow a predetermined amountFull records of the petty cashexpenditures and replenish-ments should be kept
bull The community should be keptinformed at regular intervals ofthe financial state of their radiostation and also have the rightto ask for related information atany time
Political Broadcasts (where allowed)
bull The community radio manage-ment should ascertain in detailany provisions in the nationalbroadcasting legislation con-cerning radio coverage duringpolitical campaigns and abide bythem scrupulously
bull bull
bull Broadcasters should not giveundue advantage or disadvan-tage to any political party orcandidate
bull Equal opportunity and equaltime should be accorded to dulyregistered political parties andcandidates Equality in this con-text takes into account thelength of the broadcast thequality of presentation and anypossible advantages from thetime and day of the broadcast
bull If no agreement on such equalitycan be reached between thoseconcerned drawing of lots orsome similar system may beused
bull News and other informationprogrammes should be edited 69
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70
for strictly factual informationand should avoid bias in favour oragainst any political party or candidate
bull Any personnel of a communi-ty radio including the man-agement body should resigntheir post and refrain fromany regular activity as a broad-caster before or at the time ofdeclaring their intention ofbecoming involved in any politicalor partisan activity
Advertising and Sponsorship(where allowed)
bull The management body shoulddecide whether advertisingwhen allowed under the existinglegislation is compatible with the aims and objectives of the community radio
bull If it is decided to accept advertisingthe management body shouldestablish criteria for the types ofcommercial interests whose publicity will be broadcast
bull Preference should be given toevents goods and services beingorganized or offered by commer-cial concerns within the area inwhich the community radio is situated
bull Advertising should not be accepted
from concerns offering goods thatare harmful to individuals to thecommunity or to society especiallyin terms of health or behaviour(eg tobacco and alcohol) Norshould advertising be accepted foritems that are generally detrimentalto the socio-economic welfare ofthe poor (eg junk food carbonat-ed drinks and other items that are low in nutritional value and relatively high in cost)
bull In respect of sponsorship - whereallowed - and advertising careshould be taken to ensure thatthere is no potential conflict ofinterest between the sponsor oradvertiser and the change anddevelopment objectives of theradio station
Advertisements by PoliticalParties and Candidates
Advertising by political interestsduring election campaigns - asdistinct from party politicalbroadcasts - presents a specialproblem The communityradio management body
should take one of three possible decisions
bull Apply the principle of equaltime and opportunity to politicaladvertisements as in the caseof party political broadcasts
bull Allow each party the freedom tobuy as much air time as it wantsand can afford
bull Not accept advertisements frompolitical parties or candidates
Some community radios chargehigher rates for political advertise-ments than they do for commercialones and it is tempting to solvemany of the sustainability problemsthat afflict all community radios byselling air time willy-nilly to all thepolitical interests that want it andcan pay for it Nevertheless it isdubious whether a communityradio should help the alreadystrong parties to get strongeragainst the weaker alternative par-ties that might bring greater socialprogress From an ethical view-point it is probably better to apply
Some Typical Examples of Potential Conflicts ofInterest between Advertising Revenue and theGeneral Good
bull Revenue from infant formula producers or retailersversus promoting the healthier practice of breast-feeding
bull Revenue from farm pesticide manufacturers versusthe need to promote integrated pest management
bull Revenue from international bottlers of carbonateddrinks versus promoting the use of locally grownfruit-based drinks
bull Sponsorship for a farming programme fromcommercial dealers or outlets of farm produce ver-sus support to farmers to obtain better prices
bull Sponsorship from a mining company with localoperations versus the need to reduce its negativeenvironmental impact
The Commercial Radio Viewpoint
After a series of elections in Ecuador spread over a short time the owner of a commercial stationin Cuenca said only half joking These politically unstable times have saved half of us frombankruptcy 5
Training Experience at Radio Sagarmatha Nepal
Two types of training have been conducted the firstfocusing on broad concepts and techniques has successfully upgraded general skills and brought people into the fold the second has been integratedinto the stations specific needs and context workingwith producers and developing new programmes
The first type has been done with foreign resourcesgenerally the training centres of international broadcasters This training was important for identifying and developing human resources While Nepal has excellent media resources of its ownthe expertise of these international broadcasters hasbeen extremely beneficial
The second type has used local resources and integrated the needs of the station and of thetrainees into the planning and conducting of trainingcourses using a more hands-on on-the-job approachThis has proved appropriate to the overall development of the station and to existing and available technologies This training has beenconducted by station personnel and internationaltechnical advisers working locally It has concentrat-ed on existing station staff rather than new recruits
the equality principle or not toaccept any political advertisingeven if this means loss of revenue
SELECTION OF COMMUNITY BROADCASTERS
Some community radios arestaffed by people chosen mainlyfor their commitment to the wel-fare and improvement of theirown community and for theirinterest in radio as an instrumentfor social progress Other commu-nity radios are able to draw onpeople who have some experienceor training in the area of commu-nication or journalism but whomay be outsiders to the communi-ty Although they may have a bet-ter education and more skills thanordinary members of a communi-ty they may well be at an initialdisadvantage until they havegained full insight into how thecommunity functions
When selecting people from thecommunity it is usual to apply certain other criteria besidesthese peoplersquos sense of commit-ment They should be residents ofthe community with no immediateintention of migrating away fromit they should have good oralcommunication skills they shouldbe of good moral standing and
have leadership potential theyshould be representative of anyethnic and religious groupings andof political affiliations in the com-munity and they should have timeavailable for the initial training andfor a volunteer job
The balance between women andmen is particularly important Inmany countries it is usually mainlymen who come forward whentraining is being offered but it isessential that women be integratedinto the operation in balance withmen Quite apart from fundamentalissues of gender equity most com-munity radios have high numbersof listeners among women whoneed information that is best supplied by other women Womenon the air will also help others toassume an equitable and respectedrole in the affairs of the communi-ty and its development Staff sustainability will usually beimproved by having womenbecause they are less likely to leavethe community in search of work
In one community radio in SouthAfrica which provides training forbroadcasters no training course isallowed to go ahead unless at leasthalf of the participants arewomen (See Case Study 4) Insome countries it may be difficultfor cultural reasons to insist on this
condition immediately but itshould certainly be a target every-where
TRAINING OF COMMUNITY BROADCASTERS
Community radio stations veryoften begin with people who havenever been inside a radio studionever held a microphone andnever had any involvement withthe world of media or journalismTraining such people presents anoteworthy challenge but experi-ence has shown that it is not as difficult as one might expect
Content of Training
Many skills are involved in broad-casting The principal ones thatstaff collectively of a station needto have fall into three main types
Technical - use of equipment andsimple repairs
Programme production - coveringelements such as radio talk voiceperformance script writing inter-view techniques news gatheringwriting and delivery magazineprogramme production produc-tion of radio spots jingles andpublic-service announcementsproduction of participatory pro-grammes in the community basic
Martin Allard on Technical TrainingldquoI think that the future of community radio is theelimination of the role of the technician as aseparate activity and the inclusion of a limitedamount of technical training in the functions ofstation managers and programme producersrdquo 6
71
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c o m m u n i c a t i o ntheory and practice
Management andOperations ndashincluding manage-ment skills overallprogramming for acommunity radiomarketing the station audienceresearch methodsradio laws andethics
In addition every-one working with acommunity radiomust be well
versed in the Code of Conductbeing applied
Categories and Phases ofTraining
The training required for broad-casters falls into two broad categories
bull Introductory training needed forthem to able to function at theminimum level of competencerequired
bull Refinement of their skills untilthey become fully competent inone or more broadcasting roleeg programme producerannouncer reporter studio
technician etc In many smallcommunity radio stations peoplehave to learn to function in any orall of these roles
Introductory Training
This should cover three basic typesof content
bull The philosophy of communityradio and its role in news enter-tainment and education andparticularly in change and development
bull The principle factors in the codeof conduct for community broadcasters
bull The use of broadcasting equip-ment and basic programme production
Some community radios manage toprovide this basic training in anintensive introductory course lasting about three weeks and heldin the community The courseshould include a large amount ofhands-on training as indeed shouldall types of broadcaster training
The introductory training providedwhen starting a community radioservice will of course need outsidesupport both in terms of trainersand funding The trainers can comefrom other well-established com-munity or public-service broadcast-ing stations in the country
The introductory training can be
used to help the selection process
for staff It is useful to include more
trainees than the staff actually
needed and to select the best of
them at the end of the course
Once a community station is up
and running new personnel can
often be given their basic training
by working with the already
competent staff learning by doing
supplemented with sessions to
cover aspects such as the philosophy
code of conduct and other
conceptual issues of community
radio
Refinement of Skills
Community broadcasters need to
take part in a continuous process of
learning Even veterans often learn
something new from others from
reading or from some reaction in
the community to a programme
they have produced In addition
new technology is being intro-
duced all the time
Refinement of skills to a certain
extent comes naturally through
learning-by-doing but this is not
enough There are several ways that
broadcasters can be helped to
improve their performance
Listening is all important listening to feedback listening to opinions listening togood music and to onersquos own singing At the Childrenrsquos Center in Olongapo
Philippines Shirley listens to a recording for the morning show
Phot
o C
A A
rnal
do
Formal Training Courses EitherOn-site or In-country Usingnational or international trainersshort training workshops can beorganized on specific aspects ofbroadcasting and programme pro-duction
This type of training is most effec-tive and economical if traineesfrom several different communityradio stations can be broughttogether This has the additionalbenefit of opening doors forfuture contacts cooperation andinterchange between various stations For example it is veryuseful to have staff from one community radio help to evaluatethe programming and work of another Their outsider percep-tions can be invaluable and at thesame time they learn from theexperience
Training Attachments toOther Radio Stations It is oftenpossible to come to an arrange-ment with another more experi-enced community radio or public-service station to send trainees fora period of work with them Insome countries notably SouthAfrica the station that pioneeredcommunity radio has become atraining centre for other stationswith less experience This has several advantages particularly in
terms of low costs and sharing ofexperience If the attachment is toanother community radio and toa successful one the trainees mayalso learn how certain problemshave been solved and how innova-tive and creative ideas are beingapplied in programming
Care should be taken aboutattachments to commercial stations Their philosophy is so different from that of communityradio that even if a trainee learnssome technical aspects of programme production heshewill learn nothing about using radioas part of social development
Overseas Fellowships Many ofthe worldrsquos major broadcastingorganizations run training coursesin their home country Amongthese are Radio Netherlands theB B C a n d D e u t s ch e We l l e Governments and developmentagencies are sometimes willing toprovide fellowships for communitybroadcasters to follow a course atone of these training centres Thiswill certainly give the trainees avaluable learning experience in allaspects of radio production butthere may be certain disadvantagesas explained in the next section
On-Site In-Country or OverseasTraining
There are pros and cons to each ofthe above
On-site training in the communitywhere the radio station operatesprovides the most realistic possibletraining venue the group oftrainees work with the equipmentwith the people and in the circumstances of their futureactivities It also saves the cost oftravel and subsistence for thetrainees
The main disadvantage of on-sitetraining is that the trainees part ofwhose motivation may well becareer prospects may feel that thisis ldquosecond-classrdquo training compared to going say to thecapital city for a course or to acourse in another country Thusthey may feel less motivated
In-country training in a courserun in a location other than theirown community has more prestigevalue to the trainees as does atraining attachment with anotherradio station Other advantagesare the contacts and interchangethat can develop for the futurefrom a period of working withother professionals in the samefield
ldquoMost people think of radio as a lsquoone-to-onersquo
medium reaching out to a single anonymous
mass public This concept is reflected in early
communication research on air-dropping
leaflets lsquoinjectingrsquo information into what is
considered a population basically characterized
by its sameness
And yet at the other end of radio transmission at each
listening set there are usually only two or three individual
people real persons And sometimes our ears are captured
by the natural talent of interpersonal communication
voices addressing each individual in a large audience ndash
politicians religious leaders a person-oriented
disc-jockey or even an outstanding news announcer
They speak with natural charm a built-in capacity
to hold an audience a charisma to catch even
non-believers in their spell They speak from a inner core
of conviction and draw others to them by appealing to
their inner core of questioning of doubt and of hesitation
One might say that theses broadcasters are successful
because they defy the conventional rules of media
They do not read scripts they read meaning the script
acting only as a prompt to the deeper significance of their
messages The microphone is only an electronic
intermediary between them and the persons in the
mass audience
They speak not to the microphone but through the
microphone to people with people They use media
despite media to reach people This is a very particular
sense of interpersonal media that seems to have
been lost todayrdquo
Carlos A Arnaldo
73
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Overseas Training is the mostprestigious and expensive of alland it will almost certainly opencareer opportunities beyond theradio station of the traineersquos community This is precisely one ofthe disadvantages of overseastraining in terms of staff stabilityBut there are other disadvantagestoo notably that the technical andworking conditions of an overseassituation may cause the trainee tobecome dissatisfied when heshereturns to the simpler community
station at home increasing theprobability that heshe will acceptan offer from a mainstream stationFinally overseas training howevertechnically rewarding is outsidethe traineersquos normal cultural context and this may reduce itsapplied value
Financing of Training
There are a variety of sources offunding for training of communitybroadcasters When internationaldevelopment agencies or NGOshelp to finance the initial equip-ment for a station they usuallyinclude a training component inthe project This will normallycover at the very least the introduc-tory training for the start-up phasebut it may also include refinementof skills over a longer period oftime
Development agencies and NGOsmay also grant fellowships to com-munity broadcasters Some ofthese may be for overseas trainingbut many are also for in-countrytraining courses or for assignmentsthat are part of a training experi-ence
Specific development projectswithin a country may be anothersource For example when a pro-ject - say one for environmentalprotection or health - wants support from radio programmesthe funding agency may wellfinance the training of broadcastersso they will make the best possibleprogrammes on that project
Whatever the sources and types oftraining in a given country themanagement of a community radio
should be constantly alert to thetraining needs of the staff On theone hand increased competenceleads to increased job satisfactionand tends to enhance staff stabilityOn the other hand there willalmost inevitably be high staffturnover in a situation where mostof the staff are unemployed volun-teers The management musttherefore be ready to arrange forthe fairly constant training ofreplacements
1 Tambuli Project Management Community Broadcasters -Code of Conduct UNESCO-DANIDA Tambuli Project(Manila 1998)
2 Op cit
3 Op cit
4 Quote Zane Ibrahim and Ms Adams Bush Radio 985 FMSouth Africa (See Case Study 4)
5 Quote Bruce Girard Radio Chaguarurco(See Case Study 5)
6 Martin Allard Technologiacutea Adaptada InteRadio Volume 9No1 1997 AMARC (Montreal 1997)
7 See the Case Study 4 Bush Radio 895 FM
Phot
o U
nesc
o
Homa Bay UNESCO project fixing the transmitter
Chapter 8Case Studies
75
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T he following section contains five casestudies of community radio stations inAsia (Philippines and Nepal) Africa
(Ghana and South Africa) and Latin America(Ecuador) Their authors are all intimatelyconnected with the stations and provide inter-esting insights into how they set up their oper-ations how they handled the problems theyencountered and what the results have beenFor this reason they are important to anyoneinvolved - or who wants to become involved - incommunity radio
The case studies were edited by the authors ofthe main body of the handbook They were for-ced to reduce their length considerably whilemaintaining their original structure They hopeto have left the essential information intactCertain parts especially of an anecdotal naturewere taken out of the original case studies andput into the main body of the handbook
Olutanga an Unlikely Community for a RadioStation
In the 1970s the island of Olutanga in MindanaoProvince was the scene of frequent heavy fightingbetween warring Muslims and Christians Towncentres were razed to the ground following onesuch encounter
However two decades after the bloody conflictsMuslims and Christians now live peacefullytogether on the island The minority Muslims areconcentrated in the north-east and southern sec-tions The island has a sparse population ofapproximately 35000 people mainly concentra-ted in three towns
Despite todayrsquos relative calm however a heritageof past instability and danger still shows mosthouses are built of light materials as if no one isreally happy to settle permanently on the islandThe 18-kilometre dusty or muddy road dependingon the season of the year stretches the length of theisland and is used only by a few four-wheelvehicles Carabao-drawn sleds tricycles horsesand travellers on-foot share the thoroughfare
Most of the residents of Olutanga eke out a livingfrom non-irrigated agriculture and marginal fishcapture in the over-exploited marine grounds
A few traders have established businesses by catering to what the majority of poor people canproduce or buy
There are two high schools both run by religiousmissionaries The one that serves the northerntowns of Mabuhay and Talusan is attended by lessthan 300 students Another high school in thetown of Suba-Nipa at the southern end of theisland also has limited enrolment There are no tertiary or vocational schools Very few parentscan afford the high cost of sending their childrenfor tertiary to metropolitan centres on the largersurrounding islands
Government services in education health lawenforcement etc are minimal No bank operateson the island and there are very poor communica-tion facilities except for numerous hand-held veryhigh frequency (VHF) transceivers
Visitors to the island are therefore astonished tofind that this island eight hours away by boat fromthe city of Zamboanga operates a radio stationThe islanders themselves were incredulous whenthe facility was proposed to them in 1993 by theTambuli Project They became even more doubtfulwhen full control of the station were also offeredto them
RADIO IN FOR ABOUT AND BY THE COMMUNITY IN THE PHILIPPINES
by Louie N Tabing
Olutanga - a Perfect Location for a Tambuli RadioStation
The first community radio station in Mindanao wasinitially recommended by some local Catholic leadersto be in Ipil not in Olutanga But Ipil did not meetTambulirsquos criteria it was too prosperous and it wasalready a centre of economic growth
Tambuli was looking for communities that were infor-mation-poor economically depressed conducive toFM signal propagation with good prospective coope-rators and where a community radio station wouldmake the most impact Olutanga 40 kilometres outto sea met those criteria perfectly It was certainlyimpoverished and isolated It was also relatively flatso signal propagation for a low-power FM transmitterwould not be a problem One thing however wouldbe missing - a local cooperating institution Onewould have to be developed
Initial Visit and First Meetings
A first consultative conference held at the Catholicconvent was a hurriedly arranged by VHF radio Lessthan ten leaders attended Several of them weremunicipal officials including the vice-mayor of thetown the parish priest and others who expressedtheir suspicions of the project They were quick topoint out that only a month before somebody fromManila had collected money from people allegedlyfor theatre training The stranger had then left withthe money and was never heard of again I had to assurethem that no person equipment or money would leaveOlutanga during the proposed radio project
What is really your objective then They asked Areyou selling the equipment Will you be selling radio
sets If you are really from UNESCOwhy dont you build schools for usWhere is the catch
Such questions were freely aired after we told thelocals that Tambuli would like to help them set up acommunity radio station Nevertheless the prospectof having the facility and operating it was inviting tocommunity leaders The municipality could use it fordissemination of information The station could be aconvenient vehicle for public service The youngpeople could use it for requests and dedications
During the one-and-a-half-hour meeting somecopies of our Tambuli Primer an illustrated comic-likepublication explaining the project were passedaround and the radio idea was discussed further Wemanaged to arouse the interest of the locals and atthe same time we heard some salient information onthe political and social dynamics of the area I was notworried by the people who questioned the genuine-ness of our intentions It is understandable for animpoverished community to be wary and suspiciouswhen something is offered for nothing
It was agreed that before the next meeting each ofthe sectors represented at the first would consult witha wider number of people And they might submit aresolution reflecting the views and feelings of theirsectors The interim period would give them time toconsult with their constituencies It would give themtime to check on our true identity and objectives as well
Some 25 key sectoral leaders attended the secondmeeting a few weeks later Educators farmers fisher-men women people from different religious groupstricycle operators and motorcycle drivers cameContending political parties were also presentSurprisingly the early doubts about the project haddisappeared Many leaders brought resolutions welcoming the setting up of the radio station
Succeeding meetings established a core group of leaders who would handle the affairs of the project
An interim body was constituted from among thosepresent The leaders elected a set of officers andthese were eventually registered as the OlutangaIslanders Media Development Foundation (OIMDF) A dynamic municipal councilwoman Meriam Aranasheaded it
One of the first decisions to be made by theFoundation was the location of the station Followingthe recommendation that a community radio stationshould be free from the control of political parties andreligious groups the local leaders decided that thestation should not be housed in the convent Norshould it be located in the municipal building whichwas perceived as a political place The offer by muni-cipal officials to accommodate the station would onlybe accepted if a building or a lot were donatedwithout strings attached In order to accept dona-tions enter into agreements employ personnel andadminister the station the organization needed to bea juridical entity It was therefore decided that OIMDFwould need to be registered with the Securities andExchange Commission
Soon a new group emerged from among theFoundation members It was pointed out that theTambuli Primer states that there can be a CommunityMedia Council (CMC) - separate from the formallyregistered organization - to make decisions about theradio and its operations They contended that theFoundation members were permanent whether theywere performing well or not whereas the Councilmembers could be replaced yearly if they did not per-form well Hence a CMC of about 11 members wasalso formed It was headed by Napoleon Aboc a businessman who was also a retired policeman
It soon became evident that the CMC and theFoundation were contending factions polarizedtowards either Aboc or Aranas who were each identi-fied with a distinct political grouping Tambuli Project76
Management recognized that instead of workingharmoniously together frictions would divide the leaders as a result Re-uniting the leadership thusbecame a long and delicate process
Locating and Setting up the Technical Facility
During the initial stage of the project there was someobvious lobbying from certain leaders of Suba-Nipato have the station placed in that southern town Theycontended that Suba-Nipa had the biggest populationof the three towns
The Tambuli Project Management provided criteriafor the selection of the studio site including accessi-bility to participants and community members secu-rity of the equipment low rental or expenses eg forrenovation technical factors related to signal propa-gation availability of power proximity to an elevatedsite for the antenna and neutrality such that no particular groups could monopolize or dominate nordeter the participation of other groups
Long and agitated discussions took place on wherethe station should be located Since the majority ofthe participants were from Mabuhay and Talusanthese prevailed The station would be in the northernpart of the island A 20-watt transmitter in Mabuhaywould provide the best coverage of the island Anauxiliary station might later be considered for Suba-Nipa
With the leaders of the Catholic Church as the projects initial contacts our main host in the islandbecame the parish priest of Mabuhay He consentedto our using the convent as a temporary project siteThe parish priest and later his successor both took anactive role in the project while at the same timeadopting an unassuming stance The involvement ofthe clergy added status and dignity to the project and
helped to dissipate speculations that it was politicallymotivated
The station became operational in June 1993 its provisional studio being located in the convent Someof the leaders close to the Catholic Church hoped thatthe convent would become the permanent studiosite Others contending that there were certain publicissues on which the Church held manifest positionsexpressed reservations on using the convent perma-nently Religious leaders of other denominations theysaid would have second thoughts about participatingin broadcasts
After drawn-out discussions it was decided that thestation would temporarily be operated at the premises of the Catholic Church However it wouldeventually relocate to a neutral permanent site
Installation of Equipment
The Project engineer Romy Carballo personally installed the equipment About five local techniciansto whom he gave orientation and training assistedhim The equipment was basically the same as that listed in Box 4 in Chapter 4
The radio station was operating on a test-broadcastbasis in time for a training course on community radioprogramming and production to be held It coveredapproximately a 10-kilometre radius reaching all corners of the island although the signal reaching thetown of Suba-Nipa was rather weak The engineerassured the residents that the signal would reach further when the station was transferred to a newbuilding where the antenna could be raised to about100 feet
Training Islanders to be Broadcasters
It was agreed that some 15 broadcast volunteerswould be trained for three weeks A set of criteriafor the selection of trainees was agreed betweenthe CMC the Foundation and Tambuli The localleaders - the Foundation and the CMC - wouldscreen the applicants If possible there would a bereasonable balance between women and menethnic groupings religious denominations andpolitical affiliations
Of the 35 people who applied for the trainingcourse only 15 were selected Three of those notchosen offered to attend the course as observersFarmers fishermen women Muslims and youngpeople were represented Two elementary schoolteachers a para-military soldier and the electionregistrar were also in the group
Two of the participants had to walk seven kilo-metres daily to the training site and sometimesthey had to be at the radio station at five am inorder to start the programme of test-broadcastsMost of the other trainees walked at least a fewkilometres
The training team was led by an instructor fromthe University of the Philippines Institute ofDevelopment Communication who works withradio DZLB of Los Bantildeos Laguna He was supportedby the Project staff The course consisted of lectures practical work evaluation and actualbroadcasts The training subjects included radiotalks voice performance scriptwriting newsgathering writing and delivery magazine programme production production of radiospots jingles public-service announce-ments participatory productions in the community radio laws and ethics basic
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77
communication theories and practices and program-ming for a community radio station A one-day exposure visit was made to existing radio stations inPagadian City
The trainees were given the chance to recommendprogramming formats and broadcast hours for theradio station as well as to choose their leader ValToto Samonte who was elected station manager wasa seemingly unlikely choice as a member of the para-military unit in the area We in the TambuliManagement could not see that a soldier would besuitable to run a community radio station But it turned out that Toto was the right choice for he hadleadership qualities with a balanced social outlookHe proved dedicated volunteer
Building the Studio
Recognizing the potential importance of the stationin the community the local government of Mabuhaydonated a 400 sq m plot to the Foundation for a proper studio to be built
A drive to raise money for the construction of the stu-dio building was launched The fact that the radio sta-tion was already going on air helped to convince com-munity members to contribute Initially a Piso-piso(one peso per person) campaign was conductedMany were happy to give not one but five or tenpesos each
A raffle was also organized Tickets were distributedto local residents and visitors as well as to the nearbytowns Each ticket in booklets of twenty tickets wassold for 100 pesos (US$ 350) Among the prizes werea cow sacks of rice and home appliances In spite of
hopes for bigger proceeds the drawnetted only around P50000 (US$1500) for the Foundation
With contributions from the provincial governmentand from the Tambuli Project a 25-square meter studio building and 100-foot antenna tower wereerected in May 1994 Carpenters as well as volunteerstaff and other residents helped construct the bungalow-type concrete building
This was partitioned into an announcers booth technicians post and receiving-working area Withoutadequate ventilation the announcers booth becametoo hot during the day and particularly in the summermonths So a local politician pledged an air-conditioningunit It took more than two years however for thepromise to materialize
As well as providing a new home for the studio thebuilding accorded the radio station an independentstatus It also served as testimony to the communityrsquosenthusiastic participation in the project Moreover itgave every Olutangan a rightful claim to ownership ofthe station
Eventually a 20-watt relay station had to be installedto cover the portion of Suba-Nipa that was not recei-ving the Mabuhay transmissions properly But therewere also occasions when the second station genera-ted its own programmes using a karaoke player-recorder to cater to the people of Suba-Nipa Thetransmitter was installed in the house of the localyouth leader
An Island that Survives on Radio
One astonishing discovery was that despite thepoverty of the island many people owned portableVHF amateur transceivers In the coverage area of theOlutanga station there were about 100 of thesetransceivers known generically as Icoms thecommonest brand name Some had been distributedby the government to Barangay leaders but amazingly
many were privately owned Many of them were not properly licenced and is not clear where they all camefrom Some may have been illegally smuggled inwhile others may belong to informers for rebel orMuslim secessionist groups in the region
Regardless of whether or not they were covered bygovernment permit the VHF receivers were soon putto a good purpose Toto Samonte seizing the oppor-tunity to organize a radio club among VHF radioowners More than 50 people attended the first callfor an organizational meeting where officers wereelected In 1995 I conducted a two-day workshop onhow the radio club members could participate in thebroadcasts
Today the Icom owners make up a wide network ofnews gatherers information feeders and regular participants in the programmes of the station(Tambuli supplied the radio station with a VHF base unit)
These VHF radio owners have multiplied the capacityof ordinary citizens to access the station by makingtheir equipment available to everybody in the neigh-bourhood either for serious information or for simplesocializing purposes such as song dedications andgreetings The radio station has served as the nervecentre for this regular and dynamic interaction
By incorporating the VHF transceivers the station hasstimulated the participation of hundreds of people onthe island in a similar way to using the telephone inthe big cities The portable transceivers allow a variety of people from all corners of the communityto discuss individual and community problems on aircovering everything from romance to politics or theeconomy78
Programming the Voice of Olutanga
Tingog sa Olutanga (The Voice of Olutanga) goes on theair daily on broken schedule from 0500 to 0700 h1100 to a 1300 and 1800 to 2000 hours
The station runs mainly news and public-affairs pro-grammes anchored by a main personality Other pro-ducers and reporters join in with features news tipsand regular programme segments
Field reports coming from residents who own VHFtransceivers make up most of the news and public-affairs programmes The volunteer reporters havebeen instrumental in bringing more timely informa-tion news and public service to the islandersCredited to the radio reporters are news of delaysand cancellations of ferry services information on theavailability of fruit tree seedlings piglets or otherfarm inputs for farmers information about agricultu-ral meetings details on lost items and help for thesick On one occasion a jail escapee was quickly recap-tured thanks to the radio
A popular programme is the weekly Baranggayan saKahanginan This features items produced in the vil-lages using the karaoke or song playbackrecordingmachine Thus ordinary people with absolutely notraining in radio organize programmes in their ownneighbourhood the taped programme consisting ofsongs panel discussions interviews homemakingtips poetry etc While programme elements aremainly entertainment and cultural community pro-blems are also discussed openly The taped program-me is then sent to the station for immediate airingFreely ventilated opinions and criticisms keep leadersand government officials constantly on the alert Andthey find an opportunity to respond to peoplesviews
Since people have been conditioned by commercialradio to want entertainment listeners demand that
the station air music programmes Some evening slotsare therefore devoted to music requests and dedica-tions which include valuable life thoughts for reflectionReligious programmes find their place at weekendswhen the various denominations are given air timeThe Sunday Mass is broadcast live for the predomi-nantly Catholic community as are services by otherreligious leaders whether Muslims or Protestants As in other Tambuli stations the programming is proposed by the staff and approved by theCommunity Media Council
Volunteer Staff
There are some six people who regularly anchor thedaily programmes with about a dozen others contri-buting portions and materials All the anchors inclu-ding the station manager work on volunteer basisThey have other sources of livelihood such as fishingteaching farming tending a store or working in themunicipal government The main anchors receive asmall allowance to cover their transportation to andfrom the studio
Seven volunteer technicians who have received training both on production and equipment opera-tion take daily turns at the station One of them is alicenced radio communication operator Others areeither electricians or electronics repairmenAnnouncers and technicians who participate regularlyare given a small honorarium from the regular contri-butions received by the station from the community
In addition however most announcers and techni-cians are the beneficiaries of a livelihood loan grantedby Tambuli and administered by the OlutangaIslanders Media Development Foundation This liveli-hood project aims to help them become engaged in achosen livelihood project with a cost on average of
approximately P5000 (US$120) For this purposea workshop on entrepreneurship and micro-projectswas conducted by an expert from the University ofthe Philippines Institute for Small Scale Industries
Most of the recipient volunteers chose an activitywith which they were familiar and which wasappropriate to their situation such as duck raisingrice trading upholstery making operating amechanical repair shop fish farming pig raisingetc Ninety percent of the staff livelihood projectparticipants were successful in their endeavourand have expressed readiness to pay back theirloans
The rest of the participants in the radio projectincluding members of the Community MediaCouncil work on a purely voluntary basis Indeedas at most other Tambuli sites staff members donot receive any honorarium or allowance
Olutanga Dreaming
Olutanga will be the best island in the PhilippinesGreat optimism is present in Toto Val Samontersquosvoice every time he makes this statement over theradio But for some islanders the hope thatOlutanga will be able to extricate itself from economic and geographic disadvantage is still a dream
However Toto exudes confidence as he discusseshow self-help projects and perseverance can putthe islanders forward on the air The probability ofOlutanga becoming the most highly developed ofthe regionrsquos islands may still be smallbut I for one am an admirer of Toto forhis selfless dedication and tirelessefforts
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Political and Legislative Context
In 1990 Nepal changed from a monarchical non-partysystem to a parliamentary model A new constitutionenshrined the right to freedom of expression specifi-cally the right for citizens to demand and receiveinformation on any matter of public importance Thiswas followed by policy and practical guidelines in1992 a National Communications Policy in 1993 aNational Broadcasting Act and in 1995 BroadcastRegulations
Prior to 1995 radio broadcasting was the exclusivedomain of Radio Nepal the state broadcaster establi-shed in 1951 An attempt in 1984 to establish an independent station with support from UNESCO andGermany was not approved Even after 1990 theauthorities were slow to relinquish monopoly controlof broadcasting The first licence was granted in 1997four-and-a-half years after the initial application toRadio Sagarmatha Nepalrsquos first independent community-based public-interest radio
The Media Environment in Nepal
The mountainous nature of Nepal is ill suited to cover-age by electronic media or to the mass circulation ofprint media Access to all types of media is also limited bywidespread poverty low literacy levels - especially amongrural women - and a very low level of electrification
Until the coming of a democratic system in 1990 theelectronic media - Nepal Radio Nepal Television(established in 1984) and the official print media -two daily newspapers - were controlled by thegovernment Programmes and content mainly gene-rated in Kathmandu are considered largely irrelevantto the rural population who make up some 80 ofthe total Private media have increased in number butgenerally suffer the same limitations
The liberation of the airwaves from state controlbrought commercial radio to Nepal Initially RadioNepal established a FM frequency designed to generate revenue to subsidize its national AM serviceThe channel was sub-let to five commercial operatorsbroadcasting mainly pop music aimed at youngaffluent urban dwellers
Given the limitations and constraints of nationalmedia and the commercialized and non-indigenouscharacter of the new FM ventures many journalistsindependent media organizations and developmentagencies now envision small community-basedpublic-interest radios throughout the country as analternative Radio Sagarmatha is a start in this direc-tion (Sagarmatha is the Nepali name for Mt Everest)
The Long Battle for a Licence to Broadcast
The battle for the licence was long and hard The mainorganization in the campaign was the Nepal Forum ofEnvironmental Journalists (NEFEJ) joined later byother organizations committed to seeing some inno-
vation in the countryrsquos communication system toaddress the needs of the new democracy Theirstrategy was local FM radio and their goal becameRadio Sagarmatha (RS)
The main obstacles were an unstable political environment conservative politicians bureaucratsdisinclined to change and the monolithic presence ofRadio Nepal Drawn into the fight were figures ofnational prominence professional associationsNGOs the print media - including the government-owned dailies - foreign embassies and UN organiza-tions There were four changes of government duringthe struggle and with each new one the lobbying andpersuasion had to begin again
In 1993 there was an international symposium onCommunity Broadcasting in South Asia held inKathmandu The then Minister of Communicationswas a principle guest He was positively impressed andengaged NEFEJ in discussions about the next steps forlegislative guidelines and regulations But then theGovernment fell and his successor was less receptive
NEFEJ wrote an open letter concerning the situationand appealing for support from local groups as well asfrom foreign delegations to Nepal The strategy yielded results but just as the Minister seemed to becoming around the government again fell
While the struggle was in progress practical prepara-tions were being made to set up the radio stationUsing the resources and radio production experienceof NEFEJ and with financial support from UNESCOand others training and equipment acquisition was80
RADIO SAGARMATHA A CASE STUDY FROM NEPAL
by Ian Pringle
begun By the end of 1996 the foundations for a radiostation were soundly placed Only a licence was missing it was still not forthcoming despite the legislation in its favour
By early 1997 the battle had been carried into theinternational media The station had equipment andtrained staff but almost five years of struggle waitingand playing by the rules had brought no licence The key players were emboldened to take risks ofpunishment for unlicenced broadcasting one year injail and a heavy fine
In early April 1997 NEFEJ requested a temporarylicence to test its set-up The request was met withsilence Acting on legal advice NEFEJ decided tobegin five days of test broadcasts anyway The govern-ment was confused as to who was transmitting untilon the third day RSrsquos programme director deliberate-ly informed the authorities After a few hours a letterarrived from the Ministry of Communicationsdemanding who had provided permission for thebroadcasts The government threatened strongaction reminding the station that their transmissionswere illegal
These events made news Local and internationalmedia publicized the confrontation The two govern-ment-owned dailies even published sympathetic stories on their front page With the offer of free legalcosts NEFEJ was prepared to take the case to court
During the controversial test broadcasts the stationannounced that it would begin full broadcasting withor without a licence on 22 May 1997 the LordBuddharsquos birthday a day of peace The governmentwas informed that if legal action was taken against thestation public and media support would be usedagainst it in the upcoming local elections
Three days later four-and-a-half years after the appli-cation the licence finally came As the Government
official handed it over he said lsquoYou have won thewarrsquo To which the RS programme director repliedlsquoLately you have obeyed the lawrsquo
The licence that had taken so long to come had 14conditions and restrictions including no commercialprogrammes no political commentary or news onpolitical events broadcasting for only two hours perday and submission of a weekly report to theMinistry Nevertheless Radio Sagarmatha beganbroadcasting as promised on 22 May 1997 the firstindependent station in South Asia
Organizational Establishment
NEFEJ the driving force behind RS focuses onenvironmental development and human rightsissues working in a variety of media In the late 1980sNEFEJ began producing a weekly radio programmeon environment and development that was aired onRadio Nepal Space for a radio studio was includedwhen NEFEJ moved to a new location in the early1990s but there was almost no equipment and thebulk of radio programme production was done at thestudios of Radio Nepal
In 1993 after the international symposium onCommunity Broadcasting in South Asia held inKathmandu a UNESCO mission to Nepal conducteda one-week course for journalists from NEFEJ andparallel organizations in basic radio production skillsThough operating with a minimum of equipment thetraining was successful in focusing skills and promo-ting the idea of the station
Both the symposium and the UNESCO mission solidi-fied local and regional support for the project drawing in other media organizations and producing a
more detailed proposal for the station than thatcontained in the application submitted the pre-vious year
The studio equipment for RS began to arrive in1994 For the first time NEFEJ was able to produceprogrammes in their own studio Though consideredto be without a licence RS was producing programmes In early 1997 when the transmissionequipment arrived it began moving its operationsto a more technically suitable and clandestine sitethe house of one of the key players
Relations with the Government Since theLicence
Despite the innumerable difficulties in obtaining alicence subsequent official relations have beennon-interventionist and productive
By late 1998 the Minister of Communications wassympathetic to community radio and many pen-ding and new applications had been approved RShad its licence extended to 13 and then to 24hours per day it was granted permission to acceptcommercial advertising and to rebroadcast theBBC Nepali Service and BBC World Service inEnglish and it was licenced to provide a mobileservice to be broadcast anywhere in the country
Training and Recruitment
These have been integrated in the sense that per-formance during training courses and fellowshipshas been used to select staff Most ofthe current staff and volunteers comefrom a journalistic background
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81
Following the first UNESCO-supported training course (1)
in 1993 further courses and fellowships were organizedin 1994 and 1995 NEFEJ and the Nepal Press Instituteworked with UNESCO Panos (London) DANICOMand Worldview International Foundation for theseactivities The fellowships provided opportunities fortrainees to produce radio programmes on specifictopics Thus there was an integrated plan for trainingfellowships programme production andselection for employment
Further training in 1996 and 1997 was supported byODA (Great Britain) and Deutsche Welle (Germany)The former required programmes on communityforestry The partnership included training in inter-viewing skills producing issue-based radio programmeassemblage and production Deutsche Welle supporteda training course for less experienced staff from RSand from other FM stations on basic radio production
In October 1997 a small focused on-the-job trainingprogramme was organized for RS production staffwith the assistance of a Danish journalist working inNepal The three weeks of training honed traineespractical all-round skills The programme was moreindividually-oriented than previous courses had beenand it involved instruction assignment of tasks andcritique
A second such course which included more womenwas conducted six months later for ten new recruitsIn addition another group of Panos fellowships wasprovided to produce programmes on AIDSHIV
Other support comes from Radio Netherlands whoprovided a fellowship in 1998 for a person to go totheir training centre in Holland for four months The
Centre for International Studies andCooperation a Canadian NGO supports RS with a general adviser
Future Training and Recruitment The station hasyet to implement systematic training for volunteersbut it has prioritized this in plans for 1999 DeutscheWelle has confirmed its support for an in-house on-the-job workshop There will also be regular locally-driven training courses with or without external fund-ing or resources Developing RS as a training resourcefor Nepal and for other countries in the region is astated objective
Organizational Structure
NEFEJ is the organizational umbrella for RS thoughthe station has officially become a partnership of fourNepali NGOs NEFEJ Himal Association WorldviewNepal and the Nepal Press Institute
The station is headed by a seven-member autono-mous Board of Directors constituted by NEFEJ TheBoard has representation from all four partner NGOsand meets monthly to review and plan activities setpolicy and provide broad direction for the station
RS is headed by a station managerprogramme directorHe sits on the Board of Directors as a membersecre-tary and is responsible for all day-to-day operations
Staff
RS has the following staff station managerprogrammedirector six full-time producers two technicians amusic librarian an engineer (on retainer) an accountsofficer and a station helper There are some 26 volun-teers who are an increasingly important part of RSsprogramming and operations A significant number ofthem are reimbursed for expenses or paid a smallhonorarium
Womens Participation
RSs informal policy is to develop the capacity andconfidence of women within the organization provideopportunities to women and through broadcasts toinfluence change in the orientation of womens rolesBut despite this policy the cultural bias in Nepal haskept womenrsquos participation low though there havebeen recent improvements Women make up about afifth of the production staff and a third of volunteers
Audience
There has been much audience feedback in the formof letters phone calls and drop-in visits from whichsome picture of the stations listening audience can bedrawn There are listeners among societys decision-making elite as well as in the shops of small mer-chants There are listeners in rural sectors of the Valleyas well as in urbanized households of the capital Itappears that listeners are mostly in the over 25 agerange and that they possess some higher educationinterest in events and issues in the public domain orin local music and culture
Some programmes on RS have targeted specificaudiences including children and parents as well asthe Tamang (a minority language) community andwomen working in the home
Listenership and audience are difficult if not impos-sible to estimate without a comprehensive survey Butwhat is already clear is that RS has a strong profile asa serious broadcaster and one whose programming isall-Nepali and in the public interest - the thinking persons radio82
Community Access and Participation
Community participation has been limited comparedto community stations in other parts of the worldThe mainstays of production are paid journalists andprogramming is centrally planned organized anddirected In many respects RS sees itself as a publicrather than community broadcaster a responsiblepublic spokesperson and facilitator as opposed to avehicle for open community participation
Nevertheless RSs programming has given hundredsperhaps thousands the opportunity to have theirvoices and opinions heard in a public forum On adaily basis the station takes its listeners to the streetsand into locations of everyday life as lived by realpeople
The stations daily public-affairs magazine alsoincludes two regular access spots the first featuringcomments from listeners who phone in and recordtheir feedback onto an answering machine thesecond is a vox-pop segment in which producersrecord opinions on a particular topic from people inthe streets
In a daily segment called Its My Turn Now differentmembers of the community speak their mind on atopic of their choice The segment is pre-recorded andbroadcast without editing To date the platform hasbeen shared by people from a variety of backgroundsand occupations
Interactive phone-in programming has been delayedby the lack of a hybrid system to interface phone lineswith the studio RS expected to introduce this in 1999
Community access exists in co-productions with localgroups Community groups and local NGOs produceweeklymonthly programmes with technical and production assistance from the station This is animportant source of programmes as well as a link todifferent segments of the community
Technical Considerations
The Kathmandu Valley an almost level basin of some25 by 30 kilometres framed by hills is an ideal loca-tion for FM broadcasting The historical economicand political capital and centre of the country is hometo the largest concentration of people 15-2 million
The test broadcasts in April 1997 used a locally madeantenna and were from a low elevation as were thefirst proper broadcasts beginning a month later InNovember 1997 the station began looking for a newsite which at a higher elevation could improve recep-tion The one selected after several tests is on the sideof a hill overlooking Kathmandu it has line of sight tomost areas of the 25 x 30-kilometre basin A housewas rented and a new studio built
Since it first went on air officially the station hasbroadcast daily even during moves to new sitesexcept in early 1998 when the transmitter a 500-wattAllard model caught fire and was damaged The sta-tion went off the air for 40 days until a 20-wattChinese-made transmitter and a 100-watt amplifierarrived through UNESCO from the Tambuli project inthe Philippines
The studio and its equipment are essentially the sameas when RS began apart from some small items and asatellite dish with a tunerdecoder Upgrading thebroadcast studio and establishing a production facilitywith digital components is now a priority
Programming
From the outset Radio Sagarmatha has worked topresent listeners with a combination of issues andentertainment social discussions and music as well asbeing a conduit for the variety of voices and opinionspreviously unheard on Nepals radio channels
For the daily two hours initially accorded under itslicence the new station chose 0700-0900 hoursRS introduced itself to the valleys listeners withtwo hours of Nepali music from rare folk recordings to contemporary popular selectionsinterspersed with short messages and stationannouncements
Public Interest Public-affairs broadcasting iscentral to RSrsquos mission for a more responsiblemedia and a more pluralistic society Using fellow-ships RS early on produced a series of programmes about environmental conditions cultural and social aspects of different regions ofthe country AIDSHIV community forestry drinking water democracy in Nepal etc Sinceautumn 1997 RS has been broadcasting a dailymagazine programme called Haamro Khaldo (OurValley) which covers topical issues and brings invoices from a broad cross-section of society Someof the issues covered have been meter tamperingby taxi drivers thieves and pickpockets prostitu-tion AIDS leprosy TB increasingly declining airand water quality child labour abortion andchanging gender roles
In addition there is a weekly discussion of socialcultural and development issues called Dabali(Community Meeting Place) a blend of the tradition-al Nepali medium and space for public dialogue anddiscussion and the modern medium of radio
Recently RS has begun Safa Radio (Clean AirCampaign) Five days a week it broadcasts theresults of air pollution measurements in differentparts of the city Once a week the cumulativeresults are discussed on air
Music and Culture RS provides a clearalternative to commercial stationsplaying largely pop music it broadcasts
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83
almost entirely Nepali traditional folk and modernmusic with some classical music from other parts ofthe world It presents one daily and four weekly pro-grammes devoted exclusively to music A Tamangcommunity group also co-produces a programme inboth languages with Tamang music
The station has an impressive music collection withmany rare recordings and pieces of authentic nationalcultural and historical significance The collection hasbeen obtained free of cost with about half of itrecorded from the library of Radio Nepal and theother half from donors
Nepal has a long tradition of oral folk media Untilsome 50 years ago one source of news for communi-ties were artists who spread the word about eventsentertained and educated through specially com-posed songs RS utilizes these traditions in a dailyserial The station once invited a musical group from avillage to record some of their music in the studioThey recorded ten songs in the traditional style adaptedto contemporary issues While in Kathmandu theyrecorded a new song about an alarming aspect oftheir capital city the pollution
Co-productions Local interest groups produce programmes for a particular audience on a particulartopic The editorial responsibility for the programmeusually lies with the community group with RS provi-ding technical support and airtime In addition to helping to fill the stationrsquos broadcast schedule theseprogrammes are also an important element of community participation
Childrens Programming Sponsored by UNICEFRS commissioned and broadcast a ten-minute serial
an educational soap opera involving agrandfather tree and a baby parrotThey interact with children who play
and listen at the base of the tree It is produced by afamed Nepali comedy troupe The serial is presentedtogether with 20 minutes produced in-house of stories poetry discussion and participation by children themselves
Mobile Radio On the Road
In November 1998 RS received permission to run amobile radio service anywhere in Nepal using the sta-tions Kathmandu frequency 1024 FM The idea wasnot to extend RSs Kathmandu service but rather tobring the idea of local radio to some of the 80 ofNepals people who live in rural areas and in smallcommunities
In 1999 a vehicle with a small studio transmitter anda team of facilitators began to visit rural communitiesto do basic training and demystify radio so that localpeople could become interested in starting their ownstations RS has always been seen as a starting pointfor wider community-based radio services in NepalIndeed momentum is now building fast with severalcommunities outside the Kathmandu Valley alreadyon the way to starting stations
Funding and Costs
The facility set-up initial operations training and fel-lowships were financed with international supportUNESCO provided about US$ 65000 About half ofthis was for equipment DANIDA provided operatingfunds in the second year and as already noted manyother organizations have provided fellowships andtraining Self-reliance is a priority and after two yearson air RS was beginning to operate on locally earnedrevenues The main strategy for achieving sustainability
is building partnerships with local organizations thatwill provide support as sponsors and co-producers ofprogrammes The recent lifting of the initial restrictionon commercial advertising has also opened a potentialsource of revenue
In 1999 the operational budget was US$ 2750 permonth of which salaries absorbed about US$1300Revenue was estimated at US$ 1075 mainly from co-productions and sponsorship The balance of US$1675 was provided by an operating grant from DANIDA
1 For a complete view of this basic training and preparation for broadcast see Carlos A Arnaldo and Kjell Linder Establishment of a FM Community Radio (Nepal IPPC ndash 352 ndashNEP 01 Technical report) UNESCO (Paris 1994)
84
ldquoSagarmatha is the old Nepali name for Mount
Everest and literally means lsquohead in the heavensrsquo
This is what Radio Sagarmatha intends to be an
intelligence permeating community thinking on
issues of health environment education social
well-being and development of the community by
sharing ideas with all through the radio wavesrdquo
Carlos A Arnaldo
Introduction and Origins
Radio Ada is a rural community radio station in eastern Ghana The station started broadcasting on 1 February 1998 and it has won a loyal followingamong its predominantly illiterate audience
The origins of the station can be traced back to the1950s and 1960s when the founders got their start inbroadcasting one with a small radio station inMonrovia Liberia that has since been washed awayby the sea and the other with one of the very firstcommunity radio stations in the Philippines DZJOthat continues to operate today from its base inInfanta Quezon In 1982 one of the founders was instrumental in starting the first community radio inAfrica the ill-fated Homa Bay station in Kenya on theshores of Lake Victoria an experience that drovehome the risks of such a venture in a continent hostileto independent information
Indeed there had been an earlier brush with this hostility in 1974 when broadcasting in Ghana was agovernment monopoly Encouraged by private discussions with key officials in the Government thefounders of Radio Ada submitted a formal applicationfor what if approved would have preceded HomaBay as the first community radio in Africa The appli-cation was turned down
Legal Context
It took nearly two decades following this event toopen the way for independent media in Ghana In1992 constitutional government was restored andwith it the possibility of a new communicationsscene The new Constitution which came into effectin January 1993 states that ldquoThere shall be no impediments to the establishment of private press or media and in particular there shall be no law requiring any person to obtain a licence as a prerequisiteto the establishment or operation of a newspaperjournal or other media for mass communication orinformationrdquo
The process of establishing private broadcasting didnot however start until February 1995 That waswhen the Ghana Frequency Registration and ControlBoard (GFRCB) issued guidelines for the submissionof applications to operate private broadcasting stations
Frequency Allocation
The application for Radio Adarsquos frequency was submitted on 17 March 1995 by its legal entity GhanaCommunity Broadcasting Services previously registeredas a non-profit company However it was not until 16 April 1996 that the application for Radio Ada wasaccepted
A positive aspect of the delay was that in the interimperiod private broadcasting companies had negotiatedmajor reductions in the fees levied for the allocationof a frequency originally set at the equivalent of
about US$ 13000 for all stations In the eventRadio Ada as a community radio only had to paya tenth of this and on 3 May 1996 it was allocatedthe frequency 937 FM for a period of five yearsThis was later changed to 933 for reasons that willbe explained later
Main Factors Considered when Starting Radio Ada
The information in Radio Adas application to theGFRCB reflected the stationrsquos very specific sense ofidentity in accordance with the following elements
Objectives The key elements that make upRadio Adarsquos sense of identity are embodied in itsmission statement This was crystallized from theexpressed objectives and expectations of the stationrsquos volunteers and from other members ofthe community The mission statement includesthe following items
bull To support the development aspirations andobjectives of the Dangme people in every sphereof life
bull To give a voice to the voiceless in every contextand at all levels
bull To sustain the dynamic growth of Dangme culture within the national and the global polity
bull In all of this to encourage promoteand contribute to informed dialogueand reflective action
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RADIO ADA GHANA - A BLESSING ON THE DANGME PEOPLE
by Alex and Wilna Quarmyne
Coverage area and target audience The primarytarget audience of Radio Ada resides in the fourDangme-speaking districts of Ghana These are in theeastern sector of the country within 100 km of AccraLarge parts of them still lack or have only recentlyreceived such basic infrastructure as piped water andelectricity The estimated total population of thecoverage area is 600000 over 60 of whom areilliterate Poverty is widespread
Language Radio Ada broadcasts exclusively in thevernacular of its audience Dangme Dangme comprises five mutually intelligible languages - AdaGbugbla Klo Ningo and Se There are marked culturaldistinctions between the speakers of these languagesHowever the linguistic interface and the marginaliza-tion hitherto of the language in the national discoursegive them a special bond as a people In recent yearsthere has been an effort in the educational and reli-gious institutions to develop ldquostandard Dangmerdquo auniform version of the languages The policy at RadioAda however is to use Dangme in its various originaland native spoken forms
Location - base area The station is in Ada in theDangme East District Theoretically it could havebeen based anywhere in the coverage area but one ofthe founders is a native son of Ada which meant thatthe station started out with a reserve of trust thatfacilitated getting community support and localresources At the estuary of the Volta River Ada comprises two contiguous towns Big Ada and AdaFoah and their surrounding villages in a virtual cul-de-sac that gives residents a particularly intimate sense ofcommunity Most residents in the area are engaged infarming and fishing
Actual site The site of the station building was chosen because of its easy access to the surrounding
community It sits in full view on the mainfeeder road to the national highway atthe junction to Big Ada and Ada Foah
Name The stationrsquos on-air name Radio Ada isdrawn from its location although it is a radio stationfor the Dangme-speaking community as a whole notjust Ada Because of this it has often been suggestedthat the stationrsquos name should be ldquoDangme RadiordquoThe station has however retained the name RadioAda because while it promotes strong local culturesas a basis for sound national development it alsoguards against chauvinism
The building The Radio Ada building was purpose-designed and built It provides one on-air studio twoproduction studios with adjacent control rooms twooffices and a few small service rooms The decision toconstruct was taken after it was established thatconverting an existing building whether purchased orleased would not be cost-effective
The design tries to blend the essential elements of aprofessional broadcasting operation with the specialrequirements of a community radio station especiallythe need for access and the realities of working in arural area For example rather than being sealed offthe on-air studio looks out onto the main road allow-ing anyone who comes to the station to see theannouncer or even passers-by on the road to ex-change a wave with him The ceilings are lined with ldquotsatsardquo a local mat woven out of reeds which hasproven satisfactory acoustically while also giving thestudios a cool and indigenous feel
Equipment selection The equipment chosenreflects the stationrsquos dual character as a rural community-based yet professionally complete broad-casting operation The items of equipment are thebest options technologically for their price offeringhigh performance with ease of operation low energyconsumption and minimum maintenance
Transmitter The transmitter a 350-watt Mallard unithas performed exceedingly well in covering the target
area but it will soon be used only as a standby unit Itwill be replaced by a 1-KW transmitter to enable thestation to get a stronger signal into the nearby metro-politan areas where there are sizeable Dangme-spea-king populations thus expanding its market potential
Antenna Tower The tower stands 150 feet high rightnext to the station building It was built out of piecesof scrapped antennas after the cost of a shorter (100-foot) new tower proved prohibitive It was hoisted byprofessional riggers working during their own time
Studio equipment Two of the three studios are fullyequipped the third is expected to be equipped soonThe on-air studio equipment consists of two sets eachof professional compact disc players minidisc and cas-sette recordersplayers and a 12-channel audio mixerThe production studios have the same equipmentbut of a semi-professional standard The mix and performance of the equipment has proven entirelysatisfactory
Field recording equipment Radio Ada attaches greatimportance to field recording equipment because ofits emphasis on programmes originating in the community Currently it has four portable minidiscrecorders and two professional and one semi-professional audiocassette recorders After some initial resistance to the minidisc recorders becausethey seemed too high-tech staff now favour them fortheir greater portability recording quality precision ofoperation editing facility and efficient in-built rechar-geable batteries The high cost of minidiscs has lead toa policy of using them as masters with most programmes being dubbed on to audiocassette
Funding With long-term sustainability in mind itwas decided early that requests for donor fundingwould be limited to equipment Land and the buildingwere provided from the limited resources of the foun-86
ders For sentimental reasons Radio Ada first solicitedfunds for its equipment from UNESCO1 a pioneeragency in community radio UNESCO regarded therequest favourably but was able to meet less than halfthe cost The shortfall for the equipment except forone studio was covered by the Stem van AfrikaFoundation of the Netherlands and the WorldAssociation for Christian Communication
Major Elements in Running a Community Radio
At the heart of running this community radio stationare the following elements
Programmes Radio Ada broadcasts 17 hours a daybetween 0500-2200 hours The programmes can bebroadly divided into the following categories newsand current affairs socio-economic developmentlocal culture religious youth and general interestGuiding programming is the stationrsquos holistic viewthat regards every programme as a potential tool fordevelopment The main news offerings are three daily15-minute bulletins and a daily 110-minute newsmagazine programme The bulletins emphasize localnews especially stories filed by the stationrsquos volunteerstringers A 10-minute market report is also broadcaston market days
Programmes that are specifically development-orien-ted include four weekly half-hour programmes forfour key occupational groups - farmers (women andmen) fishermen fishmongers (ie fishsellers who arealso fish smokers) and drivers - as well as programmeson health the environment and on literacy and deve-lopment All these programmes are produced andrecorded in the field based on the participantsconcerns and interests and they typically include
discussions interviews and spontaneous perfor-mances of traditional worksongs or other music
The occupational as well as the literacy programmesapply the principle of ldquonarrowcastingrdquo and are sandwiched between general-interest programmesduring the optimum listening time for the targetgroup More occupational programmes are beingdeveloped eg for artisans traders and teachers withthe idea that every group in the coverage area shouldfeel it has a ldquopiece of the actionrdquo in the station Inaddition to its news and development-oriented programmes the station produces a weekly total ofapproximately 30 half-hour programmes in the othercategories Its programmes on local culture includestorytelling traditional cookery Dangme bookread-ing discussions on various aspects of culture and adaily half-hour of traditional music featuring localgroups recorded either at the studio or in the field
One development-oriented programme on the envi-ronment is designed as a travelogue with the producergoing from village to village each week highlightingits special features of interest and in the process calling attention to environmental problems Despitethe soft-sell approach the message seems to getthrough Arriving at a village one day the producernoticed a sudden flurry He had been recognized andchildren were sent scurrying by their elders to fetchbrooms and tidy up the area While this was flatteringconfirmation that the producerrsquos words were beingheard the ultimate objective of the station is thatprogrammes should lead to sustained communityaction This requires attractive contextual presenta-tions that build on peoplersquos knowledge and that areclosely integrated with interventions on the ground
Staff Radio Adarsquos staff consists of about 50 volun-
teers Fourteen work full-time Twenty producers operate mainly in the field and come tothe station at least once a week to discuss programmes edit recordings etc Ranging in agefrom the early 20s to the early 50s the volunteersinclude farmers teachers hairdressers masonscivil servants traders school leavers and extensionworkers Approximately a third are women Abouthalf of the volunteers have full-time jobs outsidethe radio station while the rest are self-employedor unemployed When resources permit theremuneration of a core group of staff will be consi-dered The founders of the station serve as itsvolunteer executive directors
Staff training Prior to their involvement withRadio Ada none of the staff had had any expe-rience or training in broadcasting Except for fivewho went for short-term courses in radio produc-tion in Kaduna Nigeria all received their entiretraining through courses organized by Radio AdaThis was for two reasons first conventional training courses do not emphasize a developmentphilosophy and community-based approachsecond conventional training normally requiresqualifications that are unnecessary or even irrele-vant for a community radio station The basic criteria for volunteers at Radio Ada are simple andinclusive commitment to the community willing-ness to work as a volunteer and ability to speakDangme and English - the latter because the majority of the trainers did not speak Dangme
All formal training was organized through a seriesof participatory workshops coveringparticipatory research tools basic pro-gramme production news production
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and announcing The workshops conducted by specialists who support Radio Adarsquos objectives started out with its development philosophy and thenecessary professional concepts and they offeredpractical hands-on experience Training organized invarious forms has continued as a permanent activityof the station
Management Much of the management of the station is done by a committee of seven of the moresenior volunteers This establishes implements andmonitors policy on all aspects of the station and alsomaintains the stationrsquos bank account A station coor-dinator is the acknowledged head but refers routinelyto the executive directors The decision-making of thecommittee is based on constant consultation witheach other and with other volunteers Team spirit andself-appraisal are fostered in monthly evaluationworkshops involving all the volunteers except for thenews stringers who are not resident in the immediatecatchment area
Community support access and participationPrior to its application for a licence the idea of settingup Radio Ada was discussed with and informallyendorsed by the appropriate traditional leaders andgovernment authorities in the intended host commu-nity With the allocation of its frequency the first taskwas to widen the process of building community support This was concentrated on the stationsimmediate catchment area from which it wouldnecessarily draw its main resources Built into the pro-cess was the recruitment and training of volunteers
A community survey was conducted by these volun-teers in July 1996 Its purpose was to introduce the
idea of a development-oriented ver-nacular station and solicit the ideas ofthe community on programming and
operations The survey involved over 1200 respon-dents in 42 villages who gave virtually unanimousalmost emotional support to the idea of the stationTypical responses from the survey during a communi-ty meeting were
ldquoYes FM in Ada will be helpful We do not hear aboutthings happening on the radio Anybody who rejectsthis idea must be jailed In the old days we never hadthis chance Now when it comes we must embrace itNow all of us can listen to our own voices We cannow listenin our own mother tongue It shouldcome now nowrdquo
The enthusiastic response of the community to theidea of the station has been sustained by the partici-patory character of its programming and operationsTo give yet another opportunity for community participation five minutes are set aside after the midday and evening news for a commentary wherelisteners may record their views on any subject withthe only proviso that they do not make slanderous orderogatory statements
One commentary involved the leader of an associa-tion of women fishmongers Traditionally it is onlythe men who fish and it is from them that their wivespurchase fish to smoke and sell The men sell at theirprice and the women keep any profits they make ontheir sales to consumers for the maintenance of theirhousehold
In her commentary the leader of the fishmongers bitterly criticized Radio Adarsquos market report and protested against the beating of some members ofher association by their husbands This is becausewhen Radio Ada started broadcasting the marketnews the husbands of the fishmongers angrily claimed that their wives were cheating them by sellingat far more than the price they had paid to them
In a presentation on Radio Ada it was explained thatthe market prices reflected the cost and time of the12 different processes involved or value added bet-ween the time of purchase and the time of sale of thefish The presentation elicited respect and calmed thesituation
Audience reaction Lacking the necessary resourcesRadio Ada has not been able to conduct a formal lis-tener survey However feedback is constant throughthe staffs interaction with listeners on their recordingtrips and the influx of letters and visits to the stationThe feedback is consistent in characterizing Radio Adaas a blessing on the Dangme community Lettersand comments from a variety of sources quote precise details indicating that listeners pay attentionmeticulously to programme content Many offerconstructive criticism and make suggestions for otherprogrammes As many letters as possible are respondedto in a weekly mailbag programme
Reports from the field indicate that whole sections oftowns and villages stop for certain programmes suchas the series of an indigenous street musician whoweaves local legend and moral tales into song Formany the station is clearly their only source of infor-mation of the outside world It has also become aplayer in the life of the community being called uponfrequently to establish the veracity of issues andmediate in disputes
Operational costs Radio Ada has not solicited anysubsidies for its operational costs These are intendedto be funded entirely from income from commercialadvertising and from low-priced social announce-ments (eg obituaries) Currently expenditure ismainly for utilities supplies and in the absence of astation vehicle transport allowances which are calculated88
at actual cost After nearly a year in operation andeven with an all-volunteer staff income is running atabout half of expenditure This is mainly because withthe many other tasks involved in establishing the stationnot enough attention was focused on marketing It isexpected that with more aggressive marketing thestation will at least break even by the end of its secondyear of operation
Problems and Difficulties Encountered
Problems There were delays in the arrival of mater-ials for the construction of the building but even so itwas completed in 13 months The transmission frequency was the most serious problem After RadioAdarsquos successful test broadcasts in August 1997 apowerful FM station in Lagos Nigeria began opera-ting on the same frequency effectively jammingRadio Ada and making it impossible to begin fullbroadcasting at Christmas 1997 as planned Radio Adahad to apply for a new frequency and 933 MHz wasgranted in mid-January 1998 postponing broadcast-ing until 1st February
Sixteen days later Radio Ada was surprised by suddenand severe electricity rationing For a while it tried tooperate with generators borrowed firstly from anNGO and later from a local government departmentbut neither provided enough power for full opera-tions The programme schedule was cut to 10 hours aday But listeners made impassioned pleas throughthe radio station to the local government authoritiesto provide it with a generator Without Radio Adarequesting it the Dangme East District Assemblydonated a generator to the station in recognition ofits vital services to the community The station nowoperates seamlessly through power cuts
Difficulties The management of a large corps ofvolunteers presents special difficulties These areaddressed through dialogue mentoring and self-criticism and evaluation However even with paidstaff there would be a shortage of the necessary qual-ities and skills At the same time there is a shortage oftrainers with participatory development experiencecompetence in radio programme production and relevant vernacular language skills
Another difficulty is that the development servicesare too weak to be able to support and follow up onradio programmes properly In the circumstances andsince the task is too important to be postponed thestation has to try to energize and facilitate those services Accessing resources to meet all these needs isa full-time job for several people - who do not at present exist
The station has not yet developed the marketing strategies required for accessing the advertisingpotential of the market There is a need to introducethe ldquoculture of advertisingrdquo to the small enterprisesand traders in the coverage area to generate revenuefor the station This advertising drive is a task that willrequire care to ensure that the objectives of the station are not compromised
Main Lessons Learnt
The first year of operation has been an important les-son in validation for the community that radio canplay an essential and developmental role in their day-to-day lives for the volunteers that they have thecapacity to run and maintain a broadcasting stationand for the station itself that it provides a vital andappreciated service
The main lesson learnt is that in the interests ofsustainability the commercial aspects should havebeen addressed from the very beginning Therewas so much pressure to get the station up andrunning that no staff were assigned to ldquosellrdquo thestationrsquos services
This is particularly urgent now because theachievements of Radio Ada have carried their ownmomentum Overnight the station outgrew itscapacities The community response has beensuch that the station is called upon for a greatervariety of outreach services than ever anticipatedThe necessary resources exist but the station mustnow help to mobilize them
The final lesson is more of a reminder in additionto material resources knowledge and skills itneeds faith and solidarity to carry an idea forward- as Radio Adarsquos volunteers have amply demon-strated Admonishing a fellow volunteer for hispriorities in giving more time to party politics thanto the station a volunteer said ldquoParty politics is forfour years Radio Ada will be here foreverrdquo
1 Alex Quarmyne worked with UNESCO for many years promoting community radioOn retirement he and his wife returned to his home community to start Radio Ada
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The Context for Community Radio
After years of broadcast monopoly by the (then)Apartheid states South African BroadcastingCorporation (SABC) the struggle to free the airwaves has been won SABC was restructured andin 1993 an Independent Broadcasting Authority (IBA)was established Since the first licences were issued in1995 South Africa now has more than 85 indepen-dent radio stations and community radio is here tostay (See Chapter 3 for details of South African legislation)
The presence of community radio has changed theface of broadcasting in South Africa It has recruited acountless number of volunteers and community workers who actively participate in their stations Inaddition the sector has managed to attract advertisersand in certain instances stations are generating a fairincome from selling airtime and promoting eventsHowever the stations that have achieved most interms of financial independence are in one sense victims of that success they are often seen as toocommercial to belong fully to the developmentalcommunity radio sector
The community radio sector has shown in its shortexistence a tremendous ability to survive Howeverthe need to continue developing training and mostimportantly to work toward self-sustainability is clear
Donor support has been excellentover the last few years especially forbroadcast equipment Some stations
also receive core funding for daily operations It seemsclear that for now donor funding remains one of thefew dependable options for start-up support Inmoving toward self-sufficiency many stations haveidentified other possible income sources the mostprominent of which apart from advertising aremembership fees and community fund-raisers
Getting Started
In the late 1980s a small group of people interestedin the development of an alternative audio communi-cation system formed an organization that recordedinformation on cassettes in radio format made dupli-cates and distributed them in and around Cape Town
The organization was called CASET (CassetteEducation Trust) located in a small office in Salt RiverIts objective was to inform and educate the poor onsubjects like literacy hygiene health and of courserelevant political issues Since its humble beginningsthe initiators of the project always knew that broad-casting would be integral to its long-term educationaland empowerment objectives CASET began to discuss the idea and its potential and eventually proposed establishing a community radio facility atthe University of the Western Cape (UWC) just outside Cape Town
After much deliberation however it became clearthat the UWC campus would not be a suitable location it was too far away to be accessible to theblack community as a whole In fact UWC had been
built in 1960 for coloured people a racial definitionthat defined persons of a hybrid origin The Collegelocated far from the city and surrounded by densebush soon became known as Bush College and its campus cafeteria radio station was known as Bush Radio
In due course CASET was dissolved and recreated asan aspirant community radio initiative Keeping theoriginal campus name Bush Radio was bornConstituted in 1992 as a Voluntary Associationowned and operated by its members it focused ongetting the community on air The objective was togive black people the opportunity to be broadcastersMoney was needed to keep the initiative afloat Manydonors were approached until finally the FriedrichEbert Stiftung (FES) a German foundation involved inbroadcasting training provided support
News of the FES support spread The concept of com-munity radio was exciting and applications for trainingfrom all over started to flood in Bush Radio soonestablished itself as a key trainer and lobbyist for theestablishment of community radio in South AfricaPressuring the government to grant it a licence tobroadcast and training fledgling stations across thecountry Bush Radio slowly established both itself andthe concept of community radio as a significant force
Defiance
After a number of licence applications were rejectedBush Radio decided to broadcast illegally In May1993 a group of volunteer activists took the stationrsquos90
BUSH RADIO 895 FM SOUTH AFRICA - PAST PRESENT AND FUTURE
by Zane Ibrahim and M Adams
equipment including its illegally obtained transmitterinto a room set it up and prepared to switch on Apress release was circulated a short programme sche-dule was designed and a song was composed After afew test runs Bush was ready Interspersing shortdrama talks short poems and comic turns BushRadio went on air
The broadcast lasted four hours before the authoritiesinvaded the premises and seized the equipment BushRadios two key members were charged on threecounts illegal broadcasting illegal possession ofbroadcast apparatus and obstructing the course ofjustice The case dragged on but friends and support-ers nationally and internationally understood whyBush Radio members would risk being jailed for theright to be heard After tremendous pressure fromindividuals and organizations world-wide the statedropped the charges eight months later
Training and Activism
During the next two years the country witnessedmassive political change and prepared for its firstdemocratic elections Meanwhile Bush Radio contin-ued its quest to get the community on air It pursuedand vigorously implemented its national training acti-vities It became the first South African communityradio initiative to join the World Association ofCommunity Radio Broadcasters (AMARC) and contin-ued to champion the cause for the establishment ofcommunity radio in South Africa
At the beginning of 1993 the FES donated a fullyequipped studio for the primary purpose of trainingIt was indeed a wonderful sight Bush Radio was starting to look like a real radio station
A full-time training co-ordinator was brought onboard The courses included introduction to commu-nity radio features and documentary productionwomen and technology and managing communityradio The activities were in essence the training oftrainers Participants were expected to return to theirstations and gradually train their volunteers Otherorganizations soon became involved and partner-ships and exchange programmes were establishedwith Deutsche Welle Radio France InternationaleUSIS and the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation
National institutions including the Institute for theAdvancement of Journalism and the Media TrainingCentre also started to offer radio courses So a resourceof basic radio production and management skills wasslowly established Radio training networking andlobbying were together sowing the seeds for todayscommunity radio movement in South Africa
To promote the cause of community radio further aNational Community Radio Forum (NCRF) was estab-lished in 1994 to lobby government and co-ordinateand guide the sector Initially operating from theoffices of Bush Radio the NCRF later raised its ownfunds and set-up an office in Gauteng By the end of1994 more than a hundred licence applications forcommunity stations had been submitted to the IBA
Licence at Last
In June 1995 exactly seven years after CASET madeits first commitment to get the people on air BushRadio received its licence But the IBA had to workwith an inherited frequency plan that could notaccommodate the flood of licence applications Andbecause of Cape Towns notorious Table Mountain
they offered Bush Radio a shared frequency a5050 split with a community station called C-Flat Although not perfect everyone was happyBush Radio broadcast daily from 1400 to 0200hours and C-Flat took over until 1400 hours andso on
Getting Ready to Broadcast
The mission to get a licence was achieved and thepeople now had to go on air Until that time BushRadio had three full-time staff a pool of trainedand enthusiastic volunteers and a well-equippedtraining studio
Activity now needed to be focused on successfulprogramming marketing and fund-raising for anoperational station In July 1995 Bush Radio helda strategic workshop to assess plan and establisha common vision for its future activities BushRadio membership had grown to 1000 and therewere about 100 active and trained volunteersCountless NGOs were also keen to support andget involved in the service of community radio
A schedule of programmes including both enter-tainment and education was debated with themembers Strong emphasis was placed on repre-senting the culture language and aspirations ofour local communities with honesty and prideThe three dominant languages in the Cape(Xhosa English and Afrikaans) were naturallyapproved as the broadcast languages for the sta-tion The motto we agreed was Its yours itsmine itrsquos ours
With a programme schedule agreed andwith less than eight weeks before going
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on air volunteers rushed to attend brush-up coursesprogramming meetings and other preparations TheSoros Open Society Foundation funded a state-of-the-art broadcast facility
Finally Bush Radio began broadcasting at 1400 hourson 1 September 1995 This is National Womens DayAs a mark of the importance the station gives towomen in the countryrsquos development the station haddeliberately chosen to start on that day
Bush Radio recently relocated to new and larger premises still in Salt River The 300 sqm location ontwo floors is twice as big as the previous one Thecomplex is a sophisticated analogue training produc-tion and broadcast facility probably the most techno-logically advanced community station in the country
Sound Management and Community Participation
Bush Radio was originally structured as a VolunteerAssociation guided by an appointed board of trusteesand an executive committee Once on air it was deci-ded that in order to move toward self-sufficiency anew structure was needed The Board opted to createnon-profit company and this has facilitated operatingthe station It also puts it in a position to attract spon-sorship and support from the business communitybecause a company has a better organizational base
One of the legal requirements is that a seven-memberboard of directors be set up to account for the assetsand operation of the company Bush Radios newlyappointed directors are both highly skilled and fullycommitted to the station Their portfolios include
fund raising programming market-ing staff etc The board comprisessome of Cape Towns top achievers
Community participation is at the core of BushRadios operations At the outset it was made clearthat the station is in existence for only one reason toserve the community Everyone from the communityis eligible for membership and training Through itsbroadcasts productions and training the stationmaintains contact with its target communities
In addition outside broadcasts held in these commu-nities give access for participation as well as maintain-ing and expanding the volunteer base which at present numbers about five hundred many have beena part of Bush Radio since its inception
Members come from all sectors of the communityrepresenting various interests cultures and languages They include students single mothers thedisabled gay activists the unemployed and therecently retired The members have direct access to allaspects of the station from administrative and financialmatters to programme content and training needsPolicy discussions and workshops are held once amonth and the community is invited to give theirinputs for running the station Community controland ownership is thus assured
Overview of Programming
The challenge is to offer identifiable voices and rolemodels on air Music programmes focus on non-mainstream music eg hip-hop reggae RampB jazzblues and jungle as well as on popular local musicThe music slots often include competitions call-insinterviews gig guides music charts and even comedyAn objective is to promote local artists and perfor-mers as well as genres of music not usually availableon commercial radio
While music is a vital component the station remainscommitted to tackling issues that engage and educatethe community It therefore prefers to host discus-sions and air features that facilitate informationexchange critical thought and debate In features andtalk shows Bush Radio makes available a broadcastplatform for members of the community who ascribeto the objective of true development Recently itlaunched a refugee programme run by refugees withthe aim of informing the public of their plight
Some specific regular programmes are
Backchat Representatives of various communityorganizations explain the role they play and how thecommunity can access their services From discussionsand calls during these programmes it appears thatnot enough has been done to inform the communityof the various organizations that can help themThese services include help for rape victims healthchildcare pensions for the aged etc
Community Law Produced by 4th and 5th year UWClaw students factual information that the generalpopulation seldom has explained to them is providedon a variety of issues Care is taken to carefully outlineeven the simplest of laws or human rights Phone-insegments of the show have proved to be extremelypopular while written requests for information arealso encouraged
Everyday People This daily 3-hour programme is inmusic magazine format It uses mainly local music andits emphasis is on township developments The musicis interspersed with public-service announcementsinformation bulletins notice-board news competi-tions and call-ins It has a high profile in the commu-nity and it is the only local youth programme thatreflects the dialect and personality of Cape TownrsquosXhosa speaking people92
TRC Report The Truth and Reconciliation
Commission (TRC) was established to help the nation
heal itself after Apartheid Bush Radio hosted a member
of the commission on a fortnightly basis The commis-
sioner would elaborate on the stationrsquos news report on
the TRC happenings of the week The discussions often
clarified and provided missing detail on the
Commissionrsquo hearings On several occasions the
stationrsquos guests were asked questions by callers that
they found to be important and worthy of further
investigation
TAXI TALK Minibus taxis are the only reliable means
of transport to and from the townships However
escalating rivalry amongst taxis have led to gun
battles where passengers are also shot and killed Bush
Radio and the Shell Oil Company joined forces and
produced Taxi Talk a programme where all involved
were invited to the station to discuss their grievances
The Federal Minister of Transport also played a major
role in mediating between the parties
Rape and Alcoholism Rape of women of all ages has
reached epidemic proportions Bush Radio has estab-
lished groups doing in-depth studies to find the best
way to develop programmes that will assist in helping
to reduce and even eliminate this social disease
Alcoholism plays a major part in it and for this reason
the station refuses to advertise alcoholic products
Similarly it does not carry tobacco advertising
for health reasons Once produced the rape and
alcoholism programmes will be offered to all other
community radio stations
A Training Station
As important as broadcasting is to Bush Radio the
station remains essentially a training centre Emphasis
is placed on developing potential broadcasters from
the community rather than on just filling airtime
Apart from the manager and administrator all of Bush
Radios staff are in-service trainees gaining valuable
on-the-job experience in areas like news music
features and programming
Each year the station receives hundreds of applica-
tions for training from communities nationally and in
some cases from initiatives abroad Much attention is
paid to the selection criteria for trainee candidates
and their future ability to pass on their skills Bush
Radio has developed training methodology and basic
curricula to suit traineesrsquo varied cultural linguistic and
educational backgrounds
During its first two years on air much of the activity of
the station was directed at building and maintaining
solid programming and management This meant that
training had to take a back seat Now that the station
is more settled in its broadcast ability and in response
to much demand from the sector it has returned to its
training focus In September 1998 Bush Radio laun-
ched a new fully equipped facility streamlined and
geared toward a comprehensive radio training
programme Training involves broadcast journalism
and technical and management skills These are
sophisticated fields of study and Bush Radio
continues to offer much-needed introductory level
training programmes in them
Overview of Courses
Introductory courses These cover differentforms of radio community radio and its role anintroduction to field recorders reel-to-reelmachines studios basic editing various programmeformats and the role of producers presentersreporters engineers etc At the end of the coursetrainees have enough knowledge to be able tofunction at a minimum level of competence
In-service trainees A practical one-year on-the-job experience structured to offer young graduates or others an opportunity to learn whileworking in the field of radio They work in the following areas
News In-service trainees are required to gatherinformation log edit and read the news live onair
Music The trainees are expected to ensure thatthe local content quota as stipulated by the IBA isadhered to They also help to maintain the musiclibrary develop links with record companies andensure that the station is offering a balanced variety of music on air
Production Apart from technical aspects of programme production trainees spend muchtime learning about the communitys develop-ment needs eg in health safety education etcThe amount of research is sometimes over-whelming but trainees gain essential skills for programme planning
Programme management Many stations haveproblems in the area of programmingexpertise The programme managementpart of the course assists the trainee in
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carefully assessing the needs of the station theresources available to it and the make up of the community The trainee is enabled to design implement and evaluate a comprehensive program-ming schedule
Prison Radio
Bush Radio was approached by the CriminologyDepartment of the University of Cape Town to develop a training programme for young prisoners tobe trained to operate a radio station After months ofnegotiations with prison officials a viable plan thatwould enable prisoners to operate a simple radio station within the facility was drawn up The enthusiasm shown by the participants convinced theauthorities that the therapeutic effect the programmehad on the inmates were beneficial to their rehabilita-tion The project continues and it is expected thatseveral other prisons will be receiving equipment aswell to duplicate the project
Lessons Learnt
Management and operation For the station tooperate efficiently there must be constant develop-ment through training and other professional activities Internal communication is essential Regularstaff meetings should be held to make sure that everyone has a clear understanding of where they fitinto the organization These meetings can also beused to encourage resource and idea sharing amongthe staff
Staff members should be encouragedto form strong contacts with thevolunteers In Bush Radio we have
learned that staff members tend to develop feelings
of superiority over the volunteers probably because
we are situated in an area with a high unemployment
rate To be employed at a radio station also has an
element of glamour
Marketing the station is also very important if the
station is to become self-sustaining
Volunteers Most of the volunteers at Bush Radio
come from deprived communities ie from the
stationrsquos target audience They often have limited
educational levels and most are unemployed The
communities that many of them have grown up in are
very tough They have a dire lack of role models
facilities and amenities Thus community radio often
is subjected to a high level of theft abuse resistance
to authority and change a lack of self-confidence
pride and commitment and an inherent apprehensive
attitude towards training and education Very few
volunteers understand the concept of volunteerism
its responsibilities and limitations In effect most of
the community radiorsquos target constituency simply
cannot afford to volunteer They are so poor
that some travel to the station on public transport
illegally
Nevertheless the commitment of some of the
volunteers is astounding but despite their energy and
vigour and even when they get on air it is difficult to
depend on their input Without compensation they
run out of steam and often just when programmes
have reached a steady following the volunteer
participants are drawn to job offers family commit-
ments or other more viable activities
Women in training and recruitment Women are
often excluded from areas that require technical
knowledge For this reason Bush Radio has a policy
that no training programme can begin unless at least
50 of the trainees are women
Community access and participation A commu-
nity radio station must be constantly trying to find
ways of providing the community with easier access
to it Apart from encouraging staff volunteers and
interested parties to come forward with ideas Radio
Bush encourages visits to the station However these
have had to be limited to certain days and hours If
not too many people hang around and disrupt
operations
Fund-raising The expectations of the donor and
those of the project have to be carefully discussed and
agreed upon before any funding takes place Many
projects suffer as a result of misunderstandings The
station must abide by its mission statement in any
application for funding Too often projects compromise
their mission statement in order to receive funds In
the long run this creates confusion
There are many different formats used for applying
for funding There is nothing wrong with contacting a
potential donor and asking what information is needed
whether there is a regular application form and so on
Many donors also expect to be kept informed on a
regular basis This should be done whether it is asked
for or not It is good to keep a donor or programme
sponsor up to date on developments at the station94
The Roots in Latin America
It was in Latin America that the worlds first communityradio experiences were initiated 50 years ago whentwo very distinct movements turned to radio as a wayof both increasing their influence and of contributingto community development These were RadioSutatenza in Colombia and the Minersrsquo Radios inBolivia (see boxes 1 and 2 in Chapter 1)
From these roots of rural Christian social develop-ment and militant trade unionism community radiohas grown to have significant presence in LatinAmerica church commercial university trade unionand indigenous peoples radio stations have combinedto make the regions radio the most dynamic anddiverse in the world
A Need to Communicate
Radio Chaguarurco located in a rural part ofEcuadors southern province of Azuay is a young station that continues in the tradition of LatinAmerican community radio The idea of setting it upstarted with a series of workshops in 1990 Thesewere organized by campesino organizations and bythe local churches in the counties of Santa Isabel andPucaraacute in the province of Azuay
The workshops were intended to organize the communities so that they might gain access to basicservices such as drinking water and electricity and toensure that human rights were being respected
A document written by the stations foundersexplains the process that launched the radio station
ldquoWe started to talk about what we needed first we mentioned electricity and drinking water but after that westarted talking about communication about being able toshare a common reality and being able to analyse it in orderto improve it That was how Radio Chaguarurco startedSome people who didnt live in the countryside asked why acommunity radio station was necessary when there were somany other priorities Isnt a radio station a luxury Sure there are lots of other needs health nutrition education day-care better agricultural techniques toimprove production But rather than patching things up tofulfil our needs temporarily its important to think aboutthe causes of the problems about the injustice andinequality that cause poverty and marginalizationrdquo
The director of the station says that the idea grew outof the need to communicate Because of RadioChaguarurcrsquos location it is very difficult to receiveradio stations from the region Few people haveaccess to television and even fewer to newspapersTelephones are still unavailable in many of the townsand they are not available at all in the countrysidewhere most people live
The communities are very scattered Some are only 30minutes from the county centres where the politicalstructures and the markets are located but others arebetween one and 12 hoursrsquo walk away with no roadsFor the population of such communities it is practi-cally impossible to be in daily or even weekly contactwith the centres
Communication began to be seen as a necessity bythe Church and campesino organizations in thearea The idea of a community radio station thuscaught on quickly and within a few months itbecame one of the main topics of discussionduring workshops People in rural areas were usedto being excluded from the media so they wereexcited about having their own radio station aplatform for talking about the necessities of theircommunities and about the problems in gettingbasic services
No doubt the idea of a radio station was a goodone but who would make it a reality A frequencyand government permission would be requiredEquipment would have to be bought Who wouldown the station Where would the station belocated Which communities would it serve
The local Church and the peasant organizationProyecto Norte quickly emerged as the two mainbackers of the project They had collaborated onprevious development projects and had participa-ted in the discussions about a radio station fromthe outset Helped by the areas representative inCongress they started laying plans
The first problem was obtaining a broadcast licenceIn 1992 Ecuadorrsquos law did not recognize commu-nity radio Getting a commercial licence involved acomplex process that even after years of waitingcould easily fail But there had been astation in Santa Isabel in the past Eventhough the man it belonged to had died
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RADIO CHAGUARURCO ECUADOR - NOW YOUrsquoRE NOT ALONE
by Bruce Girard
and the station had been off the air for many yearsthe commercial licence was still valid Buying a stationwith a licence still requires government permission aprocess almost as complicated as being assigned anew frequency But it was a definite possibility
With the process of legalizing the ownership of thefrequency underway the next step was decidingwhere the station should be located
Santa Isabel and Pucaraacute
Santa Isabel is a county capital with a population of3000 people It seemed the logical place for the station for it was the largest town in the region andan important market centre Apart from the Churchthe central plaza is ringed by banks doctors officesand shops It is less than two hours from the provincialcapital of Cuenca and because it has a telephone service it is an important communications centre forthe region At an altitude of 1500 metres it has a perfect climate for growing tomatoes onions andeven sugar cane products that are sold throughoutEcuador
The village of Pucaraacute also a county capital has apopulation of less than 1000 and is only 40 kilometres from Santa Isabel However the non-stopbus takes two hours to climb the unpaved road tomore than 3100 metres above sea level In the rainyseason the road can be closed for days at a timeThere are no telephones and when the road is closedthe village is incommunicado
Pucaraacute where the road ends has a single street in atear-shaped loop with a brightly pain-ted Church in the middle and a per-imeter of breath-taking mountains
and valleys This majestic view camouflages a harsherreality With an average annual temperature of only12 degrees and nights that drop to near zero Pucaraacutesclimate supports little more than subsistence agricul-ture - the staples of beans and potatoes - and a precarious living But Pucaraacute did have one importantadvantage for a possible radio station its altitude andmore central location meant that from a technicalperspective it was a better place to locate the transmitter than Santa Isabel In any event the townrsquosresidents only make up 20 of the total populationand the main target audience would be among therural 80
However the question of where to put the stationalso had a political dimension The community wherethe station was located would be more likely to haveits concerns broadcast its members on air and tobenefit most from it
The solution was to put the transmitter in Pucaraacute theadministrative centre in Santa Isabel and to put studios linked via microwave in both communitiesThus when Chaguarurcos director talks about theradio he says it is actually two stations sharing a singlefrequency and a single identity
Local information is gathered at both News programmes are also duplicated with two anchorsone in Pucaraacute and one in Santa Isabel Some inter-views are also duplicated with the interviewer in onecommunity and the person being interviewed in theother Some music programmes are produced only inPucaraacute and others only in Santa Isabel but many programmes are produced in both locations
At the time of writing a third studio was underconstruction in the village of Shaglly This has a population of only 250 but it is the nearest
community for 2500 rural dwellers There are plansto continue the decentralization process by establi-shing new studios in other communities
The Chaguarurco Foundation
The issue of ownership of the station was as importantas that of location From the beginning it was agreedthat it would not be owned by the local priest or bythe parish or by any single person It was to be ownedby the people In September 1992 the ChaguarurcoFoundation for Rural Development was establishedwith representatives from campesino organizations inthe two counties from the Catholic parishes andfrom the workers and volunteers of the radio stationThe radio is under the care and supervision of theFoundation ensuring that the people who in effectown it will always be in control and have access to it
The Chaguarurco Foundations board meets everythree months with extraordinary meetings held whennecessary The board receives reports from the stationdirector and makes the important programming andbudget decisions
By the time the Foundation was set up the dream ofthe radio station had been circulating for almost twoyears Nobody foresaw that they would have to waitanother two-and-a-half years to see how theFoundation would function obtain funding for theequipment get approval for a frequency and trainpeople for the station
Funding in the region is difficult and the project wasgoing to be an expensive one The areas geographiccharacteristics called for an AM transmitter whichwas substantially more expensive than an FM oneThe 5 kW Nautel transmitter including its antenna96
and installation was going to cost US$80000 morethan the community could ever put together on itsown Once the Foundation was established it startedthe slow process of getting the money together fromlocal and international sources However even thoughthey needed the money the community was not pre-pared to sacrifice the stations independence for it
Practically all new equipment was needed what wasavailable in the old station was not even good enoughto put in a museum The transmitter antenna and installation were donated by the Spanish aid agencyIntermon Caritas Manos Unidas some Spanishvolunteers and a solidarity group in Madrid also helped The Church in the provincial capital Cuencadonated a pickup truck
Donations were only sought for equipment and installation The Foundation was determined that thestation would pay its way and that is what has happened
Training the Community
While the process of legalizing the purchase of thefrequency crept slowly ahead a group of volunteersbegan training people from the community One problem was that nobody working on the project hadhad any experience in radio apart from two Spanishvolunteers who had a little experience in communityradio stations in Madrid
In essence those involved had to train themselvesfirst in order to be able to train others They read whatever books they could find and travelled to otherstations to see how these were run Experienced radiopeople were invited to speak and to give courses Inthe end a manual and a trainers package were produced based on what had been learned Then the
newly-trained trainers went out to start training thecommunity volunteers
Serious training started in December 1993 The ideawas that each community would look for a personthat they considered to be an appropriate correspon-dent In addition there was a general invitation toanyone who was interested to participate in thecourses
Four trainers divided the work between December1993 and October 1994 going to different communi-ties week by week There was no shortage of volun-teers Many of them walked four five or even sixhours to get to the place where the courses were heldThere was particular enthusiasm in one village wherethere had been many conflicts and much abuse ofpower by the authorities Some people had even beenkilled People believed that the radio would help themput an end to such abuses
In November 1994 the staff was selected fromamong those who had been trained In Decemberthey underwent a month of intensive and more specialized training The ongoing training and discus-sions about the radio kept the project moving forward and people involved However five years hadpassed since the project was first discussed and thewait had a cost Some people had got discouraged andhad left
However the station finally went on the air on 1 January 1995 As one participant remembers
ldquoIt was the most beautiful thing With lots of people listen-
ing We were crazy Greeting all the people Thanking the
ones who had been with us since the beginning those who
had taken courses with us the correspondents Making
calls to Cuenca to see if the signal reached the city There
were people who knew we were going to be on the air
and they called us We played lots of music and every
few minutes announced lsquoThis is Radio Chaguarurco
Were on the air Listen to us on 1550 kilohertz Tell
your neighbours to listenrsquo It was crazyrdquo
lsquoNow youre not alonersquo
After years of waiting peoples expectations werehigh They were not going to be satisfied with astation that sounded like all the rest They wantedto hear their own experiences and concerns toldin their own voices and in their own languageNow there was a communication medium wherepeople could talk say what they felt and denounceofficials who were giving them a hard time The phrase lsquoNow you are not alonersquo summed upthe sentiment produced by the station
To produce the kind of radio that the communitywanted called for a special kind of radio producerOnly four of the eight full-time staff and 20 volun-teers had ever formally studied journalism Theothers learned their skills in Chaguarurcos owncourses but all of them now work as journalistsand programme producers Five of the full-timestaff are based at the station in Santa Isabel andthe other three are based in Pucaraacute
The staff in the station are in fact almost volunteers Their salaries are not even the minimum that the law requires Howeveras the radios income rises their salarieswill also increase gradually
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Role of Volunteers
In addition to the paid staff there are some 20 volun-teer producers Six of them are correspondents in surrounding villages They gather the news in theirareas and periodically travel to the station with theirstories and tapes The station supplies them with taperecorders and rechargeable batteries Proceeds froman annual raffle are used to pay their bus fares
One volunteer produces a one-hour music programmesix days a week It features Ecuadorian music which isa special interest she developed at a time when thiswas unavailable on the radio She uses her personalcollection of records and tapes and says that the radioprogramme has collectivized it
Other volunteers produce a weekly market programmehosted simultaneously in Pucaraacute and Santa Isabel Thislooks at prices and trends in the areas markets It hasplayed an important role in controlling speculation
There is a constant turnover among the volunteersand for this reason the station continues to offerregular training courses to new ones
Participation and Programming
There are important characteristics that distinguishChaguarurco from other stations in the region Themost important is the priority the station gives tolocal voices language and culture Unlike radio stations in the city which have announcers who try tohide any regionalisms in their accents or their languageChaguarurcos announcers celebrate their own way ofspeaking Another important distinction is that the
station actively seeks the participationof people from the countryside invi-ting them to visit the station to tell
their stories to sing or just to greet their friends andfamily over the air
The station also plays an important role as a commu-nication channel at the service of the communities -a telephone service for those who do not have itWhen places in the radiorsquos coverage area are withoutroads and are difficult to reach the people who livethere listen to the station for information aboutimpending visitors so they can be ready for them
For example the community health project has amedical team which periodically visits remote communities Before the radio went on air this wouldtravel to a community and lose hours or even dayswaiting for the news of its arrival to get out to thepeople in the countryside and for the people to travelin to where the team was waiting to attend themNow the radio announces visits ahead of time andthe community is ready and waiting for them
Health matters are very important to the stationThey are covered for example in radio dramas thatthe station produces and broadcasts daily The dramashave characters that the people in the countryside canidentify with They chat with each other and tell stor-ies about health and related matters They talk abouttreating garbage vaccinations nutrition and aboutthe environment Some of the dramas also deal withpolitics culture and human rights These dramasacted by the stations own staff provide a valuableway of explaining complex issues in everyday languageand in a way that people can easily understand
A recent addition to the stationrsquos programming is theinclusion of news from Latin America and the worldthat the station gets from ALRED (Latin AmericanAssociation for Radio Education) and the Puacutelsar newsagency A satellite dish at the Pucaraacute station receives
ALREDs programmes and news from Puacutelsar arrivesvia the Internet
This information from other countries and conti-nents which people did not have before has met withfavourable comment ldquoWe see that there are people outthere just like us campesinos like us Were exchanginginformation with them In the same way we receive information here from other countries we also send newsfrom here to them And this is interesting to communicatelike brothersrdquo
A Minga for Chaguarurco
The way the Chaguarurco Foundation meets its objec-tive of covering the stationrsquos running costs is to keepcosts low using resources freely offered by the communities it serves In addition to the volunteerservices the studios in Pucaraacute and Santa Isabel are inspace provided free by the local churches When a studio needs a handyman or when a pot of soup isneeded for a minga (a day of volunteer labour for acommunity project) there are always people aroundto offer their skills or help Even so Chaguarurco hasto generate some US$2000 per month to cover itsoperational costs
The stations financial situation is healthy It managesto generate enough revenue to cover its fixed costs aswell as putting aside a few thousand dollars a year toimprove its equipment or cover unforeseen costsSources of revenue include advertising communitymessages production services and broadcasts of cultural events
Advertising which brings in about 20 of the stations revenue has always been a controversial subject Some people argued that commercials had no98
place in community radio Others said that the survivaland growth of the station was the most importantthing and that all advertisers should be welcome Thecompromise policy is to advertise only local goodsand services The philosophy is to promote what istraditional and local rather than the consumption ofimported products developed through high technologyand chemicals The message of the commercial radiosis seen as promoting these at the expense of homeproduce Thus the station does not give advertisingspace to carbonated drinks produced by multinationalsNor in the interests of health does it broadcast commercials for alcohol or tobacco
Political advertising is also controversial For most ofthe countrys radio stations elections are a bonanzaMore than a dozen parties buy airtime and it is customary for stations to put a surcharge of 20 to150 on it The temptation is strong During recentelections one party offered to buy time fromChaguarurco at a price that would have paid the billsfor months The offer was not accepted it was notthought beneficial to the community The station prefers to give equal possibilities to all political partiesrather than allowing the more powerful ones to gainfurther advantage through commercials
Community announcements and personal messagesaccount for about 40 of the stations revenue Yetanother source of income is the production of pro-grammes on health and other issues for local NGOsand government The station also continues to gethelp from the solidarity group in Spain organized byone of the volunteers who helped set up the stationThis raises funds through bingo sessions dinners andthe sale of handicrafts
Is Anyone Listening
Between June and November 1996 a team of students from Santa Isabel under the guidance of aDutch volunteer designed and conducted a survey of400 people in the stationrsquos coverage area The mainconclusions were
bull Radio is the most used medium In the towns 64also watch television especially in the evening Inthe countryside only 40 of people have access totelevision
bull Radio Chaguarurco is number one in terms ofaudience in both the towns and the countryside Itis however most popular in the countrysideamong adult listeners and among people with lesseducation
bull Forty percent of respondents from the villages claimto listen to Radio Chaguarurco everyday In thecountryside this rises to almost 50
bull The most popular programming is music followed bynews programmes and community announcements
The survey showed that the radio station was wellreceived by its audience but it also showed whereimprovements could be made by adjusting the sched-ule providing better training to the announcers andputting more agricultural information in the programming
In addition to the figures however the survey alsoshowed that after only four years on the air RadioChaguarurco has helped to make a number of important changes in community life It has improvedcommunication helped bring about more democracyand less abuse made a positive contribution by promoting the sharing of experiences and solutions toproblems and made people more aware of and proudof their own culture
How the Radio Station Has Helped theCommunity
The station has a system of announcements andcommuniqueacutes For three half-hour periods a day -morning noon and evening - people can send allkinds of messages concerning the situation ofpatients in hospital deaths lost animals invitationsto meetings etc The radio is thus the telephonefor those who do not have one
As a result of the stationrsquos existence the authoritiesinstitutions and merchants have become moredemocratic Before it was an everyday practice toabuse campesinos charge them more than theright price sell material that was intended forpublic-works projects and so on Now everybodyhears about such abuses on the radio and theyhave practically disappeared as a result
The radio has served to share experiences and problems For example a community that has succeeded in the struggle to obtain a service suchas electricity or drinking water explains on theradio how they went about it the procedures andwhat public offices they had to go to making itmuch easier for others to follow In addition solu-tions to everyday problems are shared eg ideasabout farming techniques or latrine building areexchanged
The radio is also helping to revalue the local culturemusic and way of speaking Songs that had practic-ally disappeared and that were only sung by theoldest people during family gatherings are onceagain heard on the radio Programmes containingsuch songs are among the most popular programmes on the radio and they aregenerating renewed pride in the localculture
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COMMUNITY RADIO HANDBOOKThis Community Radio Handbook aims to show that ordinary people even non-technical rural folk
can plan set up manage and produce radio programmes by themselves with a minimum of depen-dence on outside help whether for technical advice and training or for funds and equipment Althoughquite a number of radio stations began with a big helping hand from outside many community stationsthat on the air today were lsquoself-start-upsrsquo They began with a minimum of equipment and technicalknowledge but a strong community organization and a group will to push ahead and succeed
The Handbook highlights the case-stories of several such stations including Homa Bay Radio inKenya Radio Apam in Ghana Minersrsquo Radio in Bolivia Radio Sagarmatha in the Kathmandu valleyNepal Tambuli Community Radio in the Philippines and several others in order to share these creativeexperiences with others preparing to set up similar radio stations
As a handy reference for planning management technical background group dynamics broadcas-ting legislation and radio production formats based on pioneering experiences this book is a basic yetcomprehensive and practical reader for communication students researchers and planners and a lsquomustrsquofor prospective community broadcasters
1rue Miollis 75732 Paris Cedex 15
Further information Tel (331)45684025 bull Fax (331)45685585
e-mail ipanevskaunescoorg
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