Community briefing paper v 3 20161110[1]
Transcript of Community briefing paper v 3 20161110[1]
Director:ChristineHancockCANMezzanine,7–14GreatDoverStreet,LondonSE14YR,UnitedKingdom;Tel+44(0)2030967706
www.c3health.org;Twitter@c3health
C3CollaboratingforHealthisaregisteredcharity(no.1135930)andacompanylimitedbyguarantee(no.6941278),registeredinEnglandandWales.
HealthyLives
Communities
April2016
ThisworkisfundedbytheHealthFoundationandproducedbyC3CollaboratingforHealth.TheHealthFoundationisanindependentcharitycommittedtobringingaboutbetterhealthandhealthcarefor
peopleintheUnitedKingdom.
1.Executivesummary 2
2.Introduction 3
3.Thebigissues:thecurrentposition 4
3.1Comparinglikewithlike:anecologicalfallacy? 4
3.2Promotingcommunityempowerment,engagementandparticipation 6
3.3Socialinteractions 9
3.4Environmentalfactors 12
3.5Focusingonprevention 13
4.Whatworksandwhatdoesn’t? 14
4.1Research-basedevidence 14
4.2Whatishappeninginpractice?Practicalevidence 21
5.Challengesandgaps 29
6.Talkingpoints 31
Annex1:Keyplayers 33
Annex2:Evidencetables 35
Table1:Engagementandparticipation 35
Table2:Place-basedinterventions 37
Table3:Socialmediaande-health 40
Table4:Mentalhealthandsocialisolation 43
Table5:Environment 45
Table6:Ruralhealth 51
References 52
2 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
1.ExecutivesummaryTheaimofthisbriefingpaperistoprovidebackgroundinformationandanoverviewofthecurrentevidenceonthebenefitsofpromotinghealthybehavioursinlocalcommunities.Liketheotherpapersinthisseries(onEarlyYears,ChildrenandYoungPeople,andWorkplaceHealth),itisarapidreview,notafull-scalesystematicreviewoftheliterature.
Recentlegislativeandstructuralchangeshavecreatedopportunitiesforpublichealthandhealthcaretobecomemorecommunitycentred–buttherearemanywaystofostergoodhealththatgowellbeyondthehealthsystemitself.Section2introducestheunderlyingrationalefortacklinghealthatverylocallevel,asstatedintheMarmotpolicyobjectiveof‘creatinganddevelopinghealthyandsustainableplacesandcommunities’.
Section3reviewsthe‘bigissues’attheintersectionofthecommunityandhealth.Itbeginsbylookingathow‘community’isdefinedinthepaper(ageographical,neighbourhood-basedapproach,ratherthancommunitiesofinterest,ageorethnicity)andhighlightingtheneedtoberigorousinunderstandingsimilaritiesanddifferencesbetween,forexample,urbanandruralcommunities.Inequalitiesinthesocialdeterminantsofhealthareattheheartofmanyhealthissuesatlocallevel–forexample,poorhealthliteracy,whichgoeswellbeyondunderstandinginstructionsfromhealthprofessionals:itisaboutknowinghowtoleadahealthylife.Butevenwherethereisknowledge,knowingdoesnotmeandoing–andengagingcommunitiestotakeactiontomakeiteasiertobehealthylocallyisessential,includingthroughidentifyingandempoweringlocalpeopletotaketheleadthemselves,improvingthephysicalenvironment,andencouragingsocialinteractionsusingface-to-facesocialnetworksandsocialprescribing(whichcanhelptoovercomesocialisolation,itselfamajorriskfactorforillhealth).
Giventheincreasingemphasisontheneedtoaddresshealthlocally,researchinto‘whatworksandwhatdoesn’t’inpromotingcommunityhealthissurprisinglysparseacrossmanyimportantareas,asisclearinsection4.1,whichlooksatthereviewevidence(thisissupportedbytheeightEvidenceTablesinAnnex2).Section4.2breatheslifeintothedata,presenting12casestudiescoveringstrengtheningcommunities,volunteer/peerroles,partnership/collaborationandsmartaccessofcommunityresources.Thereareexamplesofempowerment/engagement,socialprescribing,andenvironmentalandpreventativefactors,drawnfromacrosstheUnitedKingdomaswellasfromEuropeandtheUnitedStates,andallinvolvesomelevelofevaluation.
Theissueofevaluationisathreadrunningthroughoutthepaper,highlightedparticularlyinsections5(challengesandgaps)and6(talkingpoints).Thereisanurgentneedtoimproveevaluationofprojects,nolongertryingtorelyontraditionalrandomisedcontrolledtrialsandothersuchapproaches,butmovingtowardsmethodsthatcanbettercapturethecomplexchallengesofandopportunitiesforhealthatneighbourhoodlevel.Wemustbewillingtoputhumanandfinancialresourcesintowhatweknowworkstomakechangesustainableoverthelongterm,harnessingthemanyassetsthatarealreadyembeddedwithinlocalcommunities.Realchangewillrequiremovingawayfromamedicalparadigmandfindingbetterwaysofworking(andmeasuringwhatworks)toimprovehealthwherepeopleactuallylivetheirlives.
3 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
2.Introduction‘[T]hecommunity–inthefullestsense:aplaceandallitscreatures–isthesmallestunitofhealth…
tospeakofthehealthofanisolatedindividualisacontradictioninterms’(Berry2002)
Suchstatementshighlightthepotentialofcommunitiesforpublichealth,andalthoughrecentlegislativeandstructuralchangeshavecreatedopportunitiesforpublichealthandhealthcaretobecomemorecommunitycentred(PHE2015a),therearemanywaysinwhichhealthcanbeencouragedthatgowell
beyondthehealthsystemitself.Butwhatdoweactuallymeanbycommunities,andhowcanthispotentialbeactualised?
Theconceptofcommunityhidesgreatcomplexity,withdefinitionslargelydrawingoutthreeaspects:
• sharedlocationorplace–thisdefinitionfocusesongeography,andmayalsobereferredtoaslocalityorneighbourhood;
• sharedcharacteristics–ininterestor‘elective’communities,peopleshareacommoncharacteristicotherthanplace;theyarelinkedtogetherbyfactorssuchasreligiousbelief,sexualorientation,occupationorethnicorigin;and
• senseofattachment–thisreferstoasenseofbelongingtoaplace,grouporidea(inotherwords,whetherthereisa‘spiritofcommunity’)(Smith2001).
Eachofthesesensesofcommunitycananddoesoverlap.Forinstance,peoplefromoneethnicgrouporwithasharedbehaviouralcharacteristicmaycongregateinaparticularareaofatown.However,theliteratureforeachofthesetopicareasisvast,requiringthisbriefingpapertotakeamorefocusedapproach.
Inpublic-healthterms,oneofthekeychallengesistoidentifywherethepotentialinterventionpointsare–namely,whereactioncanbetakentopromoteandimprovethehealthoftheindividualandthepopulationasawhole.Forthatreason,thispaperisfocusingontheconceptualisationofcommunityasshared
locationorplace.ThisapproachisinlinewithoneofthesixkeythemesoftheMarmotReview,FairSociety,HealthyLives(Marmot2010):‘createanddevelophealthyandsustainableplacesandcommunities’.Thispaperwillbeparticularlyconsideringtheevidenceonhowtoidentifyandutilisetheintersectionpoints–suchasschools,pharmacies,sociallandlordsandotheragencies–whichactasaninterfacebetweentheindividualandcommunityinfrastructure.Wherethedatahasbeenpresentedinotherpapers,forexampleonthepotentialroleofworkplaces,thiswillbesignposted,ratherthanre-presentedhere.
TheWorldHealthOrganizationhighlightsthat23percentofglobaldeathsareduetomodifiableenvironmentalfactors(Prüss-Ustünetal.2016)–sowherewelivehasamajorimpactonhealth.AsMarmot’sreportshavedemonstrated,socialandeconomicfeaturesofneighbourhoodshavebeen,andcontinuetobe,linkedwithmortality,generalhealthstatus,healthbehavioursandotherriskfactorsforchronicdisease,aswellaswithotherimportanthealthindicators.IntheUnitedKingdom,asanexample,intheleastdeprivedareas,peopleaged80–84reportbetterratesofhealththanthose20yearstheirjuniorinthemostdeprivedareas(ONS2014a).
Akeyunderlyingrationalefortheapproachadoptedbythisbriefingpaperistheneedtoidentifyevidenceforlocalactionthatcanempowercommunitiesandaddressthesocialgradientinhealthin
neighbourhoods(Marmotetal.2010).ThisbuildsontheadvicefromtheWorldHealthOrganization’sGlobalActionPlanonNon-communicableDiseasesthat‘empowermentofpeopleandcommunities’isessentialintacklingchronicdisease(WHO2013).ThereisalsoastrongcallinthenewSustainableDevelopmentGoals(Goal16)for‘responsive,inclusive,participatoryandrepresentativedecision-makingatalllevels’,includingcommunitylevelwherebasicneedsaremet(UN2015).Policyatinternationalandnationallevelmustbedeliveredthroughactionlocallytocreateanenvironmentinwhicha‘cultureofhealth’canthriveinschools,workplaces,neighbourhoodsandhomes(RJWF2016).
4 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
Otherpapersinthisserieslookspecificallyatdefinedstagesofthelifecourse–EarlyYears,ChildrenandYoungPeople,andpeopleintheWorkplace.Forthisreason,thispaperwillonlytouchlightlyontheseareas,insteadhighlightingapproachestoaddressingthesystemicchallengesassociatedwithlivinginneighbourhoodsatallages,focusingonthetypesofpreventionactivitiesthatcanoccurincommunities(healtheducation,structuralinterventions,tacklingsocialisolation,usingnewtechnologies,etc.).Ineffect,thepurposeofthispaperistolookattheevidenceaboutwaystosupportpeopleintheenvironmentsinwhichtheylive,navigatingtheirexperiencesandmeetingthelifestylechallengestheyfaceonadailybasis,suchasbuyingandpreparingfoodonalowbudget,adoptingactivelifestylesforthemselvesandtheirfamilies,andnotsmokingordrinkingtoexcess.
3.Thebigissues:thecurrentpositionThissectionsetsoutthebigtheoreticalandpracticalissuesinimprovinghealthofcommunities.Section4.1thensetsoutwaysinwhichtheresearchcommunityhasbeguntotakeontheseissues–andsection4.2providespracticalexamplesineacharea,12casestudiesofinnovationinhealthinlocalcommunities.
3.1Comparinglikewithlike:anecologicalfallacy?
‘Community’meansdifferentthingstodifferentpeople.Inthemodernworld,thiscomplexityisfurtherenhancedwiththeadventofnewtechnologyandgreateraccesstotransportlinks,makingitpossibletotakeamuchmorefluidapproachtodefininganddelimitingacommunity.Discussionsoncommunitieswithintheacademicliteraturereflectthisfluidity,whichinturnaffectstheinterpretationoftheliteratureandtheabilitytoapplythekeyfindingstoothercommunitiesandsettings.
Toooften,thereisalackofclarityaboutwhatismeantby‘community’withinprojectsandstudies,makingitmoredifficulttodeterminewhoisincluded,whoisexcluded,andwhetherweareinfactcomparinglikewithlike,evenwithostensiblysimilarprojectsandinterventions.Thisinturnaffectsconfidenceinthegeneralisabilityorpotentialapplicability,replicabilityorsustainabilityoffindingstoothercommunities.Evenwhereprojectsgivedetailsoftheethnicity,backgroundorsizeofthepopulationincludedwithintheirproject,thismayhidesignificantculturaldiversity,skewingofpopulationdistribution,orsocioeconomicfactors,whichinturnmayaffectconfidenceinthetransferabilityofapparentlyeffectiveinterventionstoothercommunities.Furthermore,muchoftheliteraturefocusesonsmall-scaleprojects,withinaverylimitedpopulation–oftenclearlydefinedbyasharedcharacteristic(suchasHIVstatus),withfewerexamplesoflarger-scaleprogrammesworkingacrossdiversepopulationswithinadefinedgeographicalarea(South2014).
Thelackofasystematicapproachtoaddressinggeographicalcommunityhealth,supportedbytheuseoftheexistingclassifications,maybecreatingandsustainingan‘ecologicalfallacy’–thefailuretorecognisethatnoteveryonelivinginadeprivedareaisdeprived,andthatmanypeoplewhoareexperiencingtheeffectsofdeprivationdonotliveindeprivedareasatall(thisisillustratedbythedifferencesbetweenurbanandruralareas–seetheboxonthenextpage).Oftenthereismorevariationwithinareasthanthereisbetweenthem.Andinsomecases,theremaybehiddensimilarities,forwhichwehavenodirectevidence–suchasattitudestowardsfood(portionsizes,diet,takeawaysetc.)andthepropensitytotraveltotakepartinpositiveactivities:a500mroamingdistance(a6–10-minutewalk)isasfarasmany(particularlychildren)willtravelfromtheirhome(Shawetal.2015;Charriereetal.2016)
Thisaddsweighttotheneedforamoresystematicapproachtogeographicalcommunityinterventions,witharobustapproachtoidentifythepopulationsubgroupswithineachgeographicalarea,andtomaptheassetswithinanareasothatappropriateinterventionpointscanbeidentifiedandusedeffectively.
5 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
Ruralversusurbancommunities
Tousethedistinctionbetween‘rural’and‘urban’communitiesasanexample,therearenumerousdefinitionsandconceptualisationsintheliteratureofwhatconstitutesrural/urban,andthewayinwhichtheseconceptsaredefinedandunderstoodinfluencestheapproachtakentoprojectsandprogrammes,withmuchoftheliteratureonhealthycommunitiesandinterventionsfocusingontheexperiencesofpeoplelivinginurbanenvironments(reflectingtheconcentrationofthepopulationintownsandcities).Nevertheless,theUKgeographicallandscapeisstillpredominantlyclassifiedasrural,althoughthepopulationisnotevenlydistributed,withthemajorityofthepopulationlivinginurbanareas(Clokeetal.1997)(seeTableA).Measuresusedintheliteraturetodistinguishruralandurbanareasgenerallynotepopulationdensity,accessibilityoffacilities,landusage,andthesizeofthelocalsettlements.
TableA:Urbanandruralareascompared
Measure Urban Rural
Populationdensity(ONS2013)
81.5percent(45.7million)(EnglandandWales)
18.5percent(10.3million)(EnglandandWales)
Populationprofile(ONS2013)
Medianageis37
84.7%werebornintheUK
77.2%arewhiteBritish
Medianageis45
94.9%werebornintheUK
95%arewhiteBritish
Healthperception Generallyreportlowerlevelsofhealththanpeopleinruralareas(Riva2009)
Proportionofresidentsreportinggoodhealthrangedfrom77.4%intheNorthEastto83.8%inLondon(ONS2011)
Morelikelytoreportbetterlevelsofhealththanthoseinurbanareas(Riva2009)
NorthEasthadthelowestproportionofruralresidentsreportinggoodhealth(76.9%);theSouthEasthadthehighestproportion(84.4%)(ONS2011)
Variablehousingavailabilityandgentrificationofareas
Housingstockoftenpoorerinurbanareas
Housingoftenprohibitivelyexpensiveandthecostoflivingoftenhigherinruralcommunities
Limitedemploymentopportunities
Unemploymentratesininner-cityareasmaybedisproportionatelyhigher
Rangeofavailablejobsandtrainingopportunitiesoftenlowerinruralareas
Accesstoservices Generallygoodaccess,althoughpopulationdensitymaybeanissueforwaitingtimes
Declineandcentralisationofservices(localshops,pub,primaryschool),poortransportlinksandissuesofisolationinruralcommunities(Manthorpeetal.2008),andhealth-carefacilities(GPsurgery,pharmacy,hospital)maynotbenearby
Notallruralorurbanareasexperiencethesamechallenges,anddescriptionsoftheproblemsofinnercitiesorruralareasmayfailtocapturethediversityofexperienceoftheresidents(Pateman2011;Kennyetal.2013).Therearesignificanthealthinequalitieswithinsmallruralareas,despitethereportsofbetterperceivedhealthstatus,andtheseinequalitiescannotbeexplainedsolelybythecharacteristicsofthelocalpopulations,i.e.therewasaneighbourhoodeffectoverandabovethatofthepopulationcharacteristics(Rivaetal.2009).
6 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
3.2Promotingcommunityempowerment,engagementandparticipation1
3.2.1Anassetsapproach
‘Anassetsapproachtohealthanddevelopmentembracesapositivenotionofhealthcreationandindoingsoencouragesthefullparticipationoflocalcommunitiesinthehealthdevelopmentprocess’(ScottishGovernment2009).
Oneofthekeychallengestobeaddressedincreatinghealthycommunitiesistheneedtofocusthephysicalassetsandskillsoftheresidentsonthepreventionofchronicdiseasesandreducinghealth
inequalitieswithinandbetweenlocalareas.Asalutogenicapproach2thatfocusesonassets(TableB)ratherthanperceiveddeficitscanbesuccessfulinimprovinghealthandwellbeing(ScottishGovernment2009).Thereareexamplesofthisworkinginpractice,buttodateithasnotbeensystematicallydeveloped,withprojectsinmanycommunitiessufferingfromshort-termorterminalinsecurityoffundingandhenceprovingtobeunsustainable.
TableB:Whatisanasset?
Ahealthassetisanyfactororresourcewhichenhancestheabilityofindividuals,communitiesandpopulationstomaintainandsustainhealthandwellbeing.Theseassetscanoperateattheleveloftheindividual,thefamilyorcommunityasprotectiveandpromotingfactorsthatcanactasabufferagainstlife’sstresses(MorganandZiglio2007).
Anassetisanyofthefollowing:
• thepracticalskills,capacityandknowledgeoflocalresidents;
• thepassionsandinterestsoflocalresidentsthatgivethemenergyforchange;
• thenetworksandconnections–‘socialcapital’–inacommunity,includingfriendshipsandneighbourliness;
• theeffectivenessoflocalcommunityandvoluntaryorganisations;
• theresourcesofpublic-,private-andthird-sectororganisationsthatareavailabletosupportacommunity;and
• thephysicalandeconomicresourcesofaplacethatenhancewellbeing.
Source:IDEA2010.
Identifying,harnessingandincreasingtheskillsandcommitmentofcommunityleadersandstakeholderstodevelopandpromotelastingstrategiesthathelppeoplemakehealthychoiceswheretheylive,learn,workandplayiscrucialtoasalutogenicapproach.Empoweringpeopleprovidesenergyfornewwaysofchallenginghealthinequalities,valuingcommunityresilience,andrecognisingandstrengtheningexistingcommunitynetworksandexpertise.Theboxonthefollowingpageprovidesanexampleofanassetapproachinpractice:cancerchampions.
1TheNationalInstituteforHealthandCareExcellence(NICE)usestheterms‘communityengagement’and‘communitydevelopment’almostinterchangeably.Thekeydefiningcharacteristicappearstobethatengagementisatop-downprocess,anddevelopmentisabottom-upprocess(Fisher2016).2‘Salutogenesis’describesanapproachfocusingonfactorsthatsupporthumanhealthandwellbeing,ratherthanonfactorsthatcausedisease.
7 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
3.2.2Communityempowerment
Communityempowermenthaslongbeenacentralplankofhealth-promotiondiscourse,referringbothtotheprocessofenablingcommunitiestotakecontrolovertheirownlivesand,theoreticallyatleast,theoutcome(Kennyetal.2013).Itismorethantheinvolvement,participationorengagementofcommunities;itimpliescommunityownershipandactionthatexplicitlyaimsatsocialandpoliticalchange.Itrecognisesthatifsomepeoplearegoingtobeempowered,thenotherswillbesharingtheirexistingpowerandgivingsomeofitup(Baumetal.2008).Wherecommunitiesareempoweredthereoughttobevisibleevidenceofaboostinlocaldemocraticparticipation;increasedconfidenceandskillsamonglocalpeople,highernumbersofpeoplevolunteeringintheircommunities,andmoresatisfactionwithqualityoflifeinalocalneighbourhood.
However,makingcommunityempowermentoperationalremainsathornychallenge.Itisdifficulttomeasure,andoftendifficulttoimplement,overlappingwithothertheoreticalperspectivessuchascommunitycapacityandsocialcapital.
Oneofthekeychallengesisaroundthelegitimacyofrepresentation(Kennyetal.2013).Thereissignificantevidenceshowingthatinmanycasesindividualswhohavethetime,energyandmotivationtobecomeinvolvedininterventionsandprogrammes,mayinfactnotbesupportedbytherestofthecommunity,leavingariskthatdominantminoritiesmaydictatecommunityneedsunlessadequateprecautionsaremadetoinvolveasmanypeopleaspossible.Acarefulmappingofthehumanaswellasfinancial,environmentalandotherassetsofacommunity–mappingofbothpeopleandplace–canhelptoaddressthis,althoughcommunities(andorganisationsworkingwithcommunities)mayhavelimitedunderstandingofhowtoidentifytheseresources.
Anumberoftechniquescanbeusedsinglyandcorporatelyfordiscoveringandmobilisingcommunityassets(IDeA2010):
• assetmapping(developingandutilisingamaporinventoryofcommunityresources,skillsandtalentstocreatenewpartnershipsandre-energiseexistingsupportmechanisms);
• asset-basedcommunitydevelopment(locatingcommunityassets,buildingrelationships,mobilisingresidents,identifyingastrategicgoal,andleveragingresourcestodrivechange);
• appreciativeinquiry(consultativetechnique,focusingonwhatworks);
• story-telling(informalwaytocollectexperiences);
• WorldCafé(engagementtechnique,particularlyusefulinconferences,communitiesandworkshops);
• participatoryappraisal(localpeopletrainedtoresearchviews,knowledgeandexperienceofneighbourhoodstoinformneedsassessmentandappraisal);and
Anassetapproach:cancerchampions
TheDepartmentofHealthhasadaptedanassetapproachinanumberofitscommunityprogrammes.Oneoftheseisthecancerchampionsprogramme,withlocalvolunteerstrainedtosupportpeopletotalkaboutcancersignsandsymptoms,dispelcancermythsandencouragepeopletotalktotheirGP.Theprogrammerecognisesthatlocalpeoplehaveknowledge,skillsandnetworksthatcanbemobilisedtoimprovehealth.OneexampleistheNorthEastLincolnshireCommunityHealthProject,alocalcancerchampionprojectthatisconceived,planned,testedandcarriedoutsolelybyvolunteersfromthelocalcommunity,whodrawontheirexistinglocalnetworkstoaccesspeople.Theimpacthasbeennotable–inthefirsttwoyearsoftheproject,thenumberoftwo-weekwaitreferralsforcervicalandbowelcancerincreasedby25percentand31percentrespectively,andby66percentforprostatecancer(IDeA2010).
8 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
• open-spacetechnology(meetingwithnofixedagenda–participantsdeterminethereal-timeneedonwhichtofocus).
Seesection4.2.5,casestudy9,fortheexampleofCHESS®,anasset-mappingtool,andhowitwasusedtosupportchildren’swellbeingineastLondon.
Communitydevelopmentworkerscanplayanimportantroleinhelpingcommunitiesidentifylocalassets,aswellasfacilitatingplansandco-creatingactivitieswithlocalpeopletoenablechange.Theyworkasalinkbetweenthecommunityandarangeofotherlocal-authorityorvoluntary-sectorproviders,includingpolice,teachersandsocialworkers.
Thescopeoftheagendatoo,canbeachallenge.Manyhealth-improvementinitiativesbeginwithring-fencedfundingforashort-termprojectonaspecificchallenge,suchaspromotingphysicalactivity.Ineffect,theagendahasalreadybeenset,andtheprocessofinvolvingthecommunityismoreaboutengagementthanempowerment.Trueempowermenttakesabottom-upapproach,withthecommunityitselfaskedtoidentifythekeychallenges,whichwouldthenbeaddressedusingthecommunity’sownassets,supportedbyotherservicesandorganisations.Asset-basedapproachesareanintegralpartofcommunitydevelopmentinthesensethattheyareconcernedwithfacilitatingpeopleandcommunitiestocometogethertoachievepositivechangeusingtheirownknowledge,skillsandlivedexperienceoftheissuestheyencounterintheirownlives.
Mobilisingexistingcommunityassetscanhelptoalleviatetheeffectsoflong-termdisadvantage.AjointreportbyPHEandNHSEnglandmakesacompellingcasefor‘afamilyofapproaches’toharnesstheenergywithincommunitiesaspartofashifttomoreperson-andcommunity-centredworkingpatterns.Suchinterestdemonstratestheincreasingpolicyfocusoncommunities,indicatingthisapproachwillbecomeincreasinglyimportant(PHE2015a).
3.2.3Communityengagement
Theconceptofcommunityengagementcoversabroadrangeofactivities.3NICE(2014)identifiesfivegenericapproaches(Figure1,column1),whichinturnimplyaroleforthemembersofthecommunity:(Figure1,column2).
Figure1:CommunityEngagementPyramidshowingtieredapproachestocommunityengagement
Sources:NICE2014andBLF2014.
3Seealsosection4.1.2forthelackofclarifyaroundcommunity‘empowerment’and‘engagement’.
• Providerofservices- deliveringservicesCommunitycontrol
• Decision-maker- developingsolutionsDelegatedpower
• Contributortomanagement-commentingondecisionsCo-production
• Advisoryrole,providingguidanceandadvice-beingasked
Consultation
•Userandbeneficiaryofservices,etc.-beinginformed
Informationprovisionandexchange
9 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
Whilelower-levelengagement(suchasinformationsharing)canimproveawareness,uptakeandeffectivenessofservices,higher-levelengagementenablingmoredecision-makinginthecommunitybythecommunity,ismorelikelytobuildconfidence.Bothapproachescanimprovehealth,butcommunityengagementworksbestwhereitisanongoingcumulativeprocessenablingrelationshipsandtrustto
buildandstrengthenovertime(see,forexample,PHE2015aandNICE2014).
Keycommunity-engagementcomponentsthataffecthealthoutcomescanincluderealpower-sharing,collaborativepartnerships,bidirectionallearning,incorporatingthevoiceandagencyofbeneficiarycommunitiesinresearchprotocol,andusingbiculturalhealthworkersforinterventiondelivery(Cyriletal.2015).NICEhasalsoproducedaguidelineonimprovinghealthandwellbeingthroughcommunityengagement(seebox).
3.3Socialinteractions
JohnDonnefamouslysaid‘nomanisanisland’and,facedwiththeincreasingcomplexityandinter-relationshipsofmodern-daysociety,supportedbytheadventofnewtechnology,thisquotecontinuestoresonate.Thereisasignificantandgrowingevidencebaseshowingthatsocialinteractions–betheyface-to-faceoronline–canimpactpositivelyonthehealthofindividuals,familiesandcommunities,improvingconfidenceandabilitytomakedecisionsabouttheirownhealth.
3.3.1Socialnetworks
Goodsocialnetworks–thewebofrelationshipswithfamily,partner,friendsandcolleagues–havepositivecognitive,emotional,behaviouralandbiologicalinfluencesonourhealth(Dodds2016).Thereisgoodevidenceacrossarangeofhealthandwellbeingconditionsthatactivesocialnetworksimprovepopulationresilience(Fisher2016;Bartley2006),reducingtheriskofexperiencingmental-healthissues(Jenkinsetal.2008),depression(MorganandSwann2004)andsupportingpeopletocopebetterwitheconomicproblems(Bartley2006).Inaddition,thereareothersocietalbenefits(Fisher2016)withevidencetoshowreducedrisksofdelinquency(Sampsonetal.1997),crime(Fulbright-AndersonandAuspos1986),andpositiveassociationswithemployability(ClarkandDawson1995)andsocialcohesion(Fulbright-AndersonandAuspos1986).Butthebenefitsarenotrestrictedtoindividuals–socialnetworksmaycascadeandamplifytheeffectofinterventionsbeyondtheimmediateparticipantsinasocialinteraction(Perkinsetal.2015).However,socialnetworkscanalsohavenegativeeffectsthatcanspreadunhealthybehaviours(ChristakisandFowler2007;ChristakisandFowler2009),suchasobesity(section4.1.3.1).
NICEGuidance:CommunityEngagement:ImprovingHealthandWellbeingandReducingHealth
Inequalities
ThislatestguidelinefromNICEcoverscommunityengagementapproachestoreducehealthinequalities,ensuringthathealthandwellbeinginitiativesareeffectiveandhelpinglocalauthoritiesandhealthbodiesmeetstatutoryobligations(NICE2016).Itincludesrecommendationson:
• ‘overarchingprinciplesofgoodpractice–whatmakesengagementmoreeffective?
• developingcollaborationsandpartnershipsapproachestoencourageandsupportalliancesbetweencommunitymembersandstatutory,communityandvoluntaryorganisationstomeetlocalneedsandpriorities;
• involvingpeopleinpeerandlayroles–howtoidentifyandrecruitpeopletorepresentlocalneedsandpriorities;
• makingcommunityengagementanintegralpartofhealthandwellbeinginitiatives;and
• makingitaseasyaspossibleforpeopletogetinvolved’.
10 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
Socialnetworksarechangingrapidly.Competitionforhousingandjobsoutsidelocalareashasmeantthatfamilynetworkshavebecomedispersedoverwideareas,withsocialrepercussionsincludinglonelinessatallages.
Aswellasthesechangestosociety,face-to-faceinteractionsarebeingsupplementedbymoretechnologicalengagement.Theuseofdigitalandsocialmediaisincreasingyearonyear,witharound90percentofadultsovertheageof16(OFCOM2015)nowpersonallyusingamobilephone(andtwo-thirdsowningasmartphone),withincreasedusageofmobiletechnologytoaccesstheinternet,forpeer-to-peersupport,appointments,etc.Thepositivebenefitsofsocialmediaandsocialnetworkingcanincludefacilitationofsocialconnectionsamongpeerswithsimilarexperiencesandincreasedawarenessofpreventionprogrammes,crisishelplines,andothersupportandeducationalresources(Luxtonetal.2012).However,anumberofstudiesofthehealthbenefitsofsocial-mediausage,haveexpressedconcernsthatitmayalsobehavingadetrimentalimpactonhealthinsomecases,suchassuicidebehaviours(Luxtonetal.2012)andmentalhealthinadolescents(Sampasa-KanyingaandLewis2015)(seealsosection3.5oftheChildrenandYoungPeoplepaperinthisseries).
However,peoplewhoare‘communitycommunicators’(WoodandFowlie2013)–thetowncriersoftoday–continuetobeattheheartofcommunities,spreadingthewordaboutwhatisgoingonlocally,andmakinglinksandbuildingtrustandengagementbetweenresidentsandservicesandopportunities(seeNeighbourhoodHealthWatch,casestudy6).
3.3.2Socialisolation
Socialisolationhasrootsatsocietal,communityandindividuallevels–andisontheincrease.Thepercentageofhouseholdsoccupiedbyjustonepersonmorethandoubledtobetween1972and2008,thedivorceratehasalmostdoubledinthepast50years,andlocalcommunityfacilitiessuchaspostofficeshaveclosed.Thesefactors,andothers,translateintoloneliness:asurveyin2010foundthat10percentofpeopleoftenfeellonely,athirdhaveaclosefriendorrelativewhotheythinkisverylonely,andhalfthinkthatpeoplearegettinglonelieringeneral(MentalHealthFoundation2010).Andsocialisolationcanhaveveryseriousconsequencesforhealth:asystematicreviewconcludedthat‘individualswithadequatesocialrelationshipshavea50percentgreaterlikelihoodofsurvivalcomparedtothosewithpoororinsufficientsocialrelationships’–thisiscomparabletotheimpactofgivingupsmoking,andgreaterthanthatofobesityandphysicalactivity(Holt-Lunstadetal.2010).
Anyonecanexperienceloneliness,butitisahealth-inequalitiesissueforcommunitiesbecausesomeindividualsorgroupsmaybemorevulnerablethanothers,influencedbyfactorsincludingphysicalandmentalhealth,migrantstatus,levelofeducation,employmentstatusandage(PHE2015b).Socialdisadvantageislinkedtomanyofthelifeexperiencesthatincreasetheriskofsocialisolation.4Forexample,inthemostdeprivedareas10percentof25–29-year-oldsandover50percentofthoseaged65–69haveadisability–doubletherateintheleastdeprivedareas.Similarly,menandwomenaged40–44inthemostdeprivedareasarearoundfourtimesmorelikelytohave‘notgood’healthcomparedtotheirequivalentintheleastdeprivedareas(ONS2014a).
Neighbourhoodcharacteristicscanalsohaveanimpactonsocialisolation,atanystageofthelifecourse.Deprivedareas,forexample,oftenlackadequateprovisionofpublicspaces,creatingbarrierstosocialengagement.Theclosureofpubs(animportantarenaforsocialinteraction)(Dunbar2016)orpoortransportlinksinruralareasmayunderminetheabilityofresidentstobuildandmaintainsocialconnections.
Thereisalsoevidencethatsocialisolationmayhaveacumulativeeffect.Isolationinchildhoodcanbeariskfactorforimpairmentoffutureadolescentandadultinteractions,withanegativeimpactonfuturementalwellbeing,creatingaviciouscirclethataffectsfutureexperienceofsocialisolation.Lifeeventssuchasthe
4Ruralpoverty,socialexclusion,andlevelsofillhealthandneedamongstparticulargroups(forexample,thegrowingnumbersofolderpeople,familieswithyoungchildrenandtheyoungerunemployed)areoftenhidden.
11 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
lossofalovedone,caringresponsibilitiesordisablingconditionsmayalsocontributetoareductioninsocialcontact,andcontributetosocialisolation(Figure2).
Figure2:Theimpactofsocialisolationacrossthelifecourse
Source:PHE2015b.
3.3.3Socialprescribing
Itisincreasinglyclearthatthehealth-caresystemcontributesonlyinasmallway–around20percent–toourhealth,withafurther10–20percentfromourgenes,anduptoastaggering60percentfromourbehaviour,socialcircumstancesandtheenvironment(McGovernetal.2014).However,theoverwhelmingmajorityofsociety’shealthinvestmentsgotothehealth-caresectorforclinicalservicesor(decreasingly)public-healthinterventions.In2015,only5.4percentofhealth-relatedresearchexpenditurebythelargestgovernmentandcharityfunderswasdedicatedtoprimarydiseasepreventionorhealthpromotion(UKCRC2015).
Socialprescribingisonemethodthathasbeenusedtogoodeffecttoencouragepositivesocialinteractions,particularlyamongthosewhodonotenjoygoodhealth.Itisamethodforthehealth-caresystem‘toaccesspragmaticsolutionstomeetthegrowingneedsofpeoplelivingwithlong-termphysicalandmentalhealthconditionswhenmedicationisnotalwaysappropriateornecessary’(SocialPrescribingNetwork2016),linkingpatientswithmedicalandnon-medicalsourcesofsupportwithinthecommunity,suchasopportunitiesforartsandcreativity,physicalactivity,learningnewskills,volunteering,mutualaid,befriendingandself-help,aswellassupportwith,forexample,employment,benefits,housing,debt,legaladvice,orparentingproblems.
Asocial-prescriptionapproachgetstotheheartofthesocialdeterminantsofhealth–the‘causesofthecauses’(Marmot2010)–andprovidesaconduitforhealthprofessionalstousetodirectpatientstowardsbetterhealth.AsSirMichaelMarmothasnoted,‘Whytreatpatientsandsendthembacktotheconditionsthatmadethemsick?’(BBBC,undated).
Socialprescribingisusuallydeliveredviaprimarycare–forexample,through‘exerciseonprescription’or‘prescriptionforlearning’–althoughthereisarangeofdifferentmodelsandreferraloptions.However,despiteexamplessuchastheBromleybyBowCentre(section4.2.3,casestudy4)thatshowthatsocialprescribinghasbeeneffective,full-scaleimplementationoftheconcepthasnotbeenachieved.Thishighlightsasignificantissueforcommunities–evenwherethereisevidencethatsomethingisworking,
12 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
sustainabilityandroll-outofeffectiveinitiativesisoftennotachieved(atopictakenupinmoredetailinthefinalpaperinthisseries).
3.4Environmentalfactors
Social,economicandphysicalconditionswithinlocalneighbourhoodscancontributetopoorcommunityhealthoutcomes,forexamplebyfacilitatingsedentarylifestyles(Renaldsetal.2010;McCormackandShiell2011),makingitmoredifficultforpeopletoaccessfreshfruitandvegetables(Balletal.2015),orbyfacilitatinggamblingbehaviours.(Hanrahan2013;ScotPHN2014).Understandingandactingontheenvironmentalfactorsthathelptoshapehowpeopleliveandworkisnecessaryifthereistobeastepchangeinhealthinequalitiesandincommunityhealthoutcomes.
‘Environment’is,inmanyrespects,acatch-allphrase,encompassing:
• thenaturalenvironment(factorssuchasair,noise,water,greenspace);
• thebuiltenvironment(internalandexternalfactorsassociatedwithhousing(e.g.damp),roadsandtransportsystems,buildings,infrastructure(accesstoshops,medicalfacilities,etc.)),and
• socioeconomicandculturalfactors(characteristicsofsocietiesandcommunitiesandneighbourhoods,urbandensityandperceptionsofcriminalactivity,etc.).
Thelandscapeofacommunitycanbeovertlyhazardoustothehealthoftheresidents–butitcanalsoacttoimprovehealthoutcomes(TableC).
TableC:Examplesofeffectsofthephysicalenvironmentonhealth
Naturalenvironment
• Airpollutionisknowntoberesponsibleforaround2.5%ofmortalityinsomeruralareastoover8%insomeLondonboroughs5(PHE2014).Reducingairpollutionlevelsreducestheburdenofdiseasefromstroke,heartdisease,lungcancer,andbothchronicandacuterespiratorydiseases,includingasthma(WHO2014).(SeealsotheEarlyYears(section3.1)andChildrenandYoungPeople(section3.2.5)papersinthisseries.)
• Excessivenoisecaninterferewithdailyactivities,disturbsleep,andprovokechangesinsocialbehaviour.TheWHOreportsthattrafficnoisealoneisharmfultothehealthofalmosteverythirdpersonintheWHOEuropeanRegion,withonefifthofEuropeansregularlyexposedtosoundlevelsatnightthatcouldsignificantlydamagehealth(WHO2016a).
• Contactwithsafe,greenspacescanimproveanumberofaspectsofmentalandphysicalhealthandwellbeing,aswellasvarioussocialandenvironmentalindicators(FPH/NaturalEngland2010).Forexample:
• contactwithgreenspacesandnaturalenvironmentscanreducesymptomsofpoormentalhealthandstress,andcanimprovementalwellbeingacrossallagegroups;and
• accesstogreenspacescanincreaselevelsofphysicalactivityforallages,includingencouragingactivetransport,andincreaselevelsofcommunityactivityacrosssocialgroups.
Builtenvironment
• Theadversehealtheffectsoflivingincoldhomesandfuelpovertyarewelldocumented.Acausallinkhasbeenidentifiedbetweenfuelpovertyandadversephysicalandmentalhealthandwellbeingoutcomes,includingincreasedriskofdeathincoldweather(excesswintermortality),increasedriskofrespiratoryillness,impairedmentalhealthandsocialisolation(MarmotReviewTeam2011).
• Therewere1,780roaddeathsintheyeartoSeptember2015intheUnitedKingdom–a3%riseon2014(DfT2015).
5BecauseofuncertaintyintheincreaseinmortalityriskassociatedwithambientPM2.5,theactualburdensassociatedwiththesemodelledconcentrationscouldrangefromapproximatelyone-sixthtoaboutdoublethesefigures.
13 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
Socialandculturalenvironment
• Neighbourhoodcontextplaysanimportantroleinthedevelopmentoftheperceptionsofcrime,andthefeelingofsafetyofresidents.Thishasanimpactonbothmentalandphysicalwellbeing,forexample,withphysicalactivityrestrictedto‘safeareas’(seealsosection3.2.4oftheChildrenandYoungPeoplepaperinthisseries).
Thereisagoodunderstandingofthesourcesofmostenvironmentalrisks,andUKlegislativeapproacheshavebeenputinplacetorespondtosystemicchallenges.Forexample,sourcesofairpollutionincludepowerstations,traffic,householdheating,agricultureandindustrialprocesses,andlegislativeandpolicymeasurestoaddressitincludethepromotionofactivetravel,aswellasinfrastructuralapproaches,suchasreducingfossil-fueluse(RCP/RCPCH2016).
However,policyandplanningneedstobeapproachedwithcare,asplanningpoliciescan,andhave,resultedincommunityfragmentationbyemphasisingtheneedsoftheindividualoverthoseofthecommunity,makingitdifficultforpeopletodevelopandsustainsocial-supportnetworks(JRF2008).Proximitytoappropriateamenitiescanpromote(ordeter)peoplefrommakinghealthychoices,facilitatetimelyaccesstohealthservices,andpotentiallyexacerbatethepotentialforharmfulorprotectivebehaviours.
Planningprofessionalshavelongworkedcollaborativelywithenvironmental-healthprofessionalstoreduceandmitigatetheimpactsofactivitiesthatnegativelyaffecthumanhealth,butarguablythefocushasbeenonavoidanceofpollutionordanger,arecentexamplebeingeffortssuchaszoningtopreventanoverabundanceoffast-foodoutlets(LondonFoodBoard/CIEH2014;TCPA2016).However,attentionisalsonowturningtotheprovisionofinfrastructureandservicesthathaveapositiveimpactonhumanhealth,suchasqualityopenspace.Forexample,ifanareahasnosafewalkingroutes,roadtrafficaccidentsmayrise,andsedentarybehavioursmaybefurtherencouraged.
Thereisaneedforthishealth-promotionlenstobeemployedmorewidely,recognisingawidevarietyofhealthchallenges,whichwouldactiontheWorldHealthOrganization’scallfora‘whole-of-government,
whole-of-society,health-in-all-policies’approach(WHO2013).
3.5Focusingonprevention
Lifestylebehavioursknowntoresultinpooreroutcomesinadulthoodaregenerallyestablishedinlatechildhoodandadolescence(seealsosection3.2oftheChildrenandYoungPeoplepaperinthisseries).These‘risky’behavioursincludesmoking,alcoholandillicitdruguse,andsexualrisktaking(McPhersonetal.2013)(TableD).Easeofneighbourhoodaccess,andfamilialandpeerexposurescanincrease–ormitigateagainst–thelikelihoodofuptakeofmanyofthesebehaviours.
TableD:Lifestylebehaviours
Smoking
SeealsotheChildrenandYoungPeoplepaper,section3.6.2
• Smokinginitiationisassociatedwithawiderangeofriskfactorswithinthecommunity,includingtheeaseofobtainingcigarettes,smokingbyparents,siblingsandpeers,socioeconomicstatusandexposuretotobaccomarketing(ASH2015;RCP2010;Ofsted2013)
• Deathratesfromtobaccoaretwotothreetimeshigheramongdisadvantagedsocialgroupsthanamongthebetteroff(ASH2015).
• Long-termsmokersbeartheheaviestburdenofdeathanddiseaserelatedtotheirsmoking.Longtermsmokersaredisproportionatelydrawnfromlowersocioeconomicgroups.(ASH2015)
Alcohol
SeealsotheChildrenandYoungPeoplepaper,section3.6.3
Alcoholuseisacommunityandhealth-servicechallenge,contributingtomultiplesocialharms(Cairnsetal.2011).Theseinclude:
• pooreducationalperformance,riskysexualbehaviourandteenagepregnancy(Newbury-Birchetal.2009;OECD2009);
14 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
• crimeanddisorder(HomeOffice2004;Hibelletal.2009);
• hospitaladmissions:n2013/14,therewereanestimated1.06millionadmissionsrelatedtoalcoholconsumptionwhereanalcohol-relateddisease,injuryorconditionwastheprimaryreasonforhospitaladmissionorasecondarydiagnosis.Thiswasanincreaseof5%onthepreviousyear,and115%since2003/4(HSCIC2015b).
Teenagepregnancy
SeealsotheChildrenandYoungPeoplepaper,section3.6.1
• Under-18conceptionrateswerehighestinthemostdeprivedpartsofEnglandin2009–11(ONS2014b).
Obesity
SeealsotheEarlyYearspaper,section3.4.1andtheChildrenandYoungPeoplepaper,section3.2.1
• Thereisastrongrelationshipbetweendeprivationandchildhoodobesity.AnalysisofdatafromtheNationalChildMeasurementProgramme(NCMP)showsthatobesityprevalenceamongchildreninbothreceptionandyear6increaseswithincreasedsocioeconomicdeprivation(PHE2016).
• Amongadults,too,obesityprevalenceofthemostdeprived10%ofthepopulationisapproximatelytwicethatoftheleastdeprived10%(PHE2016).
Physicalactivity
• Streetconnectivity,land-usemixandresidentialdensityarethreelarge-scalefeaturesofneighbourhooddesignsthatarecommonlystudiedfortheirassociationswithphysicalactivity,bothforrecreationandactivetravel.Forexample:
• participantslivinginhigh-comparedtolow-walkableneighbourhoods(basedonfactorsabove)accumulateover750morestepsaday,accountingforapproximately8%ofrecommendeddailysteps(Hajnaetal.2015);and
• astrongindependentpositiveassociationwasfoundbetweenweeklyfrequencyofwalkingfortransportandtheobjectivelyderivedneighbourhoodwalkabilityindex(Owenetal.2007).
Understandinghowbesttosupportcommunitiestoaddresslifestyleissuesisafoundationalrequirementformakingprogressonhealthinequalities.Butitisalsocrucialthatweunderstandwhereincommunities
theproblemsaremostprevalent.Forexample,whilesmokingratesaredroppingacrosstheUnitedKingdomasawhole,therateinthemostdisadvantagedcommunities(men:32.9percent;women26.1percent)ismuchhigher–morethandouble–peopleinthehighestsocioeconomicquintile(men14.3percent;women10.2percent)(ONS2014c).Consideringcommunitiesasageographicalsettingishelpfulinthatitsupportsactionwhichcanaddressneighbourhoodeffects,butaninequalitieslensisstillneededtoensurethatsomeoftheresidentsarenotinadvertentlydisadvantagedbyapproachesthatfocusongeography,ratherthanpopulationsub-groups.
4.Whatworksandwhatdoesn’t?
4.1Research-basedevidence
ThissectiondrawsparticularlyontheevidenceprovidedinthesystematicreviewsandotherstudiespresentedintheEvidenceTables(Annex2).Forexamplesof‘whatisbeingdoneinpractice’currentlyaroundtheUnitedKingdom,seethecasestudiespresentedinsection4.2.
15 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
4.1.1Comparinglikewithlike:definingcommunities
CommentatorssuchasSirMichaelMarmotnotethatcommunitiescanbeanimportantdeterminantofhealthoutcomes.Neighbourhoodsarewherepeople‘live,workandplay’,aswellaswheremuchofourhealthandhealthbehavioursaredetermined–andthereforewhereinterventionsandpreventionneedtobebased.Thewayinwhichacommunityorneighbourhoodisdefinedcaninfluencepatternsofinclusionandexclusion,andcanhavesignificantcostsintermsofaccesstocommunityinfrastructure,servicesandcommunitycohesion(Allman2015;MacQueenetal.2001)(seealsoboxbelow).Understandingthepotentialinterventionpointswithinaneighbourhood(schools,placesofworship,pharmacies,workplaces,socialclubs...)andhowthisrelatestothepotentialapplicationofnewtechnologiesandtypesofinterventionwithinaneighbourhoodsettingisthereforeessentialifprogressistobemadeandsustained.
AstheSPOTLIGHTstudiesdemonstrate,6arobustunderstandingofthewayinwhichpeopledefine,limit
andexperiencetheirneighbourhoodsisneeded,ifwearetoeffectivelyinterrogatetheinteractionbetweencontextualfactorsandpatternsoflifestylechallenges,suchasobesity(Charreireetal.2016).Thisstudydemonstratedthattherewasanassociationbetweengenderandlengthofresidenceandtheperceivedsizeoftheneighbourhood.Womengenerallysawtheirneighbourhoodasbeingsmallerthantheirmalecounterparts,whilepeoplewhohadlivedinanarealongergenerallysawtheirneighbourhoodasbeinglarger.Inaddition,residentialdensitywasfoundtobeakeyfactorindeterminingtheperceivedsizeofaneighbourhood,withpeoplelivinginlower-densityareasdescribingtheirneighbourhoodaslargerthanthoselivinginhigher-densityareas.7Thisperceptionofthesizeofaneighbourhoodcanhaveconsequencesintermsofthelikelihoodofresidentsaccessinghealth-careservices(Valléeetal.2014)andperceptionsofavailablespaceforphysicalactivity(Smithetal.2010;Stewartetal.2015).
Insummary,oneofthekeychallengesintheUnitedKingdomisthat,todate,therehasbeenlimited
systematicengagementacrosscommunities,withalargeamountoftheavailabledatabeingfocusedonactivitywithinsubsectionsofacommunity,ratherthanmainstreamcommunityprogrammes,whichengagewidelywithdiversepopulations(South2014).Moresystematicengagementisneededifrealprogressistobemade,withthe‘community’definedinawaythatisasinclusiveaspossible.Afurtherchallengeisthatmanylocal(successful)initiativesareneverreportedinthepeer-reviewedliterature.Amoresystematicapproachwillenableustocapturethisandlearnfromwhathasbeenshowntoworklocally,aswellaswhathasbeenshowntoworkwithintheliterature(PHE2015a).
Ruralversusurban8
Anexampleofachallengetodefining‘community’appearwhenlookingaturbanversusruralhealthinthepeer-reviewedliterature,asmuchoftheliteraturereflectsonaruralexperiencevastlydifferenttotheUKexperience.TheliteratureisdominatedbyevidencefromtheUnitedStates,Australiaand(movingtonon-English-speakingarea)ChinaandcountriesinAfrica(see,forexample,MacKinneyetal.2014;Fraser2006;Ranasinghe2014),wherethedistancetoneighbours,sizeofsettlements,andproximityoflocalservicescanoftenbymeasuredinhours,ratherthanmiles.ThisunderminesconfidenceinthegeneralisabilityoffindingstoaUKcontext.Evenwhererelevantliteratureisfound,therearelargevariationsinthedefinitionsandcontextsofpractice.ComparinginterventionsinremoteareasofScotland,forexample,withinterventionsinruralareasinOxfordshirehighlightsvastlydifferentcontexts.Furthermore,ingeneral,moststudiesseemtofocusonsupportforpeoplewhoareageing
6TheSPOTLIGHTproject(‘sustainablepreventionofobesitythroughintegratedstrategies’)wasafour-yearcollaborationineightcountries,investigatingindividualandcontextualdeterminantsofobesity,andwaysinwhichtheneighbourhoodenvironment(i.e.localcommunity)canaffectobesityprevention(SPOTLIGHT2016).7Factorsthatcouldcontributetothisincludetheproximityofaccesstoservices,availabilityoftransporttoservices,andthelevelofawarenessofthelocalareathathasbeendevelopedovertime.8Itshould,however,benotedthatthisbriefingpaperisbasedonarapidreviewofliterature–amoresystematicreview,focusingoneachareawithinthedocumentasadiscretetopiccouldhighlightaverydifferentstory.
16 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
(withotheragegroupslesswellresearched)oronalimitedrangeofservices(ratherthantakingacomprehensive,systematicapproachtocommunityhealthandwellbeing).
4.1.2Promotingcommunityengagementandparticipation
Asystematicreviewoftheevidenceoncommunityengagement(O’Mara-Evesetal.2013)suggeststhattherearethreebroadapproachestocommunityengagementintheliterature:
• theoriesofchangeforpatient/consumerinvolvement;
• theoriesofchangeforpeer/lay-deliveredinterventions;and
• theoriesofempowermenttoreducehealthinequalities.
Peer/lay-deliveredinterventionstendtohavegreatereffects,butthesystematicreviewfoundinsufficientevidencetotestpossiblereasonsforthis(suchasinterventionintensityandexposureeffects)–anotherexampleofthelackofdataandevidencetosupportinterventions,whichtoooftengoundertheradarandarethereforenoteasilyaccessedasexemplars.
Inaddition:
• mostoftheavailableliteraturewasnotfromtheUnitedKingdom(themajoritywerefromtheUnitedStates),meaningthatthetransferabilityoffindingsfromstudieswouldneedfurtherconsideration;
• relativelyfewoutcomeevaluationswereaccompaniedbyrobustprocessevaluations,anddiversityindefinitionsetc.acrossstudiesmeantthatcross-studycomparisonsweremoredifficult;
• community-designedinterventionsweregenerallymoreeffectiveandconsideredtobemoreacceptablebythecommunity;and
• itwasnotpossibletogivearobustconclusionontheeconomiceffectivenessofengagementmodels.Whereeconomicevaluationswereavailable,theywerelargelyonpeer-ledinterventions,spreadacrossawiderangeoftopics,withveryfewstudiesreportingontheeconomicevaluationofempowermentprojects.Moststudiesweremethodologicallylimited.
However,thisreviewhasshowntheremaybeafurtherissuetoconsider.Oneofthekeychallengesisthat,throughoutthepeer-reviewedliterature,theconceptsofcommunityempowermentandcommunityengagementappeartobeusedquiteflexiblyandinterchangeably.Manystudiestalkaboutempoweringcommunities,butonfurtherexplorationthefocushasactuallybeenonengagementofcommunitymemberswithpre-setinitiatives,ratherthanbottom-upempowermentperse.Others(see,forexample,Cyriletal.2015)focusonmoresubstantiveapproaches,suchasrealpower-sharingandcollaborativepartnerships.
Greaterconsistencyisneededonwhatismeantbyempowermentandengagement,andhowtheycanbemeasuredtoensurecomparisonoflikewithlike.Astrongcasecanbemade(Cyriletal.2015)fortheneedtodevelopnewandinnovativeapproachestomeasuretheimpactofcommunityengagementonhealthoutcomes,butarguablythereisanequallystrongcasefortheneedtohavesimilarrobustmeasuresforcommunityempowerment.
Examplesofinitiativeswhereempowermentstrategiesappeartohavebeenusedtogreateffectinclude:
• ayouthviolencepreventionstrategy(Reischletal.2011)and
• HIVprogrammedevelopmentinlow-andmiddle-incomecountries(Kerriganetal.2015).
Onesystematicreviewlookingspecificallyatcommunityengagementnotedthatitcouldhavebothnegativeandpositiveoutcomesfortheindividual.Positiveoutcomesincluded‘personalempowerment’,butnegativeoutcomesincludedstressandexhaustion,asinvolvementdrainedparticipants’energyaswellastheirtimeandfinancialresources.Thephysicaldemandsofengagementwerereportedasparticularlyonerousbyindividualswithdisabilities.Consultationfatigueanddisappointmentwerenegativeconsequencesforsomeparticipantswhohadexperiencedsuccessivewavesofengagementinitiatives.For
17 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
someindividuals,engagementmayinvolveaprocessofnegotiationbetweengainsandlosses(Attreeetal.2011)
Muchoftheliteratureavailableoncommunity-healthinitiativesnotedastrongcommunity-engagementfocus,particularlyinterventionsfocusedonpromotingphysicalactivity(especiallyactivetravel)andaddressingunhealthyeating.However,oneoftherecurrentchallengesevidentintheliteraturewasidentifyingwhoexactlywasincludedwithintheintervention,asmanystudiesfailedexplicitlytodefinethescopeofparticipants.Forexample,anumberofreviewshighlightedthatthedataonadolescentswasoftenbundledupwithotherage-groups(Hagelletal.2015;Sleddens2014).Inaddition,manyinterventionslackclarityaboutthedesiredbehaviouraloutcomes,orreportongenericoutcomemeasures.Thisisunfortunate,astheuseofdifferentoutcomemeasurescaninfluencetheinterpretationofinterventioneffectiveness(Charlebois2012).
Ineffect,whilethepotentialtoinfluencelifelongbehaviourssupportsthedesignofeffectiveandage-appropriateinterventionsforchildrenandadolescents,thereisaneedforclarityonthedesign,purposeandscopeofinterventionstoincreaseconfidenceintheirreplicability,andpotentialforlong-lastingchange.Forexample:
• veryfewfoodliteracyprogrammeshavedemonstratedapositiveimpactondietarybehaviourstodate(BrooksandBegley2014);and
• areview(Bourke2014)ofadolescentdietaryinterventionsfoundonlyoneinterventionthatreportedalastingstatisticallysignificantincreasedconsumptionoffruitandvegetables.
Thissuggeststhattheremaybelimitedacademicevidenceavailableonwhichtodraw,highlightinganotherrecurrentchallenge.Muchoftheevidenceoncommunityinitiativesmaynevermakeitintotheacademic
press.Accessingthisevidenceisafurtherchallenge(section5.3).
Thereare,however,somefactorsacrossthestudiesthatseemedtoberelatedtomoreeffectiveoutcomes:
• thecapacityandwillingnessofserviceusersandthepublictogetinvolved;
• theskillsandcompetenciesofpublicsectorstaff;and
• thedominanceofprofessionalculturesandideologies.
4.1.3Socialinteractions
4.1.3.1Socialisolationandsocialnetworks
Enhancingpeersupportandgroupactivitiesimprovessocialconnectivity,andwithitimproveshealth.Connectingtoothers,andgivingandreceivingsupport,arelinkedtoimprovedhealthandwellbeingoutcomes,withsocialisolationandlonelinesslinkedtoanincreasedriskofnegativehealthbehaviourssuchasincreaseddrinking,comforteating,andlowerratesofphysicalactivity(Nesta2016).
Anumberofstudieshavelookedatthewayinwhichsocialnormsandnetworkscanbeinfluentialinchangingandsupportinghealth-promotingbehaviours.Smokingcessation,forexample,canbeencouragedthroughsocialnetworks(Hitchmanetal.2014).Socialnormsarechangingaroundsmoking(notablyfollowingthebanonsmokinginpublicplacesin2007),andtheinfluenceofpeerrelationshipsisclear:smokingcessationbyaspousedecreasedindividuals’chancesofsmokingby67percent,byafriendby36percent,andbyaco-workerinasmallfirmby34percent(ChristakisandFowler2007).
However,negativebehaviourscanalsobeinfluencedthroughsocialnetworks.Astudyofover12,000peopletoinvestigateclusteringofobesityconcludedthattheriskofobesityisincreasedevenatthree
ACharterforCommunity
DevelopmentinHealth
Inrecognitionthathealthandotheragenciesmustinspireandengagethecommunitytoamuchgreaterextenttodeliverhealth,theNHSAlliancehasproducedaCharterforCommunityDevelopmentinHealth(NHSAlliance2014).Itcallsondecision-makersactivelytodevelopcommunity-ledpartnerships,withcommunitydevelopmentworkersprovidingexpertsupportasneeded,andlisteningtoandrespondingtolocalpeople.
18 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
degreesofseparation(i.e.theriskofanindividualhavingobesityis10percenthigherifhis/herfriendsoffriendsoffriendsareobese).Inaddition,weightgaininonepersonwasassociatedwithweightgaininhisorhersocialnetwork:anindividual’schancesofbecomingobeseincreasedby57percentifheorshehadafriendwhobecameobeseinagivenintervalandby37percentifhis/herspousebecameobese.‘Obesityappearstospreadthroughsocialties’(ChristakisandFowler2007).
Face-to-facesocialnetworksarekey,butsocialinteractionisexpandingintothedigitalage,andthereisevidencetoshowthatsocialmediacanbeaneffectivetoolforsupportingbehaviourchange.Forexample,astudyoftheeffectivenessofsocialmediainsupportingpeopletostopsmokingfoundthatFacebookwasauseful,cost-effectiverecruitmentsourceforyoungadultsmokers.Adspostedvianewsfeedpostswereparticularlysuccessful,withtheconclusionbeingthatthiswasbecausetheywereviewableviamobilephone(Ramoetal.2014;Ramoetal.2015).Theutilityofmobilephones(Whittakeretal.2012)andcomputeraids(Chenetal.2012)hasalsobeenexplored,withsimilarlypositiveresults.
Therearealsohundredsofthousandsofhealthappsandwebsitesavailable,claimingtosupportpeoplewithahugerangeofhealthandlifestylechallenges–supportthatcanhappenathomeorinthelocalcommunity.However,healthprofessionalsandothershaveexpressedconcernsaboutthequalityofmanyapps–theyareoftenoflimitedfunctionality,developedrapidly,notbasedonevidenceofefficacyorbehaviour-changeprinciples,withlittleevaluation,andfewaredesignedtoaddressareasofgreatestneed(Boulosetal.2014).
Thereareinherentdifficultiesinregulatingapps–includingtheneedtoregulatewithoutstiflinginnovation(AMS/RAE2015).TheNHSiscurrentlyintheprocessofdevelopingabenchmarkinglibraryforhealthapps–butthisisstillinitsearlystages(NHS2016b)–andeffortsarebeingmadeinaccreditationandassessmentofhealthapps(forexample,Stoyanovetal.2015).Improvinge-healthliteracyandtacklingdigitalexclusion(seebox)isalsorequiredtonavigatesuccessfullytheplethoraofappsavailable–forexample,of552alcohol-relatedappsidentifiedintheUnitedKingdom,overhalfwereentertainmentappsandonly14percentfocusedonalcoholreduction(Craneetal.2015).
Therearealsoincreasingnumbersoflocallybasedactivitiesforwhichsupportandawarenesshavebeenbuiltonline,andhaveanecdotalbenefitstophysicalandmentalhealth,eveniftheyhavenotbeenformallystudied.Theriseofparkrunisonesuchexample,aweekly5kmrunthat,asofApril2016,hasnearly950,000peopleregistered,andisparticipatedinbyaround90,000peopleaweekinalmost400locations(mostlyintheUnitedKingdom,butspreadingabroad)–andiswidelyseenasfriendlyandfun,aswellashealthpromoting.(Seealsothefinalpaperinthisseries.)
4.1.3.2Socialprescribing
Socialprescribinghasthepotentialtobecomefullyintegratedasapatientpathwayforprimary-carepracticesandtostrengthenthelinksbetweenhealth-careprovidersandcommunity,voluntaryandlocalauthorityservicesthatinfluencepublichealth,includingleisure,welfare,education,culture,employmentandtheenvironment(forexample,urbanparks,greengymsandallotments).9Socialprescribingcanhaveanimportantimpactonlifestyleandhealth(Daysonetal.2013),andmayresultin:
9However,thefieldofevidenceonsocialprescribingappearstobequitelimited:anAthenssearchofsixelectronicdatabasesdidnotidentifyanypeer-reviewedliterature,althoughaGooglesearchdidpickupsomepapers,which
Addressingdigitalexclusion
AccordingtoNHSdataondigitalparticipation,some9.5millionpeoplelackbasicdigitalnumeracyskills,and6.5millionpeoplehaveneverbeenonline.Thoseexperiencingdigitalexclusiontendtobeolder,poorerandmorelikelytobedisabled:peoplewhoarealreadyatriskoftheexperienceofhealthinequalities(TinderFoundation2015).TheDigitalParticipationschemeisworkingwithcommunityorganisationsaswellasnationalpartnerstosupporthard-to-reachpeople,andprovidetraining,withaviewtosupportingpeopletobettermanagetheirhealthineverydaylife.
19 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
• increasedawarenessofskills,activitiesandbehavioursthatimproveandprotectwellbeing;
• increaseduptakeofarts,leisure,education,volunteering,sportingandotheractivitiesbyvulnerableandat-riskgroups;and
• increasedlevelsofsocialcontactandsocialsupportamongmarginalisedandisolatedgroups.
Itcanalsoimprovemedicalcare,suchasreducedlevelsofinappropriateprescribingofantidepressantsformildtomoderatedepression,reducedwaitinglistsandhospitalattendance(inRotherham,A&Eattendanceamongthosereferredtosocialprescriptionfellby21percentinsixmonths).
4.1.4Environmentalfactors
Theeffectivedesignanduseofthephysicalinfrastructureofcommunitiesiskeytohealthierlifestyles–suchascreatinganenvironmentthatisnolongerobesogenic(seealsotheChildrenandYoungPeoplepaperinthisseries,section3.2.3)andwhichisaccessibleandattractivetoallages:astheRoyalInstituteofBritishArchitectsnotesonitswebsite,‘thepopulationisincreasingandoursocietyisgrowingolder.Let’sdesignbuildingsandcommunitiesthataremindfulofthehealthimpactsonresidents.’
Forexample,thehealthandeconomicbenefitsofgreenspacecouldbeconsiderable–provisionofgreenspacetobringabouta1percentchangeinthesedentarypopulationhasbeenestimatedtohaveaneconomicvaluerangingfrom£479–1442millionperyear,dependingonwhetherolderpeople(75+)areincludedorexcluded(Lavinetal.2006).Neighbourhoodsthatarecharacterisedasmorewalkable,eitherleisure-orientedordestination-driven,areassociatedwithincreasedphysicalactivity,increasedsocialcapital,loweroverweight,lowerreportsofdepression,andlessreportedalcoholabuse(Renaldsetal.2010).
Differentneighbourhooddesignscanenableandencourage(ordiscourage)communityconnections(Lavin2006;Leyden2003;CaveandCoutts2002).Inparticular,mixed-useandpedestrian-orientedneighbourhooddesignspromotesocialinteractionthroughenablingresidentstoperformdailyactivitieswithouttheuseofacar,andincreasedtrafficvolumereducessocialinteraction.WiththeadventofthenewHealthyTownsinitiative(NHS2016a),thereisanopportunitytoshapethehealthofcommunitiesinanewway.Ensuringthesenewtownsreceiveappropriatesupportandadequatelyevaluatetheimpactofthefocusonhealthiscrucialtosettingarobustfoundationforfuturereplicationandextensionoftheprojectelsewhere.
Localcouncilsarealsolookingforwaysinwhichtotackleobesitythroughplanningregulations(TCPA2016).NICEhasproducedguidanceon‘Physicalactivityandtheenvironment’(aimedatallorganisationswithresponsibilityforthebuiltenvironment),whichsetsoutanumberofrecommendationsonenvironmentalchangetoencouragephysicalactivity,includingplanningchangesandtrafficengineering(NICE2008).Planningpowersarealsobeingusedtopreventtheestablishmentofnewfast-foodtakeaways,thenumberofwhichincreasedby45percentbetween1990and2008,andwhicharemostdenselysituatedinlow-SESneighbourhoods–althoughthisisbestcombinedwithothereffortssuchasworkingtoprovideincentivesandrewardsforimprovedcontentoftakeawaymenusinthecontextofcommunity-widehealthyweightstrategies(LGA2016).
4.1.5Focusingonprevention
Muchoftheliteratureemphasisestheneedtoworkinpartnershipwiththecommunitytooptimisehealthoutcomes.Understandingwhoarethemaincommunityactors,andwherearetheinterventionpoints,underpinsasset-mappingapproaches(section3.2).(Theworkplaceisalsoacommunity-basedplaceforinterventions,butisdealtintheWorkplacebriefingpaperinthisseries.)
suggeststhatthereisincreasinginterestintheconcept.Atpresent,thegreyliteratureismoreprevalentthanthepeerreviewedliterature.
20 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
4.1.5.1Faith-basedinstitutions
Anumberofstudieshavelookedatthepotentialroleoffaith-basedinstitutions(churches,mosques,temples,etc.)inhealthpromotion(GaliatsatosandHale2015;Hemmingetal.2016;Opalinskietal.2015;Kaplanetal.2006).Faith-basedinstitutionshaveauniquelinktotheircongregation,beingstable,prominentandinfluential.Anumberofkeyfactorsarenotedasfundamentaltosuccess:
• engagementoftheleadershipoftheplaceofworship;
• theuseofthestructuresoftheplaceofworshipasvenuesforeducationandintervention;and
• changesinpoliciesoftheplaceofworship.
Pre-existingrelationshipswithinthecommunityandtheprominentagenda-settingroleplayedbyfaithleadersareimportant.Giventhedemonstratedabilitytopullpeopletogether,tomotivateandtoinspire,thereisgreatpotentialforfaith-basedinterventions,andmodelsdevelopedthroughsuchinterventions,topromotecommunityhealthandaddresshealthinequalities.
4.1.5.2Communitypharmacies
InMarch2015,(HSCIC2015a),therewere11,674communitypharmaciesinEngland,anincreaseof1,802(18.3percent)since2005/6(HSCIC2015a).Inrecentyears,governmentpolicyhaspromotedtheroleofthecommunitypharmacyinpublichealth–theyarelocatedintheheartofthecommunity,haveclosecontactwiththepublic,andarerelativelyeasytoaccess.Systematicreviewsreinforcetheirpotentialinhealthpromotion,withevidenceofeffectivenessformanagingconditionssuchasdiabetesand
hypertension,andforpreventiveservicesincludingweightmanagement,osteoporosispreventionand
smoking(Georgeetal.2010;Brownetal.2016a).However,furtherevaluationofeffectivenessisneededforalcoholmisuseandobesity(Brownetal.2016a),andthereisalsoaneedfortrainingtoincreasepharmacists'confidenceinprovidinghealth-promotionservices(Eadesetal.2011).
4.1.5.3Schools
Schoolsareattheheartofcommunities,andcanbethesettingforarangeofinterventionapproachesanddeliverymethods.Thesecaninclude:
• educationalapproaches,withadefinedcurriculumonspecifictopics–suchasassembliesfocusingonalcohol,withinformationprovidedabouttherisksofalcohol,itsdamagingeffectonfamilies,communities,etc.Thesegenerallyaimtoimproveawarenessoftherisksassociatedwiththebehaviourandencouragepositiveattitudes,whilestrengtheningexistingknowledgeandskills;
• social-normsapproachesthattargetspecificbehaviours,correctingmisconceptionsofbehaviours;
• provisionoflife-skillstraining,suchasaroundsayingnotodrugs,encouragingcriticalthinking,strengtheningsocialskillsandresistancestrategies;
• peer-to-peerdeliveryofeducation;and
• community-systemsapproaches(Vicaryetal.1996).
Inaddition,thereisgoodevidencearoundtheuniversalprovisionoffreeschoolmealsasbenefitingchildren’shealthandperformance(seeChildrenandYoungPeople,section4.3.1.1).
4.1.5.4Preventioninterventions
Manystudiesreportsomebehaviouraloutcomes(forexample,TableE).However,evaluationofeffectivenessisoftenlimited,withlittletonoreportingofprocessevaluation,andalackofconsistencyinidentifyingbehaviouraloutcomes–again,acommonproblemforthoseinterestedincommunity-basedhealth,andonedealtwithinthefinalpaperinthisseries.
21 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
TableE:Communityinterventions:lifestylebehaviours(examples)
Smoking • Communitypharmacy-deliveredsmoking-cessationinterventionsincludingbehaviouralsupportand/orNRT,areeffectiveandcosteffective,particularlywhencomparedwithusualcare.However,thewidevarietyofinterventionsprecludedtheabilitytoevaluateeffectivenessbyspecifictypesofinterventions(Brown2016b).
Alcohol • Alcoholeducationinschoolstendstohaveonlysmallpositiveeffects(Jonesetal.2007;Foxcroftetal.2011)–seealsoChildrenandYoungPeople,section4.3.3.1(casestudy6)).
• Theroleofalcoholeducationaspartofamulticomponentalcoholinterventionstrategyhasnotbeenexaminedindetail(ISM2009).
• Thereisinsufficientevidencetoassesstheeffectivenessofcommunitypharmacy-basedinterventionsforalcoholreduction(Brown2016b).
Druguse • Skills-basedprogrammesinschoolshelptodeterdruguse(Faggianoetal.2008).
Sexualrisktaking
SeealsotheChildrenandYoungPeoplepaper,section4.3.3.3
• Findingsshowedthatparent-basedinterventionswereinconsistentlyeffectiveatreducingyoungpeople’ssexualriskbehaviours.Preliminaryevidencesuggeststhateffectivenesswasgreaterinthosestudiesaimingtoaffectmultipleriskbehaviours.However,thismaybeduetolongerprogrammedeliveryandfollow-uptimes;furtherevidenceisrequired(Downingetal.2011).
• multicomponentschool-basedinterventions,forexample,includingschoolpolicychanges,parentinvolvement,andworkwithlocalcommunities,areeffectiveforpromotingsexualhealthandpreventingbullyingandsmoking(Shackletonetal.2016).
Obesity • Placesofworshipcanbeasuccessfulmechanismforpromotinghealth,specificallyaroundnutrition,amongstblackcommunitiesintheUnitedKingdom.Aninterventioninwhichonechurchtookanactiveeducationalapproach,andthecontrolchurchonlygaveoutaleaflet,foundthatthecongregationsofbothestablishmentsreportedbetternutritionandsomeweightloss(AdinkrahandBahkta2013).
• Evidencefromaheterogeneousgroupofweight-managementinterventionssuggestthatcommunitypharmacy-deliveredweight-managementinterventionsareaseffectiveassimilarinterventionsinotherprimary-caresettings,atleastintheshortterm,andhavesimilarprovidercosts(Brown2016b).
Benefitsof
community
engagement
• Thefindingsofarapidreviewsuggestthatthemajorityof‘engaged’individualsperceivedbenefitsfortheirphysicalandpsychologicalhealth,self-confidence,self-esteem,senseofpersonalempowermentandsocialrelationships(Attreeetal.2011).
• 21/24(87.5%)hadpositivelyimpactedhealthbehaviours,publichealthplanning,healthserviceaccess,healthliteracy,andarangeofhealthoutcomes(Cyriletal.2015).
• theYESstudyfoundpositivebenefitsfromengagingandempoweringyouthtoplanandimplementyouthviolencepreventionprogrammes(Reischletal.2011).
4.2Whatishappeninginpractice?Practicalevidence
ThissectionfocusesonpracticalexamplesandcasestudiesofprojectsintheUnitedKingdomandfurtherafield,whichillustratethechallengesandresearchareasidentified.Theseexamplesareeithercommunity-basedprojectsinitiatedbyhealthorganisations(suchasCCGs)orcommunity-basedprojectsthatarenotestablishedbythehealthservice,buthave(eitherintentionallyorasasideeffect)healthbenefit.Thelatterinclude,forexample,engagementincommunity-healthactivitiesbylocalsportsteams,suchasLeyton
22 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
OrientTrust’smental-healthinitiative‘CopingthroughFootball’,orwiderinitiativessuchasFitFans,anetworkofmentor-ledaspirationalcommunity-basedweight-lossprogrammes,deliveredinconjunctionwithlocalprofessionalandamateursportsclubs).However,asisnotedmanytimesinthisbriefingpaper,manylocallybasedactivitiesarenotadequatelyevaluated(forexample,section5.3).
Fundingforthecase-studyinitiativesisdrawnfromawiderangeofsources,bothpublic-,private-andthird-sector,butsustainabilityisoftenachallenge.ThekeyplayerslistedinAnnex1(andwithmoredetailprovidedintheDebateGraphaccompanyingthisseriesofpapers)includessomefunders–suchastheUnitedKingdom’s48accreditedcommunityfoundations,whichhelpindividuals,families,entrepreneurs,companies,charitiesandpublic-sectorbodiesconnectwith,supportandinvestintheirlocalcommunities.
The13exampleshavebeenchosentoillustratethebreadthofactivitiesacrossthecountry,andtodemonstratethewiderangeofdifferentapproachesthatcanbetakentocommunity-centredwellbeingsetoutinFigure2.
Figure2:Community-centredapproachesforhealthandwellbeing
Source:PHE2015a
Successfulinitiativesfallintomultiplecategories,butsomespecificexamplesareasfollows(thecasestudynumberappearsinbrackets):
• strengtheningcommunities:BromleybyBow(4),MorganStanleyHealthyLondon(9),ShapeUpSomerville(11)
• volunteerandpeerroles:BeaconProject(1),NeighbourhoodHealthWatch(6)
• collaborationsandpartnership:WellLondon(3),BoxChicken(7),Viasano(12)
• accesstocommunityresources:C2ConnectingCommunities(2),RoslistonForestryCentre(8).
23 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
4.2.1Promotingcommunityempowerment,engagementandparticipation
Casestudy1:TheBeaconproject
TheBeaconprojectontheBeaconandOldHillEstateinFalmouth,Cornwalltookplaceinthemid-1990s,andhasbeentheinspirationformanyothersuccessfulcommunity-leddevelopmentprojects(includingC2ConnectingCommunities–casestudy2).Thephysicalconditionsontheestatewereverypoorandthecommunitywasrifewithvandalism,crimeandextremelypoorhealth.HealthvisitorsHazelStuteleyandPhilipTrenowethrealisedthattheestatehadbeenabandonedbythestatutoryagencies,andsetouttore-engageandreconnectpublicservicesandthecommunity(Stuteley2002).
Fivelocaltenantswiththeskillsnecessarytoengagetheirpeerswereidentified,whoreceivedtraininginsubmittinggrantapplicationsandformingandmaintainingaconstitutedcommittee.Thisgroupsubsequentlysetupaformaltenantsandresidentsassociation.Theyproducedanewsletterandhadone-to-onechatswithallhouseholds,informingresidentsabouttheplansfortheestate.Sessionswerethenheldforlocalpeopletoestablishthemainproblemsaffectingtheirhealth,suchascrime,poorhousingandunemployment.Meetingsbetweenresidentsandrelevantagenciesfollowed,whichledtoconstructivere-engagementbetweenresidentsandthelocalauthority,police,andyouthandsocialservices.
By2000,theoverallcrimeratehaddropped50percentandunemploymentlevelsby71percent.Housingimprovementsmeantchildhoodasthmadecreasedby40percent,postnataldepressionfellby70percentandbreastfeedingratesincreasedby30percent(HealthComplexityGroup2016).
VitaltotheBeaconProject’ssuccesswasitscollaborativeapproach,involvingthecommunityconcernedfromtheveryoutsetandcontinuouslythroughouttheprocess.Theprojectwasrecentlyrelaunched,butfurtherinformationisnotyetavailable.
Casestudy2:C2ConnectingCommunitiesandtheNewingtonhousingestate
C2ConnectingCommunitiesisaframeworkforcreatingtransformativechangeindisadvantagedcommunities.C2isevidence-based,bothfromexperienceinthefieldandreflectivepractices,andatitsheartiscommunityinvolvementandenablingacommunityvoice.Itformsaresident-ledpartnershipthatissupported,butnotdirected,byserviceproviders.Residentsareinvitedtoalisteningeventwherelocalissuescanbediscussedbetweenthemandserviceprovidersinanon-hierarchicalway,andfromthisaresident-ledpartnershipisformedandactionbasedonthefeedbackbegins.
In2012C2wasimplementedintheNewingtonhousingestateinRamsgate,Kent,formingtheresident-ledNewingtonBigLocalPartnership(NBLP2014).NBLPhasa10-yearplanforNewingtonthatcoversthreethematicareas:health,wealthandhappiness.AnexampleofanNBLPsuccessisreclaimingtheCopse,alocal1.2-acreareaofwoodland.Thegreenspacehashostedmanyoutdoorcommunityactivitiesandthousandsofpeoplevisitedin2014/15.AnotherexampleistheCommunityChefproject,whichsupportedresidentscookinghealthymealsonlimitedbudgets.Feedbackfromparticipantsshowedthatthecookingskillswereveryusefulintheireverydaylives,thattheirconfidenceincreasedand,thatthesharedactivitieshelpedcommunitycohesion.
InSeptember2015theNewingtonBigLocalprojectwasreviewedbyresidents.AchievementslistedincludeddispellingthebadreputationthatNewingtonhadformerlyhad,bringingbackcommunityspirit,residentsusingandbuildingnewskills,andpeoplefeelingmoreconfident,betteratspeakingoutandsharingtheirideas(NBLP2015).
24 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
Casestudy3:WellLondon
WellLondon–withthestrapline‘Communitiesworkingtogetherforahealthiercity’–providesaframeworkforcommunitiesandorganisationstopartnertoimprovehealthandwellbeing,buildresilienceandreduceinequalities.EstablishedwithfundingfromTheBigLottery,itoperatesverylocally,atneighbourhoodlevel–todate,in30deprivedareasacrossLondon,includingBrent,Camden,TowerHamletsandSouthwark.Itworkswithresidentstoestablishlocalneeds(ratherthanimposingideas)andempowersthemtocomeupwiththeirownsolutionsandsupporteachothertolivehealthierlives.Italsointegrateswithandaddsvaluetoexistinglocalprogrammes–partneringwithgrassrootsorganisationsandinvolvingpeoplealreadyembeddedwithin(andtrustedby)thelocalcommunity.Thispartnershipapproachbuildscommunityspiritandconnectspeopleofallages,andincreasesindividualandcommunityknowledgeandskills.Thisalso–crucially–buildscapacity,whichcreatessustainability.
ActivitiessupportedbyWellLondonincludeartsandcraftsworkshops,theuseof‘communityactivators’toencouragepeopletocometophysical-activitysessions(forallages),establishingahealthylocalcafé(whichalsorunscookingsessionsandgiveshelpinbudgeting)andafruitandvegetablestall,andrunningalocalwomen’slifeskillsgroup.Theprojectsareallpromotedlocally–forexample,byGPsdirectingpatientstophysical-activityopportunities.Researchindicateasignificantimpact–forexample,83percentofparticipantshadbeenhelpedtoincreasephysicalactivity,63percenthadbeenhelpedtogainaccesstohealthyfood,and80percentreportedimprovedunderstandingofmentalwellbeing.
Evaluation(withtheUniversityofEastLondon)hasbeenongoing(e.g.WellLondon/UEL2013),focusingonthenatureofandimpactonparticipants(includingalongitudinalcohortstudy),andhasbeenusedtodeveloptheprojectfurther.Currently,plansarebeingdevelopedforevaluatingtheprojectasitscalesup,includingfurtherevidenceofeffectivenessandcost–benefit,andhowtheWellLondonframeworkcouldbescaledupacrosslargergeographicalareas.
4.2.2Socialnetworks,socialisolationandsocialprescribing
Casestudy4:SocialprescribingattheBromleybyBowCentre
TheBromleybyBowCentreisacharityinadeprivedareaofTowerHamlets,EastLondon,thatprovidesadistinctive,holisticandeasilyaccessiblerangeofintegratedservicesinoneplace.Theservicesavailablestretchfromhealthcareforlocalresidentstoopportunitiestosetupyourownbusiness;fromsupportwithcredit-carddebtstobecomingastained-glassartist;fromlearningtoreadtogettingafirstjob.
TheBromleybyBowCentrewasfoundedontheprinciplesofsocialprescribing.Patientsarereferredtonon-medicalsourcesofsupportthroughlocalservices,programmesandprojects,suchashealthy-eatinggroupsorartsandcrafts,befriendingservicesandtohealth,wellbeingandhealthylifestylessupport,socialwelfareoremploymentprogrammes.GPs,nurses,health-careassistantsandreceptionstaffoftenhaveanunderstandingofthewiderneedsoftheirpatients,andsocialprescriptionenablesthemtoimproveoverallpatienthealthandwellbeing.
Animpactreportfoundsignificantbenefits,forexample80percentofpeopleofpeoplewhotookpartinthePoLLeNproject(People,Life,LandscapeandNature–usingsocialandtherapeutichorticulturetoimprovewellbeingthroughengagementinthenaturalenvironment)reportedimprovedphysicalandmentalhealthovera12-monthperiod,and58percentofpeopleofpeoplewhocompletedtheMyWeightcourselost5percentormoreoftheirbodyweight(BBBC2011).AreportintotheeffectivenessoftheCentrehasalsobeencommissionedjointlywithPublicHealthEngland.
TheBromleybyBowCentrehasasignificanttrackrecordofdevelopingandsharinginnovativepracticebothnationallyandinternationally.Ithascontributedtoanumberofnationalpolicyinitiatives,includingthedevelopmentofthenationalSureStartandChildren’sCentreprogramme,theHealthTrainerinitiative,TacklingHealthInequalitiespoliciesandtheHealthyLivingCentreprogramme.
25 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
Casestudy5:LocalAreaCoordinationinDerby
Since2012,small-scalelocalinterventionhasbeendeliveringdramatichealthimprovementsinDerbythroughLocalAreaCoordination(LAC)projects.Localareacoordinatorsworkautonomously,gettingtoknowpeopleatriskofrequiringformalservices,supportingpeoplewhoarevulnerableasaresultofphysical/learningdisability,mental-healthissues,sensoryimpairmentorage-relateddifficulties.Theygivesupportwith(forexample)buildingrelationshipswithothersinthecommunity,accessingarangeofinformationandservices,buildingconfidence,andhelpingtoenvisionwhatagoodlifelookslikeandprovingsupportinorganisingthestepstoachieveit.Byworkingtogether,theyareabletofocusonanindividual’smainpriorities–forexample,aresidentwantingtogetoutofhisflatandmakesomefriends,orhelpingpeopletofeelsafe,secureandmoreconfident.
EvaluationbytheUniversityofDerbyshowedthat,whenimplementedaccordingtoitscorevalues,principlesandmethodology,LACproducesverypositiveoutcomes.Overaperiodof10–12months,workingwithapproximately50people,theevaluationestimatedtherehadbeenan£800,000savingtohealthandsocialcareasaresultofpeople’suseoftheformalsystembeingdelayedordivertedentirely(Frisby2015).AnevaluationreportfromMarch2016showedthatLACserviceusersreportedimprovedhealthandwellbeing,lesssocialisolation,andincreasedconfidenceandindependence(ThinkLocalActPersonal2016).
LAChasalsobeenrolledoutinadiverserangeofUKlocations,includingCumbria,Gloucestershire,theIsleofWight,Leicestershire,NeathPortTalbot,Suffolk,Swansea,ThurrockandWalthamForest.
Casestudy6:NeighbourhoodHealthWatch
TheNeighbourhoodHealthWatchmodelisthebrainchildofalocalGPwhodecidedthat,althoughmanycommunitiesalreadydomuchtohelponeanother,moresupportwouldempowerthemtodomore.EachNHHWbringstogethertheNHS,Police,FireandRescue,thevoluntarysectorandthelocalauthoritytoenablecommunitiestoaddresshealthandwellbeingneeds,suchasreducingsocialisolation,increasingresilience,connectingcommunitysupportforhealth,andpromotingvolunteering.Theyvaryinsizefromjustafewhousestoallthehousesinalocalarea.
EachNHHWisledbyalocalresident–avoiceforthecommunity–organisingregularmeetingstodiscussissuesanddecideonaction.Itprovidesasettingforconversationsbetweencommunitymembers(someofwhommayhavegoodknowledgeofrelevanthealthareas)andactsasa‘bridge’toinformationandserviceproviders(includingcharitiesandlocalbusinesses)whoaretryingtoaccessthecommunity,butfindithardtoreachthosemostinneed.NHHW‘goodneighbours’undertakeindividualactionssuchasclearingsnow,offeringliftstoshopsormedicalappointments,orcheckingalliswellwithpeoplewholivealone.
Theinitialpilotsitesweremonitoredcloselytoidentifymechanismsofdevelopmentandtoidentifykeysuccesscharacteristics.Therealitiesofeachsiteprovedtobedifferent,soeachNHHWhasadifferentfocus(inBudleigh,forexample,a‘foodneighbours’schemeencouragespeopletocookanextraportionoffoodforsomeonewithoutaccesstohotfood).
TheprojecthasbeenevaluatedbySWAcademicHealthScienceNetwork(2015),butdata-gatheringischallengingbecauseitisvolunteer-ledandformalevaluationwouldchangetheroleofthevolunteers(makingitmoreonerous)andthevoluntarynatureoftheproject.NHHWshavealsostruggledtocontinuewhencoordinatorsmoveontoanotherrole.
NHHWscurrentlyoperateindependently(aninitialquarterlysteeringgroupmeetingnolongertakesplace),butasimplemodelhasbeendevelopedthatestablisheskeycorecomponents,allowingNHHWstobeestablishedelsewhere(NHHW2016).
26 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
4.2.3Environmentalfactors
Casestudy7:BoxChickenproject:creatingnew,healthytakeawayservices
Fast-foodoutletsthatserveunhealthytakeawayfoodareverycommoninmanyareasoftheUnitedKingdom,andoftenespeciallysoinareaswithhigherlevelsofdeprivation–chickenshops,inparticular,areoftenaplacewhereyoungpeoplecongregatewhentheyhavenowhereelsesociabletogo.In2012,thecharitablefoundationandtrustShiftsetouttotacklethisbyworkingcollaborativelywithpartnersacrosspublichealth,fastfoodandnutritiontoredesigntheseenvironments(Shift2016).Theworkinvolvescreatingnewtakeawayservicesservingtasty,affordablefoodthatisalsohealthy,andworkingwithexistingfast-foodoutletsandlocalpublic-healthteamstomakethefoodalreadyavailablehealthier.Shiftwantstomakehealthyfoodoptionsjustasvisible,tastyandcheapastheunhealthyoptions.
ShiftfirstcompletedayearofresearchandconsultationinLondoncommunitiesandinOctober2013openedamobilefoodoutletcalledBoxChicken,servinghealthyandaffordablechickenmealsoverafour-weekperiodinNewham,EastLondon.Thispilotreceivedoverwhelminglypositivefeedback,andwasfollowedbyfurthertrialsthatwereallevaluated(Shift2015).Usingthisexperienceandtheevaluationfeedback,ShiftisnowworkingonapropositionforanewUKhealthyfastfoodbranch,andhasalsodevelopedamethodologyanddigitaltoolthatassessesandmapsfast-foodoutletsinspecificareas,designshealthimprovementstotheseoutletsandthenassessestheseimprovementsandtheirhealthimpact.Shiftiscurrentlyworkingwithapublic-healthteaminEastLondontorefineandtestthisserviceandhopestorollitoutacrosstheUnitedKingdom.
Casestudy8:Transformingthelocalenvironment:TheNationalForestandRoslistonForestryCentre
TheNationalForestisaprojecttocreateaforest,‘woodlandbywoodland’,acrossa200-square-mileregionoftheMidlands(NationalForest2014).Theprojectbegan25yearsago,duringwhichtimeforestcoverhasrisenfromjust6percentto20percent(theaimisforathird),and8.5milliontreeshavebeenplanted.TheForestisgrowingacrosspartsofDerbyshire,LeicestershireandStaffordshire,anareawithinwhichsome200,000peoplelive.In2015,theForestitselfhad7.5millionvisitors,andpracticallyeverychildlivingwithintheForesthasbeeninvolvedinitatsomepointthroughschool.Todate,mostofthefundingfortheNationalForestCompany(theorganisationchargedwithcreatingTheNationalForest)hasbeenfromDefra;theNFChasrecentlybecomeacharity,andwillbefocusingincreasinglyonlocalandnationalpartnershipsforsustainability.
TheForestareaisbecominganincreasinglypopularplacetoliveandwork,withtheForestitselfproviding‘socialglue’forthelocalcommunity.Healthandwellbeing,aswellasimprovingthelocalenvironment,underpinsmanyinitiatives,includingplanting/tendingtreesandthemanywalkingandcyclingtrails(including40milesofnewbicycletrailsputinplacebycyclingcharitySustrans,andthedevelopmentofa75-milewalkingtrail,theNationalForestWay).
RoslistonForestryCentre,forexample,runsawiderangeofactivitiestoencouragepeopleofallagestogetoutandabout–tacklingsocialinclusionaswellasphysicalhealth:‘TeddyWalks’aimedatyoungchildren,NordicWalking,walkingclubs,TaiChi,pushchairwalksandseniorcycling.Therearedrop-inactivitiesintheschoolholidaysandaholidayclub.TheCentreworkswithcommunitygroups,disabilityorganisationsandothercharities,corporategroupsandwithschools.
Althoughformalevaluationissometimesdifficulttoachievewithoutdisruptingtheeffectivenessoftheactivities,itisevidentfromstrikingqualitativeevidencethatthisisahugelybeneficialpartnershipforthehealthandwellbeingofthosewholiveandworkintheForest.
27 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
4.2.4Focusingonprevention
Casestudy9:MorganStanleyHealthyLondon
InFebruary2015,investmentbankMorganStanleylauncheditsHealthyLondonprogramme,aimingpositivelytoimpactchildren’shealthinPoplar,EastLondon,justashortdistancefromitsflagshipLondonheadquarters.MorganStanleybeganbypartneringwithlocalcharitiesandwithDrPaulSacherandC3CollaboratingforHealth.Sixmonthswasspentlisteningtolocalresidents’concerns,challengesandaspirationsfortheirchildren’shealth,andadetailedasset-mappingoflocalphysical-activityandfoodoptionswasundertakenusingtheCHESS®tool(C3CollaboratingforHealth2015a).TherecommendationsfromthisengagementprocessdrovetheplanningandexecutionoftheHealthyLondonproject.
Anumberofkeythemesemergedfromtheconversationswithlocalresidents.Languagebarriersandinaccessibleinformationwereidentifiedasobstaclesforfamiliesaccessingservicessuchashealthcare.Therewasalsoadesireamongresidentstogainbetterunderstandingofhealthissues,especiallyrelatedtonutrition.Theoverabundanceoffast-foodoutletsandtheincreasingratesofchildhoodobesitylocallywereseenasproblemsbyresidents.Thefindingshighlightedtheimportanceoffun,healthyplayforchildren,butmanyresidentscommentedthatopportunitiesandfacilitiesarelimitedinthecommunity–physical-activityopportunitiesforchildrenhavefallenoverthelastgeneration.
Today,throughtheHealthyLondonprogramme,thousandsofchildrenandparentshavegainedaccesstohealtheducationandacommunityhealthadviser,therearethreedifferentplaygroundsbeingbuilt(andeventswillbeheldineach,supportedbylocalresidents),andhealthymeals,nutritionadvice,healthylifestyleeducationandexerciseprogrammesareavailable–resourcesthatarecrucialtochildrengettingashealthyaspossibleastartinlife(MorganStanley2015).
Casestudy10:GoGolborne
GoGolborne(RBKC2016)isacommunity-basedhealthylifestyleinitiative,launchedin2015andduetocontinueforatleastthreeyears,partoftheRoyalBoroughofKensingtonandChelsea’seffortstoimprovechildhealth.Golborneisoneofthemostdeprivedareasoftheborough(andLondon).
ThemethodologyfortheinitiativeisinspiredbytheEPODEmodel(seealsocasestudy12belowandintheChildrenandYoungPeoplepaperinthisseries,section4.3.1.4,casestudy5)–aninternationalprogrammetopreventchildhoodobesity,thatinvolvesestablishinganetworkoflocalorganisationstomakeiteasiertoeathealthilyandtakephysicalactivityinallsettingswherechildrenandfamilieslive,learnandplay.Theinitiativewillrunadifferentcommunity-widesocialmarketingcampaigneverysixmonths,withotheractivitiesincludingenvironmentalimprovementstosupporthealthychoices(suchasinstallingplaygroundequipmentforolderchildren),trainingandcapacitybuilding(workshopsonkeynutritionandphysicalactivitytopics,andexpertinputtodevelophealthy-eatingpolicies),andincreasedsupportfromschoolnursesforhealthpromotion.Aschemeofsmallgrantsforlocalcommunityorganisationshasalsobeenestablished.Cross-departmentalworkingisencouraged–forexample,theCouncilissupportingmarkettraderstoacceptHealthyStartvouchersforfruitandvegetables.Anawardschemetosupportandrecognisegoodpracticeamongstcommunitysettingsisbeingpiloted.
GoGolborne’sfirstcampaign–5ADAY–beganinNovember2015.Over1,500childrentookpartinachallengetoeat5ADAYfor20days,cookingworkshopswereheldinalocalcafé,anda5ADAYmagazinehasbeendistributedtoparents.5ADAYgrantshavealsobeenawarded,enablingtheVentureCentretoprovidefreshfruitandvegetablesnacksforchildren,andprovidingfundingforlocalvolunteerstorunafter-schoolfoodgrowing/cookingclubsforfamilies.
Atthisearlystage,robustevidenceofimpactisnotyetavailable–aninitialindependentevaluationbytheUniversityofKentisdueinSeptember2016,butfeedbacktodate–fromlocalagencies,childrenandparents–hasbeenpositive.
28 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
Casestudy11:CollectiveimpactintheUnitedStates–ShapeUpSomerville
ShapeUpSomerville(SUS)isacampaignacrossthetownofSomerville,Massachusetts,to‘buildandsustainahealthier,moreequitablecommunity’.Itbeganasastudytoimprovelevelsofoverweightandobesityamongschoolchildrenbutnowencompassesthewholecommunity(a‘collectiveimpact’approach),focusingparticularlyonlowersocioeconomicgroups(ShapeUpSomerville2013).
Keytoitssuccessisstrongpartnershipswithcivicandcommunitystakeholders.Itisrunbyadirectorandcoordinatorsupportedbyasteeringcommitteeincludingcitydepartments(schools,housinginfrastructureetc.),community-basedgroups(suchasearlyyearsorganisationsandcommunityhealthproviders)andsomeprivate-sectororganisations.ThemayorhassupportedSUSsincecomingtoofficein2004–andSUSisnowembeddedasaconduitbetweencommunityandcity.
Threeformalstudiesofchildren'sweighthavebeencarriedout.Thefirstsurvey(2003–4)foundthattheBMIpercentileforfirst-tothird-gradersfellbyapproximatelyonepointcomparedwithcomparisoncommunities.The2010–11studysawadecreaseinobesityfrom30to28percent,with17percentofstudentsmovingoutoftheobesecategoryintoahealthierweightcategory(ShapeUpSomerville2012–13).
SUStodayhasthreemainaims:accesstohealthyfood(includingaMobileFarmer’sMarketanda‘healthyrestaurant’programme),healthequityandactiveliving.Futureplansincludeensuringprogrammesreachallage-groupsandcultures,andtacklinghealthinequality(in2011,35.6percentofeighth-gradeHispanicchildrenand23.6percentofwhitechildrenwereobese).
Therearechallengesoffunding,asinitiativesarereliantongrantsandfundersforimplementation(suchastheRobertWoodJohnsonFoundation),andtheacademicpartnersthatproducedthestudiesontheBMIdataarenolongerinvolved(C3CollaboratingforHealth2015b).
Casestudy12:Awhole-of-societyexample–ViasanoinBelgium
Viasano(the‘healthyway’)isanongoing,community-basedprogrammetotackleobesityandoverweightinchildrenthathasbeenrolledoutin20citiesacrossBelgium.ItusesEPODEmethodology(Borysetal.2012)toembedhealthierlifestylesovertime–workingwiththewholecommunity,notjustwithchildrenthemselves,tocreatealocalenvironmentthatsupportshealth.
Theprogrammeisrunatlocallevelbyaprojectmanagerwithalocalsteeringcommittee(teachers,healthprofessionals,localmedia,paediatricians,localassociationsandresidents)developViasanoideas,whicharedeliveredbylocalpeople.Theprivatesectorisalsoinvolved(regulatedbyanethicalcharter)–suchasgrocersprovidinghealthyproductsforevents.
InMouscronandMarche-en-Famenne,astudywasundertakenonchildrenaged3–6tocomparechangesinBMIwiththerestofthecountry’sFrench-speakingcommunity.In2007,13.6percentofthechildrenwereobese/overweight;by2010thishadfallento11.2percent–arelativedecreaseof18percent.In2007,4.1percenthadobesity;by2010thisfellto3.8percent–arelativedecreaseof7percent.Incontrast,ratesremainedstableinthecomparisonpopulation(Vincketal.2015).
Recentactionsinclude:acampaigntoimprovethehealthinessofschoollunchboxes,workshopsonmanyaspectsoffood(includingfornurseryworkersontheimportanceofeatingfruitandvegetables,andaworkshoponhealthyeatingwithlittlemoney);renovationofgreenspaceinanareaofsocialhousing;and‘AWeektoEatBetterandMoveMore’–includinglocalrestaurantsprovidinghealthyfood,takeawayfruitatschoolcanteens,sportingactivitiesforchildren,andtalksonphysicalactivity(Viasano2016).
Themainchallengeistomaketheprogrammesustainable–changestohabitsandhealthdonothappenovernight,sotheinitiativemustbelongterm,embeddeddeepwithinthelocalcommunity.
29 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
5.ChallengesandgapsThereisplentyofnarrativeaboutpreventionandworkingincommunities,butitappearsthatmovementtodatehasbeenlimited.Thereasonsforthisaremanyandvaried–butsolutionsmaybemoresimplethanwethink,ifthesystem(andthehumanandphysicalassetswithinit)canbeputtogooduse.
5.1Comparinglikewithlike?
Althoughthevolumeofliteratureavailableoncommunitiesisvast,therangeofdefinitionsandlackofclarityinwhichdefinitionisbeingappliedmeanthattheuseoftheconceptof‘community’hidesgreaterdiversitythanisimmediatelyapparent.Thereisaneedforamoresystematicapproachtogeographicalcommunityinterventions,witharobustframeworkforidentifyinganddelimitingcommunities,whichwillenablecross-communitycomparability.
5.2Promotingasset-basedapproachestocommunityhealth
Oneofthekeychallengesisensuringthatpeopleinthecommunityaresupportedandenabledto
participateeffectively.Organisationsworkinginandwithcommunitieshavetobecomeresponsivetowhatmatterstopeoplewithincommunities.NICEhaspublishedanumberofguidelinesdefininggoodpracticeinthisarea–forexample,guidancetolocalauthoritiesonhowtoengagewithpeopleintheirlocalareas(NICE2014)and,mostrecently,guidelineson‘Communityengagement:improvinghealthandwellbeingandreducinghealthinequalities’(seesection3.2.3).However,whilemuchofthisguidancewouldhavegeneralapplicabilitytopeopleworkingwithincommunities,itsuseremainslargelyinahealthsilo,failingtoreachthenon-clinical,community-basedorganisationsthatareessentialtoleadinghealthylives.Considerationneedstobegivenastohowbesttosupportdiverseorganisationstolearnfromexistingbestpracticeincommunityengagement,goingwellbeyondthetraditionalpublic-healtharenatoinvolve‘unusualsuspects’whohaveanimpactonhealth.Communitiesandresidentsneedtobesupported,nurturedandinspiredfirsttodeveloptheconfidencetotalktotheirlocalauthorities,housingassociations,anddecision-makerstotellthemwhatisimportanttothem,andsecondlytotakeactionthemselves.Providersoftheassetsthemselves–suchaslocalsportsassociations–mayalsoneedadviceinhowbesttotargettheircommunities.
However,fullystretchedpublic-healthteamsmaylacktheskillsandtimethatwouldenablethistotakeplace.Despitenowbeinglocatedwithcouncilservices,thereisoftenlimitedknowledgeinhowtomakeconnectionsbetween,andaccessresourcesfrom,otherdepartmentstomakepublichealtheveryone’sbusiness(seealsothefinalpaperinthisseries).Beyondthis,thecreativityandinnovationneededtoengageandempowercommunitiesandworkplaceseffectivelyisoftennotevident–althoughtherearesomeexemplars(seealsosection5.4below).
5.3Theneedtoimproveevaluationofprojects
Despitethelargeamountofliteraturethathasbeencollectedonhealthycommunities,thereisaseriouslackofevidenceaboutwhatworkstopromotecommunity-healthoutcomesinthepeer-reviewedliterature.10Manysystematicreviewsfocusondescribingtheproblems,talkingabouttherelationshipsbetweendeprivationandhealthoutcomes,andtherehasbeenalackoffocusonprevention.Wherestudiesareavailable,theygenerallyfocusonsmallsub-populations(acommunityofinterest)andthereislimitedconsiderationofgeographicalcommunities,andworkingwithdiversepopulations.Thearenaismademorecomplexbytheemergenceofnewtechnologyandimprovedtransportlinks,meaningthatprojectsworkingoncommunitiesareoftenunabletodisaggregatefindingsrobustlytoconsidertheneighbourhoodeffectasadistinctphenomenon.
10Thisisalsoanimportantissueintheotherareascoveredbythesebriefingpapers–see,forexample,Workplace(section5.5.2),EarlyYears/ChildrenandYoungPeople(section5.4)–andiscoveredinthefinalpaperintheseries.
30 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
Astheprevioussectionshaveshown,greaterclarityisneededaboutthescopeofinterventions,thedesiredoutcomes,andtheaudiencescoveredbytheinterventions.Anumberofprojectshavelookedatestablishingmetricsformeasuringtheimpactofcommunity-healthimprovementinitiativesthatcanbeutilisedacrosspopulationgroups.AUSreport,forexample(CDC2013),notedthat‘anaccurateportraitofacommunity’shealthcanalwayshelpresidents,communitygroups,andprofessionalorganizationsprioritizepreventionactivitiesandbuildcoalitionstomakeimprovementsandaddressexistingproblems’.Thisreporthighlightedtherangeofmetricsthatcanbeusedtofacilitatecomparisons,andpromotecollaborationthroughasharedunderstandingofthefactorsthatinfluencehealth.Interestingly,manyofthesefactorsfocusedondescribinghealthstatus–forwhich,intheUnitedKingdom,PublicHealthEnglandprovidesagoodrepositoryofappropriatedata.
Oneofthekeychallengesappearstobeconfusionaboutwhatcommunityempowermentreallymeans,andhowtoputitintopractice.Theevidencesearchfoundlittleharddatademonstratingrobustmeasurementofinterventionsthathavebeendrivenbycommunities.Thereisaneedforinnovativeapproachestomeasuretheimpactofcommunityempowermentonhealthoutcomestosupportandinformfutureactivity.Manyofthereviewsaccessedinthecourseofthisstudycommentedonthechallengesassociatedwithdefiningthepopulationlevel,andthatthisinturneffectedtheabilitytogeneraliselearningbasedonthefindingsfromstudies.Communityempowermentandpreventionis,itappears,hardtomeasure.Thereisaneedtodevelopinnovativeapproachestomeasurecommunityengagementandempowermentandtheirimpactonhealthoutcomesinamorerigorousway(Cyriletal.2015).
TheCentreforPublicHealthatLiverpoolJMUUniversityhasproducedausefulresource(BatesandJones2012)forconsideringhowbesttomonitorandevaluatecommunityprojects.Thisreport,producedtoinformongoingandfuturecommunity-basedgreenprojects,couldalsobeusedtoinformamoreconsistentapproachtothemonitoringandevaluationofothercommunityprojects,providinglinkstoresourcesandtoolsthatprovidepracticaladviceandmoredetailonhowtomonitorandevaluateprojects.Giventhatoneofthechallengesraisedinthisbriefingpaperistheneedtobeclearonwhatbasisreplicationisbeingrecommended,thissuggeststhatconsiderationneedstobegiventohowbesttosupporttherobustevaluationofcommunityprojectstosupportcross-comparisonsofinterventionsanddecisionsaboutfuturereplicabilityofprojects,particularlyinaresource-constrainedworld.
Ensuringrobustevaluationisbuiltintoallcommunityprojectsremainsachallenge.Notallprojectsaredestinedtobewrittenupintheacademicliterature.Thegreyliteratureprovedtobemorerewarding,highlightinganumberofsmall-scaleprojects,whichoninitialinvestigationseemedpromising.However,manyoftheseprojectsranonlyforashortperiodoftime,werenotscaleduporrobustlyevaluated,andhaveoftenceasedactivity.Publicisinggoodpracticeneedstobecomeapriority–andthecasestudiesinsection4.2areagoodplacetostart.
Afurtherchallengeisthatevaluationtakestime,effortandexpertise–andarequirementtogatherinformationcouldthreatentheviabilityofsomeinitiativeswheretheyareledbyvolunteerswithlittlesparetimetodevotetodatagathering.
Finally,thereisadangerofaviciouscirclebeingcreated,withthelackofevidenceformingabarrierto
actionandpreventingthebuildingoftheevidencebase.Butthereisarealopportunityhere:notonlywillasuccessfulandcarefullyevaluatedinitiative,facilitatedbycross-sectoralworking(funders,academics,implementersandlocalorganisationsandresidents),benefitthecommunitywithinwhichitisrun,ithasthepotentialtobeanexemplarforothers.
5.4Sustainability
Lackofresources–bothhumanandfinancial–remainsaconstantrefrain,witheventhemostsuccessfulandwell-knownprogrammesstrugglingtobecomesustainable(see,forexample,MEND(highlightedinthefinalpaperinthisseries)andShapeUpSomerville(aUSexample–casestudy11).Grantsformanynewinitiativesareprovidedonaproject-by-projectbasisovershorttimescalesandwithonlyshort-term
31 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
objectives,ratherthanbuildingcapacitywithinthecommunityitselftocontinuetheprogrammesandcreatelong-termchangefromwithin.
Programmesareoftensiloed–forexample,tacklingobesitywithoutlookingatotherlifestyleissues–and,withshrinkingenvelopesofresourceavailableforfundinghealth-promotioninitiatives,considerationneedstobegiventohowbesttomaximisetheimpactoffundingacrossthepublic-healthlandscape.Thereisaneedforapublic-healthworkforceskilledinseekingoutlimitedfunding,willingtopartnerwithlocalauthorities,charitiesandotherstofindlong-termsolutions–theworkofProfessorKateArdern,directorofpublichealthforWigan,andherteam,hasbeenanexemplarhere.
However,oncecommunityassetshavebeensuccessfullyunleashed,initiativesmayprovetobemore
sustainablethanwasanticipated.
5.5Actingonwhatweknowworks
Socialprescribinghasthepotentialtobecomeafullyintegratedcommunitypathwayforhealthandwellbeing.Yet,despiteitslonghistory(BromleybyBow,forexample,hasbeeninpracticeforabout30years–casestudy4,above)anddespitebeingwellknownforitssuccess,ithasyettoachievemainstream
statusacrosstheUnitedKingdom.Investigatingwhythisisthecase–andovercomingthebarriers–willbecrucialinreplicating(ortranslating)successfulmodelsacrossthecountry.(Thisisdiscussedfurtherinthefinalpaperinthisseries.)
5.6Afailureofimagination
Finally,andcrucially,therehasbeenafailureofimaginationandaconsequentdearthofaction.Thehealthsystem–boththeNHSandpublichealth–areseverelyoverstretched,andtimeisnotbeinggiventotakeastepbacktoreflectonhowtopreventtheriseinchronicdiseasesthatisthreateningtoengulfthehealthservice(10percentofNHSexpenditureisalreadyspentontreatingdiabetesanditscomplications–aconditionaroundhalfofcasesofwhichcouldhavebeenpreventedordelayed).Despitecallstothecontraryin,forexample,theFiveYearForwardView,toooftenhealthissuesaresiloed,ratherthanaholistic,‘causesofthecauses’approachbeingputinplace–expectingpeopletobecomehealthywhileliving,learningandworkinginthesameenvironmentthatmadethemillinthefirstplace.
Canwemakethecaseforhealth,ratherthansickness,andchangethemedicalparadigmincommunities?Currently,spendingontheNHSisringfencedandthatforpublichealthisnot–andthereislittlecallforadifferentfocusandanalternative(lessmedicalised)offerinhealth–butthisisnotsurprising,asthepublicdonotknowthatmodelssuchasthatspearheadedbyBromleybyBowcouldbearealityintheirlocalcommunity.
6.Talkingpoints• Thebigquestionis:howcanwecreateasystemintheenvironmentinwhichwelive,learn,workand
playthatcreatesandfostershealth?
• Howdowemoveawayfromamedicalparadigm,inwhichpeoplearerootedindoctor/patientrelationships(underminingtheirabilitytotakecontroloftheirownhealthandwellbeing)?
• Whatarethebestwaystoactivateassetswithinlocalcommunities,whichareattheheartofsustainingchangeoverthelongterm?
• Howdoweengagefullystretchedpublic-healthteamininvestingskillsandtimetomakeconnectionsacrossdepartmentsandtoengageandempowercommunities?
• Thereisalargegapbetweenwhatsocietyprovidestoimprovehealthandwhatcommunitieswant.Whatwouldhappenifthedesign,implementationandevaluationofhealthinterventionsbecamesomethingwedowithcommunitiesratherthantothem?
• Whatarethebestwaystogatherevidenceon‘whatworks’?
32 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
• Howcan‘whatworks’bestbetranslatedappropriatelyfordifferentcommunities?
• Wouldusingalifecourselensoverlaidovertheconceptofplacebehelpfulinaddressingwhethertherearesubgroupswithinthepopulationwhoareparticularlyvulnerabletotheeffectsofneighbourhoodcharacteristics?–e.g.programmesdirectedatthehealthofolderpeople,tobeultimatelyeffective,willneedtoworkwiththoseimprovinghealthofyoungerpeople–particularlyconditions(suchasobesityorsmoking-relateddiseases)thathavetheiroriginsinriskfactorsinearlierlife.
33 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
Annex1:KeyplayersTherearemanyorganisations–includingprofessionalsocieties,academicinstitutions,thinktanks,charities,foundations,networks,statutorybodiesandfunders–workingincommunityhealthandempowerment.Theresourceslistedbelowareselectedfromthelargenumberavailable,andashortdescription,URLand(whereappropriate)importantpublicationsoftheorganisationsappearintheDebateGraphmappingthataccompaniesthisscopingproject.([email protected].)
****
• Aesop
• AmericanAcademyofChildandAdolescentPsychiatry
• AmplifyNorthernIreland
• ASH–ActiononSmokingandHealth
• AwardsforAll(BigLotteryFund)
• Barnado's
• BeattheStreet
• BigLotteryFund
• BillandMelindaGatesFoundation
• BritishAssociationforEarlyChildhoodEducation
• BritishHeartFoundation
• BritishNutritionFoundation
• Bromley-by-BowCentre
• BusinessintheCommunity
• CEDAR–CentreforDietandActivityResearch
• CentreforAgeingBetter
• CentreforLongitudinalStudies
• CFIW–CommunityFoundationinWales
• ChildrenandYoungPeopleScrutinyCommittee
• ChildrenandYoungPeople’sHealthOutcomesForum
• ChildrenandYoungPeople’sServicesCommittees
• Children'sSociety
• Collaborate
• CommunityCatalysts
• CommunityDevelopmentCharterforHealth(NHSAlliance)
• CommunityEnergyWales
• CommunityHealthandLearningFoundation
• CommunityNI(NICVA)
• ConnectingCommunitiesC2(HealthComplexityGroup)
• DepartmentforCommunitiesandLocalGovernment
• DepartmentforEducation
• DepartmentofHealth
• EarlyInterventionFoundation
• EconomicandSocialResearchCouncil
• EPODE
• FacultyofPublicHealth
• FitFans
• FoodCoops
• GroundworkCommunitySpacesProgramme
• HealthandSocialCareInformationCentre
• HealthBehaviourinSchool-AgedChildrenNetwork
• HealthComplexityGroup
• HealthyLondonPartnership(NHS)
• HealthyNewTowns(NHS)
• HELP–HealthEmpowermentLeverageProject
• HENRY–HealthExerciseandNutritionfortheReallyYoung
• InControl
• InclusiveChange
• InclusiveNeighbourhoods
• InstituteofAlcoholStudies
• InternationalDiabetesFederation
• JamieOliverFoodFoundation
• JosephRowntreeFoundation
• LAC–LocalAreaCoordinationNetwork
• LEAP–LambethEarlyActionPartnerships
• LGAKnowledgeHub
• LivingStreets
• LocalGovernmentImprovementandDevelopment
• Locality
• MedicalResearchCouncil
• MentalHealthFoundation
• MIND
• MyCommunity
• MyTimeActiveUK
• NationalCentreforHealthandClinicalExcellence(NICE
• NationalFoundationforEducationalResearch
• NationalInstituteofMentalHealth
• NAVCA–NationalAssociationforVoluntaryandCommunityAction
• NCVO–NationalCouncilforVoluntaryOrganisations
• NeighbourhoodHealthWatch
• Nesta
• NewLocalGovernmentNetwork
• NHSAlliance
• NICVA–NorthernIrelandCouncilforVoluntaryAction
• NutritionSociety
34 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
• PembrokeHouse
• PreventionandEarlyInterventionNetwork
• PublicHealthEngland
• RANDEurope
• RobertWoodsJohnsonFoundation
• RoyalCollegeofMidwives
• RoyalCollegeofNursing
• RoyalCollegeofPaediatricsandChildHealth
• RoyalCollegeofPsychiatrists
• RoyalSocietyforPublicHealth
• SavetheChildren
• SCDC–ScottishCommunityDevelopmentCentre
• SHINEHIT–SupportingHealthyInclusiveNeighbourhoodEnvironments
• SPOTLIGHT
• StreetGames
• SupportingCommunities
• SureStart
• TheYoungFoundation
• ThinkLocalActPersonal
• ThrivePlymouth
• TinderFoundation
• TrussellTrust
• TudorTrust
• UKCF–UKCommunityFoundations
• UnderstandingCommunityHealth(HealthProfiles)
• Voice4ChangeEngland
• WCVA-WalesCouncilforVoluntaryAction
• WellLondon
• WellcomeTrust
• WhatWorksCentreforWellbeing
• WorldHealthOrganization
35 www.c3health.org
Annex2:EvidencetablesTable1:Engagementandparticipation
Intervention Overview Reference Conclusions
Effectivenessofparticipatory
approaches
Systematicreview.17electronicdatabasesweresearched
andinclusion/exclusioncriteriaandqualityappraisal
criteriaapplied.5,451referenceswereidentified,reduced
to2,155onceduplicateswereremoved.Onlyeight
paperscoveringsevenstudieswererelevantandincluded
intheanalysis.Onlytwostudiesmetmorethanhalfof
therelevantquality-appraisalcriteria.
Evansetal.2010
Thestudiesfellintotwodistinctgroups:fourused
qualitativemethodstoillustratethecomplexitiesof
effectivecommunityparticipation;threeclaimed
successfortheirparticipativeinitiativewithout
providingadequateevidencetosubstantiatesuch
claims.Thissystematicreviewdemonstratesthat
thereisverylittleevidenceinthepeer-reviewed
literatureofparticipatoryapproachesbyUKpublic-
healthunitsorofsuchapproacheshavingany
noteworthyimpactonhealthandsocialoutcomes.
Impactofcommunity
engagementonindividuals
Rapidreview,guidedbyNICE’spublic-healthmethods
manual,adaptedtosuitthediversityoftheevidence.A
totalof22studieswereidentifiedcontainingempirical
dataonsubjectiveexperiencesofcommunity
engagementforindividuals
Attreeetal.2011
Thefindingsoftherapidreviewsuggestthatthe
majorityof‘engaged’individualsperceivedbenefits
fortheirphysicalandpsychologicalhealth,self-
confidence,self-esteem,senseofpersonal
empowermentandsocialrelationships.Setagainst
thesepositiveoutcomes,however,theevidence
suggeststhatthereareunintendednegative
consequencesofcommunityengagementforsome
individuals,whichmayposearisktowellbeing.
Theseconsequencesincludedexhaustionandstress,
asinvolvementdrainedparticipants’energylevelsas
wellastimeandfinancialresources.Thephysical
demandsofengagementwerereportedas
particularlyonerousbyindividualswithdisabilities.
Communityengagementin
healthinitiatives
Systematicreview–toexaminethemagnitudeofthe
impactofcommunityengagement(CE)onhealthand
healthinequalitiesamongdisadvantagedpopulations,
whichmethodologicalapproachesmaximisethe
effectivenessofCE,andcomponentsofCEthatare
acceptable,feasible,andeffectivewhenusedamong
Cyriletal.2015
21ofthe24(87.5%)studieshadpositivelyimpacted
healthbehaviours,public-healthplanning,health-
serviceaccess,healthliteracy,andarangeofhealth
outcomes.KeyCEcomponentsthataffectedhealth
outcomesincludedrealpower-sharing,collaborative
partnerships,bidirectionallearning,incorporating
36 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
Intervention Overview Reference Conclusions
disadvantagedpopulations.24studiesmetinclusion
criteria.
thevoiceandagencyofbeneficiarycommunitiesin
researchprotocol,andusingbiculturalhealth
workersforinterventiondelivery.Thefindings
suggestthatCEmodelscanleadtoimprovedhealth
andhealthbehavioursamongdisadvantaged
populationsifdesignedproperlyandimplemented
througheffectivecommunityconsultationand
participation.
Effectivenessofcommunity
healthworker-led
interventions
Systematicreviewofliteraturefrom1998to2008.It
included53studiesonoutcomesofcommunityhealth
worker(CHW)interventionsandsixoncostorcost-
effectiveness.
Viswanathanetal.
2010
Foroutcomes,limitedevidence(fivestudies)
suggeststhatCHWinterventionscanimprove
participantknowledgecomparedwithalternative
approachesornointervention.Thereviewfound
mixedevidenceforparticipantbehaviourchange(22
studies)andhealthoutcomes(27studies),andlow
ormoderatestrengthofevidencesuggestingthat
CHWscanincreaseappropriatehealth-care
utilisationforsomeinterventions(30studies).Six
studieswitheconomicinformationyielded
insufficientdatatoevaluatethecost-effectivenessof
CHWinterventionsrelativetootherinterventions.
Communitybehavioural
normsasachallengefor
evidence-basedsmoking-
cessationprogrammes
Retrospectivecohortdesignusingpropensityscore
matchingofNurse-FamilyPartnership(NFP)clientsand
local-areamatchedcomparisonwomenwhosmoked
cigarettesinthefirsttrimesterofpregnancy.Birth
certificatedatawereusedtoclassifysmokingstatus.The
mainoutcomemeasurewassmokingcessationinthe
thirdtrimesterofpregnancy.Multivariablelogistic
regressionanalysisexamined,overtwotimeperiods,the
associationofNFPexposureandtheassociationof
baselinecountyprenatalsmokingrateonprenatal
smokingcessation.
Matoneetal.2012
Followingstatewideimplementationacross
Pennsylvania,programmerecipientsofNFP
demonstratedincreasedsmokingcessation
comparedtocomparisonwomen,withastronger
programeffectinlateryears.Thesignificant
associationofcountysmokingratewithcessation
suggeststhatcommunitybehaviouralnormsmay
presentachallengeforevidence-basedprogrammes
asmodelsaretranslatedintodiversecommunities.
37 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
Table2:Place-basedinterventions
Intervention Overview Reference Conclusions
Community-basedrestaurant
interventions
SystematicreviewthatsearchedallyearsofPubMedand
WebofKnowledgethroughJanuary2014fororiginal
articlesdescribingorevaluatingcommunity-based
restaurantinterventionstopromotehealthyeating.This
reviewincluded27interventionsdescribedin25studies
publishedsince1979.Itextractedsummaryinformation
andclassifiedtheinterventionsintoninecategories
accordingtothestrategiesimplemented.Summaryscores
weredevelopedtodeterminethelevelofevidence
(insufficient,sufficient,orstrong)supportingthe
effectivenessofeachcategory.
ValdiviaEspinoetal.
2015
Mostinterventionstookplaceinexclusivelyurban
areasoftheUnitedStates.Themostcommon
interventioncategoriesweretheuseofpoint-of-
purchaseinformationwithpromotionand
communication(n=6),andpoint-of-purchase
informationwithincreasedavailabilityofhealthy
choices(n=6).Onlythelattercategoryhad
sufficientevidence.Theremainingeightcategories
hadinsufficientevidencebecauseofinterventions
showingno,minimal,ormixedfindings;limited
reportingofawarenessandeffectiveness;low
volumeofresearch;orweakstudydesigns.No
interventionreportedanaveragenegativeimpacton
outcomes.
Conclusion:Evidenceabouteffectivecommunity-
basedstrategiestopromotehealthyeatingin
restaurantsislimited,especiallyforinterventionsin
ruralareas.Toexpandtheevidencebase,more
studiesshouldbeconductedusingrobuststudy
designs,standardisedevaluationmethods,and
measuresofsales,behaviourandhealthoutcomes.
Communitypharmacies’role
inpromotinghealthin
communities
Systematicsearchofinternationalpeer-reviewed
literature.Thesearchperiodwasfrom1January1991to
30July2009.Overall,itreviewed115articlesonan
abstractlevelandretrieved45ofthoseasfull-textarticles
forbackgroundinformationreviewandinclusionintothe
evidencereport.32%werefromtheUnitedKingdom.
Georgeetal.2010
Evidenceofeffectivenessforcommunitypharmacy/
communitypharmacistinterventionsexistsforlipid,
diabetesandhypertensionmanagement,andfor
preventiveservicessuchasweightmanagement,
osteoporosispreventionandfluimmunisation
services.Factorsfoundtoimpedethegrowthof
communitypharmacistsareinsufficientintegration
ofcommunitypharmacistinputintohealth-care
pathways,poorrelationshipamongpharmacistsand
physicians,lackofaccesstopatientinformation,
timeconstraintsandinadequatecompensation.
38 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
Intervention Overview Reference Conclusions
Pharmacyandpublichealth 10electronicdatabasesweresearched.Therewasno
restrictiononlanguageorcountry.Supplementary
searchesincludedwebsite,greyliterature,studyregisters,
bibliographiesandcontactingexperts.
Brownetal.2016a
Communitypharmacy-deliveredinterventionsare
effectiveforsmokingcessation,anddemonstrate
thatthepharmacyisafeasibleoptionforweight-
managementinterventions.Giventhepotential
reach,effectivenessandassociatedcostsofthese
interventions,commissionersshouldconsiderusing
communitypharmaciestohelpdeliverpublic-health
services.
School-basedhealth
promotion
Systematicreview–searched12databasestoidentify
reviewspublishedafter1980.Datawerereviewedbytwo
researchers.Qualitywasassessedusingamodified
AssessingtheMethodologicalQualityofSystematic
Reviewschecklistandresultsweresynthesisednarratively
Shackletonetal.
2016
Thesynthesessuggestthatmulticomponentschool-
basedinterventions–forexample,includingschool
policychanges,parentinvolvement,andworkwith
localcommunities–areeffectiveforpromoting
sexualhealthandpreventingbullyingandsmoking.
Thereislessevidencethatsuchinterventioncan
reducealcoholanddruguse.Economicincentivesto
keepgirlsinschoolcanreduceteenagepregnancies.
Schoolclinicscanpromotesmokingcessation.There
islittleevidencethat,ontheirown,sexual-health
clinics,antismokingpolicies,andvariousapproaches
targetingat-riskstudentsareeffective.
Druguseinterventionsin
schools
Systematicreview.RCTsandCCTsevaluatingschool-
basedinterventionsdesignedtopreventsubstanceuse
werereviewed.Datawereextractedindependentlyby
tworeviewers.Qualitywasassessed.Interventionswere
classifiedasskills,affective,andknowledgefocused
Faggianoetal.2008
Comparedwithusualcurricula,skills-based
interventionssignificantlyreducemarijuanauseand
harddruguse,andimprovedecision-makingskills,
self-esteem,peerpressureresistanceanddrug
knowledge.Comparedwithusualcurricula,affective
interventionsimprovedecision-makingskillsand
drugknowledge,andknowledge-focused
programmesimprovedrugknowledge.Skills-based
interventionsarebetterthanaffectiveonesin
improvedself-efficacy.Nodifferencesareevident
forskillsvsknowledge-focusedprogrammesondrug
knowledge.Affectiveinterventionsimprove
39 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
Intervention Overview Reference Conclusions
decision-makingskillsanddrugknowledgetoa
higherdegreethanknowledge-focusedprogrammes.
Communitypharmacyand
healthpromotion
Systematicreview.Fiveelectronicdatabaseswere
searchedforarticlespublishedinEnglishbetween2001
and2010.Titlesandabstractswerescreenedbyone
researcheraccordingtotheinclusioncriteria.Paperswere
includediftheyassessedpharmacystafforconsumer
attitudestowardspharmaceuticalpublichealth.Full
papersidentifiedforinclusionwereassessedbyasecond
researcheranddatawereextractedbyoneresearcher
Eadesetal.2011
Pharmacystaff:Mostpharmacistsviewedpublic-
healthservicesasimportantandpartoftheirrole,
butsecondarytomedicine-relatedroles.
Pharmacists'confidenceinprovidingpublic-health
serviceswasonthewholeaveragetolow.Timewas
consistentlyidentifiedasabarriertoproviding
publichealthservices.Lackofanadequate
counsellingspace,lackofdemandandexpectation
ofanegativereactionfromcustomerswerealso
reportedbysomepharmacistsasbarriers.Aneed
forfurthertrainingwasidentifiedinrelationtoa
numberofpublic-healthservices.
Consumers:Mostpharmacyusershadneverbeen
offeredpublic-healthservicesbytheirpharmacist
anddidnotexpectthemtobeoffered.Consumers
viewedpharmacistsasappropriateprovidersof
public-healthadvicebuthadmixedviewsonthe
pharmacists'abilitytodothis.Satisfactionwasfound
tobehighinthosethathadexperienced
pharmaceuticalpublichealth.
Roleofpharmacyin
promotingcommunityhealth
Asystematicreviewoftheresearchliteraturecovering
theperiodJanuary1990-August2011inclusive,usingfive
databases.Atotalof377paperswereincluded.
Brownetal.2012
Thetopicsofcontraception,cardiovasculardisease
prevention,diabetesandsmokingcessation
accountedfor40%ofincludedpapers.Theliterature
supportstheintroductionofspecificcommunity
pharmacyservices,targetedatcustomergroups,
bothwithandwithoutpre-existingdiseases.Good
evidenceexistsforsmokingcessation,cardiovascular
diseaseprevention,hypertensionanddiabetes.
Somegoodevidenceexistsforinterventionson
asthmaandheartfailure.Theevidencesupporting
weightmanagement,sexualhealth,osteoporosis
detection,substanceabuseandchronicobstructive
40 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
Intervention Overview Reference Conclusions
pulmonarydiseaseisweakandneedsdevelopment.
Thereisstrongevidencefortheroleofcommunity
pharmacyinarangeofservices,notonlyaimedat
improvinggeneralhealth,butalsomaintainingthe
healthofthosewithexistingdisease
Table3:Socialmediaande-health
Intervention Overview Reference Conclusions
Socialmediaandhealth
interventions
Facebookwasexaminedasamechanismtorecruityoung
adultsforasmoking-cessationintervention.Anad
campaigntargetingyoungadultsmokerstestedspecific
messagingbasedonmarkettheoryandsuccessful
strategiesusedtorecruitsmokersinpreviousclinical
trials(i.e.informative,calltoaction,scarcity,social
norms),previouslysuccessfulads,andgeneralmessaging.
Imageswereselectedtotargetsmokers(e.g.litcigarette),
appealtothetargetage,varydemographically,andvary
graphically(cartoon,photo,logo).Facebook’sAds
Managerwasusedoversevenweeks,targetedbyage
(18–25),location(UnitedStates)raandlanguage(English),
andemployedmultipleadtypes(newsfeed,standard,
promotedposts,sponsoredstories)andkeywords.
Ramoetal.2014
Facebookisauseful,cost-effectiverecruitment
sourceforyoungadultsmokers.Adspostedvia
newsfeedpostswereparticularlysuccessful,
probablybecausetheywereviewableviamobile
phone.Effortstoengagemoreethnicminorities,
youngwomen,andsmokersmotivatedtoquitare
needed
Socialmediaandbehaviour
change
Participantswereenrolledintostudy-run,three-month
secretFacebookgroupsmatchedonreadinesstoquit
smoking.Cigarettesmokers(n=79)aged18–25whoused
FacebookonmostdayswererecruitedviaFacebook.All
participantsreceivedtheinterventionandwere
randomisedtooneofthreemonetaryincentivegroups
tiedtoengagement(commentingingroups).Assessments
werecompletedatbaseline,3-,6-and12-monthsfollow-
Ramoetal.2015
Retentionwas82%(65/79)at6monthsand72%
(57/79)at12months.Frombaselineto12-months
follow-up,therewasasignificantincreaseinthe
proportionpreparedtoquit(13%to46%).Overa
thirdreducedtheircigaretteconsumptionby50%or
greater,andtwo-thirdsmadeatleastone24-hour
quitattemptduringthestudy.Inanintent-to-treat
analysis,13%self-reportedseven-dayabstinence
41 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
Intervention Overview Reference Conclusions
up.Analysesexaminedretention,smokingoutcomesover
12months(seven-daypointprevalenceabstinence,≥50%
reductionincigarettessmoked,quitattemptsand
strategiesused,readinesstoquit),engagement,and
satisfactionwiththeintervention.
(8%verifiedbiochemically)at12-monthsfollow-up.
Intheirquitattempts,11%usedanicotine
replacementtherapyapprovedbytheFoodand
DrugAdministration,while18%usedanelectronic
nicotinedeliverysystemtoquit(e.g.electronic
cigarette)
Mobilephonesand
behaviouralchange
Systematicreview Whittakeretal.2012
Fivestudieswithatleastsix-monthcessation
outcomeswereincludedinthisreview.Three
studiesinvolveapurelytext-messagingintervention
thathasbeenadaptedoverthecourseofthese
threestudiesfordifferentpopulationsandcontexts.
Onestudyisamulti-armstudyofatext-messaging
interventionandaninternetQuitCoachseparately
andincombination.Thefinalstudyinvolvesavideo-
messaginginterventiondeliveredviathemobile
phone.Whenallfivestudieswerepooled,mobile-
phoneinterventionswereshowntoincreasethe
long-termquitratescomparedwithcontrol
programmes,usingadefinitionofabstinenceofno
smokingatsixmonthssincequitdaybutallowingup
tothreelapsesoruptofivecigarettes.
Computerandelectronicaids
forsmokingcessation
SixelectronicdatabasesweresearcheduptoDecember
2009.Searchstrategieswerereported.Searcheswerenot
limitedbylanguage.Referencelistsofincludedstudies
andrelevantsystematicreviews,andregistriesofongoing
trials,weresearched.Expertsinthefieldwerealso
contacted.
Chenetal.2012
60RCTsandquasi-RCTswereincluded.Numbersof
participantsandquality-assessmentresultswere
reportedinfull,butnooverallsummarywas
reported.
Comparedwithnointerventionorgenericself-help
material,interventionsusingelectronicaids
significantlyincreasedthelikelihoodofachieving
prolongedabstinenceorpointprevalence
abstinencefromsmoking,measuredatthelongest
follow-up.Themixed-treatmentcomparisonshowed
asmallbutstatisticallysignificantpositive
interventioneffectontimetorelapse.
42 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
Intervention Overview Reference Conclusions
Extensivefurtherresultswerereported,including
recommendingresearchontheimpacton
effectivenessofinvolvingusersinthedesignof
interventions,andonhowelectronicaidscouldbe
appliedinroutinepracticeandinthecommunity.
Suicideandsocialmedia Discussionpaper.Providesanoverviewofwaysthatsocial
mediacaninfluencesuicidalbehaviour,bothnegatively
andpositively,andevaluatestheevidenceoftherisk.It
alsodiscussesthelegalcomplexitiesofthisimportant
topicandproposesfuturedirectionsforresearchand
preventionprogrammesbasedonapublic-health
perspective.
Luxtonetal.2012
Theroleofsocialmediaanditspotentialinfluence
onsuicide-relatedbehaviourisarelativelynewand
evolvingphenomenonthatsocietyisonlybeginning
toassessandunderstand.Theemergingdata
regardingtheinfluenceoftheInternetandsocial
mediaonsuicidebehaviourhavesuggestedthat
theseformsoftechnologymayintroducenew
threatstothepublicaswellasnewopportunitiesfor
assistanceandprevention.Becausesocialmediaare
mostlycreatedandcontrolledbyendusers,the
opportunityforsurveillanceandpreventioncanbe
extendedtoallusers.Tohelpfacilitatethisuser-
drivenapproachtosurveillanceandprevention,all
social-mediasitescouldadoptsimple-to-use
methodsforuserstoreportmaliciouswebsitesand
activitiesofotherusers.Moreover,thepublic
promotionofdirectandeasyavenuesforpeopleto
accesshelpthroughsocialmediasitesshouldbea
priority.Public-healthcampaignsthatleveragethe
internetandsocialmediatoraiseawarenessofthe
issueinschools,collegesandothersettingsmight
alsobebeneficial.
Creationofnewsocial
networksforolderpeople
Examinesthelinkbetweenhealthandcultivatingsocial
tiesusingnewlongitudinaldatafromtheNationalSocial
Life,Health,andAgingProject(NSHAP),whichrecorded
changesinolderadults'confidantnetworkrostersovera
periodofaboutfiveyears.Mostrespondents(81.8%)
addedatleastonenewnetworkmemberduringthestudy
Cornwelland
Laumann2015
Longitudinalanalysessuggestthattheadditionof
newconfidantsisassociatedwithimprovementsin
functional,self-ratedandpsychologicalhealth,net
ofbaselineconnectednessaswellasanynetwork
lossesthatoccurredduringthesameperiod.
Networklosseswereassociatedwithphysicalbut
notpsychologicalwellbeing.Thesefindings
43 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
Intervention Overview Reference Conclusions
period,andmost(59.4%)cultivatedmultiplenew
confidantrelationships.
underscoretheimportanceofdistinguishing
betweenconcurrentprocessesthatunderliesocial
networkchangeinlaterlife,andhighlighttheneed
foradditionalresearchonthemechanismsbywhich
networkchangemayimprovehealth.
Table4:Mentalhealthandsocialisolation
Intervention Overview Reference Conclusions
Socialrelationshipsand
mortalityrisk
Meta-analyticreviewacross148studies(308,849
participants)todeterminetheextenttowhichsocial
relationshipsinfluenceriskformortality,whichaspectsof
socialrelationshipsaremosthighlypredictive,andwhich
factorsmaymoderatetherisk.
Holt-Lunstadetal.
2010
Therandomeffectsweightedaverageeffectsize
indicateda50%increasedlikelihoodofsurvivalfor
participantswithstrongersocialrelationships.This
findingremainedconsistentacrossage,sex,initial
healthstatus,causeofdeath,andfollow-upperiod.
Significantdifferenceswerefoundacrossthetypeof
socialmeasurementevaluated:theassociationwas
strongestforcomplexmeasuresofsocialintegration
andlowestforbinaryindicatorsofresidentialstatus
(livingaloneversuswithothers).
Conclusions:Theinfluenceofsocialrelationshipson
riskformortalityiscomparablewithwell-established
riskfactorsformortality.
Focusoneffectivenessof
community-basedheart-
healthinterventionson
depressionoutcomesamong
homeboundelderly(64years
andolder)withheartdisease
Systematicreview.15studiesmetinclusioncriteriaandall
measureddepressionoutcomes.Studiesdifferedinscope
andmethodologicalrigourandsamplesizesvariedwidely.
Problemsintreatmentfidelityandmaskingofgroup
assignmentwerenoted.Greatvariabilitywasfoundin
depressionoutcomesduetothedifferencesin
methodologyandintervention.
Kang-YiandGellis
2010
Mixedevidenceforcommunity-basedheartdisease
interventionsondepressionoutcomeswasfound.
Futureresearchshouldincludesub-analysisofeffect
sizesofinterventionsondepressionoutcomesby
differentdemographiccharacteristicsofthestudy
sample,commondepressionoutcomemeasures,
anddifferentfollow-upperiods.
44 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
Intervention Overview Reference Conclusions
Mentalhealthandtheelderly Systematicreviewtoreportontheeffectivenessofcrisis
resolution/hometreatmentteamsforolderpeoplewith
mental-healthproblems.
Tootetal.2011
Outcomessuchaslengthofhospitalstayand
maintenanceofcommunityresidencewere
reviewed,butevidencewasinadequatefordrawing
conclusions.Thescopingexercisedefinedthree
typesofhometreatmentservicemodel:generic
hometreatmentteams;specialistolderadultshome
treatmentteams;andintermediatecareservices.
Thesehometreatmentteamsseemedtobe
effectivelymanagingcrisesandreducingadmissions.
Thisreviewhasshownalackofevidenceforthe
efficacyofcrisisresolution/hometreatmentteamsin
supportingolderpeoplewithmental-health
problemstoremainathome.
Communitymentalhealth
andtheelderly
Systematicliteraturereviewundertakentocollate
existingevidenceregardingthestructuresandprocesses
ofCMHTsforolderpeopleandtoevaluateevidence
linkingapproachestoeffectiveness.Relevantpublications
wereidentifiedviasystematicsearches,bothelectronic
andmanual.SearcheswerelimitedtotheUnitedKingdom
fordescriptionsoforganisationandpracticebutincluded
internationalliteraturewherecomparisonsbetween
differentCMHTarrangementswereevaluated.45studies
metinclusioncriteria,with44beingUK-based.
Abendsternetal.
2012
Themostrobustevidencerelatedtoresearch
conductedinexemplarteams.Limitedevidencewas
foundregardingtheeffectivenessofmanyofthe
coreattributesrecommendedinpolicydirectives,
althoughtheirpresencewasreportedinmuchofthe
literature.Thecontrastbetweenpresentationand
evaluationofattributesisstark.Whilesomegaps
canbefilledfromrelatedfields,furtherresearchis
requiredthatmovesbeyonddescriptionto
evaluationoftheimpactofteamdesignonservice-
useroutcomesinordertoinformfuturepolicy
directivesandpracticeguidance.
45 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
Table5:Environment
Intervention Overview Reference Conclusions
Environmentalfactors
mitigatingagainstfruitand
vegetableconsumption
Datafromsevenexistingstudies,identifiedthrough
literaturesearchesandknowledgeofco-authors,which
collectedmeasuresofbothneighbourhood-levelSESand
fruitandvegetableconsumption,wereused.Logistic
regressionwasusedtoexamineassociationsbetween
neighbourhood-levelSESandbinaryfruitandvegetable
consumptionseparately,adjustingforneighbourhood
clusteringandage,genderandeducation.Asmuchas
possible,variablesweretreatedinaconsistentmannerin
theanalysisforeachstudytoallowtheidentificationof
patternsofassociationwithinthestudyandtoexamine
differencesintheassociationsacrossstudies.
Balletal.2015
Neighbourhoodsocioeconomicdisadvantagemay
differentiallyimpactonaccesstoresourcesinwhich
produceisavailableindifferentcountries.
Neighbourhoodenvironmentshavethepotentialto
influencebehaviourandfurtherresearchisrequired
toexaminethecontextinwhichtheseassociations
arise.
Environmentandobesity Firstofaseriesofpapers(SPOTLIGHT)lookingat
environmentandobesity.
Lakerveldetal.2016
Ithasbeenpositedthatunhealthyobesogenic
lifestylebehavioursareanormalresponseto
environmentalcharacteristicsthatmayinfluencean
individual'slevelofphysicalactivity(e.g.throughthe
availabilityofopportunitiestowalk,
interconnectivityofstreets,proximityofparks)and
dietarybehaviours(e.g.throughavailability,
accessibilityandaffordabilityoffoods).Certain
environmentsmaybemore‘obesogenic’thanothers
–morelikelytopromoteandfacilitateunhealthy
obesity-promotingbehaviours,leadingtoweight
gaininindividualsandacrosspopulations.
Accordingly,environmentalfactorsofferamultitude
ofopportunitiesforthereductionofobesity
prevalence.
Self-definitionof
neighbourhoodandobesity
Aninnovativetoolwasdevelopedintheframeworkofthe
SPOTLIGHTprojecttoidentifytheboundariesof
neighbourhoodsasdefinedbyparticipantsinfive
Europeanurbanregions.Theaimsofthisstudywere(i)to
describeself-definedneighbourhood(sizeandoverlap
Charreireetal.2016
Self-definedneighbourhoodsizevariesaccordingto
bothindividualfactors(age,educationallevel,length
ofresidenceandattachmenttoneighbourhood)and
contextualfactors.Thesefindingshave
consequencesforhowresidentialneighbourhoods
46 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
Intervention Overview Reference Conclusions
withpredefinedresidentialarea)accordingtothe
characteristicsofthesamplingadministrative
neighbourhoods(residentialdensityandsocioeconomic
status)withinthefivestudyregionsand(ii)todetermine
whichindividualor/andenvironmentalfactorsare
associatedwithvariationsinsizeofself-defined
neighbourhoods.
aredefinedandoperationalisedandcaninformhow
self-definedneighbourhoodsmaybeusedin
researchonassociationsbetweencontextual
characteristicsandhealthoutcomessuchasobesity.
Virtualauditofareasto
identifyobesogenicfeatures
inurbanareas
Usingdatafromavirtualauditofobesity-relatedfeatures
carriedoutinfiveurbanEuropeanregions,thisstudy
aimedto(i)describethisinternationalvirtualaudit
datasetand(ii)identifyneighbourhoodpatternsthatcan
synthesisethecomplexityofsuchdataandcompare
patternsacrossregions.Datawereobtainedfrom4,486
streetsegmentsacrossurbanregionsinBelgium,France,
Hungary,TheNetherlandsandtheUnitedKingdom.It
usedmultiplefactoranalysisandhierarchicalclustering
onprincipalcomponentstobuildatypologyof
neighbourhoodsandtoidentifysimilar/dissimilar
neighbourhoods,regardlessofregion.
Feuilletetal.2016
Fourneighbourhoodclustersemerged,which
differedintermsoffoodenvironment,recreational
facilitiesandactivemobilityfeatures,i.e.thethree
indicatorsderivedfromfactoranalysis.Clusterswere
unequallydistributedacrossurbanregions.
Neighbourhoodsmostlycharacterisedbyahighlevel
ofoutdoorrecreationalfacilitieswere
predominantlylocatedinGreaterLondon,whereas
neighbourhoodscharacterisedbyhighurbandensity
andlargenumbersoffoodoutletsweremostly
locatedinParis.NeighbourhoodsintheRandstad
conurbation,GhentandBudapestappearedtobe
verysimilar,characterisedbyrelativelylower
residentialdensities,greenerareasandaverylow
percentageofstreetsofferingfoodandrecreational
facilityitems.Theseresultsprovide
multidimensionalconstructsofobesogenic
characteristicsthatmayhelptargetat-risk
neighbourhoodsmoreeffectivelythanisolated
features.
Mismatchbetweenperceived
andobjectivelymeasured
environmentalobesogenic
featuresinneighbourhoods
Investigatedtheagreementbetweenperceivedand
objectivelymeasuredobesogenicenvironmentalfeatures
toassess(1)theextentofagreementbetweenindividual
perceptionsandobservablecharacteristicsofthe
environmentand(2)theagreementbetweenaggregated
perceptionsandobservablecharacteristics,andwhether
thisvariedbytypeofcharacteristic,regionor
Rodaetal.2016
Overall,agreementwasmoderateandvariedby
obesogenicenvironmentalfeature,regionand
neighbourhood.Highestagreementwasfoundfor
foodoutletsandoutdoorrecreationalfacilities,and
lowestagreementwasobtainedforaesthetics.In
general,abettermatchwasobservedinhigh-
residential-densityneighbourhoodscharacterisedby
47 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
Intervention Overview Reference Conclusions
neighbourhood.Cross-sectionaldatafromtheSPOTLIGHT
project(n = 6,037participantsfrom60neighbourhoodsin
fiveEuropeanurbanregions)wereused.Residents'
perceptionswereself-reported,andobjectivelymeasured
environmentalfeatureswereobtainedbyavirtualaudit
usingGoogleStreetView.
ahighdensityoffoodoutletsandrecreational
facilities.Futurestudiesshouldcombineperceived
andobjectivelymeasuredbuiltenvironment
qualitiestobetterunderstandthepotentialimpact
ofthebuiltenvironmentonhealth,particularlyin
low-residential-densityneighbourhoods.
Builtenvironmentandhealth Systematicreview.23articleswereincluded. Renaldsetal.2010
Neighbourhoodsthatarecharacterisedasmore
walkable,eitherleisure-orientedordestination-
driven,areassociatedwithincreasedphysical
activity,increasedsocialcapital,loweroverweight,
lowerreportsofdepressionandlessreported
alcoholabuse.
Builtenvironmentand
physicalactivity
Systematicreview.20cross-sectionaland13quasi-
experimentalstudiespublishedbetween1996and2010
wereincluded.
McCormackand
Shiell2011
Land-usemix,connectivityandpopulationdensity
andoverallneighbourhooddesignwereimportant
determinantsofphysicalactivity.Thebuilt
environmentwasmorelikelytobeassociatedwith
transportationwalkingcomparedwithothertypesof
physicalactivityincludingrecreationalwalking.
Threestudiesfoundanattenuationinassociations
betweenbuiltenvironmentcharacteristicsand
physicalactivityafteraccountingforneighbourhood
self-selection.
Naturalenvironmentand
physicalactivity
Systematicreview.Analysisandintegrationof90selected
studieswereperformedusingthetheoryofplanned
behaviour(TPB).
CalogiuriandChroni
2014
Theavailabilityofanaturalenvironmentand
attractiveviewsofnaturewithinanindividual’s
livingenvironmentareimportantcontributorsto
physicalactivity,yetattentionshouldfocuson
personalcharacteristicsandenvironmentalbarriers.
Policyandinfrastructuralinterventionsshouldaim
toguaranteeaccessandmaintenanceofthenatural
environment,aswellasinformationand
programmingofsocialactivities.Socialcampaigns
viamediaandhealthinstitutionsshouldhighlight
hownaturecanbeasourceofmotivationfor
48 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
Intervention Overview Reference Conclusions
maintainingaphysical-activityroutine,reducing
stressandachievingaestheticandhealthgoals
Influencesondiet Narrativestudy.Onecohortstudy,threeintervention
studiesandtwocross-sectionalstudieswereincluded.
TheUKstudywasfromSouthampton.
Inskipetal.2014
Awoman’seducationisastronginfluenceonher
ownandherchildren’shealthbehaviours.Women’s
dietsvaryacrossethnicgroupsandaccordingto
numberofchildren,butpsychologicalfactors,such
asself-efficacyandsenseofcontrol,whichmaybe
amenabletomodification,arepowerfultoo,
particularlyinwomenwithlowereducational
attainment.Maternalinfluencesonchildren’s
behavioursarestrong.Differencesexistininfant
feedingacrosscountries,andthereareapparent
urban/ruraldifferencesinchildren’sdietsand
physicalactivity.
Deprivationandhealthrisk
behaviourinneighbourhoods
Systematicreviewofrecentstudiesonhealth-risk
behaviouramongadultswholiveindeprived
neighbourhoodscomparedwiththosewholiveinnon-
deprivedneighbourhoodsandtosummarisewhatkindof
operationalisationsofneighbourhooddeprivationwere
usedinthestudies.Theinclusioncriteriaweremetby22
studies.
Algrenetal.2015
Theavailableliteratureshowedapositive
associationbetweensmokingandphysicalinactivity
andlivingindeprivedneighbourhoodscompared
withnon-deprivedneighbourhoods.Inregardtolow
fruitandvegetableconsumptionandalcohol
consumption,theresultswereambiguous,andno
cleardifferenceswerefound.Numerousdifferent
operationalisationsofneighbourhooddeprivation
wereusedinthestudies.Substantialevidence
indicatesthatfuturehealthinterventionsindeprived
neighbourhoodsshouldfocusonsmokingand
physicalinactivity.Itissuggestedthatalcohol
interventionsshouldbepopulationbasedrather
thanbasedonthespecificneedsofdeprived
neighbourhoods.Moreresearchisneededonfruit
andvegetableconsumption.
Advocacyinneighbourhoods
forhealthydietsforolder
people
DescribestheNeighborhoodEatingandActivityAdvocacy
Teamproject,acommunity-basedparticipatoryprojectin
low-incomecommunalhousingsettingsinSanMateo
Bumanetal.2012
Advocacygroupsarefeasibleamongolderadultsto
improvefoodandphysical-activityenvironments.
49 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
Intervention Overview Reference Conclusions
County,CA,asonemethodforengagingolderadultsin
foodandphysical-activityenvironmentandpolicychange.
Builtenvironmentandobesity
–interventionsoverview
Systematicreviewofthepublishedscientificliterature,
screeningforstudieswithrelevancetodisadvantaged
individualsorareas,identifiedbylowsocioeconomic
status,blackraceorHispanicethnicity.Asearchfor
relatedtermsinpublicationdatabasesandtopically
relatedresourcesyielded45studiespublishedbetween
January1995andJanuary2009withatleast100
participantsorarearesidentsthatprovidedinformation
on1)thebuiltenvironmentcorrelatesofobesityor
relatedhealthbehaviourswithinoneormore
disadvantagedgroupsor2)therelativeexposurethese
groupshadtopotentiallyobesogenicbuilt-environment
characteristics.
Lovasietal.2009
Uponconsiderationoftheobesityandbehavioural
correlatesofbuilt-environmentcharacteristics,
researchprovidedthestrongestsupportforfood
stores(supermarketsinsteadofsmaller
grocery/conveniencestores),placestoexercise,and
safetyaspotentiallyinfluentialfordisadvantaged
groups.Thereisalsoevidencethatdisadvantaged
groupswerelivinginworseenvironmentswith
respecttofoodstores,placestoexercise,aesthetic
problems,andtrafficorcrime-relatedsafety.One
strategytoreduceobesitywouldinvolvechanging
thebuiltenvironmenttobemoresupportiveof
physicalactivityandahealthydiet.Basedonthe
authors'review,increasingsupermarketaccess,
placestoexercise,andneighbourhoodsafetymay
alsobepromisingstrategiestoreduceobesity-
relatedhealthdisparities.
Environmentandobesityin
children
Systematicreviewofquantitativeresearchexamining
builtandbiophysicalenvironmentalvariablesassociated
withobesityinchildrenandadolescentsthroughphysical
activity.15quantitativestudiesmettheinclusioncriteria.
Themajorityofstudieswerecross-sectionaland
publishedafter2005.
Duntonetal.2009
Forchildren,associationsbetweenphysical
environmentalvariablesandobesitydifferedby
gender,age,socioeconomicstatus,population
densityandwhetherreportsweremadebythe
parentorchild.Accesstoequipmentandfacilities,
neighbourhoodpattern(e.g.rural,exurban,
suburban)andurbansprawlwereassociatedwith
obesityoutcomesinadolescents.Formost
environmentalvariablesconsidered,strong
empiricalevidenceisnotyetavailable.
Neighbourhoodwalkingand
environment
SystematicsearchforarticlespublishedpriortoMay2014
ontheassociationbetweenwalkability(basedon
GeographicInformationSystems-derivedstreet
connectivity,land-usemix,and/orresidentialdensity)and
Hajnaetal.2015
Meta-analysisoffourofthesesixstudiesindicates
thatparticipantslivinginhigh-comparedtolow-
walkableneighbourhoodsaccumulate766more
stepsperday.Thisaccountsforapproximately8%of
50 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
Intervention Overview Reference Conclusions
dailysteps(pedometeroraccelerometer-assessed)in
adults.Themeandifferencesindailystepsbetween
adultslivinginhigh-versuslow-walkableneighbourhoods
werepooledacrossstudies.
recommendeddailysteps.TheresultsofEuropean
andAsianstudiessupportthehypothesisthathigher
neighbourhoodwalkabilityisassociatedwithhigher
levelsofbiosensor-assessedwalkinginadults.
Neighbourhoodwalkability
andenvironmentalfactors
Australiansurveywith2,650adults,proximitygenerated
withGISdatabases.
Owenetal.2007
Astrongindependentpositiveassociationwasfound
betweenweeklyfrequencyofwalkingfortransport
andtheobjectivelyderivedneighbourhood
walkabilityindex.Walkabilitywasrelatedtohigher
frequencyoftransportwalking,irrespectiveof
neighbourhoodself-selection.
51 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
Table6:Ruralhealth
Intervention Overview Reference Conclusions
Ruralhealthandemergency
serviceutilisation
Systematicreview.Scientificdatabases,grey
literatureandselectedreferencesweresearched.
Studyqualityandbiaswasassessed.Afterscreening,
33studiesmettheeligibilitycriteria,ofwhicheight
wereRCTs,13wereobservationalstudiesof
unplannedcareusebeforeandafternewpractices
wereimplementedand12comparedintervention
patientswithnon-randomisedcontrolpatients.
Brainardetal.2016
Eightofthe33studiesreportedmodeststatistically
significantreductionsinunplannedemergencycareuse
whiletworeportedstatisticallysignificantincreasesin
unplannedcare.Reductionswereassociatedwith
preventativemedicine,telemedicineandtargeting
chronicillnesses.Costsavingswerealsoreportedfor
someinterventions.Relativelyfewstudiesreporton
unscheduledmedicalcarebyspecificallyrural
populations,andinterventionswereassociatedwith
modestreductionsinunplannedcareuse.Futureresearch
shouldevaluateinterventionsmorerobustlyandmore
clearlyreporttheresults.
Ruralhealthpromotionin
primary-caresettings
Australiansystematicreview.Includesninestudies. Crouchetal.2011
Threetrialscomparedtheeffectsofinterventionson
physicalactivity,oneonsmokingandfiveonmultiplerisk
factors.Studiesfollowinginterventionstargetingphysical
activityreportedthatwomen'sphysicalactivitycanbe
increasedandthattheseincreasescanbesustainedat12
months.Whilethereweredecreasesinbloodpressureat
sixmonths,studieswithafive-yearfollow-upfoundno
decreasesforbothsystolicanddiastolicbloodpressure.
Overallresultsofstudiesintodietarymodification
programsalsodidnotsustainaneffectoveralonger
periodoftime.
Conclusion:Theresultsofthisreviewsuggestthatinrural
areas,lifestyleinterventionsdeliveredbyprimarycare
providersinprimary-caresettingstopatientsatlowrisk
appearedtobeofmarginalbenefit.Resourcesandtimein
primarycaremightbebetterspentonpatientsathigher
riskofcardiovasculardisease,suchasthosewithdiabetes
orexistingheartdisease.
52 www.c3health.org
ReferencesAbendstern,M.etal.2012.‘Variationsinstructures,processesandoutcomesofcommunitymentalhealthteamsforolderpeople:asystematicreviewoftheliterature’,AgingandMentalHealth16(7):861–73:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22303810(doi:10.1080/13607863.2011.651431)
Adinkrah,J.andBhakta,D.2013.‘UtilisingtheblackchurchesintheUKforhealthpromotion:anutritioninterventionforfirstgenerationGhanaianmigrantsinLondon’,ProceedingsoftheNutritionSociety72(OCE4):E269:http://journals.cambridge.org/download.php?file=%2FPNS%2FPNS72_OCE4%2FS0029665113002942a.pdf&code=61beb905d3b313d2ff41ae708a1ef5e1(doi:10.1017/S0029665113002942)
Algren,M.H.etal.2015.‘Health-riskbehaviourindeprivedneighbourhoodscomparedwithnon-deprivedneighbourhoods:asystematicliteraturereviewofquantitativeobservationalstudies’,PLoSOne10(10):e0139297:http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0139297(doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0139297)
Allman,D.2015.‘Communitycentralityandsocialscienceresearch’,AnthropologyandMedicine22(3):217–33:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4720032/(doi:10.1080/13648470.2015.1081670)
AMS/RAE2015.AcademyofMedicalSciences/RoyalAcademyofEngineering,HealthApps:RegulationandQualityControl(2015):http://www.raeng.org.uk/publications/reports/health-apps-regulation-and-quality-control
Andrews,J.A.etal.1993.‘Parentalinfluenceonearlyadolescentsubstanceuse:specificandnon-specificeffects’,TheJournalofEarlyAdolescence13(3):285–310:http://jea.sagepub.com/content/13/3/285.abstract(doi:10.1177/0272431693013003004)
ASH2015.ActiononSmokingandHealth,‘Youngpeopleandsmokingfactsheet’:http://ash.org.uk/files/documents/ASH_108.pdf
Attree,P.etal.2011.‘Theexperienceofcommunityengagementforindividuals:arapidreviewofevidence’,HealthandSocialCareintheCommunity19(3):250–60:http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2524.2010.00976.x/full(doi:10.1111/j.1365-2524.2010.00976.x)
Ball,K.etal.2015.‘Neighbourhoodsocioeconomicdisadvantageandfruitandvegetableconsumption:asevencountriescomparison’,InternationalJournalofBehavioralNutritionandPhysicalActivity12:68:https://ijbnpa.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12966-015-0229-x(doi:10.1186/s12966-015-0229-x)
Bartley,M.2006.CapabilityandResistance:BeatingtheOdds:http://www.ucl.ac.uk/capabilityandresilience/beatingtheoddsbook.pdf
Bates,G.andJones,L.2012.MonitoringandEvaluation:AGuideforCommunityProjects:http://www.cph.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/Monitoring-and-evaluation-a-guide-for-community-projects.pdf
Baum,F.2008.’Foreword’inR.LabontéandG.Laverack,HealthPromotioninAction:FromLocaltoGlobalEmpowerment:http://www.palgraveconnect.com/pc/doifinder/view/10.1057/9780230228375
Berry,W.2002.‘Healthismembership’inTheArtoftheCommonplace:theAgrarianEssaysofWendellBerry(Counterpoint).
BLF(BigLotteryFund)2014.‘Communityplanningtoolkit’:http://www.communityplanningtoolkit.org/sites/default/files/Engagement.pdf
Borys,J-M.etal.2016.‘EPODEapproachforchildhoodobesityprevention:methods,progressandinternationaldevelopment’(2012)ObesityReviews13(4):299–315:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3492853/(doi:10.1111/j.1467-789X.2011.00950.x)
53 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
Boulos,M.N.K.etal.2014.‘Mobilemedicalandhealthapps:stateoftheart,concerns,regulatorycontrolandcertification’,OnlineJournalofPublicHealthInformatics5(3):229:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3959919/(doi:10.5210/ojphi.v5i3.4814)
Bourke,M.etal.2014.‘Aredietaryinterventionseffectiveatincreasingfruitandvegetableconsumptionamongoverweightchildren?Asystematicreview’,JEpidemiolCommunityHealth68(5):485–90:http://jech.bmj.com/content/68/5/485.abstract(doi:10.1136/jech-2013-203238)
Brainard,J.S.etal.2016.‘Asystematicreviewofhealthserviceinterventionstoreduceuseofunplannedhealthcareinruralareas’,JournalofEvaluationinClinicalPractice22(2):145–55:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26507368(doi:10.1111/jep.12470)
BBBC(BromleybyBowCentre)2011.ImpactReport2010/11–BromleybyBowCentre:MakingaDifferenceandTransformingLives:http://www.lvsc.org.uk/media/116034/bbbc_impact_report.pdf
BBBC(BromleybyBowCentre)undated.‘Stopbuildinghealthcentres’:http://www.bbbc.org.uk/data/files/Stop_Building_Health_Centres.pdf
Brooks,N.andBegley,A.2014.‘Adolescentfoodliteracyprogrammes:areviewoftheliterature’,NutritionandDietetics71(3):158–71:http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1747-0080.12096/abstract(doi:10.1111/1747-0080.12096)
Brown,D.etal.2012.‘Reviewofservicesprovidedbypharmaciesthatpromotehealthyliving’,InternationalJournalofClinicalPharmacy34(3):399–409:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22527479(doi:10.1007/s11096-012-9634-2)
Brown,T.J.etal.2016a.‘Communitypharmacyinterventionsforpublichealthpriorities:asystematicreviewofcommunitypharmacy-deliveredsmoking,alcoholandweightmanagementinterventions’,PublicHealthResearch4(2):http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK349092/(doi:10.3310/phr04020)
Brown,T.J.etal.2016b.‘Communitypharmacy-deliveredinterventionsforpublichealthpriorities:asystematicreviewofinterventionsforalcoholreduction,smokingcessationandweightmanagement,includingmeta-analysisforsmokingcessation’,BMJOpen6:2e009828:http://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/6/2/e009828.full(doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2015-009828)
Buman,M.P.etal.2012.‘NeighborhoodEatingandActivityAdvocacyTeams(NEAAT):engagingolderadultsinpolicyactivitiestoimprovefoodandphysicalenvironments’,Translationalbehavioralmedicine2(2):249–53:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3717885/(doi:10.1007/s13142-011-0100-9)
C3CollaboratingforHealth2015a.‘MorganStanleyHealthyLondon’:http://www.c3health.org/c3activities/communities/c3-community-projects-portfolio/morgan-stanley-healthy-london/
C3CollaboratingforHealth2015b.‘ShapeUpSomerville’inUrbanHealthPromotion:SelectedCaseStudiesonDiabetes:http://www.c3health.org/c3activities/ncds-and-the-environment/urban-health-promotion-diabetes/
Cairns,G.etal.2011.InvestigatingtheEffectivenessofEducationinRelationtoAlcohol:ASystematicInvestigationofCriticalElementsforOptimumEffectivenessofPromisingApproachesandDeliveryMethodsinSchoolandFamilyLinkedAlcoholEducation:http://alcoholresearchuk.org/downloads/finalReports/FinalReport_0083.pdf
Calogiuri,G.andChroni,S.2014.‘Theimpactofthenaturalenvironmentonthepromotionofactiveliving:anintegrativesystematicreview’,BMCPublicHealth14:873:http://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2458-14-873(doi:10.1186/1471-2458-14-873)
Cave,B.andCoutts,A.2002.HealthEvidenceBasefortheMayor'sDraftCulturalStrategy:http://www.apho.org.uk/resource/item.aspx?RID=93618
CDC(USCentersforDiseaseControlandPrevention)2013.CommunityHealthAssessmentforPopulationHealthImprovement:ResourceofMostFrequentlyRecommendedHealthOutcomesandDeterminants:https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/20707
54 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
Charlebois,J.etal.2012.School-basedInterventionstoAddressObesityPreventioninChildren:http://healthevidence.org/documents/webinars/Final%20Report%20Sept%2024-12.pdf
Charreire,H.etal.2016.‘Self-definedresidentialneighbourhoods:sizevariationsandcorrelatesacrossfiveEuropeanurbanregions’,ObesityReviews17(Suppl1):9–18:http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/obr.12380/full(doi:10.1111/obr.12380)
Chen,Y-F.etal.2012.‘Effectivenessandcost-effectivenessofcomputerandotherelectronicaidsforsmokingcessation:asystematicreviewandnetworkmeta-analysis’,HealthTechnologyAssessment16(38):1–205:http://www.journalslibrary.nihr.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/64773/FullReport-hta16380.pdf(doi:10.3310/hta16380)
Christakis,N.A.andFowler,J.H.2007.‘Thespreadofobesityinalargesocialnetworkover32years’,NEJM357(4):370–9:https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/3710802/Christakis_SpreadofObesity.pdf(doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMsa066082)
Christakis,N.A.andFowler,J.H.2008.‘Thecollectivedynamicsofsmokinginalargesocialnetwork’,NewEnglandJournalofMedicine358(21):2249–58:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18499567(doi:10.1056/NEJMsa0706154)
Christakis,N.A.andFowler,J.H.2009.Connected:AmazingPowerofSocialNetworksandHowTheyShapeOurLives(HarperPress)
Clark,P.andDawson,S.L.1995.JobsandtheUrbanPoor:PrivatelyInitiatedSectoralStrategies:http://www.aspeninstitute.org/sites/default/files/content/docs/pubs/JobsUrbanPoor.pdf
Cloke,P.etal.1997.‘Livinglivesindifferentways?Deprivation,marginalizationandchanginglifestylesinruralEngland’,TransactionsoftheInstituteofBritishGeographers22(2):210–30:http://www.jstor.org/stable/622310?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents
Cornwell,B.andLaumann,E.O.2015.‘Thehealthbenefitsofnetworkgrowth:newevidencefromanationalsurveyofolderadults’,SocialScienceandMedicine125:94–106:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3975821/(doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.09.011)
Crane,D.etal.2015.‘Behaviorchangetechniquesinpopularalcoholreductionapps:contentanalysis’,JournalofMedicalInternetResearch17(5):e118:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4468601/(doi:10.2196/jmir.4060)
Crouch,R.etal.2011.‘Asystematicreviewoftheeffectivenessofprimaryhealtheducationorinterventionprogramsinimprovingruralwomen'sknowledgeofheartdiseaseriskfactorsandchanginglifestylebehaviours’,InternationalJournalofEvidenceBasedHealthcare9(3):236–45:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21884451(doi:10.1111/j.1744-1609.2011.00226.x)
Cyril,S.etal.2015.‘Exploringtheroleofcommunityengagementinimprovingthehealthofdisadvantagedpopulations:asystematicreview’,GlobalHealthAction8:29842:http://www.globalhealthaction.net/index.php/gha/article/view/29842(doi:10.3402/gha.v8.29842)
Dayson,C.etal.2013.‘Fromdependencetoindependence:emerginglessonsfromtheRotherhamSocialPrescribingPilot’:https://www.shu.ac.uk/research/cresr/sites/shu.ac.uk/files/rotherham-social-prescribing-summary.pdf
DfT(DepartmentforTransport)2015.‘ReportedroadcasualtiesinGreatBritain:quarterlyprovisionalestimatesyearendingSeptember2015’:https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/498157/quarterly-estimates-jul-to-sep-2015.pdf
Dodds,S.2016.SocialContextsandHealth:AGCPHSynthesis:http://www.gcph.co.uk/assets/0000/5495/Final_Social_contexts_report.pdf
Downing,J.etal.2011.‘Asystematicreviewofparentandfamily-basedinterventioneffectivenessonsexualoutcomesinyoungpeople’,HealthEducationResearch26(5):808–33:http://her.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2011/04/07/her.cyr019.full.pdf+html(doi:10.1093/her/cyr019)
55 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
Dunbar,R.2016(forCAMRA).FriendsonTap:TheRoleofPubsattheHeartoftheCommunity:http://www.camra.org.uk/documents/10180/361237/FACTS+ON+TAP+-+A+Report+for+CAMRA.pdf/f3f22bbc-8596-41b8-8d91-1906a80329a0
Dunton,G.F.etal.2009.‘Physicalenvironmentalcorrelatesofchildhoodobesity:asystematicreview’,ObesityReviews10(4):393–402:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3833101/(doi:10.1111/j.1467-789X.2009.00572.x)
Eades,C.E.etal.2011.‘Publichealthincommunitypharmacy:asystematicreviewofpharmacistandconsumerviews’,BMCPublicHealth11:582:http://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2458-11-582(doi:10.1186/1471-2458-11-582)
Evans,D.etal.2010.‘Rhetoricorreality?AsystematicreviewoftheimpactofparticipatoryapproachesbyUKpublichealthunitsonhealthandsocialoutcomes’,JournalofPublicHealth32(3):418–26:http://jpubhealth.oxfordjournals.org/content/32/3/418.full(doi:10.1093/pubmed/fdq014)
Faggiano,F.etal.2008.‘School-basedpreventionforillicitdrugsuse:asystematicreview’,PreventiveMedicine46(5):385–96:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18258289(doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2007.11.012)
Feuillet,T.etal.2016.‘Neighbourhoodtypologybasedonvirtualauditofenvironmentalobesogeniccharacteristics’,ObesityReviews17:19–30:http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/obr.12378/full(doi:10.1111/obr.12378)
Fisher,B.2016.CommunityDevelopmentinHealth:ALiteratureReview(revised2016):http://www.healthempowerment.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/CD-AND-HEALTH-LITERATURE-REVIEW-Brian-Fisher-Revised-edn-2016.pdf
Foxcroft,D.R.etal.2011.‘Primarypreventionforalcoholmisuseinyoungpeople’.CochraneDatabaseofSystematicReviews:http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD003024.pub2/pdf(doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003024.pub2)
FPH(FacultyofPublicHealth)/NaturalEngland2010.GreatOutdoors:HowourNaturalHealthServiceUsesGreenSpacetoimproveWellbeing:BriefingStatement:http://www.fph.org.uk/uploads/bs_great_outdoors.pdf
Fraser,J.2006.RuralHealth:ALiteratureReviewfortheNationalHealthCommittee:http://nhc.health.govt.nz/system/files/documents/publications/rural-health-literature-review.pdf
Frisby,B.2015.‘Howlocalareacoordinationmaysolvethefinancialmalaiseengulfingadultsocialcare’,ontheCommunityCarewebsite:http://www.communitycare.co.uk/2015/06/29/local-area-coordination-may-solve-financial-malaise-engulfing-adult-social-care/
Fulbright-Anderson,K.andAuspos,P.(eds)1986.CommunityChange:Theories,Practice,andEvidence:https://www.aspeninstitute.org/sites/default/files/content/docs/rcc/COMMUNITYCHANGE-FINAL.PDF
Galiatsatos,P.andHale,W.D.2015.‘Promotinghealthandwellnessincongregationsthroughlayhealtheducators:acasestudyoftwochurches’,JournalofReligionandHealth55(1):288–91:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26014461(doi:10.1007/s10943-015-0069-7)
George,P.P.etal.2010.‘Theevolvingroleofthecommunitypharmacistinchronicdiseasemanagement–aliteraturereview’,AnnalsoftheAcademyofMedicine,Singapore39(11):861–7:http://www.annals.edu.sg/pdf/39VolNo11Nov2010/V39N11p861.pdf
Hagell,A.etal.2015,KeyDataonAdolescents2015:http://cdn.basw.co.uk/upload/basw_110253-1.pdf
Hajna,S.etal.2015.‘Associationsbetweenneighbourhoodwalkabilityanddailystepsinadults:asystematicreviewandmeta-analysis’,BMCPublicHealth15:768:http://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-015-2082-x(doi:10.1186/s12889-015-2082-x)
56 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
Hanrahan,S.2013(onbehalfofLondonHealthInequalitiesNetwork).‘Respondingtothecumulativeimpactofbettingshops’:http://www.licensingresource.co.uk/sites/default/files/LHIN%20CIPS%20for%20betting%20shops%20July%202013.pdf
HealthComplexityGroup2016.‘TheBeaconProject–whereC2began’:http://www.healthcomplexity.net/content.php?s=c2&c=c2_beacon
Hemming,P.etal.2016.‘Chaplainsonthemedicalteam:aqualitativeanalysisofaninterprofessionalcurriculumforinternalmedicineresidentsandchaplaininterns’,JournalofReligionandHealth55(2):560–71:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26578510(doi:10.1007/s10943-015-0158-7)
Hibell,B.etal.2009.The2007ESPADReport:SubstanceUseAmongStudentsin35EuropeanCountries:http://www.espad.org/uploads/espad_reports/2007/the_2007_espad_report-full_091006.pdf
Hitchman,S.C.etal.2014.‘Therelationbetweennumberofsmokingfriends,andquitintentions,attempts,andsuccess:findingsfromtheInternationalTobaccoControl(ITC)FourCountrySurvey’,PsychologyofAddictiveBehaviors28(4):1144–52:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4266625/(doi:10.1037/a0036483)
Holt-Lunstad,J.etal.2010.‘Socialrelationshipsandmortalityrisk:ameta-analyticreview’,PLoSMedicine7(7):e100031:http://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/article?id=10.1371/journal.pmed.1000316(doi:dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000316)
HomeOffice2004.‘Underagedrinking:findingsfromthe2004offending,crimeandjusticesurvey’:http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20110218135832/rds.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs06/r277.pdf
HSCIC(HealthandSocialCareInformationCentre)2015a.GeneralPharmaceuticalServices–England2005/06to2014/15:http://www.hscic.gov.uk/catalogue/PUB19026/gen-pharm-eng-201415.pdf
HSCIC(HealthandSocialCareInformationCentre)2015b.StatisticsonAlcohol:England2015:http://www.hscic.gov.uk/catalogue/PUB17712/alc-eng-2015-rep.pdf
Hynynen,S-T.etal.2016.‘Asystematicreviewofschool-basedinterventionstargetingphysicalactivityandsedentarybehaviouramongolderadolescents’,InternationalReviewofSportandExercisePsychology9(1):http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1750984X.2015.1081706#.VykZkEd8nNg(doi:10.1080/1750984X.2015.1081706)
IDeA(ImprovementandDevelopmentAgency)2010.AGlassHalf-full:HowanAssetApproachcanimproveCommunityHealthandWell-being:http://www.local.gov.uk/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=bf034d2e-7d61-4fac-b37e-f39dc3e2f1f2
Inskip,H.etal.2014.‘Influencesonadherencetodietandphysicalactivityrecommendationsinwomenandchildren;insightsfromsixEuropeanstudies’,AnnalsofNutritionandMetabolism64(0):332–9:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4560166/(doi:10.1159/000365042)
ISM(InstituteforSocialMarketing)2009.SynthesisReportontheEffectivenessofAlcoholEducationinSchoolsintheEU:http://ec.europa.eu/health/alcohol/docs/ev_20091112_co11_en.pdf
Jenkins,R.etal.2008.MentalHealth:FutureChallenges:http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/32763/1/__Libfile_repository_Content_Knapp,%20M_Mental%20health%20future%20challenges_Mental_health%20future%20challenges%20(LSE%20RO).pdf
Jones,L.etal.2007.AReviewoftheEffectivenessandCost-effectivenessofInterventionsDeliveredinPrimaryandSecondarySchoolstoPreventand/orReduceAlcoholUsebyYoungPeopleUnder18YearsOld:http://www.ias.org.uk/uploads/pdf/Information%20and%20education/Alcoholandschoolsexecutivesummary.pdf
JRF(JosephRowntreeFoundation)2008.MonitoringPovertyandSocialExclusion:https://www.jrf.org.uk/report/monitoring-poverty-and-social-exclusion-2008
57 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
Kang-Yi,C.D.andGellis,Z.D.2010.‘Asystematicreviewofcommunity-basedhealthinterventionsondepressionforolderadultswithheartdisease’,AgingandMentalHealth14(1):1–19:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20155517(doi:10.1080/13607860903421003)
Kaplan,S.A.etal.2006.‘Theroleoffaith-basedinstitutionsinaddressinghealthdisparities:acasestudyofaninitiativeinthesouthwestBronx’,JournalofHealthCareforthePoorandUnderserved17(2Suppl):9–19:http://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/journal_of_health_care_for_the_poor_and_underserved/v017/17.2Skaplan.html(doi:10.1353/hpu.2006.0088)
Kenny,A.etal.2013.‘Communityparticipationinruralhealth:ascopingreview’,BMCHealthServRes13:64:http://pubmedcentralcanada.ca/pmcc/articles/PMC3583801/(doi:10.1186/1472-6963-13-64)
Kerrigan,D.etal.2015.‘AcommunityempowermentapproachtotheHIVresponseamongsexworkers:effectiveness,challenges,andconsiderationsforimpleme.tationandscale-up’,TheLancet385(9963):172–85:http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(14)60973-9/fulltext(doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60973-9)
Lakerveld,J.etal.2016.‘Individualandcontextualcorrelatesofobesity-relatedbehavioursandobesity:theSPOTLIGHTproject’,ObesityReviews17:5–8:http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/obr.12384/full(doi:10.1111/obr.12384)
Lavin,T.etal.2006.HealthImpactsoftheBuiltEnvironment:AReview:http://www.publichealth.ie/files/file/Health_Impacts_of_the_Built_Environment_A_Review.pdf
Leonardi-Bee,J.etal.2011.‘Exposuretoparentalandsiblingsmokingandtheriskofsmokinguptakeinchildhoodandadolescence:asystematicreviewandmeta-analysis’,Thorax66(10):847–55:http://thorax.bmj.com/content/66/10/847.long(doi:10.1136/thx.2010.153379)
Leyden,K.M.2003.‘Socialcapitalandthebuiltenvironment:theimportanceofwalkableneighborhoods’,AmericanJournalofPublicHealth93(9):1546–51:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1448008/
LGA(LocalGovernmentAssociation)2016.Tippingthescales:CaseStudiesontheUseofPlanningPowerstoLimitHotFoodTakeaways:http://www.local.gov.uk/documents/10180/7632544/L15-427+Tipping+the+scales/6d16554e-072b-46cd-b6fd-8aaf31487c84
LondonFoodBoard/CIEH(CharteredInstituteofEnvironmentalHealth)2014.TakeawaysToolkit:Tools,InterventionsandCaseStudiestohelpLocalAuthoritiesdevelopaResponsetotheHealthImpactsofFastFoodTakeaways:http://www.cieh.org/WorkArea/showcontent.aspx?id=44312
Lovasi,G.S.etal.2009.‘Builtenvironmentsandobesityindisadvantagedpopulations’,EpidemiologicReviews31:7–20:http://epirev.oxfordjournals.org/content/31/1/7.long(doi:10.1093/epirev/mxp005)
Luxton,D.D.etal.2012.‘Socialmediaandsuicide:apublichealthperspective’,AmericanJournalofPublicHealth102(Suppl2):S195–S200:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3477910/(doi:10.2105/AJPH.2011.300608)
Mackinney,A.C.etal.2014.AccesstoRuralHealthCare–ALiteratureReviewandNewSynthesis:http://www.rupri.org/Forms/HealthPanel_Access_August2014.pdf
MacQueen,K.M.etal.2001.‘Whatiscommunity?Anevidence-baseddefinitionforparticipatorypublichealth,AmericanJournalofPublicHealth91(12):1929–38:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1446907/
Manthorpe,J.etal.2008.‘Elderlypeople’sperspectivesonhealthandwell-beinginruralcommunitiesinEngland:findingsfromtheevaluationoftheNationalServiceFrameworkforOlderPeople’(2008)HealthandSocialCareintheCommunity16(5):460–8:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Older%20People%20Researching%20Social%20Issues%5BCorporate%20Author%5D(doi:10.1111/j.1365-2524.2007.00755.x)
Marmot,M.etal.2010.FairSocietyHealthyLives:StrategicReviewofhealthinequalitiesinEnglandPost2010:http://www.instituteofhealthequity.org/projects/fair-society-healthy-lives-the-marmot-review
58 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
MarmotReviewTeam2011.TheHealthImpactsofColdHomesandFuelPoverty:https://www.foe.co.uk/sites/default/files/downloads/cold_homes_health.pdf
Matone,M.etal.2012.‘Homevisitationprogrameffectivenessandtheinfluenceofcommunitybehavioralnorms:apropensityscorematchedanalysisofprenatalsmokingcessation’,BMCPublicHealth12:1016:http://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2458-12-1016(doi:10.1186/1471-2458-12-1016)
McCormack,G.R.andShiell,A.2011.‘Insearchofcausality:asystematicreviewoftherelationshipbetweenthebuiltenvironmentandphysicalactivityamongadults’,InternationalJournalofBehavioralNutritionandPhysicalActivity8:125:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3306205/(doi:10.1186%2F1479-5868-8-125)
McGovern,L.etal.2014.‘Healthpolicybrief:Therelativecontributionofmultipledeterminantstohealthoutcomes’,HealthAffairs:http://healthaffairs.org/healthpolicybriefs/brief_pdfs/healthpolicybrief_123.pdf
McPherson,K.E.etal.2013,‘Theassociationbetweenfamilyandcommunitysocialcapitalandhealthriskbehavioursinyoungpeople:anintegrativereview’,BMCPublicHealth13:971http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/13/971(doi:10.1186/1471-2458-13-971)
MentalHealthFoundation2010.TheLonelySociety?https://www.mentalhealth.org.uk/sites/default/files/the_lonely_society_report.pdf
Morgan,E.andSwann,C.2004(eds).SocialCapitalforHealth:IssuesofDefinition,MeasurementandLinkstoHealth(HealthDevelopmentAgency)
Morgan,A.andZiglio,E.2007.‘Revitalisingtheevidencebaseforpublichealth:anassetsmodel’,GlobalHealthPromotion14(2):17–22:http://ped.sagepub.com/content/14/2_suppl/17.full.pdf+html(doi:10.1177/10253823070140020701x)
MorganStanley2015.‘MorganStanleyHealthyLondon’:http://www.morganstanley.com/ideas/healthy-london.html
NationalForest2014.Strategy2014–2024:https://www.nationalforest.org/document/reports/Strategy_2014_2024_Web_Version.pdf
NBLP(NewingtonBigLocalPartnership)2014.NewingtonBigLocal:http://localtrust.org.uk/assets/downloads/plans/Newington%20Big%20Local%20plan%20-%20final.pdf
NBLP(NewingtonBigLocalPartnership)2015.NewingtonBigLocal:FirstYearReviewAugust2014–2015:http://community21.org/downloads/92691361456a0faa34261a6_18836631_newington_big_local_year_1_review_of_plan_december_2015.pdf
Nesta2016.MakingtheChange:http://www.nesta.org.uk/sites/default/files/making_the_change.pdf
Newbury-Birch,D.etal.2009.ImpactofAlcoholConsumptiononYoungPeople:AReviewofReviews:Newcastle:https://www.education.gov.uk/consultations/downloadableDocs/Review%20of%20existing%20reviews%20(Full).pdf
NHHW2016.‘Howtogetstarted:Howdowesetupawatch–the7stepsguide’:http://www.neighbourhoodhealthwatch.org.uk/about/how-to-get-started/
NHS(NHSEngland)2016a.‘Healthynewtowns’:https://www.england.nhs.uk/ourwork/innovation/healthy-new-towns/
NHS2016b.‘Tools:interactivetools,smartphoneappsandpodcasts’:http://www.nhs.uk/tools/pages/toolslibrary.aspx
NHSAlliance2014.ACharterforCommunityDevelopmentinHealthhttp://www.nhsalliance.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/NHSA-CD-Charter-FINAL.pdf
NICE(NationalInstituteforHealthandCareExcellence)2008.‘Physicalactivityandtheenvironment’:https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ph8
59 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
NICE(NationalInstituteforHealthandCareExcellence)2014.‘Communityengagementtoimprovehealth’:https://www.nice.org.uk/advice/lgb16/chapter/introduction
NICE(NationalInstituteforHealthandCareExcellence)2016:CommunityEngagement:ImprovingHealthandWellbeingandReducingHealthInequalities:https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng44
Nutbeam,D.2000.‘Healthliteracyasapublichealthgoal:achallengeforcontemporaryhealtheducationandcommunicationstrategiesintothe21stcentury’,HealthPromotionInternational15(3):259–67:http://heapro.oxfordjournals.org/content/15/3/259.full.pdf+html(doi:10.1093/heapro/15.3.259)
OECD(OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment)2009.DoingBetterforChildren:http://www.oecd.org/els/family/doingbetterforchildren.htm
OFCOM2015.Adults’MediaUseandAttitudes:Report2015:http://stakeholders.ofcom.org.uk/binaries/research/media-literacy/media-lit-10years/2015_Adults_media_use_and_attitudes_report.pdf
Ofsted2013.UnseenChildren:AccessandAchievement20YearsOn:https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/379157/Unseen_20children_20-_20access_20and_20achievement_2020_20years_20on.pdf
O’Mara-Eves,A.etal.2013.‘Communityengagementtoreduceinequalitiesinhealth:asystematicreview,meta-analysisandeconomicanalysis’,PublicHealthResearch1(4):http://www.journalslibrary.nihr.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/94281/FullReport-phr01040.pdf(doi:10.3310/phr01040)
ONS(OfficeforNationalStatistics)2011.CensusAnalysiscomparingRuralandUrbanAreasofEnglandandWales:http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20160105160709/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171776_337939.pdf
ONS(OfficeforNationalStatistics)2013.2011CensusAnalysis-ComparingRuralandUrbanAreasofEnglandandWales:http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20160105160709/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171776_337939.pdf
ONS(OfficeforNationalStatistics)2014a.DetailedAnalysisofHealthDeprivationDivideUsingthe2011Census:http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20160105160709/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171776_352724.pdf
ONS(OfficeforNationalStatistics)2014b.‘Teenageconceptionrateshighestinmostdeprivedareas:areabasedanalysis,ConceptionsDeprivationAnalysisToolkit2009–11’:http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20160105160709/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/regional-trends/area-based-analysis/conceptions-deprivation-analysis-toolkit/conceptions-deprivation-measures--2009-11.html
ONS(OfficeforNationalStatistics)2014c.‘Dosmokingratesvarybetweenmoreandlessadvantagedareas?’http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20160105160709/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/disability-and-health-measurement/do-smoking-rates-vary-between-more-and-less-advantaged-areas-/2012/sty-smoking-rates.html
Opalinski,A.etal.2015.‘Dofaithcommunitieshavearoleinaddressingchildhoodobesity?’,PublicHealthNursing32(6):721–30:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26303679(doi:10.1111/phn.12226)
Owen,N.etal.2007.‘NeighborhoodwalkabilityandthewalkingbehaviorofAustralianadults’,AmericanJournalofPreventiveMedicine33(5):387–95:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17950404
Pateman,T.2011.‘Ruralandurbanareas:comparinglivesusingrural/urbanclassifications’,RegionalTrends43(2010/11):http://www.neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk/HTMLDocs/images/rt43-rural-urban-areas_tcm97-107562.pdf
60 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
Perkins,J.M.etal.2015.‘Socialnetworksandhealth:asystematicreviewofsociocentricnetworkstudiesinlow-andmiddle-incomecountries’,SocialScience&Medicine125:60–78:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25442969(doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.08.019)
PHE(PublicHealthEngland)2014.EstimatingLocalMortalityBurdensassociatedwithParticulateAirPollution:https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/332854/PHE_CRCE_010.pdf
PHE(PublicHealthEngland)2015a.AGuidetoCommunity-centredApproachesforHealthandWellbeing:https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/402889/A_guide_to_community-centred_approaches_for_health_and_wellbeing__briefi___.pdf
PHE(PublicHealthEngland)2015b.LocalActiononHealthInequalities:ReducingSocialIsolationAcrosstheLifecourse:https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/460708/3b_Reducing_social_isolation-Briefing.pdf
PHE(PublicHealthEngland)2016.‘Healthinequalities’(accessed6April2016):http://www.noo.org.uk/NOO_about_obesity/inequalities
Prüss-Ustün,A.etal.2016(fortheWHO).PreventingDiseasethroughHealthyEnvironments:AGlobalAssessmentoftheBurdenofDiseasefromEnvironmentalRisks:
Ramo,D.E.etal.2014.‘Facebookrecruitmentofyoungadultsmokersforacessationtrial:methods,metrics,andlessonslearned’,InternetInterventions1(2):58–64:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4100621/(doi:10.1016/j.invent.2014.05.001)
Ramo,D.E.etal.2015.‘FeasibilityandquitratesoftheTobaccoStatusProject:aFacebooksmokingcessationinterventionforyoungadults’,JournalofMedicalInternetResearch17(12):e291:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4736286/(doi:10.2196/jmir.5209)
Ranasinghe,J.2014.ResearchIntoDriversofServicesCostsinRuralAreas:https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/388598/Rural_literature_review.pdf
RBKC(RoyalBoroughofKensingtonandChelsea)2016.‘GoGolborne’:www.rbkc.gov.uk/gogolborne
RCP(RoyalCollegeofPhysicians)2010.PassiveSmokingandChildren:https://cdn.shopify.com/s/files/1/0924/4392/files/passive-smoking-and-children.pdf
RCP/RCPCH(RoyalCollegeofPhysicians/RoyalCollegeofPaediatricsandChildHealth)2016.EveryBreathWeTake:theLifelongImpactofAirPollution:https://www.rcplondon.ac.uk/projects/outputs/every-breath-we-take-lifelong-impact-air-pollution
Reischl,T.M.etal.2011.‘Youthempowermentsolutionsforviolenceprevention’,AdolescentMedicine22(3):581–600:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22423465
Renalds,A.etal.2010.‘Asystematicreviewofbuiltenvironmentandhealth’,FamilyandCommunityHealth33(1):68–78:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20010006(doi:10.1097/FCH.0b013e3181c4e2e5)
Riva,M.etal.2009.‘Unravellingtheextentofinequalitiesinhealthacrossurbanandruralareas:evidencefromanationalsampleinEngland’,SocSciMed.68(4):654–63:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19108940(doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.11.024)
RJWF(RobertWoodJohnsonFoundation)2016.FromVisiontoAction:AFrameworkandMeasurestoMobilizeaCultureofHealth:http://www.rwjf.org/content/dam/COH/RWJ000_COH-Update_CoH_Report_1b.pdf
Roda,C.etal.2016.‘MismatchbetweenperceivedandobjectivelymeasuredenvironmentalobesogenicfeaturesinEuropeanneighbourhoods’,ObesityReviews17:31–41:http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/obr.12376/full(doi:10.1111/obr.12376)
61 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
Sampasa-Kanyinga,H.andLewis,R.F.2015.‘Frequentuseofsocialnetworkingsitesisassociatedwithpoorpsychologicalfunctioningamongchildrenandadolescents’,Cyberpsychology,BehaviorandSocialNetworking18(7):380–5:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26167836(doi:10.1089/cyber.2015.0055)
Sampson,R.J.etal.1997.‘Neighbourhoodsandviolentcrime:amultilevelstudyofcollectiveefficacy’Science277(5328):918–24:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9252316(doi:10.1126/science.277.5328.918)
ScottishGovernment2009.HealthinScotland2009:TimeforChange:http://www.gov.scot/Publications/2010/11/12104010/0
ScotPHN2014.GamblingRelatedHarm:AReviewoftheScopeforPublicHealthIntervention:http://www.scotphn.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/2014_06_30_ScotPHN_Gambling_Related_Harm_FINAL1.pdf
Shackleton,N.etal.2016.'School-basedinterventionsgoingbeyondhealtheducationtopromoteadolescenthealth:systematicreviewofreviews',JournalofAdolescentHealth58(4):382–96:http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1054139X15007363(doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2015.12.017)
ShapeUpSomerville,ADecadeofShapeUpSomerville:AssessingChildObesityMeasures2002–2011(2012–13):http://www.somervillema.gov/sites/default/files/SUS-BMI-ReportFINAL-4-12-2013_0_0.pdf
ShapeUpSomerville2013.ShapeUpSomerville:BuildingandSustainingaHealthyCommunity–Reflectionsover15Years(1998–2013):http://www.somervillema.gov/sites/default/files/SUS%20Story%20FINAL1.pdf
Shaw,B.etal.2015.Children’sIndependentMobility:AnInternationalComparisonandRecommendationsforAction:http://www.psi.org.uk/site/publication_detail/1823
Shift2015.HealthyFastFood:EvaluatingaNewApproachtoImprovingtheFoodEnvironment:http://www.shiftdesign.org.uk/content/uploads/2015/11/Shifts-Healthy-Fast-Food-Evaluation_November-2015-V2.pdf
Shift2016:‘Redesigningthefoodenvironmenttotransformthehealthinessoftakeawayfood’:http://www.shiftdesign.org.uk/products/healthy-fast-food/
Sleddens.E.F.C.etal.2015.‘Determinantsofdietarybehavioramongyouth:anumbrellareview’,InternationalJournalofBehavioralNutritionandPhysicalActivity12:7:https://ijbnpa.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12966-015-0164-x(doi:10.1186/s12966-015-0164-x)
Smith2001.M.K.Smith,‘Community’intheEncyclopediaofInformalEducation(2001):http://infed.org/mobi/community/
Smith,G.etal.2010.‘Whatismywalkingneighbourhood?ApilotstudyofEnglishadults'definitionsoftheirlocalwalkingneighbourhoods’,InternationalJournalofBehavioralNutritionandPhysicalActivity7:34:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873577/(doi:10.1186/1479-5868-7-34)
SocialPrescribingNetwork2016.‘NewnationalSocialPrescribingNetworkaddressesNHShealthcareaccessibilityissues’(pressrelease,14March):https://www.westminster.ac.uk/news-and-events/news/2016/new-national-social-prescribing-network-addresses-nhs-healthcare-accessibility-issues
South,J.2014.‘Healthpromotionbycommunitiesandincommunities:currentissuesforresearchandpractice’,ScandinavianJournalofPublicHealth42(15Suppl):82–7:http://sjp.sagepub.com/content/42/15_suppl/82.long(doi:10.1177/1403494814545341)
SPOTLIGHT2016.‘TheSPOTLIGHTProject:SustainablePreventionofObesityThroughIntegratedStrategiesinEurope’,ObesityReviews(SpecialIssue)17(S1):5–109:http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/obr.v17.S1/issuetoc
Stewart,T.etal.2015.‘Anovelassessmentofadolescentmobility:apilotstudy’,InternationalJournalofBehavioralNutritionandPhysicalActivity12:18:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4336506/(doi:10.1186/s12966-015-0176-6)
62 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
Stoyanov,S.R.etal.2015.‘MobileAppRatingScale:anewtoolforassessingthequalityofhealthmobileapps’,JMIRmHealthanduHealth3(1):e27:http://mhealth.jmir.org/2015/1/e27/(doi:10.2196/mhealth.3422)
Stuteley,H.2002.‘TheBeaconProject—acommunity-basedhealthimprovementproject’,BritishJournalofGeneralPractice52(Suppl):S44–6:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1316143/pdf/12389772.pdf
SWAcademicHealthScienceNetwork2015.NeighbourhoodHealthWatch:InterimFindingstoSupporttheDevelopmentofanEvaluationFramework(unpublished)
TCPA(TownandCountryPlanningAssociation)2016.BuildingtheFoundations:TacklingObesitythroughPlanningandDevelopment:http://www.local.gov.uk/documents/10180/7632544/L16-6+building+the+foundations+-+tackling+obesity_v05.pdf
ThinkLocalActPersonal2016.SocialValueofLocalAreaCoordinationinDerby:AForecastSocialReturnonInvestmentAnalysisforDerbyCityCouncil:http://www.thinklocalactpersonal.org.uk/_library/BCC/Assured_SROI_Report_for_Local_Area_Coordination_in_Derby_March_2016.pdf
TinderFoundation2015.NHS:WideningDigitalParticipation:http://www.tinderfoundation.org/what-we-do/nhs-widening-digital-participation
Toot,S.etal2011.‘Theeffectivenessofcrisisresolution/hometreatmentteamsforolderpeoplewithmentalhealthproblems:asystematicreviewandscopingexercise’,InternationalJournalofGeriatricPsychiatry26(12):1221–30:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21351154(doi:10.1002/gps.2686)
UKCRC(UKClinicalResearchCollaboration)2015.UKHealthResearchAnalysis2014:http://www.ukcrc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/UKCRCHealthResearchAnalysis2014-WEB.pdf
UN(UnitedNations)2015.‘SustainableDevelopmentGoals:Goal16–promotejust,peacefulandinclusivesocieties’:http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/peace-justice/
ValdiviaEspino,J.N.etal.2015.‘Community-basedrestaurantinterventionstopromotehealthyeating:asystematicreview’,PreventingChronicDisease12:140455:http://www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2015/14_0455.htm(doi:10.5888/pcd12.140455)
Vallée,J.etal.2014.‘The‘constantsizeneighbourhoodtrap’inaccessibilityandhealthstudies’,UrbanStudies52:4:http://usj.sagepub.com/content/early/2014/03/31/0042098014528393.abstract(doi:10.1177/0042098014528393)
Viasano2016:websitehttp://www.viasano.be/
Vicary,J.R.etal.1996.‘Acommunitysystemsapproachtosubstanceabusepreventioninaruralsetting’,JournalofPrimaryPrevention16(3):303–18:http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF02407427(doi:10.1007/BF02407427).
Vinck,J.etal.,'DownwardtrendsintheprevalenceofchildhoodoverweightintwopilottownstakingpartintheVIASANOcommunity-basedprogrammeinBelgium:datafromanationalschoolhealthmonitoringsystem’,PediatricObesity11(1):61–7:http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ijpo.12022/abstract(doi:10.1111/ijpo.12022)
Viswanathan,M.etal.2010.‘Outcomesandcostsofcommunityhealthworkerinterventions:asystematicreview’,MedicalCare48(9):792–808:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20706166(doi:10.1097/MLR.0b013e3181e35b51)
Wales,A.andThain,A.2015.‘Bibliotherapycasestudy’:http://www.healthliteracyplace.org.uk/resource-library/document/b/bibliotherapy-case-study/
WellLondon/UEL2013.WellLondonPhase1Evaluation:ASynthesisofProject,ProgrammeandControlled-trialEvaluations:http://www.welllondon.org.uk/files/1391
63 Communitiesbriefingpaperwww.c3health.org
Whittaker,R.etal.2012.CochraneDatabaseofSystematicReviews,‘Mobilephone-basedinterventionsforsmokingcessation’:http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD006611.pub3/abstract(doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006611.pub3)
WHO(WorldHealthOrganization)2013.GlobalActionPlanforthePreventionandControlofNCDs2013–2020:http://www.who.int/nmh/events/ncd_action_plan/en/
WHO(WorldHealthOrganization)2014.‘Ambient(outdoor)airqualityandhealth’,Factsheet313:http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs313/en/
WHO(WorldHealthOrganization)2016a.‘Noise–dataandstatistics’:http://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/environment-and-health/noise/data-and-statistics
WHO(WorldHealthOrganization)2016b.‘E-health’glossaryentry:http://www.who.int/trade/glossary/story021/en/
Wood,M.andFowlie,J.2013.‘UsingcommunitycommunicatorstobuildtrustandunderstandingbetweenlocalcouncilsandresidentsintheUnitedKingdom’,LocalEconomy28(6):527–38:http://lec.sagepub.com/content/28/6/527.abstract(doi:10.1177/0269094213497184)