Communication Research

5/23/2018 Communication Research

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MODULES1-13


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COMMUNICATIONRESEARCH

MODULE1:RESEARCHOVERVIEWDr. Racidon P. BernarteCollege of Communication, PUP


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THECONDUCTOFINQUIRY

"inquiry" means the systematic, disciplined ordering of

experience that leads to the development of knowledge.

The word "know means knowing that something is the case (philosophers distinguish

between knowledge and belief);

knowing some person or feeling;

knowing to how do something.

The conduct of inquiry involves a planned method. We should note that

inquiry has an expected outcome.


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STAGESOFINQUIRY

Ask significant questions and then suggest

answers

Observe the object

Formulates answers Theory Building


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TYPESOFSCHOLARSHIP

Scientific scholarship is associatedwith objectivitystandardization

Humanistic scholarship is associatedwith subjectivityindividuality

Sciencefocuses on the discovered worlds; thehumanitiesfocus on the discovering person.

Social Scientific scholarship includeselements of science and the humanities, yet itdiffers from both. Social scientists study humanbehavior, they try to interpret patterns ofhuman behavior.


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WHATISRESEARCH?

to search for, to find out

Re(again) and cerc ie r(to search) [Latin]

Chercherseek [French] Looking for information about something


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WHATISRESEARCH?

Application of scientific method to studyof a problem.

A way to acquire dependable and

useful information.To discover answer to meaningful

questions through the application ofscientific procedures.


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WHATISRESEARCH?

Investigation or experimentation aimedto the discovery of facts, revision ofaccepted theories or laws in the light of

new facts or practical application ofsuch new or revised theories or laws(Babbie, 1998).


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SCHOLARLYRESEARCHVS. EVERYDAYRESEARCH

Everyday Research Scholarly Research

Intuitive Theory Based

Common Sense Structured

Casual Systematic

Spur of the Moment Planned

Selective (often) Objective

Magical Thinking Scientific Thinking

Flawed Thinking at Times Logical to the Extent Possible

Focus is Personal Dec isions Focus is Knowledge About Reality


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EVERYDAYRESEARCH: ORDINARYHUMANINQUIRY

Tradition

Authority

Intuition

Superstition

InaccurateObservations

Overgeneralization

Selective Observation Illogical Reasoning

Scholarly Research: Scientific Human Inquiry

Theory

Data Collection

Data Analysis


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SCHOLARLYRESEARCHVS. EVERYDAYRESEARCH

Scholarly research is more systematic, more careful

and more concerned about correctnessand

truthfulness (Berger, 2000).

ResearchDataInformationKnowledge


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BASICFOUNDATIONSOFRESEARCH

Theoretical vs. Empirical

Empiricalbased on data observations and

measurement.

Theoreticaltesting of theories and ideasabout our perceptions of reality.


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Nomothetic vs. Idiographic

Mod e ls use d to e xp la in re a lity ; g e ne ra l o r sp e c if ic c a se

Nomothetic Modelthe group or sample is studied only tomake generalizationsthat apply larger population. Thus,follow a quantitative research designsthat put greaterpremium on reliability.

Idiographic Modelintensive investigations of individualcases hence, use qualitative research designs.


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Quantitative vs. Qualitative

View the sub je c t o f the stud y, m e tho d o lo g y, a nd a na lysis

di f ferent ly

Quantitative Researchthe interest is in generalizing tomore than just the individual; Concerned with therecurrenceof data that can be translated or reduced tonumbers; Focuses on counting.

Qualitative Researchno intention of going beyondjustdeep intothe individual; Concerned with occurrence ofthe communication event; Focuses on the phenomenonand the process involved.


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RESEARCHTYPOLOGIES

Basic Research

According to its use/result:

Often associated with academic research

Refinement of concepts

Theory testing

Applied Research

Propose solutions to the problem

It has a purpose of acquiring knowledge foruseful ends


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RESEARCHTYPOLOGIES

Exploratory research/studies

According to its purpose:

What is the p henom eno n a ll a b ou t?

Descriptive research/studies

How d id t he p henom enon ha p p en? Whe re

o r in w ha t situa t io ns d id the p he nom enono c c ur? Wha t a re the c ha ra c te rist ic s o r

e lem ents o f th is p he nom enon? Who o r w ha t

a re invo lved ? a nd How m a ny a re invo lved ?


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RESEARCHTYPOLOGIES

Explanatory research/studies

Why d id t he p henom enon hap p en? Do (a nd

to w ha t e xte nt d o ) sp e c if ic fa c to rs o r

va ria b les c a use the p henom enon?

Evaluation research/studies

Wha t c om b ina t io n o f fa c to rs o r va ria b le s is

m o re e f fe c t ive in a c h ie v ing d e sire dou tc om es?


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RESEARCHTYPOLOGIES

Cross-sectional study

According to time:

Longitudinal studies

Considers a phenomenon or issue among

several people or groups within a single timeperiod. (e.g census, survey, polls)

Seek to discover whether and how thephenomenon or issue under considerationhas changed over the passage of time.


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RESEARCHTYPOLOGIES

Quantitative research/studies

According to its approach:

Qualitative research/studies

Comes from the Latin qualitas meaning of whatkind

Evaluation, judgment and taste

Comes from the Latin quantitas meaning howgreat how much how many

Numbers, magnitude and measurement


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QUANTITATIVEVS. QUALITATIVE

RESEARCHQuantitative Qualitative

Counts, Measures Evaluates

Processes data collec ted Uses concepts to explicateStatistical Theoretical

Describes, explains and predicts Interprets

Leads to hypothesis or theory Leads to an evaluation

Methodology can be attached Interpretation can be attacked


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QUANTITATIVEVS. QUALITATIVE

RESEARCHQuantitative Qualitative

Accused of being too narrow,basing their research on whatthey can count, measure andobserve and neglecting othermatters.

Accused of being reading intotexts things that are no there orhaving opinions or makinginterpretations that seem odd,excessive or even idiosyncratic.

Multi-Method or Triangulation


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IMPORTANCEOFKNOWINGTHETYPEOFRESEARCHAPPROACHTOBEUSED

Design

Instrumentation/Tools

Sample Data

Data Analysis


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THERESEARCHPROCEDURES

Select a research topicReview relevant literature

State the research problem and objectives

Formulate the study frameworkDetermine the appropriate methodology

Collect a relevant data

Analyze and interpret the result

Prepare the result report

Present the result in an appropriate forum


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THERESEARCHPROCEDURES

Select a research topicReview relevant literature

State the research problem and objectives

Formulate the study frameworkDetermine the appropriate methodology

Collect a relevant data

Analyze and interpret the result

Prepare the result report

Present the result in an appropriate forum


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QUESTIONS?


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References:

Media and Communication Research Methods, Arthur A.Berger

Survey Research Handbook, Pamela L. Alreck & Robert B. Settle

Social Research Methods,J. L Kumar

Practice of Social Science Research, Earl Babbie

Communication Research in the Philippines, Elena E. Pernia

Introduction to Communication Research, John Reinard


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MODULE2: SELECTINGATOPICDr. Racidon P. BernarteCollege of Communication, PUP


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GUIDELINESINTHESELECTIONOFARESEARCHPROBLEMORTOPIC

The research problem must be chosen by the

researcher himself so that he will not make

excuses for all the obstacles he will encounter.

The problem must be within the interest of the

researcher so that he will give all the time and

effort in the research work.


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The problem must be within the

specialization of the researcher. It will make

the work easier for the researcher because

he is familiar in the area and it will helphim improve his specialization, skill and

competence in his own area.


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The research problem must be within the

competence of the researcher. The

researcher must know the procedures inmaking research and how to apply them.

He must have a workable understanding of

his study.


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The research problem must be manageable. The

data must be available or within the capacity of

the researcher to gather data. The data must beaccurate, objective and not biased. The data

should help the researcher answer the question

being investigated.

G S


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The research problem must be completed within

the period set by the researcher.

The research problem must be significant,important and relevant to the present time as

well as to the future. This means that the

research problem must have an impact to the

situation and people it is intended for.


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The results of the study must be practical and

implementable.

The study must contribute to the humanknowledge. The facts and knowledge must be a

product of research.


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SOURCESOFTOPIC

Reading

Academic Experience

Daily Work Experience

Exposure to the Fields of Situations Consultations

Brainstorming

Past Research

Intuition


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QUESTIONSTOBEASKEDWHENIDEAISBORN

Is the idea viable? (Researchability)

Is it practical? (Feasibility)

The time factor? (Resources)

Has it been done before? (Novelty)

What result is expected? What do colleagues think?

Will a statistician be needed?

What is the communication aspect? (for

Communication research)

What do you want to know?

Why?


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WHATISRESEARCHPROBLEM?

A research problem is the situation that causes theresearcher to feel apprehensive, confused and ill at

ease. It is the demarcation of a problem area within a

certain context involving the WHO or WHAT, the

WHERE, the WHEN and the WHY of the problemsituation.

It is not:

(1) how to do something;

(2) a vague or too broad a proposition; (3) a value question.


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WHATISRESEARCHPROBLEM?

Research questions are interrogative statements that focus onwhat variables or concepts are to be described and whatrelationships might exist among them.

A problem statement is a clear, concise description of what aparticular body of research intends to focus on. The statement is

used to limit the scope of the problem. It should also inform thereader of the importance of the research and cause him to want toread on.


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IDENTIFICATIONOFTHEPROBLEM

The prospective researcher should think on what causedthe need to do the research (problem identification). Thequestion that he/she should ask is:Are there questionsabout this problem to which answers have not been found upto the present?

Research originates from a need that arises. A cleardistinction between the PROBLEM and the PURPOSEshould be made. The problem is the aspect the researcherworries about, think about, wants to find a an answer

for. The purpose is to find answers to the question(s). Ifthere is no clear problem formulation, the purpose andmethods are meaningless.


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EXAMPLEOFRESEARCHPROBLEM:

How has social networking influenced the self-presentation and communication activities of the

Filipino youth?

What is the role of on-air promotional strategies usedby selected FM radio stations in Metro Manila in the

radio listening decisions on unintentional listeners?


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RESEARCHOBJECTIVES:

Objectivesare definitions of various aspects or

dimensions of the problem. They guide the researcher

on what tasks or directions to undertake to address

the problem adequately. They are he criteria orindicators with which to measure the key concepts or

variables of the study.


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EXAMPLESOFOBJECTIVES:

Problem:How has social networking influenced the self presentation

and communication activities of the Filipino youth?

Objectives:

1. To draw a profile of the Filipino youth involved in online socialnetworking (OSN) in terms of:

1.1 OSNs they use

1.2 Membership in OSN1.3 Frequency of using OSN

1.4Motivations for OSN

2. To describe how the Filipino youth present themselves in OSN site.

3. To describe how Filipino youth use the features of an OSN site in their

communication activities4. To find out how OSN has influenced the self-presentation and

communication activities of the Filipino youth.

5. To determine the perceived advantages and disadvantages of OSN

6. To know the motivations of the Filipino youth for continuing to engagein OSN.


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EXAMPLESOFOBJECTIVES:

Problem:What is the role of on-air promotional strategies used

by selected FM radio stations in Metro Manila in the radiolistening decisions on unintentional listeners?

Objectives:

1. To identify the on-air promotional strategies of FM radio

stations that the respondents can recall.2. To determine the aspects of the strategies that facilitated

the respondents recall.

3. To find out the respondents attitude towards the on-airpromotional strategies.

4. To find out the respondents assessment of the relativeimportance of on-air promotional strategies (as againstother factors) in attracting listenership to a radio station.


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QUESTIONS?


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MODULE3: REVIEWOFTHELITERATUREDr. Racidon P. BernarteCollege of Communication, PUP


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Literature Review is an account

of the materials, published orunpublished, on a specific topicby scholars and researchers.

It is guided by the researchproblem and objectives


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Related Literature is composed of discussionof facts and principles to which the present

study is related. (usua lly fo und on b ooks,e nc y c lo p e d ia s, p ro fe ssio na l journa ls, m a g a zine s,

new sp a p e rs, a nd o the r p ub lic a tio ns)

Related Studies, are inquiries or investigationsalready conducted to which the presentproposed study is related or has some bearing

or similarity. (e.g . usua lly unp ub lishe d m a te ria lssuc h a s m a nusc rip ts, these s a nd d isse rta t io ns)


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THEMATERIALSARECLASSIFIEDAS:

Local Literature and Studies

Foreign Literature and Studies


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IMPORTANCE, PURPOSESANDFUNCTIONSOF

RELATEDLITERATUREANDSTUDIES


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HELPSORGUIDETHERESEARCHERINSEARCHINGFORORSELECTINGABETTERRESEARCHPROBLEMORTOPIC.

Helps the investigatorunderstand his topic for

research better.


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Ensures that there will beno duplication of otherstudies.

Helps and guide theresearcher in locating moresources of related

information.


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RRLHELPSANDGUIDESTHERESEARCHERINMAKING

HISRESEARCHDESIGNESPECIALLYIN:

the fo rm ula t io n o f sp e c if ic q ue st io nsto b e re sea rc hed o n

the fo rm ula t io n o f

a ssum p t io ns a nd hyp o the se s if

the re sho u ld b e a ny

the fo rm u la t io n o f c o nc e p tua l

f ramework


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the se le c t io n a nd a p p lic a t io n o f

sa m p ling tec hn iq uesthe se le c t io n a nd a p p lic a t io n o f

re se a rc h m e thod s

the se le c t io n a nd a p p lic a t io n o f

sta t ist ic a l p ro c e d ure s

the se le c t io n a nd / o r p re p a ra t io n

a nd va lid a t io n o f re se a rc h

inst rum e nts fo r g a the ring d a ta


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the m a king o f the summ a ry o f

im p lic a t io ns for the w ho le stud y

the fo rm ula t io n o f the summ a ry of

f ind ing s, c o nc lusio ns, a nd

recommenda t i ons

the a na lysis, o rg a niza tio n,

p re se nta t io n , a nd in te rp re ta t io n o f

d a t a


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They help and guide the researcher inmaking comparison between his findingswith the findings of other researchers on

similar studies with the end in view offormulating generalization of principleswhich are the contributions of the studyto the fund of knowledge.


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CHARACTERISTICSOFRELATEDLITERATUREANDSTUDIES

1. The surveyed materials must be as recent aspossible.

2. Materials reviewed must be objective andunbiased.

3. Materials must be relevant to the study .

4. Surveyed materials must have been basedupon genuinely original and true facts or datato make them valid and reliable.

5. Reviewed materials must not be too few nortoo many.


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SOURCESOFRRL

Books, encyclopedias, almanacs, and othersimilar references.

Manuscripts, monographs, memoirs, speeches,letters, and diaries.

Unpublished theses and dissertations. The Constitution, and laws and statues of the

land.

Bulletins, circulars, and orders emanating fromgovernment offices and departments,especially from the Office f the President ofthe Philippines and the Department ofEducation, Culture and Sports.


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SOURCESOFRRL

Records of schools, public and private,especially reports of their activities.

Reports from seminars, educational, orotherwise.

Official reports of all kinds, educational, social,economic, scientific, technological, politicaletc. from the government and other entities.


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WHERETOLOCATERRL

Librariesgovernment, school, or private

Government and private offices

Internet and other Online sources


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TIPSINRESEARCHINGRRL

Dont let yourself be bogged down.

Dont entertain the illusion that you exhaust

all possible sources related to your topic.

Practice good not- taking skills when you areconducting your library research.


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QUESTIONS?


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COMMUNICATIONRESEARCHMODULE4: FORMULATINGTHESTUDY

FRAMEWORKDr. Racidon P. BernarteCollege of Communication, PUP


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WHATISFRAMEWORK?

FRAMEWORK refers to a set of conceptsusuallyborn out of a theory or a combination of theoriesthat are logically and sequentially arranged to

describe, explain and perhaps even predict theoccurrence of phenomena being studied.


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LEVELSOFTHESTUDYFRAMEWORK

Theoretical

Conceptual

Operational

Each level might also feature a Model (theoretical, conceptualand operational) that graphically illustrates the interconnectionsof the frameworksconstructs(theoretical model), itsvariables/concepts (conceptual model) and subsequently, itsmeasures/indicators(operational model)


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FORMULATINGTHEORETICALFRAMEWORK

The theoretical framework of the study is a structure

that can hold or support a theory of a research work.

It presents the theory which explains why the

problem under study exists.

Thus, the theoretical framework is but a theorythat

serves as a basis for conducting research.

Purpose:

It helps the researcher see clearly the variables of the

study;

It can provide him with a general framework for data

analysis;


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For example:

Media Organization, Selection, and Production. McQuails

theory on media as an institution takes into account all forces

that affect medias performance. (After: Littlejohn, 1992)

Basic theory 1

Thesis examines the gatekeeping, news selection and reportage of

world news in leading Philippine dailies and primetime newscasts.


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For example:

Basic theory 2

Selective Gatekeeping. Galtung and Ruge selective

gatekeeping theory suggests that news from around the

world are evaluated using news values to determine their

newsworthiness. (After Mc Quail and Windahl 1993, p. 166)


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For example:

Basic theory 3

Model of the Agenda Setting Theory. Malcolm McCombsand Donald Shaws theory simply states that the issues

given most attention by the media will be perceived as the

most important. (Before: McQuail and Windahl 1993)


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For example:

Combined theory

Integrated Theoretical Framework. The integrated theoretical

framework shows how media content is shaped by pressures to the

media organization, selective gatekeeping and agenda setting.


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Based on the foregoing example, how should the theoretical

framework formulated?

1. specifies the theory used as basis for the study

2. mentions the proponents of the theory

3. cites the main points emphasized in the theory

4. supports his exposition of the theory by ideas from other experts;

5. illustrates his theoretical framework by means of a diagram; and,

6. reiterates his theoretical proposition in the study.


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FORMULATINGCONCEPTUALFRAMEWORK

After formulating the theoretical framework, the

researcher has to develop the conceptual framework of

the study.

A conceptis an image or symbolic representation ofan abstract idea. Chinn and Kramer (1999) define a

concept as a complex mental formulation of

experience.

While the theoretical framework is the theory onwhich the study is based, the conceptual framework is

the operationalization of the theory.


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FORMULATINGCONCEPTUALFRAMEWORK

Conceptual Framework is the researchers own

position on the problem and gives direction to the

study.

It may be an adaptation of a model used in a previousstudy, with modifications to suit the inquiry.

Aside from showing the direction of the study, through

the conceptual framework, the researcher can be able

to show the relationships of the different constructsthat he wants to investigate.


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Conceptual Framework. News values, and the pressures

and constraints shape the newspapers and television

newscasts. The result of this relationship is selective reporting

of events.

Conceptual Framework


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Theoretical Model Conceptual Model


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Based on the foregoing example, how should the conceptual framework

formulated?

1. cite your conceptual framework or paradigm;

2. Identify your variables;

3. Point out the dependent and intervening variables;

4. Show the direction of the study.

Once the conceptual framework has been determined, the next for the

researcher is to determine what research methods to employ to best

answer the research problem through the proposed framework.


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QUESTIONS?


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COMMUNICATIONRESEARCHMODULE5: RESEARCHMETHODS

Dr. Racidon P. BernarteCollege of Communication, PUP


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RESEARCHMETHODOLOGYANDRESEARCHMETHODS

Research Methodology

The techniques, methods and procedures in research.

Research Methods

The ways data are collected for the research project.


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RESEARCHMETHODOLOGY

Quantitative Research

generates statisticsthrough the use of large-scale survey

research, using methods such as questionnaires or

structured interviews.

involves analysis of numerical data.

Qualitative Research

explores attitudes, behavior and experiences through such

methods as interviews or focus groups. It attempts to get an

in-depth opinion from participants. involves analysis of data such as words (e.g., from

interviews), pictures (e.g., video), or objects (e.g., an

artifact).


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RESEARCHMETHODS

Quantitative Methods (Soc ial and Communication Research )

Survey

Experiment

Content Analysis

Qualitative Methods (Main Type of Qualitative Research)

Case study

Grounded Theory

Phenomenology

Ethnography

Historical


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QUANTITATIVERESEARCHMETHODS

Quantitative Methods (Soc ial and Communication Research )

Survey

The collection of information from a large group of people, forthe purpose of inferring conclusions about a population fromwhich the group was selected.

Experiment

The comparison of groups and individuals who have beendifferently exposed to changes in their environment; theresearch procedures that establishes causality

Content Analysis A research technique for making inferences by systematically

and objectively identifying characteristics within a text.

Q


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QUALITATIVERESEARCHMETHODS


Case study

Attempts to shed light on a phenomena by studying in-depth a

single case example of the phenomena. The case can be an

individual person, an event, a group, or an institution.

Grounded Theory

Theory is developed inductively from a corpus of data acquired by a

participant-observer.

Phenomenology Describes the structures of experience as they present themselves

to consciousness, without recourse to theory, deduction, or

assumptions from other disciplines

Q R


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QUALITATIVERESEARCHMETHODS


Ethnography

Focuses on the sociology of meaning through close field observation

of sociocultural phenomena. Typically, the ethnographer focuses on

a community.

Historical

Systematic collection and objective evaluation of data related to

past occurrences in order to test hypotheses concerning causes,

effects, or trends of these events that may help to explain present

events and anticipate future events. (Gay, 1996)


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QUESTIONS?


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COMMUNICATIONRESEARCHMODULE6: SURVEYDESIGN

Racidon P. Bernarte, MACollege of Communication, PUP


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WHATISSURVEY?

Involves the collection of information from alarge group of people for the purpose of

inferring conclusions about a population

from which the group was selected.

The use of structured questionnaire given to

a sample of a population and designed to

elicit specific information from therespondents.


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SURVEYVS. CENSUS

Surveyhas sampling while

Censusdoes not have

ADMINISTERINGSURVEYMETHODS

Self-AdministeredInterview


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TYPESOFSURVEY

Descriptive Surveys generally aimed at describing the distribution

of a phenomena in a population. Use basic

statistical toolsFrequency, Percentage, Mean,

Median and Mode.

Explanatory or Analytical Analysis

aimed at finding causal relationship between oramong variables. Use inferential statistics.


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MODEOFSURVEYMETHODSTelephone

Traditional

Computer Assisted

Personal Interview

Home

Mall

Computer Assisted

MailElectronic

Email

Internet


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PROCEDURESINDOINGASURVEY

Identify the research problem and objectives

Select an appropriate sample

Construct the research instrument Identify and train interviewers

Collect data

Process and analyze data

Write the research report


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STRENGTHSANDWEAKNESSES

STRENGTHS:

Surveys are easy to administer

Surveys are simple to score and code

Surveys determine the values and relation

of variables and constructsSurveys can be used to predict behavior

Specific theoretical propositions can betested in an objective fashion

Surveys can help confirm the findings ofqualitative research


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STRENGTHSANDWEAKNESSES

WEAKNESSES:

Surveys are not sufficient to determine

the direction of causality

Surveys rely on self-support data

Survey studies are subject to well-known

types of bias

Conducting a scientific survey is not a

trivial undertaking


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QUESTIONS?


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COMMUNICATIONRESEARCHMODULE7: CONTENTANALYSIS



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WHATISCONTENTANALYSIS?

A research technique for the systematicclassification and description of communicationcontent according to certain usually predetermined

categories. It may involve quantitative or qualitativeanalysis , or both. Technical objectivity requires thatthe categories of classification and analysis beclearly and operationally defined so that otherresearchers can follow them reliably.


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WHATISCONTENTANALYSIS?

A methodology by which the researcher seeks todetermine the manifest content of written, spoken,or published communication by system a tic ,

ob jec t ive , and qual i ta t iveanalysis. It is then, aquantitative method applicable to what hastraditionally been called qualitative materialwritten language

C C


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CHARACTERISTICSOFCONTENTANALYSIS

It examines a wide range of textsdetermine the presence of certain words,

concepts, themes, phrases, characters, orsentences within texts or sets of texts and to

quantify this presence in an objective manner.Can be done on material from various

communication contexts, interpersonal group ,organizational and mass.

Can be in print , audio, audio-visual andelectronic formats.


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CHARACTERISTICSCONT

Can be subjected the materials ranging fromdiaries, book chapters, essays, books,newspaper, discussions, historicaldocuments , advertising, Television

program, movies, internet sites,photographs, conversations, interviews andspeeches.

By examining hold and where words and

visuals are used in these texts, the analystis able to make inferences about the source,the audience, including their prevailingsocial, political and cultural contexts.


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PURPOSESOFCONTENTANALYSIS

to describe trend in the communication

content

to audit communication content

to analyze the persuasion techniques


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PURPOSESOFCONT..

to analyze style

to learn something about the content, those

who produced the messages/and or the

effects of the content might have on thereceivers

to get information about a topic and believe

that a content analysis rather than any

other research methods

to evaluate texts by using a set of standards

of criteria

C A C


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CONTENTANALYSIS: COMPARISON1.

Comparison of messages produced by the same sourceover different timeperiods would reveal trendsregarding any change in how the message is frame.

Comparison of messages produced by the same source indifferentsituations would reveal the effect of the

situation on the message. Comparison of messages produced by the same single

source for differentaudienceswould reveal ifaudience characteristics affect how messages are framed.

Comparison of two different messagesby the samesource would reveal any relationship between the twomessages.

Comparison of a communication material against anexisting standardwould make possible an evaluationof the communicators performance.


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STEPSINCONTENTANALYSIS

1. Define problem / identify the issue to be studied2. Select the media that will be used

3. Derive coding categories

4. Sampling strategy which sources will you use?

5. Train the coders6. Code the material

7. Analyze the data


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GETTINGSTARTED

What gets counted? words, pictures

What is important for understanding themes?

Explicit themes

Number of times mentioned Amount of space dedicated

Structured observation systematic observationbased on careful rules


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DERIVECODINGCATEGORIES: CODINGSYSTEMS

Before you decide specifically on coding categories, youmust specify what you are going to measure

Coding system a set of rules on how to systematicallyobserve and record content from text.

What is the unit of analysis?

One word

One paragraph

One theme


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CHARACTERISTICSOFTEXTCONTENT

Frequency Simply counting the number of times something occurs

Direction

Positive vs. negative; happy vs. sad Intensity

Strength of message

Minor vs. major issues

Space Number of sentences, amount of time, etc.


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OTHERCHARACTERISTICSTHATCOULDBECOUNTED

Other things that could be counted

characters

Specific individuals

semantics the meaning of the text

Requires interpretation

Must make judgment calls

concepts

Crime, mental illness

themes

LATENT VS MANIFEST CONTENT


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LATENTVS. MANIFESTCONTENT

Manifest overt, visible material

How many of times a word appears

How many times someone is mentioned

Highly reliable coding

No judgment Latent content symbolic content; semantic analysis

Ex. Level of violence

Requires judgment

Depends on coders prior knowledge, expectations, etc.

Often required writers portray meaning indirectly Lower reliability, increases with training

Allows for more flexibility


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DEVELOPSAMPLINGSTRATEGY

Which sources will be used?

Depends on purpose of study, theory, etc.

Which dates will be used?

What will be analyzed?

All of article, every 2 pages, etc.


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DEV. SAMPLING

Representative sample is a must!

Can use various sampling procedures

Random sampling

Stratified sampling

Purposive sampling picking a sample for a particular

reason.


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TRAINCODERS

Organize and practice Procedure really depends on how you have

decided to carry out the content analysis

Can use a recording sheet or coding form

Organization of sheet is key

Training improves use of sheet

Can use a counter


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CODERS

Must assess interrater reliability Do the coders agree?

Multiple measures of reliability

Correlate the raters scores together

Percentage of agreement

Krippendorfs alpha

the level of agreement between coders beyond that which can be

ascribed to mere chance

Common in content analysis

C


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ADVANTAGESOFCONTENTANALYSIS

-it is inexpensive it can deal with current events, topics of present-day

interest

it accepts unstructured materials which can be

categorized it uses materials that is easy to obtain and work with


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DISADVANTAGESOFCONTENTANALYSIS

- finding a representative sample determining measurable units

defining terms operationally

the rewards is not often

commensurate to the effort exerted


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QUESTIONS?


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COMMUNICATIONRESEARCHMODULE8:EXPERIMENT



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WHATISEXPERIMENT?

A research design which has comparison of groups orindividuals who have been differently exposed to

changes in their environment

It establishes causality

Experimental designis the process of planning astudy to meet specified objectives. Planning an

experiment properly is very important in order to

ensure that the right type of data and a sufficient

sample size and power are available to answer the

research questions of interest as clearly and efficiently

as possible.


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APPLICATIONOFEXPERIMENT

Research involving relatively limited and

well-defined concepts and propositions

Hypothesis-testing Explanatory purposes of research

Studying small-group interactions

Evaluation research


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TYPEOFEXPERIMENTACCORDINGTOSETTING

Laboratory Experiment

Field Experiment

C E


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COMPONENTSOF EXPERIMENT

Control and Experimental Groups

Independent and dependent Variables

Pretest and Posttest

E


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EXPERIMENTALVALIDITY

Internal Validity It is the possibility that the conclusion drawn

from the experimental results may not

accurately reflect what has gone on in the

experiment itself.

External Validity

This is the inability to generalize experimentalresults to events and settings outside the

experiment itself.

Factors Affecting InternalValidity

Factors Affecting ExternalValidity


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History Maturation

Testing

Instrumentation

Statistical

Regression

Selection

Mortality

Interaction of any

two factors

Testing-treatmentinteraction

Selection-treatment

interaction

Reactivearrangements

Multiple-treatment

interference

Validity Validity

T E D


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Pre-experimental designsare

characterized by a complete lack of

randomization and the absence of a

well-defined control group

One-group posttest only design

One-group pretest-posttest design

Two-group posttest design

TYPEOFEXPERIMENTALDESIGN


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True experimental designsuserandomization to achieve pre-treatment

equality of groups; features a wall-defined

control group

Pretest-posttest control group design

Posttest-only control group design

Solomon four-group design


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Quasi-experimental designsdo not meet the

requirements of experimental control mainly

because random assignment is not feasible,

but allowances are made in data analysis to

make up for the failure to meet theassumptions of classical experimental

designs

Multiple-time series design

Non-equivalent control group design

STEPSINCONDUCTINGANEXPERIMENT


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a. State a straightforward hypothesisappropriate for your research

b. Decide on an experimental design to test

your hypothesis

c. Decide on how to introduce the treatment or

create a situation that will induce the

independent variable

d. Develop a valid and reliable measure of thedependent variable

e. Set up the experiment


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f. Locate appropriate subjects

g. Assign the subjects to groupsh. Gather data for the pretest measure if the

design calls for it

i. Introduce the treatment to the experimental

group

j. Gather data for the posttest measure

k. Debrief the subjects by informing them to the

true purpose of the experimentl. Examine the data collected and compare the

results between different groups

Strengths of the ExperimentWeaknesses of

h E i


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Establishesevidence ofcausality

Allows control orisolation of theexperimentalvariable

Relatively cost-effective

Easy to replicate

Artificiality

(in the case of

laboratory

experiments)

Has limited

applications

Strengths of the Experiment the Experiments


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QUESTIONS?


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COMMUNICATIONRESEARCHMODULE9: CASESTUDY


WHATISCASESTUDY?


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WHATISCASESTUDY?

An empirical study that investigates acontemporary phenomenon within its real-life

context, when the boundaries between the

phenomenon and its context are not clearly

evident

It is an exploration of a bounded systemor

a case (or multiple cases) over time through

detailed, in-depth data collection involvingmultiple resources or information rich in

context.

The focus may be on the case (because of itsuniqueness) that requires study (intrinsic


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uniqueness) that requires study (intrinsiccase study) or it may be on an issue or issues,

with the case used instruments to illustratethe issue (an instrumental case study) whenmore than one case is studied, it is referred toas collective case study.

Case study also involves a comprehensive andextensive examination of a particularindividual, group or situations over a period oftime.

In conducting a case study, the investigators should


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first consider what type of case study is most

promising and useful.

A comprehensive study of a social unit - be that unit

a person, a social institution, a group, a district, or

community.

The case consists of the data relating to some phase

of the life history of the unit or relating to the entire

life process, whether the unit is an individual, a

family, a social group, an institution, or a

community.

Data about the case from birth or origin or even ofthe future are considered.

SOME OF THE CHALLENGES INHERENT IN

QUALITATIVE CASE STUDY DEVELOPMENT ARE


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QUALITATIVE CASE STUDY DEVELOPMENT ARE

AS FOLLOWS

The researcher must identify his or her case. He or she mustdecide what bounded system to study recognizing thatseveral might be possible candidates for this selection andrealizing tat either the case itself or an issue, for which acase or case are selected to illustrate, is worthy of study.

The researcher must consider whether to study a single caseor multiple cases. The more cases an individual studies, thegreater the lack of depth in any single case. Typically,however, the researcher chooses no more than four cases.

What motivates the researcher to consider a large number ofcases is the idea of generalizability,a term that holds littlemeaning for most qualitative research.

Selecting the case requires that the researcherestablish a rationale or his or her purposeful sampling


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establish a rationale or his or her purposeful samplingstrategy for selecting the case and for gathering

information about the case.

Usually all aspects or variables in the life cycle of thecase under study are included.

Finding the causes of certain phenomena is always apart of a case study.

Representativeness is not important. The results of asingle case study do not provide certainty that thecase is truly representative.

Having enough information to present an in-depth


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picture of case limits the value of some case studies.

In planning a case study, develop a data collection

matrix in which they specify the amount of

information they are likely to collect about the case.

Deciding the boundaries of a case how it might be

constrained in terms of time, events, and processes

may be challenging. Some case studies may not have

clean beginning and ending points, and the

researcher will need to work with contrived

boundaries.

GENERAL STUCTURE OF THE STUDY


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Entry vignette Introduction (problems, questions, case

study, data collection, analysis outcomes )

Description of the case/s and its (their)

contextDevelopment of issues

Detail about selected issues

AssertionsClosing vignette


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Sampling. Purposeful sampling is generallyused in case study research; therefore, explain

sampling procedures and case selection, and the

defining characteristics and typicality or a

typicality of the case.


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Data.Draw the data either from one primarysource (e.g. oral interviews, journals, or essays)

or from multiple sources

DATA SOURCESOFCASESTUDY


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DATASOURCESOFCASESTUDY

DocumentsArchival records

Interviews

Direct observations

Participant observation

Physical artifacts

DATA GATHERING INSTRUMENTFORCASESTUDY


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DATAGATHERINGINSTRUMENTFORCASESTUDY

Almost all data-gathering devices are used incollecting data for a case study. The interviewis very important

All persons who may be able to shed light onthe problem are interviewed. Long probinginterviewsmay also be conducted.

Another important tool is observation.

The questionnaire is another instrument.


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QUESTIONS?


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COMMUNICATIONRESEARCHMODULE10:PHENOMENOLOGY


WHATISPHENOMENOLOGY?


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aims to identify and describe the subjectiveexperience of respondents. It is a matter ofstudying everyday experience from the pointof view of the subject, and it shuns criticalevaluation of forms of social life (Schwandt,

2001) Understanding of an event from the point of

view of the participant (Barritt, 2001) Is based on the belief that what people do

depends on what they perceived or what goeson their minds. Phenomenologist focus onhow internal, psychological meaning guidebehavior.

MAJOR PROCEDURAL ISSUES IN

USING PHENOMENOLOGY


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USING PHENOMENOLOGY

The researcher needs to understand thephilosophical perspectives behind the approach,

especially the concept of the study how people

experience a phenomenon.

The investigator writes research questions to

explore the meaning of that experience for

individuals and asks individuals to describe their

everyday lived experiences.

The investigator then collects data from individuals


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The investigator then collects data from individuals

who have experienced the phenomenon under

investigation.

The phenomenological report end s with reader

understanding better the essential, in variant

structure ( or essence), of the experience,recognizing that a single unifying meaning of the

experience exists.

WHYPHENOMENOLOGYISCHALLENGINGTO

USE?


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USE?

The researcher requires a solid ground inthe philosophical precepts of thephenomenology.

The participants in the study need to be

carefully chosen to be individuals whohave experienced the phenomenon.

Bracketing personal experiences by theresearcher may be difficult.

The researcher needs to decide how and inwhat his or her personal experiences willbe introduced into the study.

STEPS IN PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY


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STEPSINPHENOMENOLOGICALSTUDY

The researcher begins with a full description of

his or her own experience of the phenomenon.

The researcher finds statements ( in the

interviews) about how individuals areexperiencing the topic, lists out these

significant statements ( horizonalization of the

data) and treats each statements as having

equal worth, and works to develop a list, non

repetitive, nonoverlapping statements.


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QUESTIONS?


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COMMUNICATIONRESEARCHMODULE11: SAMPLING


WHATISSAMPLING?


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WHATISSAMPLING?

Sampling is a process of systematicallyselecting cases for a research project.

Sampling is that part of statistical

practice concerned with the selection ofindividual observation intended to yield

some knowledge about a population of

concern, esp. for the purposes of

statistical influence.

CENSUSVS. SAMPLE


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Census involves a complete enumerationof the elements of a population.

Samplethe sub group of the populationselected for participation of the study.

Populationis the aggregate of all elements,sharing some common set of

characteristics

SAMPLING


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Who isthe targetgroup for the study?

This is called thestudy population

Who inthe target

group should be

surveyed?

This is called the

sample.

How manypeople

should be surveyed?

This is called the

sample size.

How should the peopleto be surveyed by

selected?

This is called thesampling method.

THESAMPLINGDESIGNPROCESS


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1. Define the target population

2. Determine the sampling frame

3. Select a sampling technique(s)

4. Determine the sample size

5. Execute the sampling process

SAMPLINGDESIGNPROCESS


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Sampling Process

Defining the

population

Developing

a sampling

Frame

Determining

Sample

Size

Specifying

Sample

Method

SELECTING THE SAMPLE

PROBABILITYVS. NON-PROBABILITY


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Probability Samplingsampling basedon probability theory; this type of

sampling yields a sample that is truly a

representative of the population.

Non-Probability Samplingsampling

that does not follow the guidelines of

mathematical probability

THESAMPLINGTECHNIQUE


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i. Nonprobability Sampling Techniques

a. Convenience Sampling

b. Judgmental Sampling

c. Quota Sampling

d. Snowball Sampling

ii. Probability Sampling Techniques

a. Simple Random Sampling

b. Systematic Sampling

c. Stratified Sampling

d. Cluster Sampling

e. Other Probability Sampling Techniques

CLASSIFICATIONOFSAMPLINGTECHNIQUES


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Sampling Techniques

Nonprobability

Sampling Techniques

Probability

Sampling Techniques

Convenience

Sampling

Judgmental

Sampling

Quota

Sampling

Snowball

Sampling

Systematic

Sampling

Stratified

Sampling

Cluster

Sampling

Other Sampling

Techniques

Simple

Random

Sampling

NON-PROBABILITYSAMPLING


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Convenience--attempts to obtain a sample ofconvenient elements. Often, respondents are selected

because they happen to be in the right place at the

right time.

Judgmental/Purposive--is a form of convenience

sampling in which the population elements are

selected based on the judgment of the researcher.

Quotaconsists of developing control categories, or

quotas, of population elements.

Snowball or Referrala initial group of respondents is

selected then the respondents are asked to identify

others by referrals.

PROBABILITYSAMPLING


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Simple Randoma sample is drawn randomlyfrom a list of individuals in a population. It

can be done through; a. Lottery Sampling; b.

Use of Random Number Tables.

Systematicit is taking every nthmember ofthe population, where nis the reciprocal of the

percentage of the population which you would

like to use as a sample.

PROBABILITYSAMPLING


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Clusterconsidered a more practical approach to

surveys because it samples by groups or clustersof elements rather than by individual elements.

Stratifiedusually employed when the populationis composed of several strata or subgroups.

Multi-Stagethe population is divided into anumber of groups or primary stages from whichsamples are drawn; these are then divided intogroups or secondary stages from which samples

are drawn, and so on.

DETERMINATIONOFSAMPLESIZE


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Sample size may be determined by using:

Subjective methods (less sophisticated methods)

The rule of thumb approach: eg. 5% of

population

Conventional approach: eg. Average of

sample sizes of similar other studies;

Cost basis approach: The number that can

be studied with the available funds;

Statistical formulae (more sophisticated methods)

Confidence interval approach.

SLOVENSFORMULAINDETERMININGSAMPLESIZE


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n = N / (1 + Ne)

Where:n = number of samples

N = total population

e = error margin (.05 or .01)

or level of confidence



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n = N / (1 + Ne)

Where:n = ?

N = 1000

e = .05 margin of error or

95% confidence level



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n = N / (1 + Ne)

Where:n = 1000 / (1 + 1000 * 0.05)

n = 1000 / (1 + .0025)

n = 285.71 samplings


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QUESTIONS?


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COMMUNICATIONRESEARCHMODULE12: PRESENTATION, ANALYSISANDINTERPRETATIONOFDATA

Racidon P. Bernarte, DEMCollege of Communication, PUP

PRESENTATIONOFRESEARCH


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1. Tabular

AGE FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE

40 and below 16 19.0

41-50 18 21.4

51-60 11 13.1

61 and above 13 15.5

No Response 26 31.0

Total 84 100

Table 3

Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Respondents

in Terms of Age

PRESENTATIONOFRESEARCH


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2. Graphical

Graph 1

Sales Distribution for the Year 2013

ANALYSISOFRESEARCHDATA


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The table shows the gender of the respondents. There were 18 or 21.4% who

belonged to 41-50 age group; 16 or 19% whose ages belonged to 40 and below; 13

or 15.5% of the respondents belonged to 61 and above while 11 or 13.1%

belonged to 51-60 age group. However, 26 or 31% of the respondents did not

answer the question.

AGE FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE

40 and below 16 19.0

41-50 18 21.4

51-60 11 13.1

61 and above 13 15.5

No Response 26 31.0

Total 84 100

Table 3

Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Respondentsin Terms of Age

INTERPRETATIONOFRESEARCHDATA


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Making sense of the data based on:

1. What the data is implying

2. What the researchers inference

3. What the literature is supporting or notsupporting

INTERPRETATIONOFRESEARCHDATA


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Table 14

Frequency and Percentage Distr ibution of the Nature ofAcademe-Industry Partnership in Terms of whether the

HEI is involved in Academe-Industry Partnership

Involved in Academe-

Industry Partnership

Frequency Percentage

Yes 76 90.5

No 8 9.5

Total 84 100.0

Table 14 showed 84 respondents 76 or 90.5% affirmatively answered the question while 8 or 9.5% negatively

answered the same. The data show that almost all HEI surveyed were involved in academe-industry partnership

which was supported by the CHED-ZRC study commissioned in 2010 that reported most of the HEI members of the

center were engaged in academe-industry partnerships which were limited to areas of internship, accreditation

requirements and student scholarship. Likewise, Tansinsins (2002) study confirmed the result, as she found that

many universities and institutions practiced universityindustry partnership. Many academic institutions,

particularly in the tertiary levels, were engaged in various collaborations with different industry-partners. Thepractice of partnership was limited to some areas like on-the-job trainings, graduate placement and curriculum

design as mentioned by Villegas (2009) in one of his articles. Although the data show that almost all HEIs in NCR

surveyed were involved in partnerships the study of WIPO (2005) reported that the collaboration between the

university and industry in the Philippines being new was not yet widespread. The findings and the study of WIPO

provide two pictures: one is the regional or NCR situation and the other was the national or the Philippine situation

in general.

QUANTITATIVEDATAANALYSIS


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Interpretation of Data Score Range Description

5 4.51-5.0 Very Extensive

4 3.51-4.5 Moderately Extensive

3 2.51-3.5 Adequate

2 1.51-2.5 Limited

1 1.0-1.5 Very Limited

LIKERTSCALE


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QUESTIONS?

Communication Research

Documents

Transcript of Communication Research