Communicating - GBV · 2010. 2. 23. · Communicating FOR SUCCESS CHERYL HAMILTON Tarrant County...
Transcript of Communicating - GBV · 2010. 2. 23. · Communicating FOR SUCCESS CHERYL HAMILTON Tarrant County...
CommunicatingFOR SUCCESS
CHERYL HAMILTONTarrant County College, Northeast Campus
BONNIE CREELTarrant County College, Northeast Campus
Allyn & BaconBoston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River
Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal TorontoDelhi Mexico City Sao Paulo Sydney, Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo
Contents
Preface xvi
About the Author xxix
UNIT I
BUILDING COMMUNICATION FOUNDATIONS
1 Getting Started in Communication 3LEARNING OBJECTIVES 3
SCENARIO 4
Communication Defined 5Communication Is a Transactional Process 5Communication Occurs in a Context 6Communication Involves Negotiated Meanings of Symbols 8Communication Involves Shared Understanding 9DEVELOPING SKILLS: How to Determine Your Anxiety/Confidence
Level 10
Basic Communication Process nCommunication Models:'A Brief Overview 11Elements of the Transaction Communication Model 13MAKING THEORY PRACTICAL: Coordinated Management of
Meaning Theory 20
Exploring the Communication Model:Frames of Reference 21
Communication and Culture 2 /Communication and Gender 23Communication and Technology 24Communication and Ethics 25
A Practical Look at Communication: Competenciesand Benefits 27
Competent Communicators 28Benefits of Studying Communication 29
COMMUNICATION AND YOUK CMEER 30Chapter Summary 32 • Summary of Skills 32 • Summary of LearningOutcomes 33 • Solve It Now! 34 • Key Terms 34 • Skill Builders 34 •Explore Some More . . . 35
A Using Perception to Understand Selfand Others 37
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 37 ^
SCENARIO 38
Perception: Definitions and Steps 39Step 1: Selecting Available Data 39Step 2: Organizing Data into a Usable Form 41Step 3: Interpreting the Data by Adding Meaning and Making Predictions 44
Factors That Lead to Differences in Perception 45Physiological Factors in Perceptual Errors 45Psychological Factors in Perceptual Errors 46Cultural Factors in Perceptual Errors 46
Perception and Self 47Self-Concept Defined 47DEVELOPING SKILLS: How to Determine Your Personality Type 48
Barnlund's "6-Person" Concept: A "Self" Orientation 50Plus-2 Concept: An "Other" Orientation 50Barriers to an Accurate Self-Concept 51
Perception and Others 54First Impressions 54Stereotyping 54Perceptual Constancy 55Fundamental Attribution Error 55Projection 55MAKING THEORY PRACTICAL: Attribution Theory 56
Developing Perceptual Skills 57Using Perceptual Skills to Improve Self-Concept 57Using Perceptual Skills to Improve Your Perception
with Others 58
PERCEPTION AND YOUR CAKEER 60Chapter Summary 63 • Summary of Skills 63 • Summary of LearningOutcomes 63 • Solve It Now! 64 • Key Terms 64 • Skill Builders 64 •Explore Some More ... 65
3 Listening 67
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 67
SCENARIO 68
What Is Listening? 69"Listening" Defined 69Stages of Listening 70
Importance of Listening 71Listening Helps Us Develop and Maintain Relationships 71
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DEVELOPING SKILLS: How to Improve Your Memory 72
Listening Helps Us in Our Careers 73Listening Helps Us Become Better Citizens 73Listening Helps Us Develop and Maintain Our Mental Health 73
Barriers to Listening 74Noise 74Information Processing 75Cultural Differences 75Gender Orientation 76Poor Listening Habits 76
Informational Listening 78MAKING THEORY PRACTICAL: Listening Styles Profile 79
Prepare to Listen 80Avoid Prejudging 80Mentally Organize, Summarize, and Link Information 80Personalize Information While Listening 81Take Skillful Notes 81Ask Questions and Paraphrase 81
Critical Listening 82Listening Critically to Speaker Ethos 82Listening Critically to Speaker Logos 83Listening Critically to Speaker Pathos 85Using Critical Listening Skills 85
Empathic Listening 86Use Supporting Responses 86Use Interpreting Responses 87Use Questioning Responses and Paraphrasing Responses 87Avoid Judging and Advising Responses 88
LISTENING AND YOUR CAREER 90Chapter Summary 92 • Summary of Skills 92 • Summary of LearningOutcomes 92 • Solve It Now! 93 • Key Terms 93 • Skill Builders 93
Verbal Communication 95
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 95
SCENARIO 96
The Nature of Language 97Language and Verbal Communication Defined 97Language and the Human Ability to Think 98Language Is Rule-Governed 98Language Is Symbolic 99Language and Culture 100Language and Gender 101
The Power of Language 101Language Has Power to Influence Our Perceptions of Others 101
MAKING THEORY PRACTICAL: The Theory of Linguistic Relativity (or the Sapir-WhorfHypothesis) 103
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Language Has Power to Reflect Attitudes 104Language Has Power to Affect Others' Perceptions of Us 104
Obstacles to Effective Verbal Encoding 106Insufficient Vocabulary 106Jargon 106Euphemisms 107 »Trigger Words 108Abstracting and Allness 108Polarizing Terms 109Imprecise Language and Relative Terms 109
Overcoming Obstacles to Effective Verbal Encoding noExpanding a Poor Vocabulary 110Avoiding Jargon 110Using Euphemisms with Care 110Being Alert to Trigger Words 111Using Dating and Indexing 111DEVELOPING SKILLS: How to Read a Journal Article /12
Being Cautious of Extremes 113Defining and Describing with Care 113
LANGUAGE AMD YOUK CAREER 114Chapter Summary 116 • Summary of Skills 116 • Summary ofLearning Outcomes 116 • Solve It Now! 117 • Key Terms 117 •Skill Builders 117
Nonverbal Communication 119
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 119
SCENARIO 120
What Is Nonverbal Communication? 121Key Communication Concepts 121Nonverbal Communication Defined 122
The Nature of Nonverbal Communication 123Nonverbal Communication Aids Meaning 123Nonverbal Communication Is Ambiguous 124
Categories of Nonverbal Communication 125MAKING THEORY PRACTICAL: Expectancy Violations Theory 126
Kinesics '127Proxemics 130Haptics 132Chronemics 133Artifacts 135Paralanguage 136
Functions of Nonverbal Messages 140Nonverbal Messages Can Replace Verbal Messages 140Nonverbal Messages Can Repeat Verbal Messages 140Nonverbal Messages Can Reinforce Verbal Messages 140Nonverbal Messages Can Regulate Verbal Messages 141Nonverbal Messages Can Reveal the Emotions Behind Verbal Messages 141
Nonverbal Messages Can Reverse Verbal Messages 141Nonverbal Messages Can Reflect Unconscious Needs 142
Improving Nonverbal Encoding 142Use Self-Monitoring 143Check for Cultural Meanings 143Check for Context 143DEVELOPING SKILLS: How To Read Others' Nonverbal Messages 144
Check for Personal Differences 145Ask for Feedback 145
NONVERBAL SKILLS AND YOUR CAREER 146Chapter Summary 148 • Summary of Skills 148 • Summary of LearningOutcomes 148 • Solve It Now! 149 • Key Terms 149 • Skill Builders 149
UNIT II
INTERPERSONAL AND SMALL GROUP COMMUNICATION
fc) Building InterpersonalRelationships 757
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 151
SCENARIO 152
Interpersonal Communication 153General Definition 153Impersonal versus Interpersonal Communication 153
Interpersonal Relationships: Getting Needs Met 155Personal Needs and Wants 155Inclusion Needs (Extrovert-Introvert) 155DEVELOPING SKILLS: How to Determine Your Needs 156Control Needs (Dominant-Submissive) 158Openness Needs (Discloser-Withholder) 159Contradictory Needs (Dialectics) 159
Interpersonal Relationships: Gaining Rewards andMinimizing Costs 160
Gathering Information and Using Effective Conversation 161Gathering Information to Reduce Uncertainty 161Using Effective Conversation 162
Improving Self-Disclosure 164True Self-Disclosure 164Self-Disclosure and Culture/Gender/Technology/Ethics 165MAKING THEORY PRACTICAL: Face Negotiation Theory 766Disclosure and the Model of Social Penetration 168
RELATIONSHIPS AND YOUR CAREER 170Chapter Summary 173 • Summary of Skills 173 • Summary of LearningOutcomes 173 • Solve It Now! 174 • Key Terms 174 • Skill Builders 175Explore Some More . . . 175
8 / Developing and Managing InterpersonalRelationships and Conflict m
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 177 \
SCENARIO 178
Relationships Stages 179Stages of Relationship Development 180Stages of Relationship Deterioration 183
Relationships and Conflict 186Conflict Defined 186Conflict Escalators 187Conflict and Technology 190
Conflict Styles 191The Passive Style 191MAKING THEORY PRAaiCAL: Dispute-Exacerbating Model of E-Mail (DEME) 792
The Aggressive Style 193
Conflict Outcomes 195Win-Win 195Compromise 195DEVELOPING SKILLS: How to Communicate Assertively 196
Win-Lose 197
Lose-Lose 197
RELATIONSHIPS AND YQUE CAREER 198Chapter Summary 197 • Summary of Skills 197 • Summary of LearningOutcomes 200 • Solve It Now! 200 • Key Terms 201 • Skill Builders 201 •Explore Some More . . . 201
O Communicating in Problem-SolvingGroups 203
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 203
SCENARIO 204
The Nature of Groups 205What Makes a Group? 205Teams and Virtual Teams 206Groups arid Culture Gender/Ethics/Technology 206Types of Groups 208
Individual versus Group Decisions 208When Individual Decisions Work Best 208DEVELOPING SKILLS: How to Organize a Service-Learning Project 209
When Group Decisions Work Best 210
Characteristics of Successful Small Groups 211The Optimum Size 211Decision-Making Methods 212Group Cohesiveness 213Cultural Diversity 214
Absence of Groupthink 215Rules, Norms, and Phases 215MAKING THEORY PRAaiCAL: Croupthink Theory 216
Group Problem-Solving Process 218Group Process Step 1: Identify the Problem 218Group Process Step 2: Analyze the Problem 221Group Process Step 3: Establish and Rank Criteria 222Group Process Step 4: Generate Possible Solutions 224Group Process Step 5: Apply Criteria to Select Best Solution(s) 226Group Process Step 6: Implement and Follow-up 227
GROUP SKILLS AND YOUR CAREER 228Chapter Summary 227 • Summary of Skills 227 • Summary of LearningOutcomes 230 • Solve It Now! 230 • Key Terms 231 • Skill Builders 231
Becoming Effective Group Membersand Leaders 233
} LEARNING OBJECTIVES 233
SCENARIO 234
Characteristics of Effective Group Members 235Keeping an Open Mind 235Preparing and Participating Effectively 236Using the Problem-Solving Procedure Effectively 236Handing Conflicts Effectively 237
Effective Member Roles 237Formal Roles 237Task Roles 238Maintenance Roles 239 ''Dysfunctional Roles 241
Characteristics of Effective Group Leadership 242Using Power Effectively 243Sharing Responsibility 243DEVELOPING SKILLS: How to Work with Dysfunctional Members 244
Benefiting from Culture/Gender/Technology/Ethics 245
Becoming an Effective Leader 247Leadership Traits 247Leadership Functions 248Leadership Styles 249Contingency Leadership 250Transformational Leadership 252
Responsibilities of Members and Leaders 252Member Responsibilities 253Leader Responsibilities 253MAKING THEORY PRACTICAL: Transformational Leadership Theory 254
LEADERSHIP AND YOUR CAREER 256Chapter Summary 255 • Summary of Skills 255 • Summary of LearningOutcomes 255 • Solve It Now! 258 • Key Terms 258 • Skill Builders 259Explore Some More . . . 259
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UNIT IIIPUBLIC SPEAKING
IU Public Speaking: Getting Started %iLEARNING OBJECTIVES 261
SCENARIO 262
Understanding the Nature of Anxiety 263What Is Speaker Anxiety? 263What Causes Speaker Anxiety? 263
Building Speaker Confidence 265Be Prepared 265Engage in Skills Training 266Use Positive Imagery 266Enjoy Deep Breathing and Relaxation 267Apply Cognitive Restructuring 267MAKING THEORY PRAaiCAL: Uncertainty Reduction Theoiy 269
Become Audience Centered 270Practice Speaking Often 270
An Overview: Five Steps in Preparing a SuccessfulSpeech 271
Step 1: Analyzing Your Audience and the Situation 271Step 2: Developing Your Topic, Purpose, and Thesis 271Step 3: Gathering Materials 272Step 4: Organizing Your Main Points 272Step 5: Practicing Your Speech 272
Audience Analysis: A More Detailed Look 273Demographic Analysis 274Attitude Analysis 275DEVELOPING SKILLS: How to Conduct an Audience Analysis 279
SPEAKING SKILLS AMD YOUR CAREER 280Situational Analysis 282Chapter Summary 283 • Summary of Skills 283 • Summary of LearningOutcomes 283 • Solve It Now! 284 • Key Terms 284 • Skill Builders 284Explore Some More . . . 285
11 Selecting a Topic and GatheringSupporting Materials 287
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 287
SCENARIO 288
Developing Your Topic, Purpose, and Thesis 289Topic Selection 289Purpose 292Thesis Statement 294
Gathering Materials: Begin with a Rough Draft Outline 295A Rough Draft Outline Saves Valuable Time 295A Rough Draft Outline Makes Getting Opinions from Others Easier 296
Researching for Supporting Materials 296Personal Information 297Print Sources 297DEVELOPING SKILLS: How to Avoid Plagiarism 298
Electronic Databases 299Internet Sources 299
Types and Uses of Supporting Materials 302Definitions 303Explanations 304Examples and Illustrations 304Comparisons 305Quotations 306MAKING THEORY PRAQICAL: Fisher's Narrative Paradigm 307
Statistics 308
Quality Supporting Materials and Your Career 309
SPEECH MATERIALS AND YOUR CAREER 310Chapter Summary 312 • Summary of Skills 312 • Summary of LearningOutcomes 312 • Solve It Now! 313 • Key Terms 313 • Skill Builders 313
\A Informative Speaking 315
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 315
SCENARIO 316
Informative Speaking: Characteristics 317
Organizational Patterns for Informative Speeches 318Chronological (Time Order) 319Spatial (Geographical) 319Topical 320Causal (Usually Cause-Effect) 320Problem-Solution 321
Speech Organization: Cultural Differences 322
Speech Introductions 322Catch Audience Attention 323Build Rapport 326Establish Credibility 326Point Out Benefits to Audience 326Clarify Central Idea with Thesis and Preview of Main Points 327When Each Function Should Be Used 327
Speech Conclusions 328Summary of Main Points 328Memorable Ending 328Questions and Answers (Q&A) 329
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Speech Transitions 330
Speech Outlining 331Why Bother with Outlines? 331
DEVELOPING SKILLS: How to Organize Using Storyboards 332
Outlining Principles 334 •»
Types of Outlines 336
ORGANIZATION ANO YOUR CAREER 340Chapter Summary 339 • Summary of Skills 339 • Summary of LearningOutcomes 339 • Solve It Now! 342 • Key Terms 342 • Skill Builders 343Explore Some More . . . 343
1sJ Adding Visuals and Practicing YourPresentation 345
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 345
SCENARIO 346
Preparing Quality Visual Aids 347Types of Visual Aids 347
General Guidelines for Using Visual Aids Successfully 348
MAKING THEORY PRAQICAL: Basic Design Principles 350
Using PowerPoint Successfully 352
Preparing for a Specific Audience 355Identify Audience Type 356Select Best Delivery Method 356
Practice Your Verbal and NonverbalDelivery 358
Pick Words Carefully 359Use Direct Eye Contact 359Use Effective Facial Expressions 360Monitor Posture, Gestures, and Movements 360Monitor Clothing and Grooming 361
Practice Your Vocal Delivery (Paralanguage) 362Pitch 362Rate 363Volume 363Emphasis 363Vocal Quality 363Articulation 364Pronunciation 364Vocal Dysfluencies 365
Practice Citing Your Sources 366DEVELOPING SKILLS: How to Orally Cite Your Sources During Your
Presentation 367
Final Preparations before Your Speech 368
DELIVERY AND YOUR CAREER 370Chapter Summary 368 • Summary of Skills 369 • Summary of LearningOutcomes 369 • Solve It Now! 372 • Key Terms 372 • Skill Builders 373Explore Some More . . . 373
Persuasive Speaking 375
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 375
SCENARIO 376
Understanding Persuasion 377Differences between Persuasive and Informative Speeches 377Factors That Affect Persuasion 379MAKING THEORY PRAaiCAL: Social Judgment Theory 380
Types of Persuasive Speeches 383Speech to Convince 383Speech to Actuate 383
Persuasive Appeals That Really Persuade 384Speaker Credibility (Ethos) 384Evidence and Reasoning (Logos) 385Emotional Appeal (Pathos) 386
Persuasive Organizational Patterns 388Persuasive Pattern for Arguments: Statement of Logical Reasons 388Persuasive Patterns for Problems and Solutions 389Persuasive Pattern for Policy and Action: The Motivated Sequence 393DEVELOPING SKILLS: How to Use Inoculation Theory 395
Adapting Organizational Patterns to Audiences 396When Audience Favors YourPosition 396When Audience Opposes Your Position 396When Audience Is Neutral toward Your Position 397When Audience Opinions Vary Widely 397Sample Student Speech 398Final Thoughts from the Authors 401
PERSUASION AND YOUR CAREER 402Chapter Summary 401 • Summary of Skills 401 • Summary of LearningOutcomes 404 • Solve It Now! 405 • Key Terms 405 • Skill Builders 405
APPENDIX Communicating Successfully in the Interviewing Context 406
References 419
Glossary 433
Photo Credits 449
Name Index 451
Subject Index 454