Commercial Chicken Meat and Egg Production

Fifth Edition

Commercial Chicken Meat

and Egg Production

Fifth Edition

Edited by

DONALD D. BELL (emeritus)

Poultry Specialist University of Califomia

Riverside, Califomia

WILLIAM D. WEAVER, JR. Professor Emeritus

Oepartment of Poultry Science Virginia T ech

Blacksburg, Virginia and

Oepartment Head (retired) Oepartment of Poultry Science

Pennsylvania State University University Park, Pennsylvania

..... " SPRINGER SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, LLC

.... • , Electronic Services < http://www.wkap.nl >

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Commercial chicken meat and egg production / edited by Donald D. BeU, William D. Weaver, Jr. p.cm.

Rev. ed. of: Commercial chicken production manual / Mack O. North, Donald D. BeU.

4th ed. c1990. Includes bibliographical references (p. ). ISBN 978-1-4613-5251-8 ISBN 978-1-4615-0811-3 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-0811-3 1. Chickens-Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Eggs-Handbooks, manuals, etc. 1. BeU,

Donald D., 1933- II. Weaver, Jr., William Daniel, 1940- III. North, Mack O. Commercial chicken production manual.

SF487.N77 2001 636.5-dc21

Copyright 2002 bySpringer ScÎence+Business Media New York OriginaIly published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 2002 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 5th edition

00-045232

AU rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any farm or by any means, mechanical, photo-copying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher, Springer Science+Business Media,LLC.

Printed on acid-free paper.

In Commercial Chicken Meat and Egg Production, the names of many medicinal and other products appear, often with the trade names, which may vary from country to country. But nothing contained herein is to be construed as an endorsement for any named product, either by trade or chemical name, nor is criticism of similar products implied when not mentioned.

Products such as pesticides, rodenticides, disinfectants, drugs, antibiotics, and vaccines are usually licensed for use. These licenses are specific for each country or state, require verification of effectiveness and safety, and must be accompanied with detailed labels ex­plaining the application, dosage, species, safety precautions, and limitations associated with the material. The user is responsible for adhering to these instructions and to use such products only as advised.

This book cannot include all the products licensed for sale, nor can it give the many benefits or limitations associated with their use. Always check with local agricultural au­thorities regarding the legal use of any product.

Often, materials or processes that are effective in one region may fail in another. Consult with local government agencies, consultants, or university advisors before using any such products.

Contents

Introduction, xi Contributing Authors, xiii Acknowledgments, xvii Preface, xix List of Tables, xxi List of Figures, xxxv List of Abbreviations, xlvii

Section I. General

1

2

3

4

5

The World's Commercial Chicken Meat and Egg Industries Paul W. Aho

Components of the Poultry and Allied Industries Donald D. Bell

Modern Breeds of Chickens Donald D. Bell

Anatomy of the Chicken Donald D. Bell

Formation of the Egg Donald D. Bell

6 Behavior of Chickens

7

8

9

10

11

12

A. Bruce Webster

Behavioral Genetics A. Bruce Webster

Poultry Housing William D. Weaver, Jr.

Fundamentals of Ventilation William D. Weaver, Jr.

Fundamentals of Managing Light for Poultry Michael J. Wineland

Waste Management Donald D. Bell

External Parasites, Insects, and Rodents Douglas R. Kuney

Section II. Feeds and Nutrition

13

14

Feed and the Poultry Industry Paul W. Aho

Digestion and Metabolism Craig N. Coon

3

19

31

41

59

71

87

101

113

129

149

169

187

199

vii

viii CONTENTS

15 Major Feed Ingredients: Feed Management and Analysis Craig N. Coon

16 Broiler Nutrition Craig N. Coon

17 Feeding Egg-Type Replacement Pullets Craig N. Coon

18 Feeding Commercial Egg-Type Layers Craig N. Coon

19 Feeding Broiler Breeders Craig N. Coon

20 Vitamins, Minerals, and Trace Ingredients Craig N. Coon

21 Feed Formulation and the Computer Gene M. Pesti

22 Consumption and Quality of Water Donald D. Bell

Section III. Poultry Health

23 Microorganisms and Disease Gregg J. Cutler

24 Immunity Gregg J. Cutler

25 Vaccines and Vaccination Gregg J. Cutler

26 Medication for the Prevention and Treatment of Diseases Carol J. Cardona and Gregg J. Cutler

27 Diseases of the Chicken Gregg J. Cutler

28 Biosecurity on Chicken Farms Carol J. Cardona and Douglas R. Kuney

29 Cleaning and Disinfecting Poultry Facilities Douglas R. Kuney and Joan S.Jeffrey

30 Diagnostic Testing Carol J. Cardona and Gregg J. Cutler

Section IV. Business

31

32

33

Operating a Poultry Enterprise Donald D. Bell Record Management Donald D. Bell Computer Applications Gene M. Pesti

215

243

267

287

329

371

395

411

433

443

451

463

473

543

557

565

585

595

611

Section V. The Breeder and Hatchery Industries

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

Managing the Breeding Flock Ronald Meijerhoj

Development of the Embryo Joseph M. Mauldin

Hatchery Planning, Design, and Construction Joseph M. Mauldin

Equipment for Hatcheries Joseph M. Mauldin and Thad Morrison III

Maintaining Hatching Egg Quality Joseph M. Mauldin

Factors Affecting Hatchability Joseph M. Mauldin

Operating the Hatchery Joseph M. Mauldin

Section VI. The Broiler Industry

41

42

43

Introduction to the US Chicken Meat Industry Paul W. Aho

A Model Integrated Broiler Firm Donald D. Bell

Broiler Management Michael P. Lacy

Section VII. Poultry Processing

44

45

46

47

48

Quality Assurance and Food Safety-Chicken Meat Charles J. Wabeck

Microbiology of Poultry Meat Products Charles J. Wabeck

Processing Chicken Meat Charles J. Wabeck

Poultry Processing-Inspection and Grading Charles J. Wabeck

Further-Processing Poultry and Value-Added Products Charles J. Wabeck

Section VIII. The Table-Egg Industry

49 Introduction to the US Table-Egg Industry Donald D. Bell

50

51

A Model One Million Hen In-Line Egg Production Complex Donald D. Bell

Cage Management for Raising Replacement Pullets Donald D. Bell

CONTENTS ix

623

651

661

685

707

727

775

801

819

829

871

889

899

921

931

945

965

979

x CONTENTS

52 Cage Management for Layers Donald D. Bell 1007

53 Management in Alternative Housing Systems Donald D. Bell 1041

54 Flock Replacement Programs and Flock Recycling Donald D. Bell 1059

55 Egg Production and Egg Weight Standards for Table-Egg Layers

Donald D. Bell 1079

56 Egg Handling and Egg Breakage Donald D. Bell 1091

Section IX. Egg Processing

57 Shell Eggs and Their Nutritional Value Gideon Zeidler 1109

58 Processing and Packaging Shell Eggs Gideon Zeidler 1129

59 Further-Processing Eggs and Egg Products Gideon Zeidler 1163

60 Shell Egg Quality and Preservation Gideon Zeidler 1199

61 Quality and Functionality of Egg Products Gideon Zeidler 1219

62 Egg Quality Assurance Programs Ralph A. Ernst 1229

Section X. References

63 Selected References and Suggested Reading 1241

Section XI. Appendix

64-A List of Periodicals and Scientific Journals 1267 64-B Partial List of Books on Poultry and Related Subjects 1269 64-C Partial List of International Chicken Breeding Companies 1279 64-D Partial List of International Equipment Manufacturers 1281 64-E List of Poultry Professional and Trade Associations 1285 64-F List of Institutions with Significant Research and Education

Programs in Poultry (US and Canada) 1287 64-G Conversion Tables 1291

Index 1295

Introduction

The poultry industry in the 21st century has evolved from tens of thou­sands of small independent farms in the post-World War II period to an industry of relatively few large vertically integrated companies, each with multiple farm sites or contract growers, processing, marketing, and feed milling and hatchery capabilities. This change has come about because of the many technologies that have been introduced over the past half­century by the poultry industry with the help of supporting industries and various educational, research, and governmental institutions.

The information and research needs of this dynamic industry grow at an ever increasing rate as individual companies strive to improve perfor­mance and efficiencies and to reduce costs. Issues associated with the envi­ronment, animal welfare, food safety, business management, and labor have become critical areas for problem-solving efforts.

This edition of Commercial Chicken Meat and Egg Production has changed from emphasizing the chicken to emphasizing the business of raising chickens. In so doing, an additional 22 chapters have been added to cover many of the new topics important to the poultry industry. It is also recog­nized that no single source of information can supply the depth of under­standing needed in today's business, and therefore, an extensive list of references and resources has been added in the appendix for further study.

xi

Paul W. Aho

Bibliographies of Contributing Authors

Ph.D., Michigan State University Areas of Specialty: International agribusiness, poultry economics Address: 20 Eastwood Road, Storrs, CT 06268

Donald D. Bell M.S., Colorado State University Areas of Specialty: Layer management, pullet rearing, economics, flock

recycling, house and equipment design, egg quality Address: Highlander Hall-C, University of California,

Riverside, CA 92521

Carol J. Cardona DVM, Purdue University; Ph.D., Michigan State University Areas of Specialty: Pathogenesis of viral diseases of poultry, disease

prevention Address: Veterinary Medicine Extension, Surge III. University of

California, Davis, CA 95616

Craig N. Coon Ph.D., Texas A&M University Area of Specialty: Poultry Nutrition Address: 0-211 Poultry Science Center, University of Arkansas,

Fayetteville, AR 72701

Gregg J. Cutler DVM, University of California, Davis; MPVM, University

of California, Davis Areas of Specialty: Poultry health, food safety, physiology Address: P.O. Box 1042, Moorpark, CA 93020

Ralph A. Ernst Ph.D., Michigan State University Areas of Specialty: Layer management, environmental physiology Address: Animal Science Department, University of California,

Davis CA 95616

xiii

xiv BIBLIOGRAPHIES OF CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS

Joan S. Jeffrey DVM, Ohio State University; MS, Ohio State University Areas of Specialty: Infectious diseases of poultry, food safety Address: Veterinary Medicine Teaching and Research Center,

University of California, 18830 Rd 112, Tulare, CA 93274

Douglas R. Kuney M.s., Colorado State University Areas of Specialty: Layer management, pest management, manure

management, environmental protection Address: 21150 Box Springs Road, Moreno Valley, CA 92557

Michael P. Lacy Ph.D., Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Areas of Specialty: Broiler management, environmental control, housing

design, ventilation, harvesting broilers Address: Department of Poultry Science, 117 Poultry Building,

University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602

Joseph M. Mauldin Ph.D., Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Areas of Specialty: Hatchery management, incubation, embryology,

sanitation Address: Department of Poultry Science, 210 Poultry Science Bldg.,

University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602

Ronald Meijerhof Ph.D., University of Wageningen, The Netherlands Areas of Specialty: Physiology, breeder management, incubation,

hatchery management Address: Hybro B.V., P.o. Box 30, 5830 AA Boxmeer, The Netherlands

Thad Morrison III BA, St. Andrews College (NC) Areas of Specialty: Hatchery equipment, hatchery automation Address: 1131 Industrial Blvd. North, Dallas, GA 30132

Gene M. Pesti Ph.D., University of Wisconsin, Madison Areas of Specialty: Nutrition, computer applications Address: Department of Poultry Science, University of Georgia,

Athens, GA 30602

Charles J. Wabeck (deceased) Ph.D., Purdue University

BIBLIOGRAPHIES OF CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS xv

Areas of Specialty: Poultry processing, products, food safety

William D. Weaver, Jr. Ph.D., Pennsylvania State University Areas of Specialty: Broiler and breeder management, housing design,

environmental control, ventilation Address: 5168 Weaver Lane, Gloucester, VA 23061

A. Bruce Webster Ph.D., University of Guelph Areas of Specialty: Animal behavior, layer management Address: Department of Poultry Science, 208 Poultry Science Bldg.,

University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602

Michael J. Wineland Ph.D., University of Wisconsin, Madison Areas of Specialty: Breeders, hatcheries, light management Address: Department of Poultry Science, North Carolina State

University, Raleigh, NC 27695

Gideon Zeidler Ph.D., Technion-Israel Institute of Technology Area of Specialty: Food engineering, egg and meat processing Address: Highlander Hall-C, University of California,

Riverside, CA 92521

Acknowledgments

A book of this size and scope would not have been possible without the whole-hearted support of all its authors. Many deadlines came and passed, multiple editing was tiring and many re-writes were oftentimes necessary, but the book finally got done. Everyone pulled together and we hope the effort will finally be well received by the present and future poultry indus­tries, both in the United States and around the world.

The editors would like to express their appreciation to Mrs. Joann Braga, secretary to Don Bell, for coordinating and working with the many (62) manuscripts during all stages of development. We would also like to thank Doug Kuney, regional poultry advisor for Southern California, for making his time available during the assembly stages of the book and for his assis­tance with the reference and appendix sections.

xvii

Preface

Since the publication of the fourth edition of the Commercial Chicken Pro­duction Manual in 1990 (the first edition was published in 1972), the senior author, Dr. Mack O. North has passed away, and Professor Donald D. Bell has assumed the role of senior editor and contributing author. In addition to serving as overall coordinator for the text, Professor Bell has focused on nutrition, poultry health, and all aspects of the production and pro­cessing of table eggs.

For the fifth edition Dr. William D. Weaver, Jr., Professor Emeritus from Virginia Tech and retired head of the Department of Poultry Science at Pennsylvania State University has joined the publication as co-editor and author. He has contributed primarily in the areas of housing, ventilation, hatchery, breeder and broiler management, and meat processing. The name of the text has also been changed to Commercial Chicken Meat and Egg Production to better reflect the contents included in the new edition.

Possibly the most significant change in the new text, however, involves the addition of sixteen new chapter authors. Each author was selected based upon his or her knowledge and experience in a particular phase of poultry production, and then was asked to provide the latest information available in that area. In doing so, the text has not only been extensively revised, but in many instances has been expanded to include totally new material. Topics such as US and global economics, business management, processing chicken meat and eggs, computer applications, chicken behav­ior, ventilation, water quality, waste and by-product management, hatch­ery planning, design, and construction, inspection, grading and quality standards for poultry meat and eggs, hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) programs, and models of integrated and company-owned broiler and egg complexes are included for the first time in the new edition.

While the fifth edition has incorporated many changes, it has not lost its focus on commercial chicken production. Rather, the industry approach to production has been greatly enhanced with discussions on economic integration, contract production, processing and marketing, and the many global aspects of the industry.

Although the authors have focused their attention primarily on US pro­duction practices, globalization within the industry has made much, if not most, of the material presented relevant to the production of broilers and table eggs around the world. For instance, with similar genetic stocks, com­petitively priced feedstuffs, and poultry production and processing equip­ment and technology readily available in most locations in the world, poul­try management practices globally are much more homogeneous today than ever before.

xix

xx PREFACE

The new edition includes more than 400 tables, figures, and pictures in an attempt to further enhance the reader's understanding of commercial chicken production. Primary users of the text include various segments of the commercial chicken industry, such as producers, service personnel, and others responsible for the production and processing of chicken meat and eggs, as well as students in colleges and universities studying poultry science.

For the convenience of its readers the authors have again used both En­glish and metric standards for weights and measures. When costs of pro­duction and other economic parameters are discussed, US dollars are nor­mally used for making comparisons.

In an attempt to better serve users of the text the authors are providing means whereby additional information and technology can be obtained. A complete listing of authors can be found at the beginning of the book. In addition, the authors have developed a web site where contact proce­dures are listed and where updates and new information will be made available to subscribers. To take advantage of this service, purchasers of the text are asked to register their purchase of the book at:

Commercialchicken.com

For information about obtaining copies of the book or other questions directed to the publisher, contact:

Kluwer Academic Publishers

List of Tables by Chapter

CHAPTER 1

1-1

1-2 1-3 1-4

Total Livestock Meat and Poultry Consumption per Person. (US, 1960-2000) World Chicken Meat Production-1985 to 2000 Egg Production in Billions (Selected Countries)-1990 and 1998 Whole Eviscerated Broiler Meat Costs-US vs Other Countries

CHAPTER 6

6-1

6-2

Time Budgets of Chickens. Percentages of Time Spent in Different Actions Diurnal Patterns of Feeding Behavior of Domestic Chickens: Number of Studies with the Indicated Pattern

CHAPTER 7

7-1 7-2

7-3

Genetic Stock Differences in the Behavior of Chickens Heritability Estimates (HZ) and Inheritance of Behavior in Chickens Genotype by Environment Interactions Involving the Behavior of Chickens

CHAPTER 8

8-1

8-2

8-3

8-4

Sensible and Latent Heat Production as Influenced by Ambient Temperature (White Leghorn Hens) Hourly Moisture Production of White Leghorn Hens (1,000-4lb Hens) Sensible and Latent Heat Production for Broilers at Different Ages (82 to 87°F) R-values of Various Building Materials

CHAPTER 9

9-1

9-2

Requirements for Ventilation at Different Ambient Temperatures (F) on a Cubic Feet per Minute (Cfm) per Pound of Body Weight Basis (Broilers) Relationships Between Static Pressure and Inlet Velocity

6 8 9

12

82

84

91

95

99

103

105

106 109

120 122

xxi

xxii LIST OF TABLES BY CHAPTER

CHAPTER 10

10-1 Relative Light Intensity from Various Light Sources Measured as Footcandles per Watt and Then Related to the Intensity from a 120 Volt Incandescent 138

10-2 Correction Factors for Various Light Sources to Equalize the Number of Photons per Footcandle 141

10-3 Approximate Natural Daylight at Latitudes of the Northern and Southern Temperature Zone 142

10-4 Characteristics of Various Lamps 144

CHAPTER 11

11-1 Estimated Production of Manure for Table-Egg Layer, Replacement Pullet, and Broiler Flocks (fresh manure estimates are based upon feed consumption) 151

11-2 Loss of Weight as One Ton of Manure Dries 153 11-3 Approximate Analysis of Air-dried Poultry Manure 157 11-4 Daily Production of Dead Birds in Pounds / Kg at Different

Mortality Rates 163

CHAPTER 12

12-1 Characteristics of Various Rodent Species

CHAPTER 13

13-1 US Corn Production and Use 1994-1996 13-2 Yellow Dent Corn Tariff-Uruguay Round of the GATT­

Agreement

CHAPTER 14

181

194

195

14-1 Carbohydrate Content of Selected Feedstuffs 205 14-2 Absorbability Values of Various Fatty Acids, Monoglycerides,

Triglycerides, and Hydrolyzed Triglycerides as Determined in the Chicken 207

14-3 Mean and (Range) Digestibility and/or Availability Estimates (%) of Some Amino Acids in Various Feedstuffs Summarized from Studies with Poultry 212

CHAPTER 15

15-1 15-2

Poultry Feed Ingredient Analysis Poultry Feed Ingredient Analysis of Minor Nutrients

236

237

LIST OF TABLES BY CHAPTER xxiii

CHAPTER 16

16-1 Metabolizable Energy Level for Rearing Sexes Separate and for Straight-run Broilers 246

16-2 Response of 2 Ages of Male Broilers Fed Diets with Increasing Energy Levels 248

16-3 Effect of Dietary Protein Levels on Performance and Carcass Parameters of Broilers at 42 and 50 Days of Age 251

16-4 Effect of Dietary Energy Levels on Performance and Carcass Parameters of Broilers at 42 and 50 Days of Age 252

16-5 Dietary Protein Levels for Rearing Sexes Separate and for Straight-run Broilers 253

16-6 Recommended Practical Broiler Nutrient Levels 254 16-7 Suggested Amino Acid Recommendations for Broiler Diets in

Relationship to the Energy Content of the Diet 256 16-8 Amino Acid Requirements of Broilers as Percentages of Diet 257 16-9 Ideal Amino Acid Profiles for Broilers 257 16-10 Vitamin Requirements of Broilers as Units per Kilogram of Diet 259 16-11 Mineral Requirements of Broilers as Percentages or Units per

Kilogram of Diet 259 16-12 Sample Broiler Rations 260 16-13 Variations in Surface Skin Color of Broilers 263 16-14 Total Xanthophyll Content of Feedstuffs 263 16-15 Dietary Mixed Xanthophylls Necessary to Produce NEPA

Scores in Broilers 264 16-16 Sample of Nutrient Specifications Needed for Producing Rock-

Cornish Game Broilers with Live Weight of 2.2 lb (1 kg) at 28 to 32 Days 265

16-17 Heavy Male Feeding Program 265

CHAPTER 17

17-1 Effect of Date of Hatch on Age at Sexual Maturity and Egg Size 269

17-2 Effect of Season of Hatch on Performance in Commercial Leghorn Flocks 270

17-3 Effects of Beak Trimming at 12 Weeks of Age on Feed Consumption and Body Weight 271

17-4 Increases in Weekly Weight Through 6 Weeks 272 17-5 Daily Feed Consumption per 100 Pullets During the First

6 Weeks 272 17-6 Protein and Amino Acid Requirements of Young Egg-type

Chickens 275 17-7 Mineral Requirement of Young Egg-type Chickens 275 17-8 Vitamin Requirements of Young Egg-type Chickens 276

xxiv LIST OF TABLES BY CHAPTER

17-9 Daily Feed Consumption per 100 Pullets Between 7 and 20 Weeks of Age 277

17-10 Percentage Change in Feed Consumption for Each 1°F Change in House Temperature at Various Temperatures 278

17-11 Percentage Decrease in Feed Consumption as Average Daytime House Temperatures Increase 278

17-12 Percentage Increase in Feed Consumption as Average Daytime House Temperatures Decrease 279

17-13 Protein and Amino Acid Requirements of Egg-type Growing Pullets 280

17-14 Mineral Requirements of Growing Pullets 280 17-15 Vitamin Requirements of Growing Pullets 281 17-16 Sample Rations for Commercial Leghorn Pullets 285

CHAPTER 18

18-1 Feed Requirement of Laying Hens for Maintenance 291 18-2 Effect of Ambient Temperature on the Maintenance

Requirement for Energy 291 18-3 Mean Feed Intake (g/hen/ day) of Hens with 0,50, and 100%

Feather Coverage for a 6-Week Period at 55,75, and 93°F 291 18-4 Dietary Energy in the Feed and Daily Feed Requirements for a

1.6 kg Hen at 70°F 293 18-5 Effect of Feed Energy and Temperature on Feed Intake (g/ day)

of White Leghorn Layers from 20 to 36 Weeks of Age 295 18-6 Effect of Feed Energy and Temperature on Metabolizable

Energy Intake of White Leghorn Layers from 20 to 36 Weeks of Age 296

18-7 Effect of Feed Energy and Temperature on Feed Conversion (g Feed/ g Egg Mass) for White Leghorn Layers from 20 to 36 Weeks of Age 297

18-8 Consumption of Feed and Calories by Leghorn Layers in Relationship to Their Age and the Season 298

18-9 Actual Me Intake (kcal/ d) and Predicted Me Intake (kcal/ day) Using Prediction Models 299

18-10 Protein and Digestible Amino Acid Requirements of Layers 304 18-11 Layer Fourteen-day Nitrogen Balance Study 306 18-12 Estimated Amino Acid Needs for Maintenance, Weight Gain,

and Egg Production for White Leghorn Laying Hens 307 18-13 Estimated Digestible Amino Acid Needs of Laying Hens 307 18-14 Performance of Hens from 37 to 65 Weeks of Age Housed at

Different Temperatures and Fed Different Levels of Protein and Amino Acids 309

18-15 Average Mineral Requirements of Leghorn Laying Hens 311 18-16 Effect of Egg Weight on Various Eggshell Characteristics 313

LIST OF TABLES BY CHAPTER xxv

18-17 Effects of Season on Eggshell Thickness 313 18-18 Vitamin Requirements of Laying Hens (White Leghorn)

Consuming 100 g of Feed per Day 316 18-19 Mixed Xanthophyll Content of Various Feedstuffs 316 18-20 Feed Consumption of White-Egg Layers 318 18-21 Feed Consumption of Brown-egg Layers 319 18-22 Average Daily Egg Mass for Various Egg Weights and Rates of

Lay for Layers 322 18-23 Hen-day Egg Production, Egg Weight, Egg Mass, and Feed

Consumption of White Leghorn Laying Hens by Week cl~ ~

18-24 Commercial Egg Layer Rations 326

CHAPTER 19

19-1 Comparison of Restricted Feeding Versus Full Feeding of Growing Meat-type Pullets 332

19-2 Weekly Percentage Weight Gain for Meat-type Growing Pullets (Restricted Feeding Program) 332

19-3 Recommended Female Body Weights and Feed Consumption (Cobb 500) 337

19-4 Female Body Weight, Feed Consumption, Lighting, and Feed Relating to the Age of the Breeder Flock (Ross 508) 338

19-5 Estimated Protein and Metabolizable Energy Consumed by Broiler Breeder Pullets Housed in a Moderate Temperature, (Skip-a-day Feeding) 339

19-6 Meat-type Growing Pullet Feeding Program: Decreased No-feed Days per Week 341

19-7 Weights of Meat-type Cockerels Fed on a Restricted Feeding Program (moderate temperature) 343

19-8 Influence of Feed Allocation and Photoschedule from 20 to 25 Weeks of Age on the Onset of Sexual Maturity and Associated Carcass Characteristics 345

19-9 Influence on Feed Allocation and Photoschedule from 20 to 25 Weeks of Age on Various Performance Parameters 346

19-10 Predicted Energy Requirements of Broiler Breeder Hens from 20 to 68 Weeks with a Pen Temperature of Approximately 72°F 351

19-11 Estimates of Dietary Protein Requirements at Various Breeder Body Weights When Producing Eggs of Different Size 352

19-12 Influence of Dietary Protein Level on Performance of Broiler Breeders (26 to 60 Weeks of Age) 352

19-13 Influence of Protein and Energy Intake on Production Parameters in Broiler Breeders 352

19-14 The Calculated Total Requirement of Amino Acids for a Broiler Breeder Hen at 29 and 64 Weeks of Age 353

xxvi LIST OF TABLES BY CHAPTER

19-15 The Ratio of the Calculated Amino Acid Requirements for a Broiler Breeder Hen at 29 and 64 Weeks of Age Versus Lysine Which Is Taken as 100 354

19-16 Nutrient Requirements of Meat-type Hens for Breeding Purposes as Units per Hen per Day 354

19-17 Nutrient Specifications for Broiler Breeder Parent Stock 355 19-18 Breeder Vitamin Levels and Costs per Ton of Feed 356 19-19 Guide for Feed Consumption When Standard-size Meat-type

Pullets Are Control-fed During Egg Production 359 19-20 Metabolizable Energy and Protein Consumption of Meat-type

Breeders During Egg Production 360 19-21 Feed Efficiency for a Broiler Breeder Flock 361 19-22 Pullet and Cockerel Breeder Rations for Dual Feeding 362 19-23 Nutrient Requirements of Meat-type Males for Breeding

Purposes as Percentages or Units per Rooster per Day 362 19-24 Recommended Male Body Weights and Feed Consumption

(Cobb 500) 365 19-25 Examples of Feed and Me Intake for Male Breeders Consuming

a Diet of Approximately 2900 kcal Me/kg at Different Ages and Temperature 366

19-26 Broiler Breeder Rations for Pullets and Hens 368

CHAPTER 20

20-1 Average Commercial Broiler Starter Vitamin Fortification Relative to NRC Recommendations 381

20-2 Possible Vitamin Fortification Levels for Poultry Diets Based on Wheat or Corn (per kg of diet) 382

CHAPTER 21

21-1 Example of a Least-cost Feed Formulation Matrix with Limits and Solutions for a Broiler Finisher 397

21-2 The Influences of Different Diets and Several Prices on the Most Economical Broiler Diet to Feed 400

21-3 Predicted Commercial Laying Hen Performance for Hens Fed Different Protein and Energy Levels 407

21-4a Predicted Feed Consumption (g/hen/day) of Laying Hens with Various Body Weights, Kept at Different Temperatures 408

21-4b Predicted Feed Consumption (g/hen/day) of Laying Hens Fed Different Metabolizable Energy Levels and Kept at Different Temperatures 408

CHAPTER 22

22-1 Water Consumption Relative to Age in Broilers 413

LIST OF TABLES BY CHAPTER xxvii

22-2 Water and Feed Intake Relative to Environmental Temperature in White Leghorn Hens 414

22-3 House Temperature as It Affects Feed and Water Consumption in White Leghorn Hens 414

22-4 Water Consumption as Affected by Age of Flock and Temperature in White Leghorn Hens 415

22-5 Effect of Drinking Water Temperature on Feed Intake, Egg Production, and Egg Weight 416

22-6 The Effect of Cooling Drinking Water on Performance of White Leghorn Hens 417

22-7 Comparison of Poultry Farm Drinking Water Quality in Different Regions of the US 420

22-8 Suggested Maximum Limits of Water Components for Chickens 421 22-9 Effect of Water Restriction on Various Traits in 8-Week-Old

Broilers 428 22-10 Average Egg Production, Feed Efficiency, Feed Consumption,

Livability, and Manure Moisture as Influenced by Restricting Watering Time (White Leghorn Chickens) 429

CHAPTER 25

25-1 Example of Broiler Vaccination Program 460 25-2 Example of Commercial Egg-type Grower Vaccination Program 460 25-3 Example of Breeder Replacement Vaccination Program 461

CHAPTER 26

26-1 Selected Antibiotics and Their Characteristics

26-2 Selected Anticoccidials and Their Characteristics 26-3 Anthelmintic and Their Characteristics

CHAPTER 28

28-1 Longevity of Disease-causing Organisms 28-2 Biological and Mechanical Vectors That Transmit Poultry

Pathogens

CHAPTER 30

30-1 Examples of Diseases and the Tests Used to Detect Them

CHAPTER 32

468 470 472

545

546

570

32-1 Sample Computer Printout for a Broiler Flock Recap 602

32-2 Sample Printout for a Table-Egg Laying Flock Weekly Record 605 32-3 Layer Flock Recap (sample spreadsheet) 607

xxviii LIST OF TABLES BY CHAPTER

CHAPTER 33

33-1 Sample Layer Flock Projection (abbreviated version) 616 33-2 Sample Economic Analysis of Performance (abbreviated version) 617

CHAPTER 34

34-1 Lighting Program for Meat-type Breeders 627 34-2 Lighting Program for Egg-type Breeder (White Leghorns) 628 34-3 Rearing Body Weights for Meat-type Breeders 632 34-4 Average Body Weights of Standard White Leghorn Breeders

(for the production of commercial pullets) and medium-size egg-type breeders (for the production of pullets laying brown shelled eggs) 635

34-5 Floor Space Requirements per Breeder (males and females) 636 34-6 Feeder Space Requirement per Breeder Bird (males and females) 638 34-7 Male to Female Ratios 640 34-8 Recommended Body Weights During Production 642 34-9 Minimum Weights for Hatching Eggs 643 34-10 Production Standards for Standard Egg-type Breeder Hens 646 34-11 Production Standards for Meat-type Breeder Hens 648 34-12 Cost of Producing Breeder Pullets, Hatching Eggs and Chicks

in the US 650

CHAPTER 35

35-1 Daily Development of the Chicken Embryo 658

CHAPTER 36

36-1 Recommended Temperatures and Relative Humidities for Storing Hatching Eggs 681

36-2 Recommended Setter and Hatcher Room Temperatures and Relative Humidities 682

CHAPTER 37

37-1 Typical Particle Sizes of Common Substances

CHAPTER 38

38-1 38-2 38-3 38-4 38-5

Hatchability of Abnormal Broiler Breeder Eggs Amount of Salt Needed to Produce Specific Gravity Solutions Eggshell Contamination and 2-Week Chick Mortality Shell Quality and Bacterial Penetration of Eggs The Influence of Mechanical Egg Washing on Microorganism Recovery and Hatchability

687

710 714 715

716

719

LIST OF TABLES BY CHAPTER xxix

38-6 Effect of Humidity and Temperature on Moisture Condensation on Eggshells 724

CHAPTER 39

39-1 7- to 12-Day Candling and Breakout Analysis Form 39-2 Data Collection-hatch Day Breakout 39-3 Hatch Day Breakout Analysis Form 39-4 Examples of Calculating Reproductive Efficiency Values 39-5 Example of Egg Moisture Weight Loss Determination 39-6 Breakout Analysis of Eggs Incubated at Varying Relative

Humidities 39-7 Percentage Relative Humidity as Determined by Wet-bulb and

Dry-bulb Thermometer Readings 39-8 Daily Weight Loss of Hatching Eggs of Various Sizes 39-9 Relative Humidity and Egg Size as They Affect Incubation and

Weight Loss 39-10 Egg Size as It Relates to Relative Humidity 39-11 Influence of Shell Quality on Egg Weight Loss During

Incubation 39-12 Gaseous Exchange During Incubation per 1,000 Eggs 39-13 Relationship Among Altitude, Oxygen Content of Air, and

Barometric Pressure 39-14 Effect of Angle of Turning Eggs During Incubation 39-15 Effect of Turning Eggs on Hatchability 39-16 Effect of Turning Hatching Eggs at Various Times During

Incubation 39-17 Classification of Malpositions 39-18 Chick Abnormalities 39-19 Industry Averages vs Best Company Averages for Reproductive

Failure on Hatch Day 39-20 Nutritional Deficiencies and Toxicities-Almost Always a

Breeder Flock Problem 39-21 Diseases Affecting Hatchability and Chick Quality 39-22 Troubleshooting Guide for Hatchability Problems

CHAPTER 41

41-1 Approximate Performance of the US Chicken Flock-1920 to 2000

41-2 Watershed Periods 41-3 Listing of Top 12 Chicken States (US)-1998 41-4 Estimated Contract Grower Payment and Costs-1999 41-5 US Chicken Market Trend-1983 to 1999

731 732 733 735 740

740

744 744

745 746

746 747

750 753 753

754 756 756

758

760 762 763

805 808 810

817 818

xxx LIST OF TABLES BY CHAPTER

CHAPTER 42

42-1 Typical Investment Costs (US-1999)

CHAPTER 43

43-1 43-2 43-3 43-4

43-5

43-6

43-7 43-8

43-9 43-10 43-11 43-12 43-13 43-14

43-15 43-16

Cleaning and Disinfection Checklist Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Litter Material Recommended Temperatures for Broilers The Effect of Brooding Temperature on Body Weight and Feed Conversion of Broiler Males at 3 Weeks of Age The Effect of Brooding Temperature on Mortality of Broiler Males at 6 Weeks of Age Heating Requirements per Square Foot of Floor Space for Different Housing Types Total Heat Output of Broilers at 70°F Minimum Ventilation Recommendations in Cubic Feet per Minute for a 20,000 Bird Capacity Broiler House Typical Daily Feed Consumption per 1,000 Broilers Effect of Denisty on Broiler Performance Canadian Lighting Program Restricted Lighting Program-Field Test Modified Lighting Program Representative Costs of Producing One Pound or Kilo of Live Weight Maintaining Water Quality in Wells The Effect of Egg Size/Chick Weight on the Performance of Broilers

CHAPTER 46

46-1 Number of Birds per Box with Weight Range of Individual

827

830 831 833

834

835

836 837

839 850 856 857 858 858

863 865

865

Birds and per Box for Ice Pack 917 46-2 Average Percentage Offal Yields from Male and Female Broilers

at 28, 35, 42, and 49 Days of Age 920

CHAPTER 47

47-1 Summary of Specifications for Standards of Quality for Individual Carcasses of Ready-to-Cook Poultry (Minimum Requirements and Maximum Defects Permitted)

CHAPTER 48

48-1 Yield Comparisons of Broiler Males at Four Ages 48-2 Carcass Yields Based on Live Weights

929

934 934

LIST OF TABLES BY CHAPTER xxxi

CHAPTER 49

49-1 Leading Table-Egg States-(December 2000 counts) 949 49-2 Estimated Costs to Produce Table Eggs in US Dollars (20- to

76-Week Pullet Flock) 950 49-3 Cost to Produce a White Leghorn Pullet to Various Ages

(In US Dollars) 955 49-4 Monthly Egg Price Trends-US Farm Prices-All Table Eggs

(1989-1998) 957 49-5 Summary of Farm, Wholesale, and Retail Egg Prices-

November 1996 (Cents per Dozen-White Large Eggs in One Dozen Cartons) 961

CHAPTER 50

50-1 Typical Egg Complex Investment Costs (US 1999) 978

CHAPTER 51

51-1 Space Requirements per Pullet During Cage Brooding and Growing 985

51-2 Daily and Accumulated Feed Consumption for Leghorn-type and Brown-Egg Pullets 988

51-3 Effect of Pullet Cage Space and Temperature on 20-Week Body Weights 989

51-4 Effect of Cage Floor Space on Standard Leghorn 16-Week Body Weight 990

51-5 Percentage of Pullets Within 10% of the Average Weight of the Flock 991

51-6 Body Weight Standards for Egg-type Growing Pullets 992 51-7 Effect of Hatch Date on 18-Week Body Weights 994

CHAPTER 52

52-1 Recommended Space Allowances During Lay 1013

52-2 Minimum Cage Floor Space Requirements for Laying Hens 1018 52-3 Effects of Cage Density and Housing Type-(47 Weeks of Lay) 1019 52-4 Effects of Cage Density and Cage Size 1020

52-5 Economic Analysis of Cage Density and Cage Size 1020 52-6 Effects of Cage Shape and Housing Type 1021 52-7 Effect of Feeder Space on Performance in Two-bird Cages 1022 52-8 Body Weight Groups and Annual Performance 1024 52-9 Effects of Restricted Feeding Light and Heavy Halves of a

Layer Flock Separated at 18 Weeks 1025 52-10 Month of Lay, Egg Production, Egg Weight, Mortality, and

Feed Consumption (White Leghorn Flocks, US Data-203 Flocks) 1030

xxxii LIST OF TABLES BY CHAPTER

52-11 Month of Hatch, Egg Production, and Mortality of White Leghorn Flocks (US Data) 1031

52-12 Influence of Lighting Treatment on Sexual Maturity, Laying House Mortality, and Egg Production (White Leghorns in Cages) 1034

52-13 Age at Lighting and Egg Size 1035 52-14 Laying Response to Different Levels of Light Intensity in Multi-

deck Cages (Windowless Houses) 1037

CHAPTER 53

53-1 Floor Space Requirements for Layers 1048 53-2 Feeder Space Requirements for Layers on Litter 1049 53-3 Waterer Space Requirements for Layers on Litter 1049 53-4 Influence of In-house Temperature on Layer Performance 1052

CHAPTER 54

54-1 Comparison of First, Second, and Third Cycles of Egg Production of White Leghorns 1063

54-2 First, Second, and Third Cycle Egg Size (White Leghorns-US standards) 1064

54-3 Egg Quality Changes with Age of Flock Following Molt 1065 54-4 California Molting Program 1070 54-5 The Effect of Age at Molt on Subsequent Rate of Lay 1073 54-6 Effect of Length of Feed Removal During Molting on

Subsequent Performance 1074

CHAPTER 55

55-1 Egg Production Standards for Commercial Laying Hens 1083 55-2 Relationships Between Flock Age and Percentages of Various

Egg Sizes (White Leghorns, US Egg Weight Classifications) 1086 55-3 Effect of Season of Housing on Egg Weight (White Leghorns) 1087 55-4 Effect of Flock Age on Egg Weight (mean and range between

strains) 1088 55-5 Comparison of Egg Weights for White and Brown-egg Layers

by Age of Flock 1089 55-6 18-Week Body Weights Within a Flock and Its Effect on Egg

Weight 1089

CHAPTER 56

56-1 Body-Checked Eggs, Oviposition Time and Cage Density 1099 56-2 Egg Characteristics Associated with Morning and Afternoon

Oviposition 1100 56-3 Egg Collection Frequency and Egg Breakage 1101

LIST OF TABLES BY CHAPTER xxxiii

56-4 Relationship of Flock Age to Egg Breakage 56-5 Eggshell Damage During Washing

CHAPTER 57

57-1 The World's Egg Production by Continent-1989 vs 1999 57-2 The World's Largest Egg Producing Countries-1998 57-3 Specifications for a Standard Egg 57-4 Physical Properties of the Hen's Egg 57-5 The Effect of Flock Age and Egg Weight on the Major

Components of the Chicken Egg 57-6 Percentage Composition of the Hen Egg 57-7 Chemical Composition of the Chicken Eggshell 57-8 Major Proteins in Chicken Egg Albumen 57-9 Composition of the Chicken Egg Yolk 57-10 Lipid Composition of the Chicken Egg 57-1l Amino Acid Content of the Chicken Egg 57-12 Mineral Content of the Chicken Egg (Without the Shell) 57-13 Vitamin Content of the Chicken Egg

CHAPTER 58

1101 1105

1110 1110 1l1l 1l1l

1117 1118 1118 1118 1119 1120 1122 1123 1123

58-1 Effect of Oiling Eggs on Interior Egg Quality (Haugh Units) 1143 58-2 Ambient Conditions for Moisture Condensation on Eggs When

Refrigerated at Two Temperatures 1151 58-3 Recommended Refrigeration Conditions for Egg Storage 1152

CHAPTER 59

59-1 Per Capita Consumption of Shell Eggs and Egg Products in the US-1945-2000 1164

59-2 Maximum Temperature Allowed for Unpasteurized and Pasteurized Liquid Egg Products Within 2 Hours of Breaking Time 1169

59-3 Liquid and Solid Yields from Shell Eggs 1170

59-4 USDA Regulations for Pasteurization Temperature and Holding Times for Various Egg Products 1172

59-5 Various Country's Minimum Requirements for Time/ Temperature Pasteurization of Whole Liquid Eggs 1173

59-6 The Thermal Properties of Further Processed Eggs 1181 59-7 Commonly Available Refrigerated or Frozen-Further Processed

Egg Products 1189 59-8 Further-Processed Egg Products Most Commonly Used in

Commercial Food Products 1189 59-9 Comparative Nutritional Values of Further Processed Eggs 1190

xxxiv LIST OF TABLES BY CHAPTER

CHAPTER 60

60-1 60-2 60-3 60-4 60-5 60-6 60-7

US Quality Standards for Shell Eggs Most Commonly Used Egg Quality Characteristics US Egg Weight Classes for Consumer Grades Specific Gravity of Commonly Used Solutions Relationship of Processing Cracks to Specific Gravity of Eggs Number of Uncollectible Eggs per 100 Collected Incidence of Blood and Meat Spots in Chicken Eggs

CHAPTER 61

61-1 Functional Properties of Eggs and Their Contribution to Various Food Products

1200 1200 1202 1206 1208 1209 1213

1225

List of Figures by Chapter

CHAPTER 1

1-1

1-2 1-3

1-4

Percentage of Chicken Meat Traded Internationally-1990 to 2010 China Broiler Consumption-1987 to 2003 US Broiler Cost of Production-1975 to 1995

Appropriate Scale of Operations-US

CHAPTER 3

3-1

3-2 Modern White Leghorn Egg-type Hen (photo) Modern Broiler Chicken (photo)

CHAPTER 4

4-1

4-2

4-3

4-4

Nomenclature of the Male Chicken Nomenclature of the Female Chicken Skeleton of the Chicken

Digestive System of the Chicken

CHAPTER 5

5-1 Ovary and Oviduct

CHAPTER 8

8-1 Insulated Controlled-Environment Houses (photo)

CHAPTER 9

9-1 9-2 9-3

9-4 9-5 9-6 9-7

Diagram of Positive and Negative Static Pressures-Principles Diagram of Air Pathways in a "Turbo" Ventilated Layer House

Moisture Holding Capacity of Air Diagram of a Tunnel Ventilated Poultry House Bank of Fans in a Broiler House (photo) Intermittent Air Inlets in a Broiler House (photo) Evenly Spaced Fans on Wall of a Layer House (photo)

5 7

11

14

34

37

42

43

48 50

64

108

114 115

115 116 117 117 120

xxxv

xxxvi LIST OF FIGURES BY CHAPTER

9-8 Actual and Effective Temperature Experienced by the Birds at Various Air Velocities in a Tunnel Ventilated Poultry House (wind-chill effect) 121

9-9 Vane Anemometer for Measuring Air Velocity (photo) 123 9-10 Automatic Air Inlet Adjustment Using a Static Pressure

Manometer (photo) 124 9-11 Principles of Evaporative Cooling 127 9-12 A Representation of the Inverse Relationship of Ambient

Temperature and Relative Humidity Over a 48-Hour Period During Hot Weather 127

9-13 High Pressure Foggers in a Layer House (photo) 128

CHAPTER 10

10-1 The Electromagnetic Spectrum of Visible Light 130 10-2 Pathways of Light Reception by Birds 130 10-3 Approximate Spectral Sensitivity of a Light Meter 131 10-4 The Photosensitive Period During the Day 132 10-5 Visible Light Spectral Analysis for the Incandescent Lamp 139 10-6 Visible Light Spectral Analysis for the Warm White Fluorescent

Lamp 140 10-7 Visible Light Spectral Analysis for the Cool White Fluorescent

Lamp 140 10-8 Tube Fluorescent Lighting in a Layer House (photo) 145 10-9 Compact Fluorescent Lamps (photo) 145

CHAPTER 11

11-1 Manure Composting (photo) 11-2 Composted Manure (photo) 11-3 High-Rise House Manure Storage (photo) 11-4 Cage Manure Belt System (photo) 11-5 Truck Loading from Manure Belt System (photo) 11-6 Truck Being Loaded with Front End Loader (photo) 11-7 Dead Bird Composter-Broiler Farm (photo)

CHAPTER 12

154 155 156 160 161 162 166

12-1 Life Cycle of the Fly 176 12-2 House Mouse (photo) 180 12-3 Norway Rat (photo) 180 12-4 Rodent Droppings (Norway Rat, Roof Rat and Mouse-left to

right) (photo) 181

LIST OF FIGURES BY CHAPTER xxxvii

CHAPTER 13

13-1 World Coarse Grain Ending Stocks as a Percent of Use-1986 to 1999

13-2 World Soybean Ending Stocks as a Percent of Use-1986 to 1999

13-3 World Gross Domestic Product-1991 to 2000 13-4 Corn Fed by the World Animal Industries 1960 to 2000 13-5 Corn Consumed by the US Broiler Industry 1960 to 2000 13-6 Chinese Grain Imports Required-1990 to 2030 13-7 US Feed Mill with Rail Ingredient Delivery (photo)

CHAPTER 15

188

188 190 190 191 192 194

15-1 Grain Elevator (photo) 220 15-2 Soybeans-Ready to Harvest (photo) 228 15-3 Relationship Between Apparent and True Metabolizable Energy

Values 235

CHAPTER 16

16-1 Delivery of Feed by Truck (photo) 16-2 Broilers Feeding (photo)

CHAPTER 17

17-1 Comparison of Modern Earlier Sexually Maturing Pullets with

244 245

Slower Sexually Maturing Pullets of the Past 268 17-2 Young Replacement Pullets Feeding on the Floor (photo) 273 17-3 Young Replacement Pullets Feeding in Cages (photo) 274

CHAPTER 18

18-1 Traveling Hopper Cage Feeding System (photo) 288 18-2 Fixed Feeder System for Cages (photo) 289 18-3 Effect of ME and Environmental Temperature on Egg Numbers

and Egg Weight 301 18-4 The Relationship Between Intake of a Limiting Amino Acid and

Rate of Lay 310 18-5 Feed Bin Scales (photo) 320

CHAPTER 19

19-1 Growth Curve of Broiler Breeder Pullets 333 19-2 Dual Feeding System for Breeders-Female Feeders (photo) 363

xxxviii LIST OF FIGURES BY CHAPTER

CHAPTER 21

21-1 Nutritionist Formulating Feed (photo) 396 21-2 Test House for Testing Feeds (photo) 401 21-3 Broiler Growth Model 402 21-4 Distribution of Protein Analyses in Loads of Corn, Soybean

Meal, and Finished Feed 403 21-5 Stochastic Programming Solutions 403 21-6 Response Curves-Dietary Protein and Body Weight 404 21-7 Distribution of Body Weight vs Protein Levels 404 21-8 Response Level vs Dietary Protein Levels 405 21-9 Multiple Aged Flocks Require Many Feed Formulas 406

CHAPTER 22

22-1 Nipple Watering System (photo) 22-2 Water Filtering and Medication System (photo) 22-3 Cup Watering System (photo)

CHAPTER 25

25-1 Vaccine Injection (photo) 25-2 In-ovo Vaccination (diagram of injection site) 25-3 In-ovo Vaccination Machine (photo)

CHAPTER 26

423 424 425

454 455 456

26-1 Read Instructions Carefully When Medicating Flocks (photo) 466

CHAPTER 28

28-1 28-2

28-3 28-4

28-5 28-6 28-7

Separated Laying Flock Sites for Disease Security (photo) Farm Sanitation-Boot Brushing (photo) Disinfecting Shoes Before Entering House (photo) Farm Security-Locked Gate (photo) A Decision Process for Screening Farm Visitors Farm Sanitation Center with Showers (photo) Farm Sanitation-Truck Washing Facility (photo)

CHAPTER 29

29-1 Farm Sanitation-Clean Breeder House (photo)

CHAPTER 30

30-1 Daily Mortality of Birds for Examination (photo)

30-2 Collecting Tissues for Laboratory Examination (photo)

547 548 549 550 551 551

553

561

566 567

LIST OF FIGURES BY CHAPTER xxxix

30-3 Tools for Necropsy (photo) 573 30-4a Preparing a Bird for Examination-Opening the Bird (photo) 574

30-4b Preparing a Bird for Examination-Exposing Body Cavity (photo) 575

30-5 Elisa Test Machine (photo) 578 30-6a Elisa Graph-Poor Immune Response 579 30-6b Elisa Graph-Good Immune Response 579 30-7 Bacterial Culturing (photo) 580

CHAPTER 31

31-1 Board of Directors Discussing Division Reports 586

CHAPTER 32

32-1 Computers Are Universally Used on Modern Poultry Farms (photo) 607

32-2 The Data Generated on Commercial Farms Is Often More Than Management Can Absorb (photo) 608

CHAPTER 33

33-1 Sample Computer Screens for Various Measures of Flock Performance

CHAPTER 34

34-1 A Typical Broiler Breeder Flock (photo)

CHAPTER 36

36-1 Typical Hatchery Flow 36-2 Floor Plan of Hatchery 36-3 T -shaped Hatchery Floor Plan #1 36-4 T -shaped Hatchery Floor Plan #2

CHAPTER 37

37-1 Transferring Eggs in an Incubator (photo) 37-2 Incubator Room in a Hatchery (photo)

CHAPTER 38

38-1

38-2 38-3

Time Required to Reduce Internal Egg Temperature to 65°F from lOO°F

Hatching Egg Room Temperature and Relative Humidity Effect of Egg Storage on Hatchability and Incubation Time

612

624

665 666 667

668

689 691

721

722

723

xl LIST OF FIGURES BY CHAPTER

CHAPTER 39

39-1 Influence of Flock Age on Reproductive Performance 39-2 Influence of Flock Age on Embryo Mortality 39-3 Hatcher Room Temperature Before Correct Thermostat

Placement 39-4 Hatcher Room Temperature After Correct Thermostat

Placement 39-5 Relationship Between Altitude and Hatchability 39-6 Recently Hatched Chicks (photo)

CHAPTER 40

40-1 40-2 40-3 40-4

40-5

40-6

Traying Hatching Eggs (photo) Grading Chicks for Quality (photo) Hatchery Sanitation Is a Must (photo) The Effect of Central and Portable Fogging Systems and Untreated Controls on Bacterial Counts in a Hatchery Percentage of Samples Positive for Salmonella in Three Georgia Broiler Hatcheries in 1990 and 1995 Salmonella Contamination in Two Primary Broiler Breeder Hatcheries in 1991 and 1998

CHAPTER 41

41-1 US Broiler Production (ready to cook)-1930 to 2000 41-2 Retail Weight Per Capita Consumption-Beef and Broilers-

1976 to 2001 41-3 Inflation-Adjusted Cost of Live Broiler Production-

(1995 dollars)-1945 to 2005 41-4 US Per Capita Eviscerated Broiler Production-1950 to 2000 41-5 US Exports of Broiler Meat-1984 to 2000 41-6 Major US States-Broiler Slaughter-1998 41-7 A Typical Contract Broiler Grower Farm (photo) 41-8 A Company-Owned Farm (photo) 41-9 Percentage of US Production Sold Whole and Cut-up

Compared to Value Added-1960 to 2000

CHAPTER 42

42-1 42-2 42-3 42-4 42-5

Schematic of an Integrated Broiler Company Integrator Owned Breeders (photo) Integrator's Hatchery (photo) Integrator's Broiler Processing Plant (photo) Integrator's Feed Mill (photo)

736 736

749

750 751 759

778 781 786

791

797

797

802

802

804 807 808 810 815 815

817

820 822 823 824 825

LIST OF FIGURES BY CHAPTER xli

CHAPTER 43

43-1 43-2 43-3 43-4

43-5 43-6 43-7 43-8 43-9 43-10 43-11 43-12 43-13 43-14 43-15 43-16 43-17 43-18 43-19 43-20

43-21

Radiant Brooders for Broilers (photo) Spaced Air Inlets in Broiler Houses (photo) Partial House Brooding Ventilation Method (photo) Curtain Opening at End of Broiler House-Serves as Tunnel Inlet (photo) Evaporative Cooling Pads in Broiler House (photo) Nipple Drinkers Have Become the Standard for Broilers (photo) Approximate Height of Watering Nipples Daily Water Consumption of Broilers Cumulative Water Consumption of Broilers Chicks Feeding from Various Systems (photos) Feeding Device for Baby Chicks on the Floor Various Feeding Systems for Broilers (photos) Live Weight of Broilers-35 to 70 d Feed Conversion of Broilers-35 to 70 d Typical Growth Rate of Broilers-Different Ages Calorie Conversion and Body Weight-Broilers Distribution of Live Weights in a Broiler Flock Typical Cumulative Broiler Flock Mortality Typical Monthly Condemnations-US Light-Controlled Broiler Houses Allow Producers to Manipulate Photoperiod to Improve Performance and Reduce Mortality (photo) Automatic Bird Weighing Device (photo)

CHAPTER 45

833 839 840

841 842 843 843 844 844 846 847 848 850 850 851 852 853 854 855

856 864

45-1 Counting Bacterial Colonies in the Diagnostic Laboratory (photo) 897

CHAPTER 46

46-1 46-2 46-3 46-4 46-5 46-6

A Broiler Catching Crew (photo) Loading Broiler Coops Onto a Truck (photo) Mechanical Harvesting of Broilers (photo) Broiler Processing Plant-Slaughter Line (photo) Broiler Processing Plant-Scalder (photo) Broiler Processing Plant-Birds Prepared for Evisceration (photo)

CHAPTER 47

47-1 Broiler Processing Plant-USDA Inspection of Carcasses (photo)

900 901 902 906 907 911

925

xlii LIST OF FIGURES BY CHAPTER

CHAPTER 48

48-1 Broiler Processing Plant-Deboning Breasts (photo) 933 48-2 Further-Processed Chicken-Battered and Breaded Product

(photo) 937 48-3 Further-Processed Chicken-Chicken Frankfurters (photo) 939 48-4 Further-Processed Chicken-Roasting Whole-Body Chicken

(photo) 940 48-5 Further-Processed Chicken-Ground Chicken Patties (photo) 941

CHAPTER 49

49-1 Major US States-Table-Egg Production-1999

CHAPTER 50

50-1 50-2 50-3 50-4

50-5

50-6 50-7

50-8

Schematic of an Integrated Egg Company In-Line Egg Collection (photo) Layer House Requirements for Different Replacement Programs Poultry Farms Must Be Located Away from Communities and Other Poultry Farms (photo) Railroads Perform an Important Service to the Poultry Industry by Transporting Feedstuffs from Production Areas to Major Poultry Centers (photo) Typical Layer Farm Layout Multiple Tiers of Cages Make Efficient Use of Poultry Houses (photo) A Modern Egg Processing Plant (photo)

CHAPTER 51

51-1 Cage Rearing of Replacement Pullets (photo) 51-2 A Cage Brooder House Space Heater (photo) 51-3 Replacement Pullets Should Be Weighed at Frequent Intervals

(photo) 51-4 Body Weights Should be Monitored Throughout the Life of the

Flock (photo) 51-5 Six-Week Beak Trimming (photo) 51-6 Seven to Ten Day Precision Beak Trimming (photo) 51-7 Ideal Beak Appearance of a Beak-Trimmed Adult Chicken

(photo) 51-8 Beak Trimming-Excessively Long Lower Beak (photo) 51-9 Beak Trimming-Inadequately Trimmed Upper Beak (photo)

948

966 966 968

970

971 972

975 976

981 986

991

993 1002 1003

1004 1005 1005

LIST OF FIGURES BY CHAPTER xliii

CHAPTER 52

52-1 Multi-Tiered Caged Laying Hens (photo) 52-2 Sample Cage Arrangements 52-3 Environmentally Controlled House for Layers (photo) 52-4 Importance of Feeder Space (photo) 52-5 Rack for Moving Pullets (photo) 52-6 Uniform Distribution of Light Is Essential for Maximum

Performance (photo)

CHAPTER 53

53-1 Free-Range Chickens (photo) 53-2 Indoor-Outdoor System of Management (photo)

53-3 Litter Floor System (photo)

CHAPTER 54

54-1 Replacement Pullets (photo) 54-2 Hi-Rise Cage Pullet House (photo)

CHAPTER 55

55-1 Placing Farm Eggs on Racks for Shipment (photo)

55-2 US Egg Size Categories (photo)

CHAPTER 56

56-1 Collecting Eggs by Hand-Gatherers Must Be Monitored for

1008 1010 1016 1022

1024

1036

1044 1045 1047

1060 1060

1080 1085

Their Contribution to a Farm's Egg Breakage Problems (photo) 1092

56-2 Mechanized Egg Collection-All Components of a System Must Be Maintained to Avoid Excessive Egg Breakage (photo) 1093

56-3 Farm Packing Unit (photo) 1093 56-4 Transporting Eggs May Contribute to Egg Breakage Problems

(photo) 1103

CHAPTER 57

57-1 The Structure of the Avian Egg 57-2 Components of an Egg 57-3 Comparison of Methods for Preparing Antigen-Specific

Antibodies

CHAPTER 58

58-1 Large Capacity Egg Packing Machine (photo) 58-2 Incoming Eggs on a Conveyor (photo) 58-3 Off-line and In-line Shell Egg Packaging Schematics

1113 1115

1127

1130 1131 1132

xliv LIST OF FIGURES BY CHAPTER

58-4 Diagram of an Off-line and In-line Egg Processing and Packaging System with Further Egg Products Processing 1133

58-5 Off-line Egg Processing Operation 1134 58-6 Typical In-line Packaging and Processing Operation 1135 58-7 Shell Egg Processing Machinery 1136 58-8 Candling Eggs and Defect Selection with a Wand (photo) 1141 58-9 Pasteurization of Eggs in the Shell (photo) 1144 58-10 Grading Eggs Into Different Size Categories (photo) 1145 58-11 Processed Egg Coolers in the US Must be Maintained at 45°F

(7°C) (photo) 1146 58-12 Airflow Pattern in a Room Cooler with Unit Evaporators 1149 58-13 Schematic of a Tunnel-type Forced Air Cooler 1150 58-14 The Effect of Refrigeration and Egg Packaging on Egg Weight

Loss During 4 Week Storage 1152 58-15 Effect of Relative Humidity and Temperature on Weight Loss

in Stored Shell Eggs 1153 58-16 Processing Plant Loading Dock with Truck Waiting to be

Loaded for Market (photo) 1154 58-17 Egg Display on Racks in Supermarket (photo) 1156 58-18 An Example of a Specialty-type Shell Egg Product (photo) 1157 58-19 Consumer-Size Liquid Egg Product (photo) 1158

CHAPTER 59

59-1

59-2 59-3 59-4 59-5

59-6

59-7

59-8 59-9 59-10 59-11 59-12

Schematic of a Typical Egg Breaking Operation for Liquid and Frozen Products Floor Plan of an Egg Breaking Facility Egg Breaking Machine-180 Cases per Hour (photo) Breaking Head and Cups for Egg Breaking Machine (photo) Egg Breaking Room Equipment Control Panel with Temperature Monitoring (photo) The Effect of pH on Pasteurization Temperature of Egg Albumen Diagram of High Temperature Short Time (HTST) Pasteurization Schematic Drawing of Egg Ultrapasteurization System (UHT) The Three Zones of a Typical Freezing Curve Diagram of a Typical Cold Room Diagram of a Dry Products Processing Facility Diagram of a Typical Vertical Spray Dryer

CHAPTER 60

1165 1167 1168 1169

1171

1174

1176 1177 1179 1180 1183 1185

60-1 Food Safety Requires Maximum Sanitation Efforts (photo) 1201

LIST OF FIGURES BY CHAPTER xlv

60-2 Measuring Shell Thickness as an Indicator of Shell Strength (photo) 1204

60-3 Five Containers of Salt Water for Measuring the Specific Gravity of Shell Eggs (photo) 1207

60-4 The Effect of Flock Age and Egg Age on Egg Quality Expressed in Haugh Units (photo) 1211

60-5 Albumen Quality Measurement-Haugh Unit (photo) 1211

60-6 A Tripod Micrometer for Measuring Albumen Height (photo) 1212 60-7 Haugh Unit Formula for Computer Spreadsheets (photo) 1212

CHAPTER 62

62-1 Quality Assurance Programs Are Designed to Provide Maximum Quality and Food Safety for the Consuming Public (photo) 1230

List of Abbreviations

alternating current ac inch In ampere A infrared IR ante meridiem AM joule J average avg kilo k Board foot bd ft kilogram kg body weight BW kilometer km British thermal unit Btu kilowatt kW bushel bu kilowatthour kWh calorie, large C liter L calorie, small c lumen 1m candella cd lux Ix cent If. metabolizable energy ME centimeter cm meter m cubic feet per minute dm mile mi cubic meters per mile per hour mi/h

minute cmm milligram mg cycle per minute c/min milliliter ml day d millimeter mm decibel dB millimeter mercury mmHg degree Celsius °C minute min degree Fahrenheit OF month mo deoxyribonucleic acid DNA north N direct current dc ounce (avoirdupois) oz dollar $ ounce each oz/ea dozen doz ounce per dozen oz/doz each ea parts per million ppm east E percent %

foot ft pint pt foot-candle fc plaque-forming foot per minute ft/min units pfu gallon gal post meridiem PM gallon per minute gal/min pounds per square gram g inch PSI gram each g/ea probable error pe horse power hp protein pro hour h quart qt hundred weight cwt relative humidity rh hydrogen ion revolutions per

concentrate pH minute rpm

xlvii

xlviii LIST OF ABBREVIA nONS

revolutions per United States of second rps America USA

ribonucleic acid RNA US gallon US gal second s US Pharmacopeia USP south S volt V tablespoonful tbsp watt W teaspoonful tsp watthour Wh therm thm week wk total sulfur amino weight wt

acids TSAA west W. United States US yard yd

year yr