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COMM 4841 Thesis

EFFECTS OF A BRAND’S COUNTRY OF ORIGIN ON CONSUMER BEHAVIOR IN

BRAZIL

Aline Avigdor Altschul April. 24th, 2015

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INTRODUCTION

Consumers in developing countries often face the challenge of choosing between local and

nonlocal, foreign products. The motives and implications of this choice-making process are worth

researching, because companies can use such information to more effectively market their products.

In particular, the marketing literature has considered how a brand’s country of origin (CO), or the

country with which a brand is associated, influences consumers’ perceptions of a brand’s quality, and

of their own social status or identity. Most of the primary research in the area of country of origin

“sought to understand risk-reducing biases used by Western consumers when evaluating products

from, among others, less developed, and therefore, “risky” countries or regions” (Batra et al., 2000:

84). Much of the existing research focuses on quality, examining CO as a “halo” construct that

influences consumers’ believes about a product’s quality (Han, 1989). However, recent research

found that CO influences other aspects of consumers’ product evaluations, and that this relationship

is affected by consumers’ level of national identification and ethnocentrism (Verlegh, 2007).

More specifically, it is important to study the country of origin effect in developing

countries. While some country of origin effects may be the same as in Western countries, others may

be unique to the developing countries context. Unlike Western consumers, consumers in developing

countries often look up to American and Western Europe consumption practices and lifestyles,

trying to emulate those practices by purchasing brands they see on movies, TV, or on their trips

overseas (Batra et al., 2000). Therefore, it is essential to understand consumer behavior in

developing countries due to increasing exposure to local brands, and the increased importance of

these emerging markets in the world economy. This thesis expands on the research of country of

origin by analyzing the impact of CO on the perceptions of Brazilian consumers. Brazil is a

developing country that lacks research on this topic. Specifically, I advance hypotheses regarding

the influence of national identity and admiration for foreign lifestyles on consumers’ purchase

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intentions and perceptions of quality. I also hypothesize the moderating effects of publicly

consumed products and a product category that closely relates to national identity on both effects.

CO studies of developing countries have focused on the implications of quality, status, and

identity on consumer behavior, primarily in Turkey and India. These countries have similarities in

terms of inequality, economic growth in the past decades, and emergence of the middle class.

Turkey, for example, went through a shift from scarcity to market abundance in the 1990s, and the

experience of Turkish consumers can offer a perspective on how the same shift may affect

consumers in other developing countries (Belk 1988). On the other hand, India has a history of

colonization, the last being by the British. As a result, many people argue that Indians still have an

“inferiority complex” and wish to reproduce foreigners’ behaviors and purchase nonlocal products

(Batra et al., 2000). Overall, studies in both India and Turkey exemplify the developing country

context and provide a perspective on how country of origin research can be extended into emerging

markets that currently lack research on this topic, such as Brazil.

In this study, I tested four different hypotheses regarding the effects of country of origin on

consumer behavior in Brazil. I suggest that, as their level of national identity increases, Brazilian

consumers will be more likely to purchase domestic brands and perceive those brands as having

better quality than foreign brands. I suggest that the opposite will happen as the level of admiration

for foreign lifestyle increases. I also examined the extent to which the effects of admiration for

foreign lifestyles and national identity are moderated by whether a product is privately or publicly

consumed, and by whether the given product category is identified with Brazil. I tested these

hypotheses using three different product categories—toothpaste, athletic shoes, and coffee.

Consumer surveys were administered online through Amazon Mechanical Turk and facebook.com.

Overall, while some results were not statistically insignificant because of the limitations discussed

later in this study, I was able to find very interesting results. I expected to find that both willingness

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to purchase and perceived quality of the domestic product increases over the foreign product as the

level of national identity increases. However, I was unable to find any statistically significant results

to draw a conclusion. The same happened to the proposed effect of admiration for foreign lifestyles.

However, I found that, as a product is publicly consumed and consumers show low admiration for

foreign lifestyles, they are more likely to perceive the domestic brand to have better quality than the

foreign brand, which is consistent with the hypothesis. Additionally, if the product category is

identified with Brazil and the consumer has low national identity, perceived quality of the domestic

product over the foreign product is higher. Also, when a product category is identified with Brazil

and national identity is high, perceived quality of the domestic over the foreign product is lower.

These findings are, interestingly, not consistent with the hypothesis. Lastly, I found that if the

product is closely identified with Brazil and admiration for foreign lifestyles is low, willingness to

purchase the domestic brand over the foreign brand is lower. However, if the product is closely

identified with Brazil and admiration for foreign lifestyles is high, willingness to purchase the

domestic brand over the foreign brand increases. These findings are also, interestingly, inconsistent

with the proposed hypotheses.  

LITERATURE REVIEW AND HYPOTHESIS

Marketing scholars argue that “a brand’s CO serves as an extrinsic cue (along with price and

brand name) that supplements the use of intrinsic cues (perceptions of design, performance, etc.)”

(Batra et al., 2000: 84). In other words, consumers may use a brand’s country of origin when drawing

inferences about a product’s quality. Additionally, consumers may use CO to draw conclusions

about others’ social status and national identity. The research below has extended the discussion on

CO and how it affects purchase decisions in both developed and developing countries.

In developed countries, a stream of literature suggests that country image serves as a halo to

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consumers’ product evaluations (Han, 1989). When evaluating unknown products, consumers may

be unable to detect their true quality, therefore using country image to reach a conclusion (Huber

and McCann, 1982). However, when consumers are familiar with a certain product, they use country

image as a construct (Han, 1989). In other words, they use CO as a product characteristic that

summarizes their beliefs about the product’s attributes. Another stream of literature suggests that, in

developed countries such as the United States and the Netherlands, consumers tend to indicate high

levels of consumer ethnocentrism. The latter is defined as the consumer desire to protect the

domestic economy, as they view the purchase of foreign, or imported goods, as wrong because it

hurts the economy (Verlegh, 2007). Therefore, those consumers tend to rate domestic products

positively and foreign ones negatively as a way to protect their country’s economy (Verlegh, 2007).

Overall, consumers in developed countries tend to use country of origin to infer quality and

as a way to protect their economies through domestic consumption. However, results may change

when one tests country of origin effects in developing countries, given differences in culture, history,

and institutions. Research has shown that consumers in those countries also use CO to infer quality,

but may also use it for status enhancing purposes and as a result of high levels of admiration of

foreign lifestyles (Batra, et al., 2000).

Prior country of origin research in developing countries shows that there is a positive

relationship between perceived quality and purchase intention of nonlocal brands. Kumar et al.

(2008) study of “Indian consumers’ purchase intention toward a United States versus a local brand”

found that, in India, there is a positive relationship between perceived quality and purchase intention

of American products, such as with the Levi’s brand. Additionally, Indian consumers that have more

positive attitudes toward American products tend to believe that local brands have inferior quality.

These findings are in line with previous studies that show that, in terms of quality, consumers in

developing countries have the tendency to evaluate foreign or U.S. products more positively when

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compared to local products. That is because developed countries tend to have higher expertise in

product development and lead innovations, more often than developing countries. That can be

particularly true in the electronics product category with companies such as Apple and Microsoft.

Additionally, another study conducted by Kinra in India suggests that, contrary to studies in

developed countries, high levels of consumer ethnocentrism and national identification does not

indicate preference for local brands. In fact, those consumers evaluate nonlocal products higher than

local ones in aspects such as technology, quality, status, esteem, and higher credibility (Kinra, 2006).

The reason that different results are found in developing countries is because even though

consumers in those countries may hold the same ideals as consumers in developed countries (e.g., a

high level of ethnocentrism), additional factors influence their preferences for local and nonlocal

brands.

Lastly, a stream of literature suggests that consumers in developing countries believe a

brand’s country of origin has implications for one’s social status, and these beliefs may also affect

their decisions when choosing between local and nonlocal brands. If they purchase a foreign brand

product, for example, that may signal higher social status to other members of the society in which

one lives. As mentioned above, consumers in emerging markets often praise consumer lifestyle in

developed countries (Batra et al., 2000), whereas consumers in the latter often purchase local brands

due to high levels of ethnocentrism (Verlegh, 2007). For consumers who have a greater admiration

for lifestyles in developed countries, country of origin has a greater effect on the decision to

purchase nonlocal brands. The same result was found for product categories that have high levels of

social signaling value (Batra et al., 2000). In Turkey and Romania, consumers prominently favor

foreign, mainly Western European products, as a way to enhance their social status since

interpersonal relations are extremely important: “In Turkey, interest in consumption is obvious not

only in wants but also in the prominent display of, and talk about, products – specially the status

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brands” (Ger et al., 1993: 105). In conclusion, results show that interest in consumption comes from

the desire to display and talk about products, mainly those from foreign brands that signal high

social status (Ger et al., 1993). Overall, the effects of country of origin in consumer behavior in

Turkey, Romania, and India may be an example of purchase behavior in other developing

economies (Belk, 1988), making it important to study country of origin effects in other emerging

markets such as Brazil.

THE BRAZILIAN SITUATION

Overall, prior research shows that a brand’s country of origin affects attributions made about

quality and social status. National identity has also been documented to affect purchase behavior.

This research has focused on the implications of those factors in developed countries such as the

U.S, Netherlands (Verlegh, 2007), and developing countries such as Turkey, Romania (Ger et al.,

1993), and India (Kinra, 2006); Kumar et al., 2008). However, this study proposes that similar

factors will also affect consumer behavior in Latin America. More specifically, it is crucial to

understand the consumer base in Brazil because of its large size and importance, given that lower

social classes have rapidly moved socially and gained purchasing power in the past decade.

Additionally, Brazil is the world’s 7th largest economy, what makes it important to study the effects

of country of origin in Brazil.

Like other countries in Latin America, Brazil has an export-oriented economy since

colonization in 1500. During the period of industrial expansion between 1880 and 1930 in Europe

and in the United States, different forms of production of raw materials expanded throughout Latin

America, leading to a shift in class structure and political reorganization (Orlove, 1997).

Consequently, “this export-based growth allowed the wealthy to import many luxuries and the

masses to replace local crafts such as textiles and pottery with cheap manufactured items form

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Europe and North America” (Orlove, 1997: 2). After the Great Depression in 1929, demand for

Latin America products dropped significantly, causing countries like Brazil to manufacture the

products previously imported from developed regions, but not with the same knowledge, capacity

and quality. The period thereafter was marked by strong state participation in the economy and

leftist dictatorships that gave importance to the growing working class (Orlove, 1997).

Throughout the twentieth century, Latin America faced increased wealth and income

inequalities. The elite in those countries, be it in the capital of Argentina, Brazil, Peru, or Chile,

“imported grand pianos, European wines and liquors,” traveled abroad, and sent their children to

European schools – and believed that in doing so, they were “sharing the same activities and

attitudes of the international gentry” (Orlove, 1997: 5, Beezley 1987: 14). In other words, the elite

had access to imported goods and consumption, looking up to foreign practices, and differentiating

themselves from and leaving the masses with little accessibility to those products. In ‘The Allure of

the Foreign,” Orlove argues that it is important to understand the social and cultural implications of

export-oriented economies that emphasize affordability of imports. In other words, “foreignness is

an attribute of the imported goods that merits consideration, like their affordability and cost.”

(Orlove, 1997: 7)

The notions of modernity in Latin America that persist today provide context to the study of

country of origin effects in consumer behavior in the region, such as in Brazil. It is “a break from

the traditions of the past, a valuation of the present, an openness toward experimentation in seeking

to construct a future different from both. Modernity appears almost always as an international

movement, but Latin American participation in it was problematic, since the centers of modernity

lay in Europe and the United States.” (Orlove, 1987: 8).

Lastly, it is important to study the effects of a brand’s country of origin in Brazil because of

the history of cultural influence and because of the country’s significant participation in the global

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economy. With the increase of the middle class in the past decade, Brazilians have, more than ever,

access to foreign products and trips abroad. With the current exposure to international tourists

through large sporting events, to the English language and the influential role of the TV, Brazilians

are more susceptible to foreign lifestyle influence. The results of such study will provide valuable

information to both local and nonlocal brands that currently sell in the country, and to those that

wish to enter Brazil.

NATIONAL IDENTITY AND PURCHASE BEHAVIOR OF BRAZILIAN

CONSUMERS

Given Brazil’s history of cultural influence, I aimed to understand whether national identity

is powerful enough to drive purchase intention of local brands. National identification is “rooted in

consumers’ need to enhance group and self-esteem, and based on a desire for positive social

identity” (Verlegh, 2007). More specifically, nationality is part of a consumer’s identity, and can be

expressed in the purchase of domestic products, since they have important social and cultural

connotations (Askegaard and Ger, 1998). This concept can be confounded with consumer

ethnocentrism, which “reflects the desire of consumers to protect domestic economy, […] viewing

the purchase of imported products as wrong, because it hurts the domestic economy” (Verlegh,

2007). Since both concepts of national identity and consumer ethnocentrism can overleap, I

measured both in the data collection so that I did not confound them. However, given that social

influence tightly relates to national identity, I focused on analyzing the latter in the hypotheses.

Furthermore, the same effect also pertains to national identification and perceived quality.

The stream of literature in national identity also argues that this factor influences consumer’s

perception of a product’s quality according to whether the product is local or nonlocal. The higher

the level of national identity, the more favorable consumers are to domestic products and more

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likely they are to perceive them to have better quality than foreign goods. Therefore, I hypothesize:

H1a: As a consumer’s level of national identity increases, their willingness to purchase

domestic brands over foreign brands increases.

H1b: As a consumer’s level of national identity increases, their perception of quality of

domestic brands over foreign brands increases.

Brazil has a history of admiration for foreign lifestyles. As previously mentioned, wealthy

and middle class individuals now purchase foreign goods for several reasons: export oriented

economy, willingness to consume the same modern and high quality brands as Western Europeans

and Americans, and the desire to emulate their lifestyles. As discussed, previous research has also

found that in developing countries such as India, Turkey and Romania, consumers exhibit high

levels of admiration of foreign lifestyles. They are also more likely to perceive a foreign brand to

have better quality and are more willing to purchase the foreign brand (Batra et al., 2000; Ger et al.,

1993). Thus, CO effects should be stronger when consumers have high levels of admirations of

foreign lifestyles. Therefore, I tested the following in Brazil:

H2a: As a consumer’s level of admiration of economically developed countries’ lifestyles

increases, their willingness to purchase foreign brands over domestic brands increases.

H2b: As a consumer’s level of admiration of economically developed countries’ lifestyles

increases, the perceived quality of foreign over domestic brands increases.

Additionally, the reason many consumers prefer non-local brands is because they believe

those products have a reference group appeal (Batra et al., 2000). In other words, a consumer in a

developing country thinks that nonlocal brands appeal to certain social groups and will influence his

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or her social status in the eyes of those groups. However, these effects should be dependent on

whether products are publicly consumed, given that only products that one observes another

consumer use can influence his or her evaluations. Thus, in order to measure how attitude varies

according to social status and admiration of foreign lifestyles, it is important to understand

behavioral changes when a product or brand is publicly consumed compared to when a product is

privately consumed. This hypothesis has not yet been tested in other studies of developing

countries. Therefore, this study will contribute to the overall country of origin literature and more

specifically about the latter in Brazil. I therefore hypothesized:

H3: The effects proposed in hypothesis 1 and hypothesis 2 will be moderated by whether or

not the product is publicly or privately consumed, such that the effects are stronger when a

product is publicly consumed.

Lastly, it is interesting to study how the effects of national identification and admiration of

foreign lifestyles might differ for a product category that is strongly associated with Brazil versus a

category that does not have this association. When a product category is associated with Brazil, one

would expect to see stronger effects of national identification and weaker effects of admiration of

foreign lifestyle on the consumers’ perceptions of quality and purchase intention of local brands. As

previously mentioned, national identity can be expressed through the purchase of domestic

products, as they may have important social and cultural connotations (Askegaard and Ger, 1998).

Therefore, it is expected that, the more consumers identify themselves with the country, the more

likely they will be to consume a product that falls into a category that is identified with their country.

Similarly, one would expect a weaker effect on high levels of admiration of foreign lifestyles, given

that consumers would choose not to purchase a brand if that is highly associated with their own

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country. Therefore, I hypothesized:

H4a: The effects proposed in hypothesis 1 will be moderated by the extent to which

consumers perceive the product category to be identified with Brazil. The effects will be

stronger the more the product category is identified with Brazil.

H4b: The effects proposed in hypothesis 2 will be moderated by the extent to which

consumers perceive the product category to be identified with Brazil. The effects will be

weaker the more the product category is identified with Brazil.

METHODOLOGY In this research, I collected data through two studies. The first study tested the proposed

relationships between national identity (hypotheses 1a & 1b) and admiration of foreign lifestyles

(hypotheses 2a & 2b), and their effects on purchase intention and perceived quality. It also tested the

moderating effect of private vs. public consumption (hypothesis 3). The second study also tested

hypotheses 1a, 1b, 2a & 2b, as well as the moderating effect of the national identity of the product

category (hypothesis 4a & 4b). I planned to collect data by conducting online surveys with Brazilian

consumers through Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk). The latter is a crowdsourcing marketplace

that serves as an information gathering pool. Originally, I intended to use this system because it has

proven to be a valuable tool for data collection when the surveys considered the domain of

consumption and include screening questions that measure attention and language comprehension

(Goodman et al., 2012). Across the two studies, four hundred Brazilian respondents were expected

to complete a short online survey in exchange for 51 cents. A Portuguese version of the

questionnaire (translated from the English version shown on Exhibit 1) was used given that most

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Brazilians are not fluent in the English language. There was also no age or gender restriction in

either of the studies.

STUDY 1

DESIGN AND PROCEDURE

Study 1 focused on testing the proposed relationships between national identity (hypotheses

1a & 1b) and admiration of foreign lifestyles (hypotheses 2a & 2b), and their effects on purchase

intention and perceived quality. It also tested the moderating effects of public versus private

consumption proposed in hypothesis 3. Thus, study 1 utilized national identity (continuous),

admiration of foreign lifestyles (continuous), product category (binary; publicly vs. privately

consumed), and product origin (binary; Brazilian vs. American) as the factors of interest.

Two hundred Brazilian respondents were expected to participate in this study. First, they

were randomly shown one of four advertisements (please refer to exhibits 3-6 for the English

version of the ads used in study 1). The ads varied in whether or not they utilized a fictitious

American or Brazilian brand name, and whether the product category presented was publicly or

privately consumed – athletic shoes (publicly consumed) or toothpaste (privately consumed).

Respondents were then asked questions about perceived brand quality, perceived brand origin, and

intent to purchase the advertised product. Please refer to exhibit 1 for a chart that indicates the

survey questions. Respondents were then asked to answer items relating to national identity,

consumer ethnocentrism, admiration of lifestyles in economically developed countries, and

demographics. As previously mentioned, national identity and consumer ethnocentrism were both

included to ensure that these factors were not confounded.

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The inclusion of two different product categories (toothpaste and athletic shoes) allowed me

to test how consumer behavior is influenced by reference group appeal and social status (hypothesis

3). Evaluations of athletic shoes (publicly consumed) were compared to evaluations of toothpaste

(privately consumed) to test hypothesis 3. Originally, within each of these product categories, fifty

respondents were expected to answer questions about a

fictitious Brazilian brand, and the other fifty about a

fictitious American brand. The table on the right shows

how study participants were supposed to be divided

between conditions.

STUDY 2

DESIGN AND PROCEDURE

Similar to study 1, study 2 tested the levels of national identity (hypotheses 1a & 1b), levels

admiration to foreign lifestyles (hypotheses 2a & 2b), and their effects on purchase intention and

perceived quality. Thus, study 2 utilized a similar design and procedure to study 1 with one notable

exception. Rather than examining the moderating role of public vs. private consumption, study 2

tested whether purchase intention and perceived quality changed when presented with a product

category that closely relates to national identity (hypotheses 4a & 4b). To test these hypotheses, this

study used two privately consumed product categories.

As with study 1, respondents were asked to view one of four advertisements that varied on

brand name (fictitious American vs. Brazilian brand) and product category (strongly vs. weakly

linked to national identity). Please refer to exhibits 7-10 for the English version of the ads used in

study 2. Respondents were then asked questions about perceived brand quality, perceived brand

origin, and intent to purchase the advertised product. Following the ad questions, respondents

Total respondents: 200

Number of respondents per survey

US Brand Brazilian Brand

Athletic Shoes 50 50

Toothpaste 50 50

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answered questions on national identity, consumer ethnocentrism, admiration of lifestyles in

economically developed countries, and demographics. The product categories used for this study

were home-brewed coffee (strongly linked to national identity) and toothpaste (weakly linked to

national identity). By dividing the survey into two different product categories, I was able to measure

how respondents reacted to privately consumed products with different degrees of identification

with Brazil, removing any reference group or social status effects. One category represents an

everyday product (toothpaste), and the other category, coffee, is strongly linked to the

Brazilian national identity. In the 19th and 20th century, the Southeast region of Brazil specialized in

coffee production and its exportation, which made this product known for its high quality

worldwide. No previous study of country of origin in

developing countries has tested this kind of hypothesis,

which makes it interesting to test this product category

influence in Brazil. Lastly, similarly to Study 1, within each of these product categories, fifty

respondents were expected to answer questions about a fictitious Brazilian brand, and the other fifty

about a fictitious American brand.

After setting up the survey on qualtrics.com (survey software tool) and publishing both

studies on Amazon MTurk, I encountered unexpected difficulties. I was only able to get five

respondents within a one-week period, since the fact that studies were set up to target only Brazilian

consumers brought limitations to the response rate. After looking into other publishing tools, I

decided to use the social media website facebook.com to reach a broader Brazilian audience.

According to Statista, Brazil is the world’s third largest facebook.com country user, with

approximately 70.5 million active users. In order to reach as wide of an audience as possible, I

posted the survey link on my Facebook profile wall, messaged

Total respondents: 200

Number of respondents per survey

US Brand Brazilian Brand

Coffee 50 50

Toothpaste 50 50

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friends individually asking them to fill out the survey, and

had friends post on their wall about the survey. I also

published the link on several Brazilian facebook.com

groups, such as the BRASA

(Brazilian Student Association) and ‘Conferência ENE’

groups. After another week, I was able to get 137 responses.

67 people responded Study 1, and 70 people responded

Study 2, as shown on the tables above.

Because of time constraints regarding the nature of this academic project, I was unable to

look into other options to reach the ideal 400 respondents. If time permitted, I would have travelled

to Brazil and surveyed respondents personally in shopping malls in the city of São Paulo, SP –

Brazil, as this has proven to be an effective data collection method in previous studies, such as

Verlegh (2007). Alternative collective methods would also allow me to collect a more representative

sample of Brazilian consumers, since the technique I used is more likely to yield a sample with

higher income and education levels. This is represented by the high mean of education level (μ =

3.66) and job status (μ = 3.29) in the sample.

MEASURES

The items used in my scales were drawn from scales previously validated in studies of the

country of origin literature. The dependent variables used were perceived quality and willingness to

purchase the brand. The independent variables in the study were national identity (Verlegh, 2007),

admiration of foreign lifestyles (Batra et al., 2000), brand origin (Batra et al., 2000), and consumer

ethnocentrism (Shimp & Sharma, 1987). Please refer to Exhibit 1 for survey questions.

 Study 1

Total respondents: 67

Number of respondents per survey

US Brand Brazilian Brand

Athletic Shoes 18 12

Toothpaste 20 17

 Study 2

Total respondents: 70

Number of respondents per survey

US Brand Brazilian Brand

Coffee 17 16

Toothpaste 20 17

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To test willingness to purchase, respondents answered a single item scale, “I intent to buy

this product.” To test perceived quality, there was a two-item scale, “This brand is of inferior

quality,” and “This brand is better than average.”

As for perceived brand origin, respondents answered the degree to which “I consider this

brand to be a Brazilian brand.” Admiration of foreign lifestyles was measured in a single item scale,

“To what extent do you yourself admire the lifestyles of people who live in the United States?” As

for national identity, consumers rated the degree to which they strongly agree or strongly disagree

(7-point scale) with the following statements: “Being Brazilian means a lot to me,” “I am proud to

be Brazilian,” and “I don’t feel any ties with Brazil.” Consumer ethnocentrism was also measured in

the studies to avoid confounding. As a five-item scale, consumers rated the degree to which, “It’s

not right to purchase foreign-made products,” “Brazilians should not buy foreign-made products,

because this hurts Brazilian businesses and causes unemployment,” “A real Brazilian should always

buy Brazilian-made products,” “I always prefer Brazilian products over foreign, American

products,” and “I prefer buying American products than Brazilian products.”

Finally, most items used a continuous scale from 1 to 7 (1=strongly agree – 7 = strongly

agree), unless otherwise stated on Exhibit 1. Consumer demographics questions varied from open-

ended (age) to four level (marital status and income), five level (education level), and seven level

scales (job status). The means and standard deviation of the independent variables of interest are

also shown on Exhibit 1. The variables brand origin, public/private good, and national identity of

product categories were all manipulated in the study. They were coded binomially based on the ad

shown to the respondent. Lastly, some of the scales required reverse coding to facilitate the analysis

in terms of the direction of the effects described in the hypotheses.

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RESULTS

The hypotheses in the study concerned the effects of a brand’s country of origin on

consumer behavior, such as willingness to purchase and perceived quality, moderated by whether the

product is privately or publicly consumed, and whether the product category closely relates to

national identity, such as coffee. On both studies, I conducted regression analyses and performed

spotlight analyses to further understand the observed effects. To test this type of directional

hypotheses, it is optimal to see if the sign of the estimated coefficient is in the hypothesized

direction and is statistically significant by looking at its p-value (Batra et al., 2000). Hypotheses about

moderating effects can be tested via the statistical significance of the appropriate interaction term

(cf. Baron & Kenny, 1986).

I started the analysis by running a manipulation check on brand country of origin to

determine whether indicating in the ads that the brand was Brazilian vs. American did indeed result

in differences in the extent to which respondents believed the brand to be more or less Brazilian. I

ran a t-test that compared the means of Brazilian Brand Origin (BBO) between the experimental

conditions that presented consumers with an ad describing a “Brazilian product” and those that

presented an ad which referenced an “American product.” To measure perceived BBO, respondents

were asked to rate on a scale (1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree) whether they agreed that the

product shown in the ad was Brazilian. Based on the number of people that responded to the

survey, the manipulation check was statistically significant (t = -4.976, p < .05). Consistent with

expectations, respondents that read the Brazilian ad believed that the brand was more Brazilian (M =

4.0) than respondents that saw the American ad (M = 2.6). Even though the manipulation check was

statistically significant, it did not produce as large of an effect as I expected. Across the Brazilian

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conditions, BBO only averaged a 4.0 on a 7.0-point scale, indicating that consumers still perceived

the advertised brand to be as much American as Brazilian.

Moving forward, in order to test hypotheses 1 & 2, I conducted linear regression analyses.

More specifically, for hypotheses 1a & 2a, I conducted a regression of consumer’s willingness to

purchase the brand as a function of (a) the level of national identity (hypothesis 1a) or the level of

admiration of foreign lifestyles (hypothesis 2a), (b) Brazilian brand (BB; 1=Brazilian ad; 0=American

ad), and (c) their interaction. To test hypotheses 1b and 2b, I conducted a similar regression, expect

I substituted the dependent variable to be perceived quality. In evaluating the results, I looked at the

significance and direction of the coefficient of the interaction terms.

Values and direction of the estimated regression coefficients are shown in Exhibit 2. Model

1 indicates the results for the regression analyses used to test hypothesis 1. Model 2 indicates the

results for regression analyses used to test hypothesis 2.

After running the regressions for both hypotheses 1&2 with data from both Study 1 and

Study 2, I found in model 1 that none of the interaction coefficients were statistically significant (all

p-values > 0.345). The limitations of the model, such as small sample size, discrepancy between the

brand’s intended origin and respondents’ perceptions of brand origin, and limited research time

period, may be reasons for such outcome. If the coefficients for the interaction terms were positive

and significant, it would support hypotheses H1a & H1b in that as a consumer’s level of national

identity (BNI) increases, both their willingness to purchase (WTP) and perception of quality (PQ) of

domestic brands over foreign brands increases, respectively. However, contrary to our expectations

in hypotheses H1a, the coefficient of the interaction term is negative (B = -0.029, t = -0.11, p =

0.91). If significant, this would indicate that at higher levels of national identity, respondents are less

willing to purchase when they are told that the advertised product is Brazilian vs. American.

Furthermore, as in hypothesis 1a, the interaction between national identity and brand origin in

  20  

hypothesis 1b is negative (B = -0.207, t = -0.95, p = 0.345), suggesting that at higher levels of

national identity, respondents perceive that quality of the advertised product is lower when they are

told it is Brazilian vs. American. Even though neither of the interaction terms’ coefficients is

significant, model 1 showed other interesting findings. The more a respondent identifies high levels

of Brazilian national identity, the more he/she is willing to purchase the product, since the

coefficient of the main effect is 0.093, though this result is not significant. The coefficient for the

main effect of national identity that tested H1b was also positive (B = .017), consistent with our

expected pattern. If significant, this finding would suggest that respondents with a higher national

identity perceive the quality of the advertised product to be higher.

To test hypotheses 2a & 2b, we ran the aforementioned regression analyses, but substituting

the national identity variable for admiration for economic developed countries (AEDC), The

coefficient for the interaction term was not significant in either model (both p-values > 0.697). In

hypothesis 2a, if the coefficient of the interaction term was significant, it would show that as a

consumer’s level of admiration of economically developed countries’ lifestyles increases, their

willingness to purchase domestic over foreign brands increases, since the coefficient is positive (B =

0.070, t = 0.39, p = 0.697). This is inconsistent with the hypothesized effect, which could be due to

the limitations of this study. Furthermore, the coefficient for the interaction term in H2b was

negative (B = -0.031, t = -0.20, p = 0.843). Therefore, if significant, it would be consistent with the

predicted hypothesis; as a consumer’s level of admiration of economically developed countries’

lifestyles increases, they perceive that the quality of the American brand is higher than that of the

Brazilian brand. However, there are other interesting results in model 2. The main effect of AEDC

had a positive coefficient in both WTP (B = .135) and PQ (B = 0.177), although only the latter was

marginally significant. This would indicate that the higher AEDC, the higher the WTP and the PQ

of the product.

  21  

Moving forward, study 1 tested hypothesis 3, which, despite the limitations of the model,

had some statistically significant results. Hypothesis 3 tested whether the effects proposed on

hypotheses 1&2 were moderated by whether or not the product was publicly or privately consumed

(0 = private, 1 = public), such that the effects are stronger when a product is publicly consumed.

This would entail a significant three-way interaction. However, neither of the three-way terms was

significant. Model 3 indicates results for hypothesis 3 for the effects proposed in hypothesis 1, and

model 4 indicates results for the same hypothesis, but for the effects proposed in hypothesis 2. Yet,

if the limitations of the models were smaller, there would be a statistically significant interaction on

the moderating effect of publicly vs. privately consumed product category on admiration for foreign

lifestyles and brand origin regarding perceived quality (hypothesis 2b). The interaction coefficient

was negative (B = -0.064, t = -1.424, p = 0.157),

which indicates that when a product is publicly

consumed (tennis shoes) and consumers show

low admiration for foreign lifestyles, they are

more likely to perceive the domestic brand to

have better quality than the foreign brand. This is

consistent with our hypothesis given that all the variables in the study were constructed in a way that

higher values indicate higher PQ and WTP of domestic Brazilian brands. Please refer to the graph

above for an illustration of the interaction.

Even though the latter was the only marginally significant three-way interaction in

hypothesis 3, models 3 and 4 revealed other interesting two-way interactions. In terms of the results

in model 3, the interaction between brand national identity and publicly consumed products were

not statistically significant (p-value: 0.189). However, if the sample size were larger, this interaction

would likely have a significant effect on willingness to purchase (B = -0.441) and perceived quality

  22  

(B = -0.573), since the current p-values of the interactions are less than 0.2. This finding would

suggest that as BNI increases, WTP and PQ for the publicly consumed product over the privately

consumed product decreases. Also, willingness to purchase (B = 1.483) and perceived quality (B =

2.998) are higher for the publicly consumed product than the privately-consumed product, although

only the latter main effect is marginally significant. Finally, as BNI increases, WTP (B = 0.192) and

PQ (B = 0.265) towards the advertised product increase, although only the latter main effect is

marginally significant. As for the moderating effect of publicly consumed products on model 4, the

interaction between BB and PCP was marginally significant in both willingness to purchase (B =

3.826) and perceived quality (B = 3.202), suggesting that when a product is Brazilian (e.g. Brazilian

tennis shoes), both willingness to purchase and perceived quality of the publicly consumed product

over the privately consumed product increases. Additionally, the interaction between admiration for

foreign lifestyle and publicly consumed product on perceived quality is statistically significant with a

positive coefficient (B = 0.689, t = 2.405, p = 0.018). This entails that as admiration for foreign

lifestyles increases, the perceived quality of a publicly consumed product over the privately

consumed product increases. Lastly, the main effect of publicly consumed product category was

marginally significant in WTP (B = -2.761, t = 1.819, p = 0.071) and statistically significant in PQ (B

= -3.297, t = -2.498, p = 0.014). With a publicly consumed vs. privately consumed product, WTP

decreases by 2.761 and PQ by 3.297.

Moreover, study 2 tested hypothesis 4, which had some statistically significant results despite

the limitations of the model. Hypothesis 4 tested the following: (a) the effects proposed in

hypothesis 1 will be moderated by the extent to which consumers perceive the product category to

be identified with Brazil. The effects will be stronger the more the product category is identified

with Brazil, and (b) the effects proposed in hypothesis 2 will be moderated by the extent to which

consumers perceive the product category to be identified with Brazil. The effects will be weaker the

  23  

more the product category is identified with Brazil. Model 5 indicates results for hypothesis 4 for the

effects proposed in hypothesis 1, and model 6 indicates results for the same hypothesis, but for the

effect proposed in hypothesis 2.

Hypothesis 4a had statistically significant results in relation to the perceived quality of a

product (B = -1.411, t = -2.37, p = 0.0193), although in the opposite direction of the proposed

hypothesis. If the product category is Brazilian

(coffee) and the consumer has low national

identity, PQ of the domestic product over the

foreign product is higher. However, when a

product is Brazilian (coffee) and BNI is high, PQ

of the domestic over the foreign product is lower.

Please refer to the graph for the illustration of the proposed relationships. The regression of the

same analysis on non-coffee product category and willingness to purchase was neither statistically

nor marginally significant.

Hypothesis 4b also had statistically significant results in relation to the three-way interaction

of willingness to purchase on a product category that is closely related to Brazil (coffee), brand

origin, and admiration for foreign lifestyles. The coefficient of the interaction is positive (B = 1.126,

t = 2.37, p = 0.019). If the product is Brazilian (coffee) and AEDC is low, WTP the domestic brand

over the foreign brand is lower. However, if the

product is Brazilian (coffee) and AEDC is high,

WTP of the domestic brand over the foreign

brand increases. Please refer to the graph for the

illustration of the relationships proposed. The

results are not in line with the proposed

  24  

hypothesis. The regression for the non-coffee product category was not significant, neither was the

regression of the same analysis on perceived quality.

Just like hypothesis 3, this study revealed interesting results in the two-way interactions of

models 5 and 6. In model 5, there is a statistically significant interaction between brand origin and

the identity of the product category to which it belongs (B = 8.219, t = 2.415, p = 0.017). All else

equal, a Brazilian brand will be perceived as higher quality when the product category it belongs to is

also closely identified with Brazil (e.g. coffee). Additionally, Brazilian Product category (BP) would

have a marginally significant effect on perceived quality if the sample size were larger. Since it has a

negative coefficient (B = -3.323), it would entail that as the product category is coffee, perceived

quality of the product decreases. The same effect was found regarding WTP (B = -0.273), but this

variable is not statistically significant.

As for model 6, the same interaction between BB and BP was significant, but with regards to

willingness to purchase and the effects were in the opposite direction. As a product is Brazilian,

willingness to purchase the product when the category is Brazilian (coffee) decreases over the

product of which category is non-Brazilian. Additionally, if the sample size were larger, the

interaction between AEDC and BP would be marginally significant (B = -0.418), and would entail

that, as AEDC increases, the consumer is less willing to purchase the Brazilian (coffee) product over

the non-Brazilian product category. Lastly, admiration for economically developed countries has a

significant and positive effect on perceived quality (B = 0.249), and marginally significant positive

effect on WTP (B = 0.218), indicating that as admiration for foreign lifestyles increases, so does

perceived quality and willingness to purchase the product.

  25  

ADDITIONAL ANALYSES

As mentioned in the methodology section, this study had some limitations brought about the

small sample size of 137 respondents instead of the desired 400 respondents. In the analysis section,

I discussed a few regression analyses that would be statistically significant if the sample increased,

assuming that a p-value of less than 0.20 would be marginally significant with a larger sample size. I

decided not to use the p-value of less than 0.30 (since the sample size would be approximately three

times the achieved sample) because there would be a bigger margin for approximation errors.

Another limitation to the model comes from the manipulation check, in which I found that,

although the regression between BB - Brazilian Brand (the original brand of the product) and BBO –

Brazilian Brand Origin (whether the perceived brand origin was Brazilian) was statistically significant

at t = -4.976), there was still some discrepancy between perceived brand origin and intended brand

origin. This is demonstrated by the fact that, on average, respondents rated perceived Brazilian

brand origin as 4.0, out of a 7.0-point scale, indicating that they still perceived the advertised brand

to be as much American as Brazilian. A possible explanation for this discrepancy is the names given

to each brand, mainly to the toothpaste and coffee brands. ‘Roots’ and ‘Shiny White’ are too

American, English names that cannot be easily pronounced or related to the Portuguese language, at

least not as easily as the tennis shoes brand ‘Mile’. In future research, I would manipulate the names

of the brands more closely and create names that are similar amongst both languages. This way, I

would avoid misinterpretations and make the effects stronger.

Because of the limitations described above, I performed an additional analysis on H1 and

H2 since neither variable had consistent results with the study design. Instead of running regressions

with the binary BB (Brazilian Brand) variable, I used the continuous BBO (Brazilian Brand Origin)

variable, as the latter measures the perceived brand origin of respondents. In terms of hypothesis 1a,

the results would be marginally significant if the sample size were larger (B = 0.098, t = 1.454, p =

  26  

0.148). If significant, this would indicate

that at higher levels of national identity,

respondents would be more willing to

purchase when they are told the product is

Brazilian vs. American, which is in line

with the hypothesis. However, this shows

a different effect than the one found in the regression with the binary BB variable. More specifically,

as a product is perceived to be American (low BBO), consumers with low BNI are more willing to

purchase the product as those with high Brazilian national identity. However, as the product is

perceived to be Brazilian, consumers with high national identity were more willing to purchase the

product as those with low national identity. Please refer to the graph for an illustration of the effects.

In terms of the effect of national identity on perceived quality, the interaction would also be

marginally significant if the sample size was larger (B = 0.091, t = 1.543, p = 0.125). The results,

illustrated by the graph, would entail that at higher levels of national identity, respondents perceive

the quality of the domestic product to be better than the foreign product. More specifically, foreign

brands are perceived to have better quality than domestic brand by consumers with low national

identity. However, domestic brands are perceived to have better quality over foreign brands when

consumers have high national identity.

These results are in the same direction as

expected in hypothesis 1b. With regards

to hypothesis 2a & 2b, the results were

neither statistically not marginally

significant (p-values > 0.531).

4

4.5

5

5.5

6

6.5

7

Low BBO High BBO

WTP

Hypothesis 1(a) effect

Low BNI

High BNI

  27  

DISCUSSION AND FUTURE STEPS

This study aimed at understanding a brand’s country of origin effect in consumer behavior in

Brazil, a developing country that lacks research on this topic. I expected to see that, as the level of

national identity increases, both willingness to purchase and perceived quality of domestic brands

increases over foreign brands. Although not significant, I found results consistent with the

hypothesized effect when running the regression with the BBO variable instead of the BB variable.

When I used BB, I did not find any statistically significant results. Additionally, I expected to see that

as a consumer’s admiration for economically developed countries’ lifestyles increases, both the

willingness to purchase and perceived quality of foreign brands increase over domestic brands.

However, I was unable to make any conclusions regarding hypothesis 2 because none of the

coefficients were statically significant.

Moving forward, I expected to find that both hypotheses of national identity and admiration

for economically developed countries would have a stronger effect if the product were publicly vs.

privately consumed. I found that, as a product is publicly consumed (tennis shoes) and consumers

show low admiration for foreign lifestyles, they are more likely to perceive the domestic brand to

have better quality than the foreign brand. This is consistent with the hypothesis. Furthermore, I

also expected to find that the effects on national identity would be stronger if the product category

was identified with Brazil, such as coffee. The opposite was expected to be true regarding the effects

on admiration for foreign lifestyles. Interestingly, I found the opposite effects. If the product

category is identified with Brazil (coffee) and the consumer has low national identity, PQ of the

domestic product over the foreign product is higher. However, when a product is identified with

Brazil (coffee) and BNI is high, PQ of the domestic over the foreign product is lower. Another

interesting finding was that, if the product is Brazilian (coffee) and AEDC is low, WTP the domestic

brand over the foreign brand is lower. However, if the product is Brazilian (coffee) and AEDC is

  28  

high, WTP of the domestic brand over the foreign brand increases. These results are also not in line

with the hypothesis proposed. These findings could be due to the fact that consumers in Brazil do

not identify coffee as closely related to their national identity. Brazil used to be one of the world

leaders in coffee exports during the 19th and 20th centuries. However, it could be that consumers in

Brazil do not see coffee as an aspect that closely defines their national identity anymore, such as

soccer. It may be that, on the other hand, foreigners identify coffee with the Brazilian identity, but

not as much as native consumers.

FUTURE STEPS

To carry on this research and find more significant results, I would start by adjusting the

survey. I would change the brand names of the toothpaste and coffee product categories to ones

that can be interchangeable in both the English and the Portuguese languages. I would closely

monitor and analyze the perceived brand origin variable through manipulation tests and change the

brand name accordingly if the averages are still deviant from the intended brand origin. Additionally,

it would be interesting to see the results and direction of hypothesis 4 if the product category would

be one that is more closely related to the Brazilian national identity than coffee. Moving forward, I

would carry this research on shopping malls or universities in the city of São Paulo, the most

populated city of Brazil. I would personally carry the survey to respondents, as in-person survey

distribution methods have proven to be effective in previous research of brand country of origin

(Verlegh, 2007, Batra et al., 2000).

  29  

Exhibit 1: Survey questions

Constructs Item Dependent Variables

Willingness to purchase the brand (µ=4.82, σ= 1.59)

I intend to buy this brand (1-7)

Perceived Quality This brand is of superior quality (Prof. Montgomery) (1-7) (µ=4.16, σ= 1.37) This brand is better than average (Prof. Montgomery) (1-7) Independent Variables

National Identity Being Brazilian means a lot to me (Verlegh) (1=strongly disagree - 7= strongly agree) (µ=5.85, σ= 1.12) I am proud to be Brazilian (Verlegh) (1-7) I don't feel any ties with Brazil (Verlegh) (1-7) Consumer It’s not right to purchase foreign-made products (Batra et al.) (1-7)

Ethnocentrism Brazilians should not buy foreign products, because this hurts Brazilian businesses and causes unemployment (Batra et al.) (1-7)

(µ=2.70, σ= 0.89) A real Brazilian should always buy Brazilian-made products (Batra et al.) (1-7)

I always prefer Brazilian products over foreign, American products (Verlegh) (1-7)

I prefer buying American products than Brazilian products (Kumar, et al.) (1-7) Level of admiration to economically developed countries lifestyles

To what extend do you yourself admire the lifestyle of people who live in the United States? (Batra et al.) (1 = Strongly criticize - 7 = strongly admire)

(µ=4.53, σ= 1.51) Susceptibility to social influence

If I want to be like someone, I often try to buy the same brands they buy (Batra et al.) (1-7)

(µ=3.65, σ=1.16) When buying products, I generally purchase those brands that I think others will approve of (Batra, et al.) (1-7)

To be sure I buy the right product or brand, I often observe what others are buying and using (Batra, et al.) (1-7)

Perceived Brand Origin (µ=3.24, σ= 1.76)

I consider this brand to be a Brazilian brand (Batra et al.) (1-7)

Consumer Age (Verlegh) (µ=31, σ= 13.40) Demographics Education level (4 levels) (Verlegh) (µ=3.66, σ= 0.88) Gender (Male/Female) (Verlegh) (58.59% Female, 41.61% Male) Marital Status (Verlegh) (µ=1.74, σ= 0.61) Job Status (5 levels) (Verlegh) (µ=3.29, σ= 1.73)

  30  

  31  

Exhibit 3: Study 1 - Brazilian Shoes ad

Looking  for  powerful  running  shoes?  

Mile  Shoes  are  the  perfect  quality  shoes  for  a  happy  and  healthy  run.  These  Brazilian  shoes  have  soft  heels,  solid  forefoot  and  good  arch  support.  They  are  made  to  be  run  on  every  surface  -­‐  may  it  be  on  the  treadmill  at  the  gym,  at  the  park,  on  the  streets  or  at  the  beach.  Mile  Shoes  are  your  ideal  choice:  they  come  in  a  variety  of  colors  and  styles  that  fit  perfectly  with  your  preferences  and  personality.    

Mile  shoes  

  32  

Exhibit 4: Study 1 - American Shoes ad

Looking  for  powerful  running  shoes?  

Mile  Shoes  are  the  perfect  quality  shoes  for  a  confortable  and  healthy  run.  These  American  shoes  have  soft  heels,  solid  forefoot  and  good  arch  support.  They  are  perfect  to  be  run  on  every  surface  -­‐  may  it  be  on  the  treadmill  at  the  gym,  at  the  park,  on  the  streets  or  at  the  beach.  Mile  Shoes  are  your  ideal  choice:  they  come  in  a  variety  of  colors  and  styles  that  fit  perfectly  with  your  preferences  and  personality.    

Mile  shoes  

  33  

Exhibit 5: Study 1 - Brazilian Toothpaste ad

Looking  for  powerful  and  long-­‐lasting  toothpaste?  

Shiny  White  is  the  perfect  solution  for  you  that  are  looking  for  toothpastes  that  last  more  than  your  morning  run.  Most  other  toothpastes  only  protect  your  teeth  and  prevent  bad  breath  for  a  short  period  of  time,  right  after  eating  or  drinking.  However,  this  Brazilian  toothpaste  has  a  unique  formula  that  protects  you  from  bacteria  for  a  long  period  of  time,  providing  a  pleasant  breath  that  lasts  for  just  as  long.  Next  time  you  won’t  have  to  worry  about  your  teeth  right  after  your  morning  run!  

Shiny  White  

  34  

Exhibit 6: Study 1 – American Toothpaste ad

Looking  for  powerful  and  long-­‐lasting  toothpaste?  

Shiny  White  is  the  perfect  solution  for  you  that  are  looking  for  toothpastes  that  last  more  than  your  morning  run.  Most  other  toothpastes  only  protect  your  teeth  and  prevent  bad  breath  for  a  short  period  of  time,  right  after  eating  or  drinking.  However,  this  American  toothpaste  has  a  unique  formula  that  protects  you  from  bacteria  for  a  long  period  of  time,  providing  a  pleasant  breath  that  lasts  for  just  as  long.  Next  time,  you  won’t  have  to  worry  about  your  teeth  right  after  your  morning  run!  

Shiny  White  

  35  

Exhibit 7: Study 2 – Brazilian Coffee ad

Looking  for  tasteful,  homemade  coffee?  

Root  Coffee  will  give  you  the  taste  you  are  looking  for.  Easily  found  in  markets  and  supermarket  chains,  this  Brazilian  coffee  is  perfect  for  every  occasion:  breakfast,  coffee  breaks  and  following  a  delicious  meal  at  home.  The  coffee  beans  are  carefully  roosted  to  provide  our  customers  with  tasteful,  fresh,  and  high  quality  coffee.  You  can  easily  pour  the  beans  into  the  coffee  machine,  and  with  the  addition  of  water,  your  homemade  Root  coffee  will  be  quickly  ready  to  taste.    

Root  Coffee  

  36  

Exhibit 8: Study 2 – American Coffee ad

Looking  for  tasteful,  homemade  coffee?  

Root  Coffee  will  give  you  the  taste  you  are  looking  for.  Easily  found  in  markets  and  supermarket  chains,  this  American  coffee  is  perfect  for  every  occasion:  breakfast,  coffee  breaks  and  post  a  delicious  meal  at  home.  The  coffee  beans  are  carefully  roosted,  stocked,  and  shipped  to  Brazil  to  provide  our  customers  with  tasteful,  fresh,  and  high  quality  coffee.  You  can  easily  pour  the  beans  into  the  coffee  machine,  and  with  the  addition  of  water,  your  homemade  Root  coffee  will  be  quickly  ready  to  taste.    

Root  Coffee  

  37  

Exhibit 9: Study 2 - Brazilian Toothpaste ad

Looking  for  powerful  and  long-­‐lasting  toothpaste?  

Shiny  White  is  the  perfect  solution  for  you  that  are  looking  for  toothpastes  that  protect  your  teeth  after  drinking  your  favorite  coffee.  Most  other  toothpastes  only  protect  your  teeth  and  prevent  bad  breath  for  a  short  period  of  time,  right  after  eating  or  drinking.  However,  this  Brazilian  toothpaste  and  has  a  unique  formula  that  protects  you  from  bacteria  for  a  long  period  of  time,  providing  a  pleasant  breath  that  lasts  for  just  as  long.  Next  time  you  won’t  have  to  worry  about  your  teeth  right  after  drinking  your  coffee!    

Shiny  White  

  38  

Exhibit 10: Study 2 – American Toothpaste Ad

Looking  for  powerful  and  long-­‐lasting  toothpaste?  

Shiny  White  is  the  perfect  solution  for  you  that  are  looking  for  toothpastes  that  protect  your  teeth  after  drinking  your  favorite  coffee.  Most  other  toothpastes  only  protect  your  teeth  and  prevent  bad  breath  for  a  short  period  of  time,  right  after  eating  or  drinking.  However,  this  American  toothpaste  has  a  unique  formula  that  protects  you  from  bacteria  for  a  long  period  of  time,  providing  a  pleasant  breath  that  lasts  for  just  as  long.  Next  time  you  won’t  have  to  worry  about  your  teeth  right  after  drinking  your  coffee!    

Shiny  White  

  39  

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Accessed on April 7th, 2015