Abbreviations FOLLOW THESE GUIDELINES WHEN USING ABBREVIATIONS: USE PERIOD WITH SINGLE – WORD ABBREVIATIONS Abbreviations of single words usually take periods. vols. Volumes ft. foot Feb. February Dr. Doctor WRITE INITIALISMS WITHOUT PERIODS Initialisms are abbreviations made from the first letter of each of the words in a title or name. ATM Automatic Teller Machine FBI Federal Bureau of Investigation CIA Central Intelligence Agency AL American League OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Adminstration Initialisms normally do not contain periods. If you think that the initialism may be unfamiliar to one or more of your readers, spell out the full term followed by the initialism in parenthesis the first time you mention that term. In subsequent references, you can use the initialism alone. Here’s an example: The Uniform Resource Locator (URL) for his Web Site is somewhat uninviting. His URL is <www.dontbotherme.com >. WRITE ACRONYMS WITHOUT PERIODS Acronyms are words formed from the first letters of major words in a title or phrase. SCUBA Self – Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus RADAR Radio Detecting And Ranging

AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome SARS Severe Acute Respirator Syndrome LASER Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

Acronyms that are used as words do not require periods. Note that words such as laser and scuba are no longer capitalized because they have been accepted as words in their own right. AVOID ABBREVIATIONS FOR TITLE BUT USE THEM FOR DEGREES Use the spell – out version of a title in formal prose: Not: The pres. Of our graduating class has a straight A average. But: The president of our graduating class has a straight A average. Use the abbreviation for the title in the inside address to a letter. Text of Letter Address President President George W. Bush Pres. George W. Bush Captain Captain Arnold Capt. Mary Arnold Rabbi Rabbi Stein Rabbi Vincent Stein Use abbreviations for academic degrees. Ph.D MS MA BA BS DDS NOTE: Place academic titles before a name and academic degrees after a name,

but do not use both at the same time. Not: Dr. Alice Conway, Ph.D But: Dr. Alice Conway Or: Alice Conway, Ph.D USE FAMILIAR ABBREVIATIONS Use technical, government, or other such abbreviations when you are sure that your readers understand what they stand for. If you are unsure, follow the advice in 2., and spell out the term first followed by the abbreviation in parentheses. APR Annual Percentage Rate

CAD Computer Aided Design GHz Gigahertz GPO Government Printing Office AVOID ABBREVIATIONS WITH DATES Write out days of the week and months of the year. Not: The meetings are usually held on the first Mon. of each month. In Sept., however, we will meet on the third Mon. But: The meetings are usually held on the first Monday of each month. In September, however, we will meet on the third Monday. USE ABBREVIATIONS FOR WEIGHTS AND MEASURES Use abbreviations when the words that stand for weights and measures appear with numbers. Heat the beaker of liquid for no more than 10 min. The city is 29 km. ahead. We bought an 8 ft. pine board. My new car gets 45 mpg. However, when such words appear without numbers, write them out. The beaker should be heated for only a few minutes. We still have several kilometers to drive. He wanted to know how many miles per gallon my new car gets. USE ABBREVIATIONS FOR TEMPERATURE AND TIME 238 B.C. 432 A.D. 5:52 P.M. 98.6° F AVOID ABBREVIATIONS WITH MOST PLACE NAMES EXCEPT THOSE IN ADDRESSES Generally, do not use abbreviations in formal writing when mentioning places. For example, you should write Fifth Avenue, not FifthAve., in the body of your paper.

However, you can use abbreviations for place names in addresses, lists, bibliographical references, and other specialized cases. Here are a few examples: U.S. (or USA) U.K. Mt. (Ranier) St. (Augustine) Terms used in street names should also be spelled out in the text, but abbreviations can be used in addresses: Ave. (Avenue) St. (Street) Pkwy. (Parkway) Rd. (Road) Rte. (Route) In addresses use standard postal abbreviations for states and possessions: State/Possession Abbreviation ALABAMA AL ALASKA AK AMERICAN SAMOA AS ARIZONA AZ ARKANSAS AR CALIFORNIA CA COLORADO CO CONNECTICUT CT DELWARE DE

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA DC FLORIDA FL GEORGIA GA GUAM GU HAWAII HI IDAHO ID IOWA IA KANSAS KS KENTUCKY KY LOUISIANA LA MAINE ME MARSHALL ISLANDS MH MARYLAND MD MASSACHUSETTS MA MICHIGAN MI MINNESOTA MN MISSISSIPPI MS MISSOURI MO MONTANA MT NEBRASKA NE NEVADA NV NEW HAMPSHIRE NH NEW JERSEY NJ

NEW MEXICO NM NEW YORK NY NORTH CAROLINA NC NORTH DAKOTA ND NORTHERN MARIANA ISLANDS MP OHIO OH OREGON OR PALAU PW PENNSYLVANIA PA PUERTO RICO PR RHONE ISLAND RI SOUTH CAROLINA SC SOUTH DAKOTA SD TENNESSEE TN TEXAS TX UTAH UT VERMONT VT VIRGIN ISLANDS VI VIRGINIA VA WASHINGTON WA WEST VIRGINA WV WISCONSIN WI WYOMING WY

Military “State” Abbreviation Armed Forces Africa AE Armed Forces Americas (except Canada) AA Armed Forces Canada AE Armed Forces Europe AE Armed Forces Middle East AE Armed Forces Pacific AP USE ABBREVIATIONS OF COMMON LATIN EXPRESSIONS i.e. (idest -- that is) e.g. (exempligratia -- for example) et al. (et. alii -- and others) cf. (confer -- compare) N.B. (notabene -- note well) USE ABBREVIATIONS IN BIBLIOGRAPHIC CITATIONS Use the appropriate abbreviations for elements in books, magazines, journals, and other publications: p. (page) pp. (pages) para. (paragraph) pars. (paragraphs). vol. (volume) vols. (volumes) ch. (chapter) bk. (book) sec. (section) AVOID SYMBOLS IN FORMAL WRITING In general, avoid symbols in academic writing. Some symbols, however, are acceptable. For example, the dollar sign ($) should be used if followed by a number. Avoid using both the dollar sign and the word dollar. Not: The car costs $45,000 dollars. But: The car costs $54,000.

Avoid the ampersand (&). Instead use the word and, unless the ampersand appears in the actual term or title: Smith and Jones Imports But Johnson & Johnson Sample Quiz questions

:

1. Click on the sentence that uses abbreviations correctly. a. On the third Fri. in October, Jamestown will hold its annual Harvest Fair. b. On the third Friday in Oct., Jamestown will hold its annual Harvest Fair. c. On the third Friday in October, Jamestown will hold its annual Harvest

Fair. Answer: c. On the third Friday in October, Jamestown will hold its annual Harvest Fair.

2. Click on the sentence that uses abbreviations correctly. a. We paid over $140 dollars for an encyclopedia of classical mythology and

a copy of Homer’s Iliad. b. We paid over $140 for an encyclopedia of classical mythology & a copy of

Homer’s Iliad. c. We pay over $140 for an encyclopedia of classical mythology and a copy

of Homer’s Iliad. Answer: c. We pay over $140 for an encyclopedia of classical mythology and a copy of Homer’s Iliad.

ADJECTIVES An describes (modifies) a noun or pronoun by answering questions such as “Which?” “What kind of?” or “How many?” It can come before a noun or pronoun or after a linking verb.

Before a noun: A poor country, Indonesia has a huge population. After a linking verb: Indonesia is poor, yet its population is huge.

LEARN TO USE ADJECTIVES Adjectives describes and .

The bright yellow lights on the large suspension bridge shone through a thick mist hanging over the tired city.

BECOME FAMILIAR WITH ADJECTIVE TYPES Adjectives answer questions such as What kind of? Which one? What color? What size? and How many? Adjectives can come before nouns or can act as . Complements are words that describe subjects through linking verbs such as is, are, was, have been, or will be. Before a noun: The old city in Quebec attracts many tourists. Many citizens of Switzerland speak German. Complement: The clouds were dark and threatening. The novels they read were Russian. NOUNS AS ADJECTIVES Nouns that come before other nouns can act as adjectives.

The science book lay on the kitchen table as the mathematics teacher looked over her class notes.

CAUTION: When you use a noun as an adjective, make sure the noun is singular even when the word it modifies is plural. Not: She has worked in toys factories. But: She has worked in toy factories. PARTICIPLES: VERBS AS ADJECTIVES Still another type of adjective is a ; particles are adjectives formed from verbs. They end in –ed, -t, en, or –ing. jump + ed = jumped

lose + t = lost break + en = broken roll + ing = rolling Like other adjectives, participles can be used before or after the word they describe. Some scholars believe the lost city of Atlantis never existed. The old adage “a rolling stone gathers no moss” advises us to keep busy. PLACE ADJECTIVES CORRECTLY Adjectives follow a certain general order when they appear in a sentence. In general, place adjective before, not after, the noun. Not: She wore a dress red. But: She wore a red dress. However, participles can come before or after the nouns they describe, depending on meaning. The Russian composer Sergey Rachmaninoff got a standing ovation.

The Greek temples standing outside the city of Agrigento are about 2,600 years old.

1. Adjectives of color come before those of material or type.

Not: They passed a wooden red barn. But: They passed a red wooden barn.

2. Adjectives of age come before those of color.

Not: They passed a red old barn. But: They passed an old red barn.

3. Adjectives of size, weight, and shape come before those of age.

Not: They passed an old large barn. But: They passed a large old barn.

4. Adjectives of quality or condition come before those of size, weight, and

shape.

Not: They passed a little charming cottage. But: They passed a charming little cottage.

5. Adjectives formed from nouns appear next to nouns they describe.

Not: The Italian old painting has been sold. But: The old Italian painting has been sold.

6. An adjective series begins with an article or adjective of quantity.

Not: The old six Italian paintings have been sold. But: The six old Italian paintings have been sold.

USE THE COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE FORMS OF ADJECTIVES Adjectives can be used to make comparisons. For example, if you want to compare three runners, you can say the first is fast, the second is faster, and the third is fastest. Here are three ways to use adjectives in comparisons:

1. Add –er or –est to the basic form of the adjective. 2. Use more/most, less/least. 3. Change the spelling of the adjective.

ADDING –ER AND –EST Add –er when comparing two nouns or pronouns; this form is called the comparative form. Add –est when comparing more than two; this form is called the superlative form. Basic form: My sister is young. Comparative: My sister is younger than I. Superlative: My sister is the youngest of three children. With adjectives that end in –y, first change the –y to –I and then add –er or –est. CAUTION: Always use –er when comparing two nouns or pronouns; use –est when comparing more than two. Basic Comparative Superlative tall taller tallest cold colder coldest loud louder loudest funny funnier funniest heavy heavier heaviest USING MORE/MOST, LESS/LEAST You can also put more/most or less/least before the basic form of the adjective to form the comparative and superlative. Basic Comparative Superlative

powerful more powerful most powerful difficult more difficult most difficult expensive less expensive least expensive CHANGING THE FORM OR SPELLING OF AN ADJECTIVE Irregular adjectives change their spellings (some even become new words) in the comparative and superlative.

Not: Bad, badder, baddest OR Bad, more bad, most bad But: Bad, worse, worst

FIVE RULES FOR USING COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES Rule 1: Use the comparative, the –er ending, only when comparing two things; use the superlative, the –est ending, only when comparing more than two. Not: Alaska is the larger state in the Union. Of the two states, Alaska is richest in minerals. But: Alaska is the largest state in the Union. Of the two states, Alaska is richer in minerals. Rule 2: Use more/less when comparing two things, most/least when comparing more than two things. Not: Of the two dancers, Gene Kelly was the most talented. Gene Kelly was the more talented dancer in the company. But: Of the two dancers, Gene Kelly was the more talented. Gene Kelly was the most talented dancer in the company. Rule 3: Don’t use more/most after adding –er or –est to an adjective. Not: more brighter/most brightest But: brighter/brightest Or: more bright/most bright Rule 4: Don’t use more/most with irregular adjectives.

Not: In 1932, the electorate believed Roosevelt would make a more better president than Hoover would.

But: In 1932, the electorate believed Roosevelt would make a better president than Hoover would.

Rule 5: In general, don’t add –er or –est to an adjective of more than two syllables. Instead, use more/most or less/least.

Not: dangerous, dangerouser, dangerousest But: dangerous, more dangerous, most dangerous LEARN TO USE PARTICIPLES Participles are adjectives made from verbs. Present participles end in –ing. Past participles of regular verbs end in –cl, -ed, -en, -n, and –t. PARTICIPLES OF IRREGULAR VERBS Present participles of all verbs end in –ing. Past participles of irregular verbs must be learned individually. You may want to print out the list of the principal parts of common irregular verbs that follows. Present Past Present participle Past participle bring bought bringing brought catch caught catching caught cling clung clinging clung come came coming come dig dug digging dug do did doing done feel felt feeling felt Fly flew flying flown get got getting got, gotten Go went going gone hold held holding held hurt hurt hurting hurt keep kept keeping kept lead led leading led make made making made meet met meeting met ride rode riding ridden run ran running run see saw seeing seen send sent sending sent sit sat sitting sat speak spoke speaking spoken steal stole stealing stolen sting strung stinging stung teach taught teaching taught tear tore tearing torn throw threw throwing thrown win won winning won write wrote writing written THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE

Present participles end in –ing. You use them to describe a noun or pronoun or to show what a noun or pronoun is doing. The driving rain entered the house. Opposing the new tax bill, the president vetoed it. THE PAST PARTICIPLE Past participles of regular verbs end in –d, -ed, -en, -n, and –t. Past participles of irregular verbs must be learned individually. (See the table above.) Use past participles to show what is done to a noun or pronoun. The rain, driven by strong winds, entered the house. Though vetoed by the president, the tax bill became law. PARTICIPLES VERSUS NOUNS AND VERBS Participles are adjectives. To avoid confusing them with nouns and verbs, make sure you have used the proper ending. CAUTION: Not: She bought a use car. But: She bought a used car. ADVERBS An tells something about (modifies) a verb, an adjective, or another adverb by answering questions such as “Where?” “When?” “How?” “How much?” “How often?” and “To what extend?” William Butler Yeats (1865 – 1939) energetically supported a revival in Irish literature. [Energetically modifies the verb supported.] An extremely talented poet and dramatist, Yeats is still associated with Dublin’s Abbey Theater. [Extremely modifies the adjective talent] His poems, plays, and Celtic tales are still very widely read. [Very modifies the adverb widely.] MASTER ADVERBS

Adverbs describe , adjectives

, or other adverbs. Adverbs answer questions such as When? Where? How? Why? Under what conditions? and To what extend? Many adverbs end in –ly. However, soon, very, fast, seldom, often, and well are also adverbs.

Verb: Musicologists believe that Rachmaninoff’s Third Concerto successfully combines themes from Russian folk and liturgical music.

Adjective: Some parts of the Third Concerto are extremely meditative, even dreamlike.

Adverb: When introduced during the composer’s 1909 American tour, the Third Concerto was very well received.

USING ADVERBS VERSUS ADJECTIVES Use an adverb, not an adjective, when you describe a verb, adjective, or other adverb. If you are not sure whether a word is an adjective or an adverb, check the dictionary.

Not: Vladimir Ashkenazy played the two Rachmaninoff piano concertos skillful and passionate.

But: Vladimir Ashkenazy played the two Rachmaninoff piano concertos skillfully and passionately.

COMPARING ADVERBS Like adjectives, adverbs can be compared. That is, they can be put into the comparative and superlative forms. Use the comparative form to compare two things; use the superlative form to compare more than two things. For example:

Adverb: Sam works quickly. Comparative: Sam works more quickly than I. Superlative: Of everyone in our class, Sam works most quickly. To compare adverbs that end in –ly (there are many of these), add more/most or less/least to the adverb. Adverb Comparative Superlative quickly more quickly most quickly lively less lively least lively NOTE: With adverbs that do not end in –ly (there are only a few of these), use the –er and –est endings or use more/most or less/least. If you don’t know which method to use, check the dictionary for the correct comparative and superlative forms. Adverb Comparative Superlative fast faster fastest often less often least often LEARN TO USE ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS WITH SENSE WORDS

Writers sometimes use verbs such as look, sound, smell, touch, and taste incorrectly, especially if they confuse the subject of an action with its object. Not: The taco didn’t taste well. But: The taco didn’t taste good. Make sure you know what you are describing. If you are describing how a taco tastes, you might write The taco tastes good. If you are discussing your ability to taste, you might write I can’t taste food well; I have a cold. NOTE: In the first sentence, a noun, taco, is being described; therefore, the adjective good must be used. In the second, a verb, taste, is being described; therefore, the adverb well must be used. CHECK YOUR MEANING: ADVERBS VERSUS ADJECTIVES CAUTION: Substituting an adverb for an adjective can create a new meaning.

Adjective: Sam looked nervous. Adverb: Sam looked nervously at his date’s father.

Sample Quiz questions

1. Identify the adverb(s) in the following sentence. Sara speaks Portuguese well.

a. Sara b. speaks c. well

Answer: c. well

2. Identify the adjective(s) in the following sentence. Aberdeen is a seaport in the northeastern part of Scotland.

a. northeastern b. Scotland c. part d. in

Answer: a. northeastern

Apostrophes MASTER THE APOSTROPHE (‘) – SEVEN RULES An apostrophe (‘) shows possession: the child’s toy the film’s star the teacher’s desk the store’s prices the city’s drug problem the dog’s tail You can also use apostrophes to create special relationships between words: a night’s sleep, two months’ pay. SEVEN RULES FOR USING THE APOSTROPHE Rule 1: Use the apostrophe to show possession; add –‘s to a singular .

Monrovia, Liberia’s capital, was named after U.S. president James Monroe.

Add –‘s to a singular noun that ends in –s or –z, as long as doing so does not make the pronunciation of that noun awkward. If doing so creates awkwardness, add only the apostrophe. Jazz’s origins go back to Afro – American spirituals. BUT Jesus’ teachings can be found in the New Testament. Rule 2: Use the apostrophe to show possession; add only –‘ if the noun is plural and ends in /-s. The two countries’ borders were in dispute. Rule 3: Use the apostrophe to show joint possession in a series; add –‘s only to

the last noun. Groucho, Chico, and Harpo’s films are still funny. Rule 4: Use the apostrophe to show individual possession in a series; add –‘s to

each noun. Boston’s and San Francisco’s waterfronts are interesting, but I prefer

Seattle’s. Rule 5: Use the apostrophe in in place of omitted numbers or letters.

She will graduate with the class of ’99. Because it’s raining, we can’t go to the park. CAUTION: It’s = it is; can’t = cannot. Rule 6: Use the apostrophe to form the of a hyphenated word; add –‘s after the

last letter. Not: My mother – in – laws home Not: My mother’s – in – law home But: My mother – in – law ‘s home Rule 7: Add an apostrophe to and letters and numbers to make them . Syed received three A’s and two B’s as final grades. Three 747’s sat on the runway. CAUTION: In general, do not use an apostrophe to form plurals. Not: Hitler planned to conquer the nation’s of Europe. But: Hitler planned to conquer the nations of Europe. CAUTION: Do not add an apostrophe to a pronoun that is already possessive. Not: Under Hitler, Germany sought it’s place in the sun. But: Under Hitler, Germany sought its place in the sun. Sample Quiz questions

:

1. Choose the correct sentence. a. It’s time to stand up for what you believe, because if you don’t, you’ll be

left behind. b. It’s time to stand up for what you believe, because if you don’t, you’ll be

left behind. c. Its time to stand up for what you believe, because if you don’t, you’ll be left

behind. Answer: b. It’s time to stand up for what you believe, because if you don’t, you’ll be left behind.

2. Choose the correct sentence. a. Hes so ill that he cant complete the homework. b. He’s so ill that he can’t complete the homework. c. He’s so ill that he cant complete the homework.

Answer: b. He’s so ill that he can’t complete the homework.

ARTICLES are short words that point to a noun. The points to specific persons, places, and things.

A and an do not point to something specific.

The elephant charged the party of tourists. (A specificAn elephant is unpredictable (

elephant charged.) Any

elephant is unpredictable.)

MASTERING ARTICLES--NINE RULES FOR ESL STUDENTS Rule 1: Use a or an for general reference. When you use a or an, you mean any item.

Al owns a car. [This is the same as saying any car.] Nina saw a dolphin. [This is the same as saying any dolphin.]

Use the when you mean a single, specific person, place or thing. This unique person, place or thing may have been mentioned using a or an earlier in the writing.

The car stalled. [The refers to a specific car.] The dolphin jumped very high. [The refers to a specific dolphin.]

Rule 2: Place a or an before singular nouns only.

an atom a building a cell a Canadian dollar an Indian elephant

atoms buildings cells Canadian dollars Indian elephants

Place the before singular or plural nouns.

the computer the computers the disk drive the disk drives the electric bill the electric bills

NOTE: In general, do not use an article before nouns that name

religions, philosophies, intellectual or artistic movements, or nations.

Not: The Roman Catholicism But: Roman Catholicism Rule 3: Place a or an before nouns that can be counted. Don't use a or an before nouns that cannot be counted.

Count The mountain climber used a tank of oxygen. They marveled at the many cultural wonders of France. Jason was a hero. Noncount Oxygen and hydrogen combine to from water. They learned to speak French. Jason had courage.

Rule 4: Use a before consonant sounds; use an before vowel sounds. Consonant: A thick green slime covered the bay.

Sajid bought a copier and a fax machine.

Vowel: She developed an aptitude for skiing. Andre saw an octogenarian leading an animal that resembled an opossum.

CAUTION: Words beginning with a silent -h actually begin with a

vowel sound; they take an: an hour, an honor Some words beginning with -un take a: a university, a union, a unicycle

Rule 5: If an adjective comes before a noun

a. Place a before adjectives that begin with consonants. a disastrous error in judgement a juvenile attempt to be funny

b. Place an before adjectives that begin with vowels. an elegant reception at the British consulate an online course in English composition

Rule 6: In most cases, don't use articles with abstract nouns, such as words that name attitudes, diseases, emotions, holidays, languages, philosophies, religions, sports, and studies.

Henri loves art history. There are laws against sexual harassment. Marion had recovered from pneumonia. Enzo's only vice is gluttony. Our vacation ends on Labor Day.

Paul studied Sanskrit. My friends follow Buddhism. Ernie believes excessive pride is a sin.

Rule 8: Don't use articles with these kinds of proper nouns: a. People, real or fictional

Ms. Aarons, Superman

b. Countries, continents, states, provinces, cities, towns, islands Chad, Asia, Minnesota, Ontario, Sardinia

c. Parks Everglades National Park, Lincoln Park

d. Mountains Mount Vesuvius, Mount Rainier

e. Lakes, ponds, other small bodies of water Lake Victoria, Scudder's Basin

f. Names of specific political or religious leaders President Ford, Pope John Paul II

Rule 9:Use articles with these types of proper nouns:

a. Regions of a country or of the world the Far East, the West, the Arctic

b. Mountain ranges the Cascade Mountains, the Caucasus

c. Groups of islands the Shetland Islands, the Lipari Islands

d. Large bodies of water the Bay of Bengal, the Caribbean Sea

e. Names of certain nations the United States of America, the Netherlands, the People's Republic of China

f. Wars the Russian Revolution, the Boxer Rebellion, the Second World War (But: World War II)

g. Buildings, canals, bridges the White House, the Suez Canal, the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge

h. Official titles of political and religious leaders

the president of the United States, the sultan of Brunei, the archbishop of Canterbury

Sample Quiz questions

1. Click the letter of the sentence that is correct. (Refer to Rule 1) :

a. Did you ever own car? b. Did he ever own a car? c. Did she ever own a car?

Answer: b. Did he ever own a car?

2. Click the letter of the sentence that is correct. (Refer to Rule 2) a. A good dinner in Tokyo, says my guidebook, costs about $100. b. The good dinner in Tokyo, says my guidebook, costs about $100. c. A good dinners in Tokyo, says my guidebook, cost about $100.

Answer: a. A good dinner in Tokyo, says my guidebook, costs about $100.

3. Click on the letter of the sentence that is correct. (Refer to Rule 3) a. I don’t like to ride in bus. b. I don’t like to ride in a traffic. c. I’d prefer to ride a bicycle.

Answer: c. I’d prefer to ride a bicycle.

4. Click on the letter of the sentence that is correct. (Refer to Rule 4) a. A pride is the chief of the seven deadly sins. b. Pride is the chief of seven deadly sins. c. Pride is the chief of the seven deadly sins.

Answer: c. Pride is the chief of the seven deadly sins.

5. Click on the letter of the sentence that is correct. (Refer to Rule 5) a. I made a silly mistake on the test. b. Number 3 was an hard question. c. However, number 4 was a easy one.

Answer: a. I made a silly mistake on the test.

6. Click on the letter of the sentence that is correct. (Refer to Rule 6) a. I love languages and I plan to study the French in the fall. b. I love the languages and I plan to study French in the fall. c. I love languages and I plan to study French in the fall.

Answer: c. I love languages and I plan to study French in the fall.

7. Click on the letter of the sentence that is correct. (Refer to Rule 7) a. The high school students usually like pizza. b. High school students usually like pizza. c. High school students usually like the pizza.

Answer: b High school students usually like pizza.

8. Click on the letter of the sentence that is correct. (Refer to Rule 8) a. Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in the Asia. b. The Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in Asia. c. Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in Asia.

Answer: c. Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in Asia.

9. Click on the letter of the sentence that is correct. (Refer to Rule 9) a. The Philippine Islands are found in the Pacific Ocean. b. Philippine Islands are found in the Pacific Ocean. c. The Philippine Islands are found in Pacific Ocean.

Answer: a. The Philippine Islands are found in the Pacific Ocean.

Capitalization MASTER 16 RULES OF CAPITALIZATION Rule 1: Capitalize the first word of a . Blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit the earth. CAUTION: Words after a semicolon are not usually capitalized. Consider the lilies of the field; they toil not, neither do they spin. Rule 2: Capitalize proper . A proper noun names a specific person, place, or

thing. Common noun: The city was dark and empty.

Proper noun: The city of Metropolis was dark and empty. Rule 3: Capitalize proper . Proper adjectives are made from proper nouns. French toast Norway maple Rocky Mountain spotted fever Labrador retriever Rule 4: Capitalize a title when used with a person’s name. Professor Art Official BUT a professor Dr. Serge E. Call BUT a doctor Rule 5: Capitalize each letter in made from capitalized words. IRS (Internal Revenue Service) NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) NOTE: Some abbreviations are capitalized even though the words they stand for

are not. RBI (runs batted in) MS (manuscript) Rule 6: Capitalize days of the week, months, and special days. Tuesday January Independence Day CAUTION: Do not capitalize the seasons. Not: the Fall semester But: the fall semester Rule 7: Capitalize major words in a title.

Books: Gone with the Wind Newspapers: The Christian Science Monitor

Poems: “Dover Beach” Plays: Death of a Salesman Short Stories: “The Lady, or the Tiger?”

NOTE: Articles (such as a, the), prepositions (such as of, with), and conjunctions

(such as or) of fewer than five letters do not get capitalized unless they begin a title.

Rule 8: Always capitalize the pronoun I, even in contractions. I’m not sure what I did to offend you, but I’ll surely make up for it. Rule 9: Capitalize a region of the country or world; do not capitalize a direction. The Confederacy is also referred to as the South. BUT Many retirees go south during the winter. Rule 10: Capitalize the name of a place, organization, or business only if you give

its actual title. Oak Street Pharmacy the pharmacy on Oak Street BUT a television network Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Rule 11: Capitalize words such as mother only if used as a title. What big eyes you have, Grandmother! BUT My grandmother has big eyes. Rule 12: Capitalize a rank or title only when used with a name. I met General Colin Powell. BUT

A general must consider the welfare of the troops. NOTE: If you can put the word any in front of a noun, that noun should NOT be

capitalized. Rule 13: Capitalize the name of a specific institution, not of a type of institution. We attended Fullerton High School from 1991 to 1995. BUT I should have taken more math courses in high school. Rule 14: Capitalize the name of an official academic course, not a branch of

learning. No one got higher than a B in Biology 101. BUT I have always had a hard time with biology. Rule 15: Capitalize a sacred name, not a secular word made from it. God a godlike figure the Koran a scriptural story Rule 16: Learn to deal with words with two meanings. George Bush is a Republican; Jimmy Carter is a republican. In the case of George Bush, Republican refers to an official political party and should be capitalized. In the case of Jimmy Carter, republican refers only to a type of government and should not be capitalized. Sample Quiz questions

:

1. Choose the sentence that contains no errors in capitalization. a. Traditionally held on the last Thursday in November, thanksgiving is a

uniquely American holiday. b. Traditionally held on the last Thursday in november, Thanksgiving is a

uniquely American holiday. c. Traditionally held on the last Thursday in November, Thanksgiving is a

uniquely American holiday.

Answer: c. Traditionally held on the last Thursday in November, Thanksgiving is a uniquely American holiday.

2. Choose the sentence that contains no error in capitalization. a. One friend of mine has seen The Rocky Horror Picture Show almost a

hundred times. b. One friend of mine has seen The Rocky Horror picture show almost a

hundred times. c. One friend of mine has seen the rocky horror picture show almost a

hundred times. Answer: a. One friend of mine has seen The Rocky Horror Picture Show almost a hundred times.

Colons LEARN FOUR USES FOR THE COLON (;) A colon (;) is a mark of punctuation that appears within a sentence. Never use a colon at the end of a sentence. USE A COLON

1. Between independent (main) clauses. 2. After an independent clause to introduce information. 3. To introduce direct quotations. 4. For other purposes.

THE COLON BETWEEN INDEPENDENT (MAIN) CLAUSES Sometimes, you can use an independent clause to explain, add to, or clarify the meaning of another. You should separate these clauses with a colon.

Stephen King has been busy; he was written more than 27 novels since 1974.

THE COLON AFTER AN INDEPENDENT CLAUSE TO INTRODUCE INFORMATION You can place a colon after an independent clause to introduce information naming sometime in that clause. Alaska is rich in several natural resources: oil, gold, copper, and uranium. Only one city is called “eternal”: Rome. THE COLON TO INTRODUCE DIRECT QUOTATIONS You can use a colon to introduce a quotation.

The prisoner pleaded with his accusers: “I am innocent. Innocent, I tell you!”

CAUTION: Don’t use a colon to introduce a direct quotation if that quotation is needed to make the sentence you’re writing complete. Not: Pope wrote that: “to err is human.” But: Pope wrote that “to err is human.” THE COLON FOR OTHER PURPOSES

1. In the salutation of a business letter:

Dear Professor Johnson:

2. To separate hours and minutes:

10:55 P.M.

3. Before a subtitle:

Thomas More: A Biography CAUTION: Do not use a colon to separate objects or from . A object is the receiver of an action. A complement comes after the verb and describes the . Object Not: She bought; a saw, a hammer, and a drill. But: She bought a saw, a hammer, and a drill. Complement Not: He is; a good speller but a bad typist. But: He is a good speller but a bad typist. Sample Quiz questions

:

1. Click on the sentence that uses correct punctuation. a. The choir sang the minister’s favorite song: “Amazing Grace.” b. The choir sang: the minister’s favorite song: “Amazing Grace.” c. The choir sang: the minister’s favorite song “Amazing Grace.”

Answer: a. The choir sang the minister’s favorite song: “Amazing Grace.”

2. Click on the sentence that uses correct punctuation. a. Goldie’s Café: serves my favorite dish: Hungarian goulash. b. Goldie’s Café serves my favorite dish: Hungarian goulash. c. Goldie’s Café serves my favorite dish Hungarian goulash.

Answer: b. Goldie’s Café serves my favorite dish: Hungarian goulash.

COMMA SPLICES AVOID COMMA SPLICES A splice is an error similar to a fused sentence. A fused sentence joins two (main) clauses without a and/or proper punctuation. A comma splice joins two complete sentences with a comma. However, a comma is not strong enough to join two independent (main) clauses. You can correct a comma splice by using the same five methods used to correct fused sentences. NOT: Mecca is Islam’s holiest city, Medina is also an important religious center. BUT: Mecca is Islam’s holiest city. Medina is also an important religious center. OR: Mecca is Islam’s holiest city, but Medina is also an important religious

center. OR: Mecca is Islam’s holiest city; Medina is also an important religious center. OR: Mecca is Islam’s holiest city; however, Medina is also an important

religious center. OR: Although Mecca is Islam’s holiest city, Medina is also an important

religious center. Sample Quiz questions

:

1. One of the following items contains a comma splice, another is a run – on (or fused) sentence, and a third is correct. Click on the item that is correct.

a. My motorcycle wouldn’t start on Friday it had been hit by lightning. b. My motorcycle wouldn’t start on Friday, for it had been hit by lightning. c. My motorcycle wouldn’t start on Friday, it had been hit by lightning.

Answer: b. My motorcycle wouldn’t start on Friday, for it had been hit by lightning

2. One of the following items contains a comma splice, another is a run – on (or fused) sentence, and a third is correct. Click on the item that is correct.

a. The forecaster said it would rain on Sunday it might be sunny. b. The forecaster said it would rain; however, on Sunday it might be sunny. c. The forecaster said it would rain, on Sunday it might be sunny.

Answer: b. The forecaster said it would rain; however, on Sunday it might be sunny.

Commas LEARN NINE WAYS TO USE COMMAS USE A COMMA IN A COMPOUND SENTENCE A sentence contains two (main) clauses joined by a comma and one of the conjunctions: and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet. An independent clause contains a and a and expresses a complete idea. An independent clause is the heart of any sentence. In a compound sentence, the comma comes before the coordinating conjunction. subject verb cc subject verb Andi has so she knows some Portuguese. been to Brazil , subject verb cc subject verb Jerry can yet she rarely does. speak ancient Greek , Punctuating Long Compound Sentences Some compound sentences begin or end with phrases. Other begins with dependent clauses. Such phrases and clauses can also take commas. subject verb subject verb When he listened he began my to father opera was , young and , to learn Italian , at least the kind used

on stage. USE A COMMA AFTER AN INTRODUCTORY ELEMENT Introductory elements are words, , or clauses that come at the beginning of a sentence. Subordinate (dependent) clause: As I walked through the crowd, someone picked my pocket. Phrase: In fact, all of my money was stolen. Word: Fortunately, I was carrying only two dollars at the time. NOTE: Remember that introductory elements

1. Begin . 2. Introduce clausess.

REVIEW THESE IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS Phrase: Groups of words without a subject or predicate (verb). Subordinate

clause: Group of words with a subject and predicate (verb) that does not express

a complete idea.

Mainclause: Group of words with a subject and predicate (verb) that expresses a complete idea. The main clause is the heart of a sentence.

USE COMMAS TO SEPARATE ITEMS IN A SERIES To keep the meaning of your sentences clear, use commas to separate , , , , , and that come one after another in a series. NOTE: In general, do not set off pairs of words, phrases, or clauses with commas.

Not: Children feared the man who wore the red hat, and the funny suit.

But: Children feared the man who wore the red hat and the funny suit.

• Commas Separating Words in a Series

Nouns: Tibet, Japan, Sri Lanka, and Nepal are countries in Asia. Adjectives: A cold, rainy, windy day is no time to go camping in the Andres Mountains. Adverbs: The pilgrims moved toward Mecca slowly, carefully, and devoutly.

• Commas Separating Phrases in a Series : Lincoln wrote that “the government of the people, by

the people, for the people shall not perish from the earth.”

: To be free, to care for children, and to worship God are my

mother’s priorities. : Running barefoot over rocks, climbing over barbed

wire, and forging a stream, the young slave finally escaped.

• Commas Separating Clauses in a Series

clauses: For the most part, Mexicans speak Spanish,

Brazilians speak Portuguese, and Haitians speak French.

clauses: Many problems remained between North and South

after the last shot of the Civil War was fired, after Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox, and after Lincoln was assassinated.

NOTE: You may omit the comma before the last item if you are sure its absence won’t confuse readers. Whichever method you use, be consistent.

USE A COMMA AROUND A NONRESTRICTIVE MODIFIER AND A SENTENCE INTERRUPTER A nonrestrictive modifier (adjective) helps describe a noun but does not define it and is not essential to its meaning. If you left that modifier out of the sentence, the sentence’s meaning would not change. A restrictive modifier identifies a noun or distinguishes it from all other such nouns. This type of modifier limits the noun meaning ot one particular person, place or thing.

Nonrestrictive: Sally Franks, who learned to drive at age 13, works as an mechanic at Ted’s Garage.

Restrictive: The woman who works as a mechanic at Ted’s Garage learned to drive at age 13.

An Easy Way to Distinguish Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Modifiers A modifier that can be removed without affecting the meaning of the sentence is nonrestrictive and needs commas.

Students, who can use campus services free of charge, must show their IDs before entering the library.

If you removed the modifier, the sentence would read

Students must show their IDs before entering the library. The clause who can use campus services free of charge doesn’t restrict the meaning of students to a specific group of students. The clause refers to all students. A sentence interrupter is a word or phrase that appears in the middle of a sentence and forces the reader to pause. Most interrupters introduce another though that is not as important as the interrupted though. In other words, sentence interrupters are nonrestrictive. Always place commas around sentence interrupters. He was given all that money, we think, by his aunt. The basement door, claims my father, was forced open. USE A COMMA TO SEPARATE COORDINATE ADJECTIVES Coordinate adjectives are two or more describers that follow one another and describe the same noun. An old, red barn sat on the hill. Sometimes, adjectives you think describe the same noun really describe a larger term, which contains an adjective and a noun. The old high school was torn down. High describes school, but old does not. Old describes the larger term highschool. An Easy Way to Tell Whether Adjectives Are Coordinate If placing the word and between the adjectives makes sense, they are coordinate and can be separated by a comma.

Coordinate: The barn, which was old and red, sat on a hill. Not Coordinate: The school, which was old and (?)high, was torn down. CAUTION: Don’t separate two coordinate adjectives with both a comma and and. Not: The old, and red barn sat on a hill. But: The old, red barn sat on a hill. USE COMMAS IN DATES, ADDRESSES, NUMBERS, AND TITLES

• Place commas in dates between the day, date, and year. July 4, 1776 Thursday, March 31, 1939

CAUTION: Don’t use a comma if you are mentioning the month and year only. Not: July, 1776 But: July 1776

• Place commas in addresses

In a sentence, use a comma to separate the street address from the city. However, when addressing an envelope, place the street address on one line and the city on the next. In this case, do not follow the street address with a comma.

Bertrand Bong lives at 10 Willow Drive, Eugene, Idaho. BUT Bertrand Bong 10 Willow Drive Eugene, Idaho 00000

Always place a comma between city and state or city and country. When writing a sentence, use a comma to separate the state or country and any information that follows.

They have lived in Mexico City, Mexico, since 1997; before that they lived in Seattle, Washington, and several other large American cities.

• Place Commas in Numbers

Use commas in units of more than three digits, setting off every third digit as you count from the right. They paid $95,000 for their house. Her wedding dress cost $1,000.

• Use Commas with Titles and Degrees

Titles: LauraLegal, Esq. Degrees: Philosophie, Ph.D. NOTE: If you place a comma before a title or a degree, you should place one after

the title or degree unless the title or degree ends the sentence. Steve Smith, M.D., graduated from Duke University. USE A COMMA TO SET OFF A DIRECTION QUOTATION

A quotation uses another writer’s exact words within quotation marks. Use direct quotations to include dialogue or to support your own ideas with opinions of others. According to Shakespeare, “Crabbed age and youth cannot live together.” “Praise be to Allah, the lord of creation,” said Muhammad. CAUTION: Don’t use a comma if the quotation ends in a question mark or exclamation point. “Who was president of the Confederacy?” Jo asked. “Don’t trust him!” she screamed. “He’s not one of us.” USE COMMAS TO TAKE THE PLACE OF WORDS Frequently, you can replace the conjunction and with a comma. The dog was frightened , tired , And hungry. OR The dog was frightened , tired , Hungry. You can even use a comma to replace several words, thereby streamlining your writing and giving it variety and emphasis. This practice is especially useful in sentences that express a contrast. He was hardworking, not brilliant. USE COMMAS TO MAKE SENTENCES CLEAR You can sometimes make sentences clearer by placing commas between words that, when set side by side, might be misleading, confusing, or unintentionally humorous.

Not: Whenever he cooked the cat climbed onto the counter. But: Whenever he cooked, the cat climbed onto the counter. LEARN WHEN NOT TO USE A COMMA

1. To separate a subject and verb even if the subject is followed by several adjectives:

Not: A bird with large, red wings and a bright yellow tail, perched on my window. But: A bird with large, red wings and a bright yellow tail perched on my window.

2. To separate a verb and its object: verb direct object

Not: dearly love, artichoke hearts. verb direct object But: dearly love artichoke hearts.

3. To separate a verb and its complement: Complements are adjectives that come after the verb and describe the subject.

Not: The weather has been, cold and rainy. But: The weather has been cold and rainy.

4. To separate an adjective and the word it describes: Not: The prisoner climbed a 10 – foot, wall. But: The prisoner climbed a 10 – foot wall.

5. To separate paired words and phrases: Not: Professor Mendez teaches both French, and Spanish. But: Professor Mendez teaches both French and Spanish.

6. To set off subordinate elements at the end of a sentence: Not: The Romans built roads across their empire, because their armies needed to

move quickly from one province to another. But: The Romans built roads across their empire because their armies needed to

move quickly from one province to another. NOTE: For easier reading, you may put a comma before a participial phrase that

ends a sentence:

People lost in the cave screamed, hoping rescuers outside world hear them.

Sample Quiz questions:

1. Choose the item that uses a comma or commas correctly.

a. I try my best, but I still cannot understand the metric system. b. I try my best but, I still cannot understand the metric system. c. I try my best, but, I still cannot understand the metric system.

Answer: a. I try my best, but I still cannot understand the metric system.

2. Choose the item that uses a comma or commas correctly. a. Originating in ninth – century China the story of Cinderella has many

forms. b. Originating in ninth – century China, the story of Cinderella has many

forms. c. Originating in ninth – century, China the story of Cinderella has many

forms. Answer: b. Originating in ninth – century China, the story of Cinderella has many forms.

CONJUNCTIONS (and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet) join words or ideas of the same importance.

(such as although, because, rather than, since, though, unless, while, and

whenever) join ideas by showing that one is less important than the other. Such conjunctions introduce subordinate (dependent) clauses. Virginia is one of the original thirteen states, but West Virginia became a state in 1863.

Although Texas declared its independence from Mexico in 1836, that state did not

enter the Union until 1845. Sample Quiz questions

:

1. Identify the conjunction (s) in the following sentence. We were terrified, yet we remained calm.

a. terrified b. yet c. calm

Answer: b. yet

2. Identify the conjunction(s) in the following sentence. Although he has traveled to Europe several times, Tim has never visited Belgium.

a. Although b. several c. visited

Answer: a. Although

Dangling Modifiers CORRECT DANGLING MODIFIERS Modifiers must point clearly to the words they describe. Otherwise, sentences may seem illogical. This happens if you forget to mention the word a modifier is supposed to describe. In such cases, the modifier is said to “dangle”; it has nothing to hang on to. Say you wrote Dangling: Walking across the field, the river came into view. Your reader would surely know that you – not the river – were walking. But that’s not what the sentence says. To correct dangling modifiers, add the word(s) you forgot. To do so, however, you might have to rewrite the sentence. Revised: Walking across the field, I saw the river. Now, Walking across the field clearly points to the pronoun I.

Working with It Is and It Was Constructions You might create a dangling modifier if you follow a modifier with a main clause whose subject is it and whose verb is was or another form of to be.

Dangling: Concerned about the rain, it was decided that the picnic should be canceled.

[Concerned about the rain has nothing to modify except the

word it, which refers to no word in the sentence.] Revised: Concerned about the rain, our club decided to call off the

picnic. [Now, Concerned about the rain clearly refers to club, a

subject the reader can identify.] Sample Quiz questions

:

1. Click on the sentence that contains a dangling modifier. a. Touching Anna’s hand, Enrique’s heart pounded. b. Touching Anna’s hand, Enrique felt his heart pounding. c. Enrique’s heart pounded as he touched Anna’s hand.

Answer: a. Touching Anna’s hand, Enrique’s heart pounded.

2. Click on the sentence that contains a dangling modifier. a. She heard a scream as she approached the house.

b. A scream was heard approaching the house. c. Approaching the house, she heard a scream.

Answer: b. A scream was heard approaching the house.

Dashes USE THE DASH ( -- ) You can create a dash ( -- ) by typing two hyphens with no space in between ( -- ). A dash is used to

1. Set off material that needs emphasis. 2. Help clarify an idea. 3. Separate a list from an independent clause at the beginning or end of a

sentence. SETTING OFF MATERIAL THAT NEEDS EMPHASIS George Bush became the first incumbent vice president -- since 1836 -- to win election to the presidency. The phrase since 1836 is being emphasized. HELPING TO CLARIFY AN IDEA In 1989, President Bush responded effectively to the upheaval in Eastern Europe – by offering economic aid to Hungary, Poland, and Czechoslovakia and by lending his support to the reunification of Germany.

NOTE: The more formal colon can replace the dash. SEPARATING A LIST FROM AN INDEPENDENT CLAUSE The strengthening of the Western alliance, the Persian Gulf War, and the signing of several arms reduction treaties with the Soviet Union -- these were the great successes of President Bush’s foreign policy. NOTE: A dash can come before or after an independent clause. Sample Quiz questions

:

1. Paying attention to the correct use of dashes, choose the best written item. a. Yosemite, Mount Rainier, and Grand Canyon these are three -- of my

favorite national parks. b. Yosemite, Mount Rainier, and Grand Canyon -- these are three -- of my

favorite national parks. c. Yosemite, Mount Rainier, and Grand Canyon -- these are three of my

favorite national parks. Answer: c. Yosemite, Mount Rainier, and Grand Canyon -- these are three of my favorite national parks.

2. Paying attention to the correct use of dashes, choose the best written item.

a. William Shakespeare, John Keats, William Butler Yeats -- these are my favorite poets.

b. William Shakespeare -- John Keats -- William Butler Yeats -- these are my favorite poets.

c. William Shakespeare, John Keats, William Butler Yeats these are my favorite -- poets.

Answer: a. William Shakespeare, John Keats, William Butler Yeats -- these are my favorite poets.

Hyphens LEARN FOUR USES FOR THE HYPHEN

1. Use hyphens to join compound – words that work together to describe a noun. Make sure these words come before, not after, the noun.

Hyphenated Not hyphenated 10 – foot pole a pole that is 10 feet long executive – training course a course to train executives Chicago – Los Angeles train a train from Chicago to Los Angeles appliance – repair shop a shop that repairs appliances

2. Use hyphens to connect prefixes to capitalized words.

anti – Communist pre – Colombian un – American

3. Use hyphens to connect prefixes such as all-, ex-, post-, pro-, and self- to some

words.

all – inclusive ex – husband pro – family self – absorbed

In many cases, however, prefixes are attached to words without hyphens. midterm online premarital

postmortem

4. Use hyphens with two – word numbers from 21 (twenty – one) to 99 (ninety – nine):

Fifty – five students in the freshmen class are majoring in psychology.

Sample Quiz questions

:

1. Click on the sentence that uses hyphens correctly. a. Thirty – five employees were honored at the company’s annual awards

banquet. b. Thirty five employees were honored at the company’s annual – awards

banquet.

c. Thirty five employees were honored at the company’s annual awards banquet.

Answer: a. Thirty – five employees were honored at the company’s annual awards banquet.

2. Click on the sentence that uses hyphens correctly. a. The fifty – year – old company has begun an ongoing – review of its

plant’s equipment needs. b. The fifty – year – old company has begun an ongoing review of its plant’s

equipment needs. c. The fifty year old company has begun an ongoing review of its plant’s

equipment needs. Answer: b. The fifty – year – old company has begun an ongoing review of its plant’s equipment needs.

Italics LEARN TO USE ITALICS Italic style uses letters that slant upward and to the right. If you are not using a typewriter or computer that makes italics, underline words that would appear in italics. When underlining is not possible (such as in a text – based email message, often an underscore character ( _ ) is used to indicate italics or emphasis.

1. Emphasize a word or phrase.

The speaker said, “The U.S. owes its lenders three trillion dollars. Now that’s a deficit.”

The speaker said, “The U.S. owes its lenders three trillion dollars. Now that’s a _deficit_.”

2. Show that a word or letter is being used as a word or letter.

The word separate contains two e’s and two a’s.

3. Write the title of a book, magazine, play, film, television show, long poems, or

newspaper.

The Stranger (novel) The Atlantic Monthly (magazine) Macbeth (play) High Noon (film) Sesame Street (television show) The Canterbury Tales (long poem) The Christian Science Monitor (newspaper)

Sample Quiz questions

:

1. Click on the sentence that uses italics correctly. a. The New York Evening Post was founded by Alexander Hamilton. b. The “New York Evening Post” was founded by Alexander Hamilton. c. The New York Evening Post was founded by Alexander Hamilton.

Answer: c. The New York Evening Post was founded by Alexander Hamilton.

2. Click on the sentence that uses italics correctly. a. Life magazine bought us vivid pictures of wars, floods, famines, and other

international tragedies when there was no television. b. Life magazine bought us vivid pictures of wars, floods, famines, and other

international tragedies when there was no television.

c. “Life” magazine brought us vivid pictures of wars, floods, famines, and other international tragedies when there was no television.

Answer: a. Life magazine bought us vivid pictures of wars, floods, famines, and other international tragedies when there was no television.

Misplaced Modifiers LEARN TO SPOT MODIFIERS describe or reveal something about other words. Modifiers act as or . Adjectives

describe and . Adverbs describe , , and other adverbs. adjective noun An honest politician is a treasure. [Honest describes politician.] adjective noun Towering above the city, the cathedral shimmered in the sunlight. [Towering above the city describes cathedral.] verb adverb Questioned by the police, the suspect responded nervously. [Nervously explains how the suspect responded.] Adverb verb adjective noun Before he entered the navy, my father worked as an automotive engineer. [Before he entered the navy tells when father worked; automotive describes engineer.] CORRECT MISPLACED MODIFIERS Place the modifier as close to the word it describes as you can. If you don’t, your reader may have difficulty telling which word in the sentence you want to modify. Misplaced: When only a boy, Joe’s aunt took him to the rodeo. Revised: Joe’s aunt took him to the rodeo when he was only a boy. The first sentence actually describes Joe’s aunt as a boy. AVOID CONFUSING MODIFIERS Modifiers cause confusion when they refer to words that come before and after them at the same time. Confusing: She claimed Friday she saw a UFO. [Did the UFO appear on Friday, or

was Friday when she claimed to have seen it?] Revised: Friday, she claimed she saw a UFO. [Friday is when she made the claim.] OR Revised: She claimed she saw a UFO Friday. [Friday is when she saw it.]

Placing the Words Only, Even, and Just Where you place the words only and just in a sentence can change the meaning of a sentence.

1. Sam only worked in Phoenix for three years. 2. Sam worked only in Phoenix for three years. 3. Sam worked in Phoenix for only three years.

NOTE: These three sentences are correct, but they mean different things.

Place the modifier as close as you can to the word it describes.

1. Sam only worked in Phoenix for three years. Only modifies worked, a verb. The sentence means “Sam did nothing but work in Phoenix for three years.”

2. Sam worked only in Phoenix for three years. Only modifies in Phoenix. The sentence means “Sam worked nowhere but in Phoenix for three years.”

3. Sam worked in Phoenix for only three years. Only modifies three. The sentence means “Sam worked in Phoenix no more than three years.” CORRECT DANGLING MODIFIERS Modifiers must point clearly to the words they describe. Otherwise, sentences may seem illogical. This happens if you forget to mention the word a modifier is suppose to describe. In such cases, the modifier is said to “dangle”; it has nothing to hang on to. Say you wrote Dangling: Walking across the field, the river came into view. Your reader would surely know that you – not the river – were walking. But that’s not what the sentence says. To correct dangling modifiers, add the word(s) you forgot. To do so, however, you might have to rewrite the sentence. Revised: Walking across the field, I saw the river. Now, Walking across the field clearly points to the pronoun I.

Working with It Is and It was Construction

You might create a dangling modifier if you follow a modifier with a main clause who subject is It and whose verb is was or another form of to be. Dangling: Concerned about the rain, it was decided that the picnic should be

canceled. [Concerned about the rain has nothing to modify except the word it, which refers to no word in the sentence.] Revised: Concerned about the rain, our club decided to call of the picnic. [Now, Concerned about the rain clearly refers to club, a subject the reader can identify.] MAINTAIN PARALLELISM A sentence may contain a series of words, , or . To make it , be consistent within the series: use with nouns, with verbs, clauses with subordinate clauses, and so on. Not Parallel: He bought a tie, a shirt, and purchased a scarf. Parallel: He bought a tie, a shirt, and a scarf. The first sentence contains a series that is not consistent. The first two items are nouns, but the third – purchased a scarf – contains a verb. In the second sentence, all three items – tie, shirt, and scarf – are nouns. USING PARALLELISM TO CREATE COMPARISONS AND CONTRASTS Always compare like things; otherwise, your sentence won’t be parallel. Not parallel: The mountains of the West are younger than the East. [This sentence compares things that are not alike: the mountains and the East.] You can’t correct this problem in two ways:

Parallel: The mountains of the West are younger than the mountains of the East.

Parallel: The mountains of the West are younger than those of the East. CREATING PARALLELISM WITH CORRELATIVES Some pairs of words can help make sentences parallel. These are correlatives: either … or, neither ... nor, and not only … but also. When you use these pairs, remember to join the same kinds of elements.

Not Parallel: In December, the weather is either cool, or we get a warming trend with rain.

Parallel: In December, the weather is either cool or warm and rainy. NOTE: In the first sentence, either introduces an adjective – cool – but or

introduces a clause – we get a warming trend with rain. In the second sentence, or also introduces adjectives – warm and rainy.

USING THAT TO CREATE PARALLELISM You can use the relative pronoun that to introduce a subordinate clause. But be consistent if you use more than one subordinate clause. Make sure each is introduced the same way. Not Parallel: I knew that I wouldn’t get there and my friends would be worried. Parallel: I knew that I wouldn’t get there and that my friends would be

worried. NOTE: In the first example, one subordinate clause is introduced by that; the

other isn’t. In the second example, both subordinate clauses are introduced by that; the sentence is parallel.

AVOID ILLOGICAL VERB TENSE SHIFTS The of a verb is the time a verb expresses. If not done logically, shifting from one tense to another in the same sentence can cause problems. The following sentence uses both the present tense (drives) and the past tense (took) to express things happening at different times. Therefore, in this case shifting from present tense to past tense is logical. present past Usually he drives to work, but yesterday he took the bus. Shifting verb tenses logically can serve a purpose; to show actions occurring at different times. But shifting verb tenses illogically – without a good reason – can make a sentence hard to read and understand. past present Illogical shift: Whenever visitors approached, our dogs barks loudly. Approached is in the past tense; barks is in the present. But the logic of the sentence demands that both verbs be in the same tense. After all, the sentence begins with Whenever, so the dog must be barking at the same time the visitors approach. Here are the two correct versions: All present: Whenever visitors approach, our dogs barks loudly.

All past: Whenever visitors approached, our dog barked loudly. AVOID ILLOGICAL VOICE SHIFTS Verbs take various tenses. They also come in active voice or passive voice. A verb in the active voice takes a subject – person, place, or thing – that does an action. A verb in the passive voice takes a subject that is acted upon. Active: The students admire the teacher. Passive: The teacher is admired by the students.

NOTE: Verbs in the passive voice always contain at least two words: a form of the verb to be (is) and the participle (admired).

CAUTION: Shifting from one voice to another in the same sentence often makes the

sentence hard to read. Shifting the voice also makes your messages less direct and emphatic.

Inconsistent: Beautiful birds were seen as she entered the garden. Consistent: She saw beautiful birds as she entered the garden. The first example begins in the passive voice and then shifts to the active. In the second example, both verbs are in the active voice. Sample Quiz questions

:

1. Choose the item that has no misplaced modifiers. a. In the summer of 2006, Donna, a graduate of my high school, made a film

about hurricanes. b. Donna, a graduate of my high school, made in the summer of 2006 a film

about hurricanes. c. Donna, a graduate of my high school, made a film about hurricanes in the

summer of 2006. Answer: a. In the summer of 2006, Donna, a graduate of my high school, made a film about hurricanes.

2. Choose the item that has no misplaced modifiers. a. Bought by his wife, he found it hard to program the DVD player. b. His DVD player, which his wife had bought him, proved hard to program. c. His DVD player proved hard to program, which his wife had bought him.

Answer: b. His DVD player, which his wife had bought him, proved hard to program.

NOUNS A names a person, place, or thing. There are two types of nouns: common and proper. Proper nouns name specific persons, places, or things. Proper nouns are capitalized. Common Proper continent Africa country Zimbabwe religion Islam desert Kalahari island Madagascar ocean Indian Ocean Concrete vs. Abstract Nouns Concrete nouns name things we can see, hear, smell, feel, and taste. Abstract nouns name ideas, emotions, and subjects.

Concrete nouns Abstract nouns computer desk giraffe house difficulty beauty history honestly kitchen lumber mother river hate idea jealousy love tree umbrella window zoo romance religion sorrow weakness Gerunds: Nouns That Show Activity are nouns that end in –ing and that show activities, such as asking, driving, living,

moving, reading, seeking, and writing. The Functions of Nouns in a Sentence Nouns act as subjects and objects. A subject is the person, place, or thing that does an action or that the sentence is describing. An object is a person, place, or thing that receives an action. Subject: The speaker gave an interesting lecture. The speaker was well prepared. Object: The audience applauded the speaker. CAUTION: To be complete, a sentence does not need an object, but it must have a

subject. For example, The speaker was well prepared has no object, but it is a complete sentence.

Sample Quiz questions

:

1. Identify the noun(s) in the following sentence. The stapler is broken.

a. The b. stapler c. broken

Answer: b. stapler

2. Identify the noun(s) in the following sentence. Mathematics can be difficult.

a. Mathematics b. can c. difficult

Answer: a. Mathematics

Numbers WORK WITH NUMBERS AND NUMERALS As a general rule, spell out numbers from one through nine. Use for all others. The U.S. Senate welcomed nine new members. BUT There are 100 U.S. senators from 50 states. However

1. Spell out large round numbers.

The populations of China is over one billion.

2. Spell out times unless you are giving the exact time; always use numerals with A.M. and P.M.

He went to bed at 11 o’clock. BUT

The train leaves precisely at 8:47 A.M.

3. Use numerals with units of measure and percents, but follow the general rule for units of time.

The stock he bought has lost 4 percent of its value. BUT We will be back in two weeks.

4. Use numerals – not words – for dates, exact sums of money, scores of games,

addresses, page numbers, exact times of the day, and miles per hour.

He was born on March 1, 1941, at 6:15 A.M. at 10 Summit Street. The book cost $27.99. On page 17, I read my team had won by a score of 8 to 3. He was going 78 mph in a 55 mph zone.

CAUTION: Never begin a sentence with a numeral. Write out a number that begins a

sentence or rewrite the sentence so that the numeral appears later.

Not: 170 people attend the fund – raiser. But: One – hundred – seventy people attended the fund – raiser. Or: The fund – raiser was attended by 170 people. Sample Quiz questions

:

1. Click on the item that uses numbers or numerals correctly. a. Enrollment in each class is limited to twenty – five students. b. Enrollment in each class is limited to 25 students. c. 25 students is the limit on enrollment in each class.

Answer: a. Enrollment in each class is limited to twenty – five students.

2. Click on the item that uses numbers or numerals correctly. a. 50,000 tickets to the concert were sold on the first day; the price of the

tickets ranged from thirty – five dollars to sixty dollars. b. Fifty thousand tickets to the concert were sold on the first day; the price of

the tickets ranged from thirty – five dollars to sixty dollars. c. Fifty thousand tickets to the concert were sold on the first day; the price of

the tickets ranged from $35 to $60. Answer: c. Fifty thousand tickets to the concert were sold on the first day; the price of the tickets ranged from $35 to $60.

Parallelism MAINTAIN PARALLELISM A sentence may contain a series of words, , or . To make it , be consistent within the series: use with nouns, with verbs, clauses with subordinate clauses, and so on. Not Parallel: He bought a tie, a shirt, and purchased a scarf. Parallel: He bought a tie, a shirt, and a scarf. The first sentence contains a series that is not consistent. The first two items are nouns, but the third – purchased a scarf – contains a verb. In the second sentence, all three items – tie, shirt, and scarf – are nouns. USING PARALLELISM TO CREATE COMPARISONS AND CONTRASTS Always compare like things; otherwise, your sentence won’t be parallel. Not parallel: The mountains of the West are younger than the East.

[This sentence compares things that are not alike: the mountains and the East.]

You can correct this problem in two ways: Parallel: The mountains of the West are younger than the mountains of the East. Parallel: The mountains of the West are younger than those of the East. CREATING PARALLELISM WITH CORRELATIVES Some pairs of words can help make sentences parallel. These are correlatives: either … or; neither … nor; and not only … but also. When you use these pairs, remember to join the same kinds of elements. Not Parallel: In December, the weather is either cool, or we get a warming

trend with rain. Parallel: In December, the weather is either cool or warm and rainy. NOTE: In the first sentence, either introduces an adjective – cool – but or

introduces a clause – we get a warming trend with rain. In the second sentence, or also introduces adjectives – warm and rainy.

USING THAT TO CREATE PARALLELISM You can use the relative pronoun that to introduce a subordinate clause. But be consistent if you use more than one subordinate clause. Make sure each is introduced the same way.

Not Parallel: I knew that I wouldn’t get there and my friends would be worried. Parallel: I knew that I wouldn’t get there and that my friends would be

worried. NOTE: In the first example, one subordinate clause is introduced by that, the

other isn’t. In the second example, both subordinate clauses are introduced by that, the sentence is parallel.

Sample Quiz questions

:

1. Choose the sentence that is not parallel. a. The house’s new owners fixed the porch, planted three pine trees, and the

bedrooms were repainted. b. The house’s new owners fixed the porch, planted three pine trees, and the

repainted the bedrooms. c. Under the house’s new owners, the porch was fixed, three pine trees were

planted, and the bedrooms were repainted. Answer: a. The house’s new owners fixed the porch, planted three pine trees, and the bedrooms were repainted.

2. Choose the sentence that is not parallel. a. In the winter, Sal plays hockey; in the summer, he plays baseball. b. In the winter, Sal plays hockey; in the summer, baseball is played by him. c. In the winter Sal plays hockey, but in the summer he plays baseball.

Answer: b. In the winter, Sal plays hockey; in the summer, baseball is played by him.

Parentheses USE PARENTHESES [( )] Parentheses [( )] enclose important words that would interrupt the flow of the . Parentheses are used to

1. Set off an explanatory sentence within a sentence. 2. Set off words that specify. 3. Enclose brief definitions. 4. Enclose numbers or letters that mark items in a list.

NOTE: Parentheses are always used in pairs. SETTING OFF AN EXPLANATORY SENTENCE Ishmael (he is the speaker in Melville’s Moby Dick

) takes his name from a biblical character who was cast into the desert.

In this case, the words within parentheses form a complete sentence. SETTING OFF WORDS THAT SPECIFY Five countries (Somalia, Kenya, Sudan, Eritrea, and Djibouti) border Ethiopia. Somalia, Kenya, Sudan, Eritrea, and Djibouti name the five countries. ENCLOSING BRIEF DEFINITIONS The Egyptians practiced embalming (the preservation of a corpse through chemical treatment). ENCLOSING NUMBERS OR LETTERS THAT MARK ITEMS IN A LIST Before becoming president, George Bush was (1) a member of the House of Representatives, (2) U.S. ambassador to the United Nations, (3) chief liaison officer to China, (4) director of the CIA, and (5) vice president. Sample Quiz questions

:

1. Choose the sentence that demonstrates the correct use of parentheses. a. My brother finally succeed we always believed in him (in earning his Ph.

D. from Princeton University) b. My brother finally succeeded we always believed in him (in earning his

Ph.D.) from Princeton University. c. My brother finally succeeded (we always believed in him) in earning his

Ph.D. from Princeton University.

Answer: c. My brother finally succeeded (we always believed in him) in earning his Ph.D. from Princeton University.

2. Choose the sentence that demonstrates the correct use of parentheses. a. Jupiter (easily the largest planet in the solar system) was named after the

Roman king of the gods. b. Jupiter easily the largest planet (in the solar system) was named after the

Roman king of the gods. c. Jupiter (easily) the largest planet in the solar system was named after the

Roman king of the gods. Answer: a. Jupiter (easily the largest planet in the solar system) was named after the Roman king of the gods.

Phrases & Clauses INDEPENDENT (MAIN) CLAUSES To be complete, a sentence must contain at least one clause. An independent clause states a complete idea. Also known as a clause, an independent clause expresses the sentence’s main idea even when joined with phrases or subordinate clauses. subject verb The president resigned. Subject verb My mother was born in Nigeria. subject verb Lenin’s revolution was successful. DEPENDENT (SUBORDINATE) CLAUSES A clause has a subject and verb but does not express a complete thought. A dependent clause must be joined to an independent clause. Otherwise, the lone clause will be a sentence fragment – an error. Also known as a clause, a dependent clause expresses an idea less important than (subordinate to) an idea expressed in a main clause. Below, the words in bold are dependent clauses. They are attached to independent (main) clauses in complete sentences: After a long and successful career, the president resigned. My mother, who is now 58, was born in Nigeria. Lenin’s revolution was successful because living conditions in early

– century Russia were deplorable.

PHRASES Phrases are groups of words without subjects. Like dependent clauses, phrases express incomplete thoughts and cannot act as sentences. Phrases must be attached to independent (main) clauses to avoid being fragments. According to the Old Testament, Abel was the second son of Adam and Eve. Cain, Abel’s older brother, murdered him out of jealousy. Sample Quiz questions

:

1. Identify the dependent (subordinate) clause(s) in the following sentence. To begin the concert, the conductor chose a piece by Mahler, who was an Austrian composer.

a. who was an Austrian composer b. the conductor chose a piece by Mahler c. To begin

Answer: a. who was an Austrian composer

2. Identify the independent (main) clause(s) in the following sentence. The Greeks defeated the Persians at the Battle of Marathon.

a. The Greeks defeated the Persians b. at the Battle of Marathon c. the Battle of Marathon

Answer: a. The Greeks defeated the Persians

PREPOSITIONS A comes before a noun or pronoun and shows how that word relates to other words in the sentence.

Lincoln spoke of a government "of the people."

In the First World War, Turkey fought against Britain and the Allies.

Prepositions about before for out above behind from over across below in through after between inside to

against beyond into toward along by near under

among despite of upon at during on with

Sample Quiz questions

:

1. Identify the preposition(s) in the following sentence. The eagle flew across the blue sky.

a. eagle b. across c. blue

Answer: b. across

2. Identify the preposition(s) in the following sentence. Between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries, 15 million Africans were shipped across the Atlantic in slave ships.

a. Were b. between/across/in c. sixteenth/nineteenth d. million

Answer: b. between/across/in

PRONOUNS replace nouns. A pronoun stands for a person, place, or thing. There are five types of

pronouns: personal, relative, demonstrative, indefinite, and reflexive. pronouns can act as subjects or objects. They can also show possession.

Subjects: I, we, you, he, she, it, one, they Objects: me, us, you, him, her, it, one, them Possessive: my, mine, our, ours, your, yours, his, her, hers, its, their, theirs pronouns introduce dependent (subordinate) clauses – clauses that cannot stand

alone in a sentence. Madagascar is a large island that offers a varied topography. Madagascar lies in the Indian Ocean, which is the world’s third – largest body of water. Relative pronouns

that whichever whom whatever who whomever which whoever whose pronouns point out nouns that follow them.

“This country has been made better because of your example,” said the speaker. Demonstrative pronouns this that these those pronouns point to places and things that are not specific. They act as subjects or

objects, or they show possession. Everyone in my tour group class wanted to visit the ancient Mayan city. No one knew much about the Yucatan people who built it. Indefinite pronouns any each few nothing anybody either many some anyone everybody nobody somebody anything everyone none someone both everything no one something pronouns refer to nouns or pronouns that act as subjects. Reflexive pronouns

always end in –self or –selves: myself, himself, herself, yourself, themselves. She blessed herself as she entered the church.

The police advised him to control himself, or he would be arrested. Sample Quiz Questions

:

1. Identify the pronoun(s) in the following sentence. His photographs are beautiful. a. His b. photographs c. are

Answer: a. His

2. Identify the pronoun(s) in the following sentence. Everyone must participate. a. Everyone b. must c. participate

Answer: a. Everyone

Quotation Marks WORK WITH QUOTATION MARKS (“ “) Quotation marks (“ “) identify words you have taken directly from someone else. They tell readers these words are exactly as your source spoke or wrote them.

“We don’t know a millionth of one percent about anything,” said Thomas Alva Edison. “Toots Shor’s restaurant,” claims Yogi Berra, “is so crowded nobody goes there anymore.”

CAUTION: Don’t put quotation marks around an indirect quotation, which tells what

someone said without using his or her exact words. Not: She said that “she was going to the party.” But: She said that she was going to the party. NOTE: Quotation marks are always used in pairs. QUOTATIONS WITHIN QUOTATIONS Use single quotation marks around a quotation within a quotation. Benita said, “I told Julio, ‘Don’t swing on that branch,’ but he ignored me

and told me to ‘get lost.’” The writer quotes Benita, who is quoting herself and Julio. ‘Don’t swing on that branch’ and ‘get lost’ are quotations within a quotation. QUOTATION MARKS WITH OTHER MARKS OF PUNCTUATION

1. Commas and periods appear inside quotation marks.

When I asked what he wanted, he calmly said, “Money.”

2. Colons and semicolons appear outside quotation marks.

“He who hesitates is not only lost but miles away from the nearest exit”; now that’s the kind of line stand – up comics dream about.

QUOTATION MARKS AROUND TITLES Use quotation marks around titles of newspaper, magazine, and articles; poems; short stories; songs; and episodes of TV programs. B.R. Jerman’s article, “Browning’s poem “My Last Duchess.” The story “Guests of the Nation” is set in Ireland.

Gershwin’s “Summertime” and “I got Rhythm” are classics of American song.

“Who Shot J.R.?” was the most watched episode of Dallas

.

Sample Quiz questions

:

1. Click on the sentence that is punctuated correctly. a. Robert Frost ends his short but lovely poem “Pasture” with an invitation to

the reader: “You come too.” b. poem “Pasture” with an invitation to the reader: “You come too”. c. Robert Frost ends his short but lovely poem Pasture with an invitation to

the reader: You come too. Answer: a. Robert Frost ends his short but lovely poem “Pasture” with an invitation to the reader: “You come too.”

2. Click on the sentence that is punctuated correctly. a. Both Night and Day and Stardust were recorded by Frank Sinatra and

Tommy Dorsey Orchestra in the early 1940s. b. Both “Night and Day” and “Stardust” were recorded by Frank Sinatra and

the Tommy Dorsey Orchestra in the early 1940s. c. Both Night and Day and Stardust were recorded by Frank Sinatra and the

Tommy Dorsey Orchestra in the early 1940s. Answer: b. Both “Night and Day” and “Stardust” were recorded by Frank Sinatra and the Tommy Dorsey Orchestra in the early 1940s.

Run – on sentences AVOID FUSED SENTENCES A sentence, also called a run – on sentence, joins two (main) clauses without a and/or proper punctuation. A fused sentence combines two complete sentences without indicating where one stops and the other begins. Fused: Chefs cook waiters serve. Correct: Chefs cook; waiters serve. Fused: The jury discussed the case carefully they reviewed each piece of

evidence. Correct: The jury discussed the case carefully. They reviewed each piece of

evidence. CORRECT FUSED SENTENCES IN FIVE WAYS

1. End one independent (main) clause with a period. Capitalize the first word of the next.

Not: The apartment dwellers screamed fire engulfed the building. But: The apartment dwellers screamed. Fire engulfed the building.

2. Place a comma (,) and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, for, nor, or, yet, so)

between the independent clauses.

Not: Peter supported his parents and siblings only he had been able to find a job.

But: Peter supported his parents and siblings, for only he had been able to find a job.

3. Place a semicolon (;) between the two independent (main) clauses.

Not: The police car stopped the ambulance sped ahead. But: The police car stopped; the ambulance sped ahead.

4. Place a semicolon (;) and a transition between the independent clauses.

Transitions include words and phrases such as consequently nevertheless after all in fact furthermore nonetheless as a result in other words however therefore for example in the meantime moreover thus in addition on the other hand

Not: Thomas Hardy is remembered chiefly for his novels he also wrote poetry.

But: Thomas Hardy is remembered chiefly for his novels; however, he also wrote poetry.

5. Turn one of the independent (main) clauses into a dependent (subordinate)

clause.

Not: William was the duke of Normandy he became king of England. But: William was the duke of Normandy who became king of England.

Sample Quiz questions

:

1. One of the following items is a run – on (or fused) sentence, another contains a comma splice, and another is correct. Choose the item that is correct.

a. We parked in front of a fire hydrant, for it was the only space available. b. We parked in front of a fire hydrant it was the only space available. c. We parked in front of a fire hydrant, it was the only space available.

Answer: a. We parked in front of a fire hydrant, for it was the only space available.

2. One of the following items is a run – on (or fused) sentence, another contains a comma splice, and another is correct. Choose the item that is correct.

a. Kasia is a wonderful woman, she always goes out of her way to help others.

b. Kasia is a wonderful woman; she always goes out of her way to help others.

c. Kasia is a wonderful woman she always goes out of her way to help others.

Answer: b. Kasia is a wonderful woman; she always goes out of her way to help others.

Semicolons LEARN THREE USES FOR THE SEMICOLON (;) Like a comma, a semicolon (;) tells the reader to pause. However, the semicolon is a stronger mark of punctuation. It separates and that are closely related or that receive the same emphasis. Use a semicolon between

1. (main) clauses. 2. Independent (main) clauses joined by words and phrases. 3. A series of items that contain commas.

NOTE: Unlike periods, question marks, and exclamation points, semicolons

always appear within, not at the end of, sentences. THE SEMICOLON BETWEEN INDEPENDENT (MAIN) CLAUSES Use a semicolon to connect two independent clauses that are closely related and are not connected with a conjunction. An independent clause has a subject and a verb and expresses a complete idea. The coordinating conjunctions are and, or, but, nor, for, so, yet. Woodrow Wilson was the

president of the United States; he followed William Howard Taft.

NOTE: Don’t capitalize a word that follows a semicolon unless it is a proper noun.

Guadeloupe is in the Leeward Islands; Guatemala is in Central America. THE SEMICOLON BETWEEN INDEPENDENT (MAIN) CLAUSES JOINED BY TRANSITIONAL WORDS AND PHRASES In the middle of sentences, come in two forms: adverbs and transitional phrases. Both emphasize and clarify the relationship between the independent clauses they join. Conjunctive Adverb: It’s a good thing Columbus came to America; otherwise, the Italians would never have learned about the tomato. Transitional Phrase: People before Columbus knew the world wasn’t flat; in fact, Eratosthenes accurately measured the earth’s circumference in the third century B.C.

NOTE: Use a comma after a conjunctive adverb or transitional phrase. THE SEMICOLON BETWEEN A SERIES OF ITEMS THAT CONTAIN COMMAS Use a semicolons to separate items in a series when some or all of the items in that series contain commas. Eleanor of Aquitaine (1122 – 1204) was the daughter of William X, duke of Aquitaine; the wife of Louis VII, king of France; and later the wife of Henry of Normandy, who became Henry II of England. There are three items in this list: (1) the daughter of . . . ; (2) the wife of . . . ; and (3) later the wife of . . . If the semicolons were replaced by commas, readers might not be able to tell where one item ends and the next begins. After all, each item already contains a comma of its own. LEARN FOUR USES FOR THE COLON (;) A colon (;) is a mark of punctuation that appears within a sentence. Never use a colon at the end of a sentence. Use a colon

1. Between independent (main) clauses. 2. After an independent clause to introduce information. 3. To introduce direct quotations. 4. For other purposes.

THE COLON BETWEEN INDEPENDENT (MAIN) CLAUSES Sometimes, you can use an independent clause to explain, add to, or clarify the meaning of another. You should separate these clauses with a colon. Stephen King has been busy; he was written more than 27 novels since 1974. THE COLON AFTER AN INDEPENDENT CLAUSE TO INTRODUCE INFORMATION You can place a colon after an independent clause to introduce information naming something in that clause. Alaska is rich in several natural resources: oil, gold, copper, and uranium. Only one city is called “eternal”: Rome. THE COLON TO INTRODUCE DIRECT QUOTATIONS You can use a colon to introduce a quotation.

The prisoner pleaded with his accusers: “I am innocent. Innocent, I tell you!” CAUTION: Don’t use a colon to introduce a direct quotation if that quotation is needed

to make the sentence you’re writing complete. Not: Pope wrote that “to err is human.” But: Pope wrote that “to err is human.” THE COLON FOR OTHER PURPOSES

1. In the salutation of a business letter: Dear Professor Johnson:

2. To separate hours and minutes: 10:55 P.M.

3. Before a subtitle: Thomas More: A Biography CAUTION: Do not use a colon to separate objects or from . A object is the receiver of an action. A complement comes after the verb and describes the . Object Not: She bought; a saw, a hammer, and a drill. But: She bought a saw, a hammer, and a drill. Complement Not: He is; a good speller but a bad typist. But: He is a good speller but a bad typist. WORK WITH QUOTATION MARKS (“”) Quotation marks (“ “) identify words you have taken directly from someone else. They tell readers these words are exactly as your source spoke or wrote them. “We don’t know a millionth of one percent about anything,” said Thomas Alva Edison. “Toots Shor’s restaurant,” claims Yogi Berra. “is so crowded nobody goes there anymore.” CAUTION: Don’t put quotation marks around an indirect quotation, which tells what

someone said without using his or her exact words.

Not: She said that “she was going to the party.” But: She said that she was going to the party. NOTE: Quotation marks are always used in pairs. QUOTATIONS WITHIN QUOTATIONS Use single quotation marks around a quotation within a quotation. Benita said, “I told Julio, ‘Don’t swing on that branch,” but he ignored me and told me to ‘get lost.’” The writer quotes Benita, who is quoting herself and Julio. ‘Don’t swing on that branch’ and ‘get lost’ are quotations within a quotation. QUOTATION MARKS WITH OTHER MARKS OF PUNCTUATION

1. Commas and periods appear inside quotation marks. When I asked what he wanted, he calmly said, “Money.”

2. Colons and semicolons appear outside quotation marks. “He who hesitates is not only lost but miles away from the nearest exit”; now that’s the kind of line stand – up comics dream about. QUOTATION MARKS AROUND TITLES Use quotation marks around titles of newspaper, magazine, and articles; poems; short stories; songs; and episodes of TV programs. B.R. Jerman’s article, “Browning’s Witless Duke,” is about Robert Browning’s poem “My Last Duchess.” The story “Guests of the Nation” is set in Ireland. Gershwin’s “Summertime” and “I Got Rhythm” are classics of American song. “Who Shot J.R.?” was the most watched episode of Dallas

.

USE THE DASH ( -- ) You can create a dash ( -- ) by typing two hyphens with no space in between ( -- ). A dash is used to

1. Set off material that needs emphasis. 2. Help clarify an idea. 3. Separate a list from an independent clause at the beginning or end of a

sentence. SETTING OFF MATERIAL THAT NEEDS EMPHASIS

George Bush became the first incumbent vice president – since 1836 – to win election to the presidency. The phrase since 1836 is being emphasized. HELPING TO CLARIFY AN IDEA In 1989, President Bush responded effectively to the upheaval in Eastern Europe – by offering economic aid to Hungary, Poland, and Czechoslovakia and by lending his support to the reunification of Germany. NOTE: The more formal colon can replace the dash. SEPARATING A LIST FROM AN INDEPENDENT CLAUSE The strengthening of the Western alliance, the Persian Gulf War, and the signing of several arms reduction treaties with the Soviet Union -- these were the great successes of President Bush’s foreign policy. NOTE: A dash can come before or after an independent clause. USE PARENTHESES [( )] Parentheses [( )] enclose important words that would interrupt the flow of the . Parentheses are used to

1. Set off an explanatory sentence within a sentence. 2. Set off words that specify. 3. Enclose brief definitions. 4. Enclose numbers or letters that mark items in a list.

NOTE: Parentheses are always used in pairs.

SETTING OFF AN EXPLANATORY SENTENCE Ishmael (he is the speaker in Melville’s Moby Dick

) takes his name from a biblical character who was cast into the desert.

In this case, the words within parentheses from a complete sentence. SETTING OFF WORDS THAT SPECIFY Five countries (Somalia, Kenya, Sudan, Eritrea, and Djibouti) border Ethiopia. Somalia, Kenya, Sudan, Eritrea, and Djibouti name the five countries.

ENCLOSING BRIEF DEFINITIONS The Egyptians practiced embalming (the preservation of a corpse through chemical treatment). ENCLOSING NUMBERS OR LETTERS THAT MARK ITEMS IN A LIST Before becoming president, George Bush was (1) a member of the House of Representatives, (2) U.S. ambassador to the United Nations, (3) chief liaison officer to China, (4) director of the CIA, and (5) vice president. MASTER THE APOSTROPHE (‘) – SEVEN RULES An apostrophe (‘) shows possession: the child’s toy the firm’s star the teacher’s desk the store’s prices the city’s drug problem the dog’s tail You can also use apostrophes to create special relationships between words: a night’s sleep, two months’ pay. Seven Rules for Using the Apostrophe Rule 1: Use the apostrophe to show possession; add –‘s to a singular . Monrovia, Liberia’s capital, was named after U.S. president James Monroe. Add –‘s to a singular noun that ends in –s or –z, as long as doing so does not make the pronunciation of that noun awkward. If doing so creates awkwardness, add only the apostrophe. Jazz’s origins go back to Afro – American spirituals. BUT Jesus’ teachings can be found in the New Testament. Rule 2: Use the apostrophe to show possession; add only –‘ if the noun is plural and ends in /-s. The two countries’ borders were in dispute. Rule 3: Use the apostrophe to show joint possession in a series; add –‘s only to

the last noun. Groucho, Chico, and Harpo’s films are still funny. Rule 4: Use the apostrophe to show individual possession in a series; add –‘s to

each noun.

Boston’s and San Francisco’s waterfronts are interesting, but I prefer Seattle’s. Rule 5: Use the apostrophe in in place of omitted numbers or letters. She will graduate with the class of ’99. Because it’s raining, we can’t go to the park. CAUTION: It’s = it is; can’t = cannot. Rule 6: Use the apostrophe to form the of a hyphenated word; add –‘s after the

last letter. Not: My mother – in – laws home Not: My mother’s – in – law home But: My mother – in – law ‘s home Rule 7: Add an apostrophe to and letters and numbers to make them . Syed received three A’s and two B’s as final grades. Three 747’s sat on the runway. CAUTION: In general, do not use an apostrophe to form plurals. Not: Hitler planned to conquer the nation’s of Europe. But: Hitler planned to conquer the nations of Europe. CAUTION: Do not add an apostrophe to a pronoun that is already possessive. Not: Under Hitler, Germany sought it’s place in the sun. But: Under Hitler, Germany sought its place in the sun. Sample Quiz questions

:

1. Click on the sentence that uses punctuation correctly. a. He left the office after 10 P.M.; the next day he arrived early to finish his

work. b. He left the office after 10 P.M., the next day; he arrived early to finish his

work. c. He left the office after 10 P.M., the next day he arrived early; to finish his

work. Answer: a. He left the office after 10 P.M.; the next day he arrived early to finish his work.

2. Click on the sentence that uses punctuation correctly.

a. The elevators; were not working he had to walk up the stairs. b. The elevators were not working; he had to walk up the stairs. c. The elevators were not working, he had to walk up the stairs.

Answer: b. The elevators were not working; he had to walk up the stairs.

Sentence Fragments AVOID SENTENCE FRAGMENTS LEARN TO SPOT FRAGMENTS A sentence includes a subject and a verb and expresses a complete idea. A fragment is a group of words punctuated like a sentence, but a fragment does not: Contain a verb. Contain a subject. Express a complete idea. No verb: Visiting Tokyo (What about “Visiting Tokyo”?) No subject: Visiting Tokyo (Who “Visited Tokyo”?)

Incomplete Idea: When Tanya visited Tokyo (What happened when she “visited Tokyo”?)

LEARN THREE WAYS TO CORRECT SENTENCE FRAGMENTS Add a verb: NOT: The Himalayas in Asia BUT: The Himalayas are in Asia. Add a subject: NOT: Climbed Mt. Everest. BUT: Edmund Hillary climbed Mt. Everest. Complete the idea: NOT: Covered with snow. BUT: Covered with snow, the mountain peaks glistened. LEARN OTHER WAYS TO SPOT FRAGMENTS Look for adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions, relative pronouns and –ing words (gerunds and participles) not followed by complete ideas. : When they traveled to Nepal. They saw Mt. Everest. : As they climbed the mountain. Breathing became more difficult. : They planned a brief trip. To the Tibetan capital of Lhasa. Pronoun: Earth’s highest mountain is Everest. Which lies between Nepal and

Tibet. -ings words: Even experienced climbers have been killed. Attempting to

climb Mt. Everest.

To correct such fragments, simply combine sentences. When they traveled to Nepal, they saw Mt. Everest. As they climbed the mountain, breathing became more difficult. They planned a trip to the Tibetan capital of Lhasa. Earth’s highest mountain is Everest, which lies between Nepal and Tibet.

Even experienced climbers have been killed attempting to climb Mt. Everest.

Sample Quiz questions

:

1. Which of the following is a complete sentence? a. Baseball, my favorite sport. b. Baseball is my favorite sport. c. Because baseball is my favorite sport.

Answer: b. Baseball is my favorite sport.

2. Which of the following is a complete sentence? a. I was glad I passed the chemistry test. b. Passing the chemistry test. c. When I learned I had passed the chemistry test.

Answer: a. I was glad I passed the chemistry test.

Spelling LEARN SIX RULES FOR SPELLING Rule 1: Place –i before –e, except after –c or when sounded like –ay as in

neighbor and weigh -i before –e: achieve, believe, relieve, siege except after –c: ceiling, perceive, receive or when sounded like –ay: neighbor, sleigh, vein exceptions: ancient, conscience, counterfeit, foreign,

heir, leisure, seize, weird Rule 2: To change the ending on a word that ends in –y, first change –y to –i if the

–y follows a consonant (any letter but a, e, i, o, u). penny + less = penniless cry + ed = cried beauty + ful = beautiful But keep the –y if it follows a vowel (a, e, i, o, u). attorney + s = attorneys buoy + ed = buoyed donkey + s = donkeys Always keep the final –y in a word when you add –ing: justify + ing = justifying Rule 3: Toadd –able, -ed, or –ing to a word ending in a consonant, double that

consonant only if the sound before it is short. hope + ing = hoping hop + ing = hoping BUT scare + ed = scared scar + ed = scarred Rule 4: If the final –e in a word is not pronounced, drop that –e when you add an

ending that begins with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u). fame + ous = famous solve + ing = solving clone + ing = cloning But keep the –e when you add an ending that begins with a consonant (any letter but a, e, i, o, u).

time + ly = timely pave + ment = pavement EXCEPTIONS responsible + ly = responsibly true + ly = truly Rule 5: Follow seven guides for forming plurals.

a. In general, add –s or –es: building buildings flash flashes machine machines

b. Form the plural of an acronym by adding –s. An acronym is a word made up of the first letters of a name or title:

VCRs, TVs, BTU’s

c. If a noun ends in a –y that follows a consonant, change the –y to –I and add –es:

society societies treaty treaties But if the –y follows a vowel, just add –s: attorney attorneys bay bays

d. If a word ends in –f or –fe, change the ending to –v and add –es: knife knives thief thieves

e. Add –s to some words that end in –o, -es to others: piano pianos tomato tomatoes CAUTION: The plural of hero is heros or heroes. heroes = brave people heros = long sandwiches

f. To form the plural of a word with hyphens, add –s or –es to the first noun in the group:

editor – in – chief editors – in – chief father – in – law fathers – in – law

g. Irregular nouns don’t follow the rules. Some even change their spellings in the plural:

child children woman women Some are spelled the same in the plural and the singular: deer deer Rule 6: Create contractions by joining two words with an apostrophe. can + not = can’t it + is = it’s will + not = won’t they + are = they’re CAUTION: In made with not, put the apostrophe between the n and the t: Not But could’nt couldn’t are’nt aren’t Sample Quiz questions

:

1. Click on the item that is correct. a. Gettysburg is famous because more American lives were lost in the Civil

War battle fought there than in any other single battle. b. Gettysburg is fameous because more American lives were lost in the Civil

War battle fought there than in any other single battle. c. Gettysburg is famous because more American lifes were lost in the Civil

War battle fought there than in any other single battle. Answer: a. Gettysburg is famous because more American lives were lost in the Civil War battle fought there than in any other single battle.

2. Click on the item that is correct. a. Like radar, ultrasound, which is a medical technique, relies on echos. b. Like radar, ultrasound, which is a medical technique, relies on echoes. c. Like radar, ultrasound, which is a medical technique, relys on echoes.

Answer: b. Like radar, ultrasound, which is a medical technique, relies on echoes.

Subject / Verb Agreement WHAT IS AGREEMENT? As you know, when words agree they are of the same number. This concept means that take singular . subjects take plural verbs. Singular means one; plural means more

than one. CHOOSE BETWEEN SINGULAR AND PLURAL VERBS To decide whether to use a singular or a plural verb, first determine whether your subject is singular or plural. Most plural nouns end in –s or –es. Singular: horse, dress Plural: horses, dresses With singular nouns, use verbs that end in –s or –es. Otherwise, use the simple form of the verb. Singular: The horse runs through the field. Plural: Horses run through the field. CAUTION: Use verbs that end in –s or –es with pronouns in the third person singular.

These are he, she, it, and one. Otherwise, use the basic form of the verb. WORK WITH COMPOUND SUBJECTS Subject Joined By AND Use plural verbs with compound subjects, which are joined by and. Brazil and Argentina border [not borders] Uruguay. Where were [not was] she and you on the night of the murder? Subject Joined by OR Use singular verbs with subjects joined by or if both subjects are singular. Bill or Sam has [not have] been elected to feed the pig. Use plural verbs with subjects joined by or if both subjects are plural.

I can’t remember whether the Marx Brothers or the Three Stooges are [not is] her favorite comedians.

If one subject is singular and the other is plural, the verb agrees with the one that is closer to it. Millie’s brother or her sisters are scheduled to visit next October.

BUT Millie’s sisters or her brother is scheduled to visit next October. COMPOUND SUBJECTS FOLLOWED BY SINGULAR COMPLEMENTS A complement is a noun or adjective that describes the subject but comes after the verb. When a compound subject is followed by a complement, the verb is plural even if the complement is singular. Overeating and forcing yourself to vomit are [not is] a symptom of bulimia. COMPOUND SUBJECTS THAT NAME THE SAME

PERSON, PLACE, OR THING

When the parts of a compound subject name the same person, place, or thing, the verb is singular.

The commander of the colonial army and our first president was [not were] George Washington.

COMPOUND SUBJECTS AS ONE UNIT When two subjects form a unit, the verb should be singular. Peas and carrots is [not are] my favorite side dish. CAUTION: When the subjects are considered separate items, the verb should be

plural. Peas and carrots grow [not grows] in the garden by the window. RELATIVE PRONOUNS FOLLOWING COMPOUND SUBJECTS When a relative pronoun (that, which, who, whom, or whose) refers to compound elements, the verb following that pronoun is plural.

Spanish and Portuguese, which are [not is] Romance languages, are both spoken in Europe and South America.

ADJECTIVES USED TO FORM COMPOUND SUBJECTS If separate are used to distinguish two types of the same noun, the verb is plural even if the noun is singular. College and professional football share [not shares] many of the same rules.

MASTER SPECIAL SUBJECT/VERB AGREEMENT PROBLEMS RELATIVE PRONOUNS AS SUBJECTS When a pronoun – who, which, or that – is a subject, make the verb agree with its , the word to which a pronoun refers. The movie was about a woman who wins the lottery. The subject of who wins the lottery is who. The antecedent of who is woman. Woman is singular; therefore, who takes a singular verb, wins. GERUNDS AS SUBJECTS A is a noun that ends in –ing and that stands for an activity: running, writing, studying, working, reading, understanding. Deal with gerunds as you would other nouns. Donating food at our church helps [not help] the needy. Swimming and running are [not is] my favorite exercises. SENTENCES THAT BEGIN WITH THERE I HERE If a sentence begins with there or here, the subject comes after the verb. Look for it there. Once there were [not was] two men who claimed to be the true pope. Here are [not is] your two choices: either get a job or get out! VERBS THAT COME BEFORE SUBJECTS If the verb comes before the subject, read the whole sentence and find the subject before deciding whether the verb is singular or plural. At the end of the Reflecting Pool stands the Washington Monument. From the top of Mt. Etna rise smoke and ash, warning inhabitants and tourists alike that it is time to leave. SINGULAR NOUNS THAT END IN –S Some singular nouns end in –s. These include academic subjects such as mathematics, statistics, and physics. News, mumps, tennis, politics, and acoustics are also singular. Such nouns take singular verbs. Not: Genetics are the study of heredity. But: Genetics is the study of heredity.

TITLES Titles of books, movies, television programs, plays, and other works are always considered singular. They take singular verbs. Not: Dubliners are a book of short stories by Joyce. But: Dubliners is a book of short stories by Joyce. TERMS OF QUANTITY Words that name quantities, such as majority, number, dollars, and years, are singular or plural depending on their use. If you are considering items together in one group, use a singular verb. If you are considering separate items within a group, use a plural verb. Singular: The number of people in this club is increasing. Plural: A number of people in this club are retirees. WORK WITH PHRASES AND CLAUSES BETWEEN SUBJECTS AND VERBS FINDING THE TRUE SUBJECT Words that come between the subject and verb can sometimes hide the real subject of a sentence. Not: The attractions of the city includes its many parks. But: The attractions of the city include its many parks. In the first sentence, the writer mistakenly assumes that the subject is city, which would take the singular verb includes. But the real subject is attractions, a plural noun that takes the plural verb include. To find the true subject of a sentence, first look for the sentence’s verb. The verb is the word that conveys action or that helps describe another word by linking it with an adjective. Shows action: Students sitting in the last row never ask questions. Describes: Our hopes of winning the game were dead. After finding the sentence’s verb, ask the question, Who or what does the action? Or Who or what is being described/identified? That word will be the true subject. Question: Who never asks questions? Answer: Students. PAYING SPECIAL ATTENTION TO COLLECTIVE NOUNS noun name groups of persons or things. They include words such as family, tribe,

nation, list, flock, pair, and team. Usually, collective nouns are singular and take singular verbs no matter what words come between.

Not: Every night, a family of raccoons attack my trash cans. But: Every night, a family of raccoons attacks my trash cans. NOTE: The subject of the sentence is not raccoons; it is family, which is singular.

Therefore, the verb must be singular. WORK WITH INDEFINITE PRONOUNS An pronoun stands for a noun that is not specified in the sentence. An easy way to remember indefinite pronouns is to place them into four categories. OTHER INDEFINITE PRONOUNS BODY ONE THING OTHER INDEFINITE WORDS WORDS WORDS PRONOUNS Anybody Anyone Anything All Few Much Everybody Everyone Everything Both Little Neither Nobody None Nothing Each Many Several Somebody No one Something Either Most Some One Someone MAKING SINGULAR INDEFINITE PRONOUNS AGREE WITH VERBS Some indefinite pronouns are singular; they take singular verbs. SINGULAR INDEFINITE PRONOUNS Anybody Everybody Neither Anyone Everyone Somebody Anything Everything Someone Each Little Something Either Much Everybody has [not have] to pay the registration fee. My sisters are professionals; each has [not have] her own career. MAKING PLURAL INDEFINITE PRONOUNS AGREE WITH VERBS Some indefinite pronouns are plural; they take plural verbs. Few survive [not survives] the effects of the disease. The rebels were defeated; several were [not was] hanged. USING INDEFINITE PRONOUNS THAT CAN BE SINGULAR OR PLURAL

Some indefinite pronouns can be singular or plural depending on the meaning of the sentence. Singular: All is lost. Plural: All of our employees have been trained. Singular: None of the defendants was guilty. Plural: None were honored more than the wounded. WORKING WITH WORDS THAT COME BETWEEN SUBJECTS AND VERBS When checking agreement between indefinite pronouns and verbs, ignore words that come between; focus on the subject. Try setting off the words that come between. subject verb No one living in the neighborhood fears a break – in. subject verb Anyone who hikes in these hills has to watch for bears. USING PHRASES THAT BEGIN WITH OF Don’t let phrases that begin with of and that come between the subject and verb confuse you. Focus on the indefinite pronoun to decide whether a subject is singular or plural. subject verb Each of the cars were stolen in a different city. subject verb Some of the cars are antiques. WORKING WITH SUBORDINATE CLAUSES THAT COME BETWEEN SUBJECTS AND VERBS pronoun – that, which, who, whom, and whose – introduce subordinate , which refer

to and describe a or . Ignore those subordinate clauses when you make the subject and verb of the clause agree. subject verb Anybody who studies Russian knows the Cyrillic alphabet. USING EACH AS AN INDEFINITE PRONOUN OR ADJECTIVE Each is an pronoun. However, it can be used as an if placed immediately before a noun. Pronoun: Each pays his or her own way. Adjective: Each student pays his or her own way.

In all cases, the verb is singular. MAINTAIN SUBJECT/VERB AGREEMENT WHEN USING EITHER/OR AND NEITHER/NOR Joining nouns and pronouns with and creates compound subjects, which are plural. But this situation isn’t true when you use or and nor between subjects. Or and nor tell us to consider subjects separately, not together. The joining word helps us determine whether a verb should be singular or plural. Sam and Paul ride motorcycles. BUT Either Sam or Paul rides a Harley – Davidson. Neither Sam nor Paul rides on Sundays. USING EITHER/OR AND NEITHER/NOR WHEN BOTH SUBJECTS ARE SINGULAR Either/or and neither/nor constructions make us consider the two subjects separately, not as a pair. Therefore, if both subjects are singular, the verb must be singular:

Not: Either Thailand or Sri Lanka were her home. But: Either Thailand or Sri Lanka was her home.

NOTE: The subjects is Thailand or Sri Lanka, not Thailand and Sri Lanka. Since

both subjects are singular, the verb must be singular: was, not were. USING EITHER/OR AND NEITHER/NOR WHEN BOTH SUBJECTS ARE PLURAL You learned that if both subjects in an either/or or neither/nor sentence are singular, the verb is singular. By the same token, if both subjects are plural, the verb is plural Not: Neither the cats nor the dogs has torn the screen. But: Neither the cats nor the dogs have torn the screen. USING EITHER/OR AND NEITHER/NOR WHEN ONE SUBJECT IS SINGULAR AND THE OTHER IS PLURAL When one subject is singular and the other is plural, the subject closer to the verb determines whether the verb is singular or plural. Neither the company nor the workers want a strike. BUT Neither the workers nor the company wants a strike.

In the first, workers is the subject closer to the verb. Since workers is plural, the verb is plural. In the second, company is closer to the verb. Since company is singular, the verb is singular. USING EITHER AND NEITHER AS ADJECTIVES When either or neither comes immediately before a noun, the noun is singular. Therefore, the verb that follows is also singular. Either restaurant serves [not serve] the food we like. Neither bookstore stocks [not stock] novels by Verga. MAKE VERBS AGREE WITH COLLECTIVE NOUNS A noun names a single unit. It stands for a group of people or things. Although collective nouns seem to be plural, they are usually singular. Collective nouns usually take singular verbs. The Congress has passed gun – control laws. The National Football League employs hundreds of people. Locate the verb in the sentences above. In each case, it comes directly after the subject. Question: What do these verbs have in common? Answer: They end in –s; they are all singular. AN EXCEPTION TO THE RULE Sometimes collective nouns refer to individuals in a group rather than to the group as a whole. In such cases, use a plural verb: Group as a whole: The college, faculty numbers less than 80. [The verb, numbers, is singular.] Individuals within a The faculty come from several countries. group: [The verb, come, is plural.] WORKING WITH COLLECTIVE NOUNS FOLLOWED BY PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES CAUTION: Collective nouns are sometimes followed immediately by phrase, which

begin with words such as of, on, to, and with. When such phrases end in plural nouns, don’t be fooled into thinking that the sentence’s verb must be plural, too.

Instead, base your decision on the sentence’s meaning. First, separate the prepositional phrase from the subject and verb. Then decide whether the verb is singular or plural. subject verb Singular: The union of masons and artisans organized in 1892. BUT subject verb Plural: A majority of voters think their taxes are high. WORKING WITH SUBORDINATE CLAUSES BETWEEN COLLECTIVE NOUNS AND VERBS CAUTION: Subordinate clauses begin with relative pronouns such as that, which,

who, whom, and whose. Don’t let such clauses distract you when making verbs agree with collective nouns.

Not: The club, which were once open only to men, now recruit women. But: The club, which was once open only to men, now recruits women.

USING NOUNS OF QUANTITY Some nouns of quantity, though plural, really suggest just a single unit. They always take singular verbs. Fifty dollars, hidden in my closet, has been stolen. Thirty – five pounds is the price we paid for two theater tickets in London. MAKE PRONOUNS AGREE WITH THEIR ANTECEDENTS – SIX RULES Just as a verb agrees in number with its subject, a pronoun agrees with an , the word it refers to. Antecedents are nouns or other pronouns. RULE 1: If the antecedent is singular, the pronoun that refers to it is singular. If the

antecedent is plural, the pronoun that refers to it is plural. Singular: The Dow Jones Industrial Average surged; it rose more than 200 points. Plural: Both the investor and her broker were jubilant; they both made money. RULE 2: Use singular pronouns to refer to nouns joined by or, either … or, and

neither…nor if both the nouns are singular. However, use plural pronouns if both nouns are plural.

Singular: Neither Fred nor Bill has paid his [not their] dues. Plural: Neither sea otters nor seals make their [not its] home in the Caribbean.

RULE 3: Use a singular or plural pronoun to refer to a collective noun depending on the sense of that noun.

Singular: The Cheng family researched its origins in China. Plural: My family cannot agree on where to take their vacation. RULE 4: Use singular pronouns when you refer to indefinite pronouns. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS One words Body Words each anyone no one anybody either everyone one everybody neither none someone nobody somebody Both men had amnesia; neither recalled his own name. Komal and Sejal are bright women; either can hold her own in a political debate. RULE 5: Use singular pronouns when referring to each, either, and neither, even

when these words are followed by of phrases that end with plurals. Neither of my aunts brags about her [not their] doctoral degree. Each of the Cub Scouts was required to bring his [not their] lunch. RULE 6: Use singular pronouns when referring to singular nouns that end in –s.

These nouns include mathematics, physics, economics, and politics. Once again, politics rears its [not their] ugly head. AVOID SEXISM WHILE MAINTAINING AGREEMENT WHAT ARE SEXIST PRONOUNS? Indefinite pronouns, such as anybody, someone, and something, do no refer to specific persons or things. Indefinite pronouns are singular. But sometimes writers use only masculine pronouns -- he, his, and him – to refer to indefinite pronouns. This usage can make writing sexist, and it offends readers. AVOIDING SEXISM WHEN REFERRING TO INDEFINITE PRONOUNS One way to avoid sexism is by using both masculine and feminine pronouns: Sexism: Anyone who parked in lot 3 must move his car.

Revised: Anyone who parked in lot 3 must move his or her car. A second way to avoid sexism is to replace the pronoun with an article: a, an, or the. Sexist: Each is free to express his opinion. Revised: Each is free to express an opinion. A third way to avoid sexism is to replace the indefinite pronoun with a plural noun. Sexist: Everybody should vote his conscience. Revised: Citizens should vote their conscience. AVOIDING SEXISM WHEN REFERRING TO GENERIC NOUNS Most nouns in English are generic -- – they are considered neither female nor male. Included are words such as teacher, engineer, nurse, and judge. Nongeneric nouns identify the sex of a person; they include grandmother, father, and aunt. One way to avoid sexism when referring to generic nouns is by replacing a masculine pronoun with both a masculine and feminine pronoun. Sexism: A candidate for Senate should reveal his income tax returns. Revised: A candidate for Senate should reveal his or her income tax returns. A second way to avoid sexism when referring to generic nouns is by replacing the pronoun with an article: a, an, or the. Sexist: A truck driver must have his commercial license. Revised: A truck driver must have a commercial license. A third way to avoid sexism when referring to generic nouns is to replace a singular generic noun with a plural noun and then use a plural pronoun. Sexist: A person who believes in himself can achieve much. Revised: People who believe in themselves can achieve much. Sample Quiz questions

:

1. Choose the item with correct subject – verb agreement. a. These Boston terriers runs fast. b. These Boston terriers run fast.

Answer: b. These Boston Terriers run fast.

2. Choose the item with correct subject – verb agreement. a. The Jeep Cherokee resembles the Explorer. b. The Jeep Cherokee resemble the Explorer.

Answer: a. The Jeep Cherokee resembles the Explorer.

Verbs A shows what a subject does (action), or it helps describe a subject. Shows action: Pediatricians treat children. Helps describe: They are medical specialists. NOTE: Words that end in –ing cannot act as verbs unless they are paired with

helping verbs, such are, is, was, and were. The surgeons are removing the patient’s gall bladder.

LEARN WHAT A VERB DOES A Verb

1. Tell what a does, did, or will do. 2. Tells what is, has been, or will be done to a subject. 3. Describes a subject by joining it with .

A Verb Shows Action by Telling What a Subject Does, Did, or Will Do Present: Coyotes howl at the moon as it shines on the hills. Past: John Donne wrote poetry and sermons. Future: My sister will major in Spanish. A Verb Shows Action by Telling What Is Done to a Subject Present: Raspberries are baked in delicious pastries. Past: Andrea was elected class president. Future: Science 109 will be offered in the spring term. A Verb Describes a Subject by Joining It with Adjectives Present: The house is old, large, and drafty. Past: Richard was intelligent. Future: When remodeled, our kitchen will be spacious. MASTER VERB TENSES

The of the verb shows time: past, present, and future. Verbs can be classified as regular and irregular. Regular verbs follow set patterns in all tenses. Irregular verbs do not; they change their forms and have to be learned individually. PRESENT TENSE In the present tense, a verb tells what is happening right now. The present tense also shows action that happens over and over again. Therefore, you can write I eat chili with meat and rice. OR I eat chili with meat and rice every Thursday. NOTE: The third person singular is the only exception to the rule. It ends in –s. Present Tense – The Irregular Verb To Be The irregular verb to be significantly changes its spelling in the present tense. Singular Plural First Person: I am We are Second Person: You are You are Third Person: He, She, is They are It, One PAST TENSE Verbs in the past tense relate action or events that have been completed. To form the past tense of a regular verb, add –d or –ed to the verb’s basic form: I lived in Alabama once. We helped my parents move. You ruined my new shirt. You carried the burden yourselves. Jana earned $500 a week. They visited me in the hospital. Past Tense – Irregular Verbs The past tense of irregular verbs is formed in various ways. These verbs don’t follow a pattern. That’s why they are called irregular. A list of irregular verbs appears below. You will want to make a copy and study it.

Irregular Verbs—Present and Past

Present Past Present Past Present Past arise arose fall fell ride rode awake awoke feel felt rise rose beat beat fly flew run ran break broke forgive forgave see saw bring brought get got send sent catch caught give gave sit sat choose chose go went speak spoke cling clung hold held steal stole come came keep kept teach taught dig dug know knew tear tore do did lead led throw threw draw drew lose lost win won drive drove make made write wrote eat ate meet met Once you know the past tense of an irregular verb, you can apply it in all cases. Singular Plural First Person: I drove We drove Second Person: You drove You drove Third Person: He, drove They drove She, It, One NOTE: The only exception is the past tense of to be. Past Tense – The Irregular Verb To Be Singular Plural First Person: I was We were Second Person: You were You were Third Person: He, was They were She, It, One NOTE: The first and third person singular are different from all the rest. FUTURE TENSE

The future tense tells us what will be true or what will happen at a later time. To form the future tense, attach the helping verbs will, is going to, or are going to to the basic form of the verb: She will meet you tomorrow at the gym. Ari is going to visit Japan next year. THE PERFECT TENSES The present perfect uses the helping verb have or has with the past participle of a verb. The past perfect uses the helping verb had with the past participle. To form the past participle of regular verbs, add –d or –ed to the basic form of the verb. NOTE: The present, past, present participles, and past participles of irregular

verbs do not follow a pattern. You must learn each of them individually.

GUIDE TO IRREGULAR VERBS Present Past Present Past Participle Participle arise arose arising arisen awake awoke awaking awaked beat beat beating beaten break broke breaking broken bring brought bringing brought catch caught catching caught can could choose chose choosing chosen cling clung clinging clung come came coming came dig dug digging dug do did doing done draw drew drawing drawn drive drove driving driven eat ate eating eaten fall fell falling fallen feel felt feeling felt fly flew flying flown forgive forgave forgiving forgiven get got getting got, gotten give gave giving given

go went going gone hang hanged hanging hanged (to execute someone) hang hung hanging hung (to hang a thing) hold held holding held keep kept keeping kept know knew knowing known lead led leading led lose lost losing lost make made making made meet met meeting met ride rode riding ridden rise rose rising risen run ran running run see saw seeing seen send sent sending sent sit sat sitting sat speak spoke speaking spoken steal stole stealing stolen teach taught teaching taught tear tore tearing torn throw threw throwing thrown win won winning won Write wrote writing written The Present Perfect Use the present perfect to talk about actions that begin in the past and continue into the present. Verbs in present perfect use the helping verb have except in the third person singular. Then they use has. I have run two miles a day for six years. They have developed new drugs to fight AIDS. The Past Perfect Use the past perfect to talk about actions that happened in the past and that came before other events that happened in the past. Verbs in the past perfect use the helping word had, the past tense of have, in all cases. Before the revolution, Russia had been a monarchy.

AVOID ILLOGICAL VERB TENSE SHIFTS The of a verb is the time a verb expresses. If not done logically, shifting from one tense to another in the same sentence can cause problems. The following sentence uses both the present tense (drives) and the past tense (took) to express things happening at different times. Therefore, in this case shifting from present tense to past tense is logical. present past Usually he drives to work, but yesterday he took the bus. Shifting verb tenses logically can serve a purpose: to show actions occurring at different times. But shifting verb tenses illogically – without a good reason – can make a sentence hard to read and understand. past present Illogical shift: Whenever visitors approached, our dog barks loudly. Approached is in the past tense; barks is in the present. But the logic of the sentence demands that both verbs be in the same tense. After all, the sentence begins with Whenever, so the dog must be barking at the same time the visitors approach. Here are two correct versions: All present: Whenever visitors approach, our dog barks loudly. All past: Whenever visitors approached, our dog barked loudly. KEEP VERB TENSES CONSISTENT The tense of the verb refers to time. Keep verb tenses consistent. You don’t have to stick to one tense in a sentence or paragraph. However, when you change tenses, you must do so logically and only when necessary. Choose a main or controlling tense and switch to other tenses only when you want to discuss events happening at other times. Let’s say you begin a paragraph with the following sentence, which uses verbs in the present tense:

I study Spanish two hours a day, but I still have trouble passing tests in that class.

You can write a second sentence that compares your college Spanish class with one you took in high school:

In high school, I barely studied Spanish two hours a week, yet I got good grades.

You might even use of the future tense in a third sentence:

However, knowing Spanish will help me with the career I will pursue after graduation.

Your finished paragraph might look like this:

I study Spanish two hours a day, but I still have trouble passing tests in that class. In high school, I barely studied Spanish two hours a week, yet I got good grades. However, knowing Spanish will help me with the career I will pursue after graduation.

CAUTION: Do not shift from one tense to another without purpose. For example, DO

NOT write the following: I study Spanish two hours a day, but I still had trouble passing tests in

that class. Being Logical When Changing Tenses in a Sentence Sometimes you will need to talk about things happening at different times in the same sentence, and you will have to use more than one tense. Just make sure you move from tense to tense logically: past present future Friends who spoke to Jake yesterday say now that he will arrive tomorrow. Being Consistent When Using the Perfect Tenses The present perfect uses the helping verb have or has with the past participle of a main verb. To form the past participle of regular verbs, add –d or –ed to the basic form of the verb. A list of participles for irregular verbs can be found in this chapter. Using the Present Perfect Tense

To maintain consistency, remember that the present perfect is used to talk about actions that begin in the past and continue into the present. Not: He is interested in stamp collecting ever since he was 17.

But: He has been interested in stamp collecting ever since he was 17.

Using the Past Perfect Tense

Verbs in the past perfect use for helping word had with the past participle of a verb. To maintain consistency, remember that the past perfect is used to talk about actions that happened in the past but that came before other past events.

Not: Before Columbus came to America, the Mayans built a remarkable civilization.

But: Before Columbus came to America, the Mayans had built a

remarkable civilization. THE PROGRESIVE TENSES The progressive tenses combine forms of the verb to be with present participles. Present participles always end in –ing. Use the progressive tense to show continuing action. I am studying. We have been eating pizza. You are trying hard. You are holding up traffic. She was sleeping. They will be discussing taxes. The Present Progressive The present progressive shows continuing action in the present. It combines the present tense of the verb to be with the present participle. I am watching you! Someone is parking in my spot! They are visiting relatives. The Past Progressive The past progressive shows continuing action in the past. It combines the past tense of the verb to be with the present participle. I was standing on the corner. We were speaking very loudly. They were shouting. The Future Progressive The future progressive shows continuing action in the future. It combines will be, which is the future tense of the verb to be, with the present participle.

Prof. Martinez will be attending a symposium for three days. Next year, automakers will be negotiating a labor contract. USE LINKING VERBS, HELPING VERBS, AND MODALS Linking verbs do not show action. Instead, they help describe a subject by connecting it to a , , or . Linking verbs include am, are, is, was, and were. To a noun: She was the queen of his heart. To a pronoun: It is I! To an adjective: Our bellies were full. Helping verbs are used with main verbs to form the future, the perfect, and the progressive tenses. They include forms of the verbs to be, such as am, are, be, been, being, is, was, and were. They also include will and shall and forms of the verbs to have and to do. The engineers were draining the swamp. The scholarship ball has raised thousands of dollars.

Including Needed Helping Verbs Sometimes leaving out needed helping verbs can cause a sentence fragment, that is, a sentence that is not complete, or can create a subject/verb agreement error. Fragment: She carrying the baby in her arms. Complete: She was carrying the baby in her arms. Agreement error: The band practice on Thursday. Correct: The band will practice on Thursday. Modals are helping verbs. Unlike most helping verbs, however, they cannot act as main verbs. They are used before main verbs to create special meanings. can do may shall will could does might should would did must Stephanie can drive a tractor. He must return by midnight or face the consequences.

Andrea should win the award for best actress. If you will cook the snails, I will eat them. LEARN TO USE VERB MOODS What is Mood? Verbs come in various tenses. They also come in four : indicative, imperative, subjunctive, and conditional. A verb’s mood helps show the writer’s intention or purpose. Use the indicative mood to make a statement or ask a question: How many people in this country have hay fever? Twenty – two million Americans suffer from this allergy. The imperative mood gets its name from “imperial,” an adjective describing empires. It is natural that the imperative be used to give commands. However, it is also used to make requests and give directions. Command: Close the door! Request: Please pass the gravy. Directions: Turn right at the traffic light. The subjunctive mood is used for three purposes:

1. To express a wish or desire. 2. To explain a demand, a request, or a suggestion. 3. To make a statement that is contrary to fact.

Wish: I wish I owned [not own] a Corvette. Demand: The police demanded that the thief drop [not drops] the gun. Contrary to If Sam were [not was] patient, he would master the computer fact: easily.

NOTE: In the subjunctive mood, the past tense is expressed with the helping verb

had. If she had gone [not went], she would have enjoyed herself. If he had left [not left] earlier, he would have avoided traffic.

The conditional mood is used to answer questions such as What would happen if? or What happens when? A conditional sentence usually begins with an “if” or “when” clause, which states the condition. The first clause is followed by a clause that tells what will happen “if” or “when” that condition comes true. If we do well this term, we will keep our scholarships.

When a parolee commits a crime, he or she is returned to jail immediately.

The conditional and the indicative forms are the same. The problem comes in distinguishing the conditional from the subjunctive. Conditional: If he exercises, he will lose weight. Subjunctive: If he were exercising, he would lose weight. The conditional says he will lose weight, but only if he exercises. The subjunctive says that he is not exercising and that he is not losing weight. In many cases, the second clause of a conditional sentence contains will; the second clause in a subjunctive sentence contains would. USE GERUNDS AND INFINITIVES CORRECTLY A gerund is an –ing noun formed from a verb. A gerund names an activity and is used the same way any other noun is. Subject: Hiking is my favorite sport. Object: The French have perfected wine making. An infinitive is the basic form of a verb preceded by to. Infinitives can be nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. Noun: To cry over a friend’s death is not a sign of weakness. Adjective: When I go shopping, I make a list of things to buy. Adverb: She stopped to buy some groceries. Using Gerunds and Infinitives with Verbs Some verbs can be used with both and with no change in meaning: Gerund: I love watching old science – fiction movies.

Infinitive: I love to watch old science – fiction movies. However, other verbs mean one thing when used with a gerund and another when used with an infinitive: Gerund: Ali forgot writing a check to the landlord. Infinitive: Ali forgot to write a check to the landlord. USE THE ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES Verbs have tenses and moods. They also have voices. The voice is the form a verb takes to indicate whether the subject of the sentence does an action or is acted upon. Active: Ramon wrote the letter. Passive: The letter was written by Ramon. A sentence in the active voice uses a subject, person, place, or thing that does an action. A sentence in the passive voice uses a subject that is acted upon. In general, Choose the Active over the Passive Voice There are four problems with using the passive voice:

1. Since the passive requires more words than the active voice requires, the former can make a sentence wordy.

Active: The small audience applauded the violinist. Passive: The violinist was applauded by the small audience.

• The passive voice sometimes takes emphasis away from the subject and makes a sentence awkward and hard to read.

Active: The small children ran into the house. Passive: The house was run into by the small children.

• Using the passive voice might cause the writer to forget to include the subject. This omission might be a serious mistake, for knowing the doer of an action is often just as important as knowing what happened.

Active: Governor Santiago approved funds for a new super highway. Passive: The funds for a new super highway were approved.

2. Using the passive voice can lead to sentence structure problems. Problem: Going down in the elevator, the verdict was discussed by the lawyers. Correct: Going down in the elevator, the lawyers discussed the verdict. NOTE: In the first example, the modifier (adjective) going down in the elevator

seems to refer to the verdict. That, of course, would make the sentence illogical.

WHEN TO USE THE PASSIVE VOICE: TWO EXCEPTIONS

1. Using the passive voice can help you emphasize the action over the doer of an action.

Passive: Ann was elected to the Monroe city council. The sentence above places more emphasis on Ann’s election than does the following version: Active: The citizens of Monroe elected Ann to the city council.

2. Using the passive voice is also appropriate when you don’t know who did an action.

Doors and windows had been left open; books, clothing, and small items of furniture had been scattered across the room; and curtains, sheets, and blankets had been torn to shreds.

AVOID ILLOGICAL VOICE SHIFTS Verbs take various tenses. They also come in active voice or passive voice. A verb in the active voice takes a subject – person, place, or thing – that does an action. A verb in the passive voice takes a subject that is acted upon. Active: The students admire the teacher. Passive: The teacher is admired by the students. NOTE: Verbs in the passive voice always contain at least two words: a form of the

verb to be (is) and the participle (admired). CAUTION: Shifting from one voice to another in the same sentence often makes the

sentence hard to read. Shifting the voice also makes your message less direct and emphatic.

Inconsistent: Beautiful birds were seen as she entered the garden. Consistent: She saw beautiful birds as she entered the garden. The first example begins in the passive voice and then shifts to the active. In the second example, both verbs are in the active voice. Sample Quiz questions

:

1. Choose the words that would correctly complete the sentence. Click on the right choice. As a child, Susan did not like basketball, but …

a. she liked it now. b. she likes it now. c. she will like it now. d. she had liked it now.

Answer: b. she likes it now.

2. Choose the sentence that uses the correct verb forms. a. Many people decide to buy digital cameras even though their film cameras

work perfectly. b. Many people decided to buy digital cameras even though their film

cameras work perfectly. c. Many people decided buying digital cameras even though their film

cameras work perfectly. Answer: a. Many people decide to buy digital cameras even though their film cameras work perfectly.

3. Choose the sentence that contains a verb in simple present tense. d. Julie arises for work every day at 5 A.M. e. Julie arose for work every day at 5 A.M. f. Julie will arise for work every day at 5 A.M.

Answer: a. Julie arises for work every day at 5 A.M.

4. Identify the verb(s) in the following sentence. I learned computer programming and wrote my own software.

a. learned/wrote b. learned/programming c. programming/software

Answer: a. learned/wrote

Word Choice AVOID SEXIST LANGUAGE Sexist language can occur when he or she is used exclusively to refer to an indefinite pronoun such as anyone, everybody, someone and nobody. It also occurs when a sex- specific noun is used to name a group with both male and female members. For example, calling mail carriers mailmen implies that only men deliver mail. SEXISM WITH INDEFINITE PRONOUNS Indefinite pronouns, such as anybody, each, neither, and someone, can be general in meaning and not refer to specific persons, places, or things. They are singular. Unfortunately, writers sometimes use masculine pronouns – he, his, and him – to refer to indefinite pronouns. Using only feminine pronouns to refer to indefinite pronouns is less frequent, but it too is sexist. Three Ways to Avoid Sexism When Using Indefinite Pronouns

1. Use both masculine and feminine forms or remove the pronoun of reference.

Sexist: Everyone should cast his vote on Election Day. Revised: Everyone should cast his or her vote on Election Day. Revised: Everyone should vote on Election Day.

NOTE: To drop the pronoun, you might have to rewrite the sentence.

2. Replace the pronoun with a, an, or the.

Sexist: Each employee reports to his supervisor. Revised: Each employee reports to a supervisor.

3. Use a plural noun and a pronoun.

Sexist: Everyone should communicate with his professor. Revised: Students should communicate with their professors.

CAUTION: Make sure that the pronoun agrees in number with its antecedent – the

word it refers to. Use singular pronouns with singular antecedents; use plural pronouns with plural antecedents.

SEXISM WITH GENERIC NOUNS Generic nouns do not refer to a specific sex. Most nouns in English are generic. Exceptions include such words as mother and father. You can use the methods you just learned to avoid sexist language when using pronouns that refer to generic nouns, nouns that are neither male nor female.

Sexist: A student must show his identification card at the library. Revised: A student must show his or her identification card at the library. Revised: A student must show an identification card at the library. Revised: Students must show their identification cards at the library. Sexism also becomes a problem when you use female pronouns to refer to members of a group that contains both men and women. Sexist: A nurse must regularly update her skills. Revised: Nurses must regularly update their skills. CAUTION: When correcting sexist language, make sure that pronouns agree with

their antecedents. Incorrect: The student is required to bring their calculators to class. Revised: Students are required to bring their calculators to class. NOTE: Another way to avoid sexism is to replace sex – specific terms with sex –

neutral terms when appropriate. For example, you might easily substitute firefights for firemen.

INCLUDE NECESSARY WORDS While it is important to edit for redundancy and repetition, it is also important to make sure you have included all the words needed to make your writing clear, logical, and complete. USING COMPLETE VERBS Many verb forms contain more than one word. Sometimes you will have to add a helping word or a participle (a short word following a verb) to make the tense or meaning of your verb clear. Incomplete: Soon after I eaten dinner, I began to throw bits of spoiled meat. Complete: Soon after I had eaten dinner, I began to throw up bits of spoiled

meat. INCLUDING THE RELATIVE PRONOUN THAT Sometimes including that is necessary, especially when you rephrase what others have said. Not: The psychologist told the audience children need both love and discipline. But: The psychologist told the audience that children need both love and

discipline. MAKING COMPARISONS CLEAR, COMPLETE, AND LOGICAL

1. Make sure your sentence compares like things; otherwise, it will be illogical. Not: The mountains of Switzerland are older than Colorado. But: The mountains of Switzerland are older than those of Colorado. The first sentence is illogical; it compares unlike things – mountains and Colorado. The second is logical; it compares like things – mountains and mountains (those of Colorado).

2. When you compare people, places, or things, show that they belong to the group to which they are being compared. To do so, include words such as other or else.

Not: A Ferrari is more expensive than most cars. But: A Ferrari is more expensive than most other cars. CREATE AN APPROPRIATE TONE Tone is the style in which you express yourself. Your tone may vary depending upon purpose and audience. For example, if you are writing a letter to a friend, you might use an informal tone and include slang, jargon, colloquialisms, and contractions. If you are writing a college essay, on the other hand, you will want to use a formal tone. To maintain a formal tone, avoid slang, jargon, and colloquialisms. Also, choose language carefully and include only idiomatic expressions. AVOID SLANG Slang is language that has a private and often short – lived meaning. Slang can be very powerful, but it is often inexact and is usually understood by only a select group. For example, teenagers often use words and their parents have never heard of and that are not found in contemporary newspapers, textbooks, and the like. Slang: When the dude split, he left the chick with a kid and no bread. Formal: When the man left, he abandoned the woman with a child and no money. AVOIDING JARGON EXCEPT WITH SPECIAL AUDIENCES Jargon is language used by experts in a particular field. It includes technical words, new compounds, and familiar words used in a unique way. Jargon is appropriate as long as your readers are familiar with the field from which it comes. But jargon can make your writing complicated and unclear to those who are unfamiliar with such language.

Jargon: After booting up the computer and activating the printer, Amie made hard copies of his business correspondence.

Familiar: After turning on the computer and the printer, Amie printed his business letters.

AVOIDING COLLOQUIALISMS Colloquial expressions, while not always incorrect, are informal and more appropriate in spoke conversation among friends than in formal writing. Colloquial: I found the puppy sleeping back of the couch. Formal: I found the puppy sleeping behind the couch. USE IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS An idiom is an expression whose meaning often has little to do with the individual meanings of the words it contains. An idiom must be understood as a unit, and its meaning can be learned only through experience. Say you wrote, “I won’t put up with his rudeness.” You mean that you won’t tolerate his rudeness. But this meaning cannot be arrived at by translating each of the three words in the idiom putupwith. You can use idioms in formal writing, but you must use them correctly. Not: We are angry at our landlord. But: We are angry with our landlord.

COMMON IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS

NOT BUT afraid on afraid of agree to (an opinion) agree with (an opinion) angry on angry at (a situation) angry with (a person) arrive to (a place) arrive at/in (a place) at peace in (oneself) at peace with (oneself) comply to comply with conform on (a rule) conform to (a rule) contend against contend with content against content with depend in depend on die with (a disease) die of/from (a disease) different than different from equal with equal to frightened of frightened by get in (a car) get on (a car) get in (a plane, bus, train) get on (a plane, bus, train) impatient at (a person) impatient with (a person) inferior than inferior to

listen on/at listen to live in (a street) live on (a street) live in (an address) live at (an address) live at (a city) live in (a city) look to (a picture) look at (a picture) married with (someone) married to (someone) park on (a driveway) park in (a driveway) park in (the street) park on (the street) partake in partake of participate on participate in prior than prior to report in report on superior than superior to tired with tired of wait for (a customer) wait on (a customer) wait on (a letter) wait for (a letter) AVOID CLICHÉS A cliché is an expression that has been overused. As a result, it sounds stale and dull. In fact, as soon as you begin to hear or read a cliché, you can predict how it will end. Read the following sentences and try to figure out how the cliché in them will end: She baked a cake that was as light as a ________. Jason’s remark was right on ___________. Janice, you have hit the nail _______ _________ _________. A cliché is an expression that has been overused. As a result, it sounds slate and dull. In fact, as soon as After being crushed, the can lay flat as a __________. Watch for cliché as you rewrite the drafts of your papers. Make one last check for cliché as you edit your final draft. Trust your instincts to come up with alternatives that are clearer, more appealing, less wordy, and often more specific than cliché are:

A LIST OF Cliché

acid test as good as done as the crow flies at all costs better half bit the dust

hit the sack hot potato keep your shirt on ladder of success like the plague little lady

breaking my neck broken record clear as mud cold, hard facts cool as a cucumber dark horse dead as a doornail drunk as a skunk early bird easy for you to say edge of the seat face the music fall on deaf ears fly like an eagle foaming at the mouth going places green with envy grinning from ear to ear healthy as a horse hit the deck

old hat on your own paid your dues passed away picture perfect pure as snow rest assured rite of passage sacred cow short and sweet sick as a dog sink or swim stone cold sober stone's throw strong as an ox tighten our belts to the point turn for the worse white as a ghost

USE THE CORRECT WORD – A GLOSSARY OF USAGE Sometimes writers use words whose meaning they don’t fully understand. This practice can lead to sentences that are incorrect, unclear, or both. To make sure that the word you are using means what you think it does, check its meaning in the dictionary.

Words Often Confused or Misused accept The community college will accept any applicant who has a high

school diploma. except My nephew likes all vegetables except broccoli. advice The value of good advice is not immediately recognized. advise The faculty member advised the student to drop the course. affect Automobile emissions affect the earth's atmosphere. effect The effects of global warming are difficult to measure. all right The children were all right. alright This word does not exist. alot This word does not exist. a lot A lot of fans began shouting when the concert was delayed. allot The manager allotted the parking spaces according to seniority. altogether The dancer was altogether brilliant in her performance.

all together The campaign workers were all together at the rally. among Among the candidates, he was the most popular. between Dan's choice was between dropping out of college and finishing the

semester. another words

This form does not exist. (See in other words.)

anymore Barry does not work at that restaurant anymore. any more Mia ate two pancakes and didn't want any more. are Before you leave this evening, check whether our hours are posted

on next week's schedule. hour our axe The axe is missing its handle. ask Don’t ever be afraid to ask the teacher a question. The first is a tool; the second means "to request." Do notconfuse

them. beyond Giselle's beauty is beyond comparison. be on It's wise to be on time for job interviews. brake The sign warned drivers to brake. break The bartender washed the glasses carefully inorder not to break

them. breath After running, Jamal was out of breath. breathe The scuba instructor showed us how to breathe under water. choose If you choose to study electronics, you must take several math

courses. [present tense] chose Mary Beth chose to spend last weekend at the ocean. [past tense] cite In reports, one must cite all research. sight The cabin came into sight. site A construction site is full of hazards. cloths Soft cloths work best for polishing a car. clothes Al spends Saturday mornings washing clothes. complement His flowered tie does not complement his checkered jacket. compliment He complimented us on our performance. could of This form does not exist.

could have Tim could have been a manager. desert Few animals can survive in the desert as well as the camel can. dessert You can have ice cream for dessert. genes Your physical characteristics are passed on to you by your parents

through their genes. jeans I ripped my favorite pair of jeans. hang She wants to hang the pictures in the den. hung The sail hung loosely when the wind died. heros We always have heros for dinner on Mondays. heroes Children often think of athletes as heroes. in otherwords

In other words, the choice is not as easy as it appears to be.

irregardless This word does not exist. regardless They decided to buy a new car regardless of the cost. its' This form does not exist. its The college will hold its graduation Thursday. it's Since storm clouds are rolling in, it'’s likely to rain before evening. knew Ramona knew the secret password. new The new equipment will allow surgeons toperform the operation in

less time. know His brother asked, "Do you know him?" no "No," he replied. now The judges will now announce the winners of the contest. lead The mayor will lead the marchers downtown. lead Many older buildings are contaminated with lead paint. led The performer led the audience in a sing-along. loose Amy prefers loose clothing when it is humid. lose I predict the team will lose on Saturday. maybe Maybe he will win the lottery. may be The tests may be inaccurate, but the doctors are still worried. passed With help from a tutor, he passed the exam. past Alexis didn't consider her husband's past before she married him.

principal The principal closed the school at noon. principal Dehydration is the principal cause of heatstroke. principle Religious principles are important to many people throughout the

world. should of This form does not exist. should have Sharon should have come home earlier. stationary The table is stationary; it can't be moved. stationery She wrote the letter on expensive stationery. than Jodi and Bill arrived earlier than the other ticket buyers. then Read the instructions; then assemble the bicycle. their Their house is on the corner. there Stand there if you want to see the president. they're They're too tired to stay awake. to To vote, you have to register at city hall. too Since the classroom was too cold, the professor canceled the

lecture. two The two of them decided to attend the reception. try to Bob's mother should try to understand his problem. try and Avoid using this form; it is wordy. whose Whose car are we taking to the dance? who's Who's going to the dance with Brandy? would of This form does not exist. would have Walt would have canceled his appointment. your Someone found your purse in the college center. you're You're lucky that your money was not stolen.

Sample Quiz questions

:

1. Choose the word or phrases that uses correct standard English to complete the following sentence. The child who had ______ was soon revived.

a. passed out b. passed over c. passed on.

Answer: a. passed out

2. Choose the word or phrase that uses correct standard English to complete the

following sentence: The car _______ crashed into a large truck if the driver hadn’t swerved.

a. would have b. would of c. would a

Answer: a. would have