Columbus-ConstitutionBy: Claire Abs, Adam Conn, and Hannah

Riley

Columbus● 1492 Columbus lands in America

○ Columbus’ motives: Renaissance ambition, optimism, and adventure due to:

■ advances in scientific activity and technological change (gunpowder from China, compass from Arab merchants, printing presses, and improvements in shipbuilding/mapmaking)

● Columbus spent 8 years trying to win financial support from Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand, the two Spanish monarchs, to fund his plan to sail from Europe to the Indies

○ Isabella and Ferdinand furnished 3 ships and made Columbus governor, admriral, and viceroy of all the lands he would claim for Spain

○ After 6 weeks of travel, Columbus and his crew sighted an island in the Bahamas, way off of the course to the Indies

○ 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas = Spain claimed Columbus’ discovery lands

The Columbian ExchangeInteraction between the naturally developed “New World” of America and the “Old World” of Europe

Columbian Exchange:

New World Old World

crops(potatoes, tomatoes, maize, beans, tobacco, sugar)

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ase,

hor

ses,

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ine

Conquistadores● three motives for conquistador conquest: God, gold, and glory

● Conquistadores:

1513 Vasco Nuñez de Balboa - crossed the isthmus of Panama and discovered the Pacific Ocean

1513 Juan Ponce de León - while looking for a legendary fountain of youth, discovered Florida

1520 Ferdinand Magellan - sailed around the tip of South America and crossed the Pacific Ocean; one of his ships was the first to circumnaviagate the globe

1521 Hernán de Cortés conquered the Aztec empire in Mexico

1532 Francisco Pizarro - conquered the Inca empire in Mexico

1539-42 Hernando de Soto - explored from Florida westward as far as the Mississippi

River

● Impact:

○ Spanish sent back gold and silver to Spain from the New World, increasing gold supply over 500%, making Spain the richest and most powerful nation in Euorpe

○ Spanish created the encomienda system - Spanish king grants of land and Indians to Spaniards. Indians worked for and gave their profits to their Spanish leaders until:

○ disease wiped out nearly all Native Americans and the Spaniards shipped in slaves from West Africa - asiento system - Spaniards were taxed by the monarchy for each slave they imported

Spread of Spanish America● Spain’s colonial empire grew quickly, but they needed to secure their possessions as the

English began exploring the North and East

● How to secure Spanish possessions? Fortify and settle North American borderlands

● 1565: St. Augustine, Florida = oldest continually inhabited European settlement.

○ made by Spanish to block FR and protect Caribbean sea-lanes

● 1769: Father Junipero Serra founded missions in California

○ Father Serra’s friars worked to Christianize the three thousand native Californians who often lost their native culture in these missions or died of disease

Positives of Spanish colonization:

➢ unlike the English, the Spanish intermarried with the natives

➢ their empire lasted a long time,

➢ introduced horses and crops

Negatives of Spanish colonization

➢ Spanish killed, enslaved, and infected the natives

➢ built an empire on top of the society they dismantled with their own laws, religion, culture and language

England’s Imperial Stirrings● Sea Dogs: (English men encouraged by Queen Elizabeth to promote the goals of Protestantism

and seize Spanish treasure ships/raid their settlements)

○ Drake - plundered around the world and brought back goods and money with secret support from Queen Elizabeth

○ Raleigh - landed in 1585 in Roanoke, North Carolina off the coast near Virginia

■ this society eventually vanished

○ Gilbert - attempted to conquer Newfoundland but died at sea 1583

● Defeat of the Spanish Armada 1588 - England began to rise in the place of Spain while the Spanish empire began to fall apart

● Rivalry between Catholicism and Protestantism began to stir when King Henry VIII broke with the Catholic Church in the 1530’s

Economic Depression of England

Stage was set for England to set themselves up

● Unemployment - farmers pushed off of the land and a thirst for adventure = market

● Primogeniture - the English law that only the eldest son could inherit landed estates = second sons (sea dogs) needed to look for their own wealth and land

● Joint-stock company - pooled the savings of people of moderate means and supported trading ventures that seemed profitable, attracting large numbers of English settlers = financing for the enterprise of founding new colonies

● Peace with Spain = opportunity to colonize more

Jamestown● 1606 the Virginia Company of London received a charter from King James

I for settlement in the New World. Significance: it guaranteed the overseas settlers the same rights of Englishmen

● Virginia Company’s three ships landed near the Chesapeake Bay

○ 1607 about a hundred English settlers, all men, disembarked

○ they chose a location on the James River (after King James I) that was easy to defend but very unhealthful, causing many deaths from disease, malnutrition and starvation

● Captain John Smith saved the colony from collapse with his rule that “He who shall not work shall not eat.”

● Pocahontas became an intermediary between the Indians and the settlers

● Starving time - winter 1609-1610, only 60 of initial 400 settlers survived

Clash in Chesapeake Area● Powhatan was the chieftain of the native people living in the James River

● 1610 Lord De Warr arrived with orders from the Virginia Company that was a declaration of war against the Indians

○ introduced “Irish tactics” against the Indians - raiding the Indian villages, burned the houses, confiscated their provisions, and torched cornfields

○ 1614 peace settlement sealed by the marriage between Pocahontas and John Rolfe

○ fragile respite for 8 years

○ 1622 Indians struck back leaving 347 settlers dead including John Rolfe

● 1644 Second Anglo-Powhatan War1 - Indians again defeated

○ peace treaty 1646 repudiated any hope of assimilating the native peoples into Virginian society or of peacefully coexisting with them, but instead banished the Indians to separated areas

● Indian suseptibility:

○ Powhatans fell victim to the three D’s: disease, disorganization, and disposability

○ Powhatan Confederacy of loosely affiliated small tribes also not very unified, making them susceptible to the English and their destruction

Indians’ New World● Changes:

○ horses stolen, strayed or purchased from Spanish invaders caused an Indian migration onto the Great Plains in the 1700’s, even those tribes such as the Sioux who had formerly been sedentary moved to the plains and thrived as nomadic hunters

○ disease = robbed tribes of their elders who held clans together

● Trade: European commerce replaced the traditional Indian barter-and-exchange networks

○ firearms = gave huge advantages to those who could buy them from Europeans

■ Desire for firearms intensified competition among the tribes for access to prime hunting grounds that could supply the skins and pelts that the European arms traders wanted, leading to escalating of Indian-on-Indian violence

Tobacco● Rolfe = father of tobacco industry which saved Virginia economically as

Europeans demanded tobacco and pushed settlers west to attain land

● Labor supply: at first from indentured servants (young men who in exchange for fee transportation to a colony had to work on a plantation for a certain number of years), but after 1619 when Dutch ships arrived in Jamestown with about 20 Africans, the Virginia tobacco growers began to employ a combination of both forced labor and free labor

House of Burgesses - London Company authorized the settlers to summon an assembly - first of many miniature parliaments to flourish in the soil of America

● Joint-stock to royal: the company’s charter was revoked in 1624 and the colony came under direct control of King James I and became England’s first royal colony because the King detested tobacco

Maryland

● second plantation economy founded in 1634 by Lord Baltimore who set out to create a refuge for his fellow Catholics

● blossomed under acres of tobacco and like the Virginia colony, first depended on labor from indentured servants and later used slaves from Africa

● Lord Baltimore permitted freedom of worship at the outset to purchase toleration of his own fellow worshipers ○ Act of Toleration was passed 1649 by the local representative

assembly■ all Christians tolerated, but death to those like Jews and

atheists who denied the divinity of Jesus

The West Indies● mid 1600’s England had secured its claim to several West Indian islands

● Economy: sugar formed the foundation of the Caribbean but unlike tobacco, it was a rich man’s crop because it had to be planted extensively to yield enough sugar to be sold, which in turn required extensive labor

● West Indies began to depend on the North American mainland for foodstuffs and other basic supplies

● Sugar lords imported enormous numbers of African slaves

○ slave codes were created that defined the alves’ legal status

■ Barbados slave code of 1661 denied even the most fundamental rights to slaves and gave masters virtually complete control over their laborers, including the right to inflict vicious punishments for even slight infractions

The Carolinas● 1670 the Carolinas formally created

● North

○ newcomers were “squatters” without legal right as they drifted from Virginia

○ split from South Carolina 1712 became the “valve of humility between two mountains of conceit” as it was located between aristocratic Virginia and aristocratic South Carolina

○ most democratic, independent-minded and least aristocratic of the original 13 colonies

○ like South Carolina, North Carolina maintained bloody relations with Indians

● South

○ prospered because of its close economic ties with the flourishing sugar islands of the English West Indies

○ Carolina had a vigorous slave trade as Indians became among the colony’s major exports

○ Charles Town = became busiest seaport in the south that became a culturally diverse community because of its religious toleration

○ Rice emerged as the principal export crop in Carolina as it was exotic to England at the time

○ rice grown in Africa, so the Carolinians paid premium prices for West African slaves that knew how to cultivate rice

○ Africans because of their relative immunity to malaria and their agricultural skill made them ideal for the Carolinas = 1710 they constituted a majority of the Carolinas

Georgia● founded 1733, intended as a buffer to protect the more valuable Carolinas

against the vengeful Spaniards from Florida and against the hostile French from Louisiana

○ launched by a high-minded group of philanthropists that strived to keep slavery out of Georgia and create a haven for debtors

○ James Oglethorpe became interested in prison reform, repelled Spanish attacks, and saved the “Charity Colony” by his energetic leadership

● Georgia grew extremely slowly because its plantation economy was thwarted by an unhealthful climate, restrictions on black slavery, and Spanish attacks

● Savannah was a melting-pot community with German Lutherans and Scots, all Christian worshipers except Catholics enjoyed religious toleration

○ John Wesley was among the missionaries that came to work among debtors and Indians and later formed the Methodist Church

The Iroquois● Five nations: Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas and Senecas

○ banded together to end generations of violent warfare among themselves, but vanquished their rivals

● longhouse: building block of Iroquois society; 8-200 feet long containing 3-5 fireplaces where 2 nuclear families could gather

○ families connected through the maternal line

● Alliances: throughout the 17th and 18th centuries the Iroquois allied alternatively with English and French working the rivalry to their advantage

● Effect on American Revolution: Iroquois Confederacy couldn’t’ decide which side to support but most nations chose British, which when the British lost, left the Confederacy in tatters

● Reservation life: moral decline took place because of alcohol

Protestant Reformation● Martin Luther sparked the Reformation by denouncing the authority of priests and focusing

solely on the Bible

● John Calvin created Calvinism, the idea that God was all-powerful and all-good, but humans, because of original sin, were inherently weak and wicked

○ God was also all-knowing, so it was decided who would go to heaven or hell

■ this predestination created the idea of the elect were those who had been destined for eternal bliss vs. those destined for eternal torment

○ Calvinism became the dominant theology of the New England Puritans

○ Calvinists sought for “conversion” or the receipt of God’s free gift of saving grace and the knowledge that they were one of the elect and became “visible saints”

all of these doctrines arose while King Henry VIII broke away from the Roman Catholic Church in th e1930s and made himself the head of the Church of England

Puritans were those who wanted a total purification fo English christianity and devout Puritans believed only visible saints should be allowed into the Church, but the Church of England enrolled all the king’s subjects

those who didn’t agree with the decision were Separatists who vowed to break away entirely from the Church of England

The Pilgrims● Pilgrims = Separatists fled England in 1608 to find a refuge for their purified Protestantism

● 1620 arrived on the Mayflower off the coast of New England with 102 people

○ chose Plymouth Bay outside the domain of the Virginia Company

○ Mayflower Compact: agreement to form a crude government and to submit to the will of the majority under the regulations agreed upon - signed by 41 adult males, a promising step toward self-government

● Winter of 1620-1621

○ took heavy toll - only 44 of 102 survived

● Autumn of 1621

○ bountiful harvests

● Leaders:

○ William Bradford: a self-taught scholar who was chosen for governor 30 times in the annual elections

● 1691 Plymouth merged with Massachusetts Bay Colony

The Massachusetts Bay Colony● led by John Winthrop - first governor who believed in a “city upon a hill” or his belief that the

Puritan Bay colonists had a covenant with god to build a society that others looked up to

● Economy: fur trade, fishing, shipbuilding

● Government structure/taxes:

○ freemen - Congregational Church - (adult male visible saints - adult males) voted on ⅖governor and assistants

○ not a democracy - governor still had the final say

○ separation of church and state - religious leaders held no political power

○ both non-believers and believers paid taxes for the government to support the Church

● John Cotton - religious leader educated @ Cambridge

○ dedicated to defending the government’s duty to enforce religious rules

● Anne Hutchinson - religious dissenter who was intelligent, stubborn and talkative

○ challenged Puritanism with her belief of antinomianism that the truly saved didn’t have to obey God or man’s law = banished and eventually killed by Indians

● Roger Williams - criticized Bay Colony

○ wanted a clean break with the church

○ questioned legality of Bay Colony’s charter because it did not give Indian’s fair compensation for land

○ denied authority of government to regulate religious behavior

Rhode Island● Formal charter 1644; nicknamed “Rogue’s Island” as it became settlement

for many outsiders who were individualistic and independent

● Roger Williams founded Rhode Island as squatter colony 1636

○ fled here to create the first Baptist Church

○ Liberal ideas:

■ complete freedom of religion, no oaths regarding religious beliefs, no compulsory attendance at worship, no taxes

■ simple manhood suffrage

■ freedom of opportunity

■ sheltered Quakers although he disagreed with them

Puritans vs. Indians

• The largest problem between the two is their religion

• The Puritans took the indians beliefs as a direct threat to their religion and could not bridge the gap

The New England Confederation

• This was a brief coalition with the puritan colonies of Massachusetts,Plymouth, and Connecticut.

• It was created to defend against the native americans

The Dominion of New England

• Union of New England colonies as a union of English rule

• The political structure was overthrown when King James left the throne

The New Netherlands

• Combination of New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, and Delaware

• Netherland founded these colonies for fur trade

Pennsylvania

• William Penn founded a colony for religious tolerance for quakers

• The colony's reputation of religious freedom also attracted significant populations of German and Scots-Irish settlers

Bacon’s Rebellion

• Thousands of Virginians (including Nathaniel Bacon) took up arms against the Virginia governor William Berkeley

• The group took out Berkeley and torched the capital

Colonial Slavery

• The south used a lot of slaves in plantation and farm life making them a huge part of the population

• New England colonies did not use hardly any slaves in them yet they were present

Southern Society

• The colonial south was mainly dependent on the production of cash crops

• Plantations were used mostly in the south planting mainly tobacco with slaves as the farmers

New England Life

• The main goal of the New England colonies were for spiritual freedom instead of economic success like in the south

• Though economic opportunity was a goal for many they settled for so they would not be religiously repressed

The Halfway-Covenant

• The Halfway-covenant is a membership based puritan church community for the New England colonies

• Allowed partial membership rights to people not yet converted into the Puritan church

Immigration

• The puritans inhabited Boston and much of Massachusetts and the New England colonies

• The Dutch colonized the New York region all along the Hudson River

• The Middle colonies were settled by the Swedish, Finnish, Germans, and the Quakers

Society

• At the top of the social chain came the priest and churchmen

• Then the white small farmer who typically had a family where the women were expected to have children

• Finally the slaves and Irish

Triangular Trade

● The triangular trade (also known as the Atlantic Slave Trade) was a trade of○ Colonies trade rum and other goods to Africa○ Slaves from Africa to the Americas○ South America trades sugar to the colonies

The Great Awakening

• The first Great Awakening began in the 1730’s by a man named Jonathan Edwards

• Edwards had started a new kind of preaching one with more of an emotional response instead of a logical response called a “Fire and Brimstone” sermon

Education

• Public school systems existed only in New England, which also had a strong private and collegiate system

• The amount of education one received was based on their families social and wealth status

• In the south the families would do the educating and only due the basic literacy and numeracy

Pioneer Press

• The many newspapers in the colonial era were often slow and old with long essays in them

• However, the 40 number of newspapers on the colonial eve became a great way to get out colonial grievances and rally opposition to the British

Politics

• Each colony had their own separate form of government

• Like the House of Burgesses, they could not control all of the colonies just their own

• Massachusetts followed the Mayflower compact as a form of government

France in North America

• Some of the French empire was divided into five colonies, each with its own administration: Canada, Acadia, Hudson Bay, Newfoundland, and Louisiana

• Some of them were eventually lost in treaties but all originated as a French colony

France vs. England

• There were a lot of hostility between the two countries which made their colonies hostile towards each other

• With many wars including War of the Grand Alliance (Nine Years' War) (1688–1697) War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) occurring in Europe

• The Seven Years War (French and Indian war) (1740-1748) was the first war that happened in the colonies which made the English colonies have a more united colony

George Washington in the War

• Washington's military experience began in the French and Indian War with a commission as a major in the militia for Britain

• Washington gained valuable military skills during the war, acquiring tactical, strategic, and logistical military experience. He also acquired important political skills in his dealings with the British military

Deep Roots of Revolution

• Two ideas that contributed greatly to the revolution: Republicanism and British commentators known as “radical Whigs” (feared threat to liberty posed by the power of the Monarch)

• Americans had grown accustomed to running their own affairs - “distance weakens authority”

Mercantilism• British authorities embraced this theory that justified

control over their colonies

• Believed that wealth was power and that a country’s economic wealth could be measured by the amount of gold or silver it had

• In order to gain gold and silver, the country needed to export more than it imported, so possessing colonies served as a great advantage

• Colonists believed this theory was selfish and intentionally oppressive, forcing dependence on Britain

Important Taxes

• Issued under Prime Minister of England, George Grenville - created resentment of colonists towards England

• Sugar Act of 1764: first law ever passed by Britain for raising tax revenue in the colonies for the crown

• Stamp Act of 1765: mandated the use of stamped paper, certifying payment of a tax in order to raise revenues for Britain’s new military force

• Townshend Acts: light import tax on glass, white lead, paper, paint, and tea

• Sparked “no taxation without representation” cry

The Boston Massacre

• British officials land troops in Boston after disorder breaks out

• Sixty townspeople set upon ten British redcoats, forcing the troops to act without order

• Kill and wound eleven citizens, with the first to die being Crispus Attucks

Committees of Correspondence

• Organized by Samuel Adams

• Chief purpose was to spread the spirit of resistance by interchanging letters and keeping opposition to British policy alive

• Supremely significant in stimulating sentiment in favor of united action

• Evolved directly into the first American congresses

The Boston Tea Party

• British East India Company is given complete monopoly of the American tea business to prevent it from going bankrupt and loss of tax revenue for London

• Colonists saw this as attempt to trick them, although Massachusetts governor Thomas Hutchinson believed colonists had no right to act against it

• Hutchinson upsets Boston radicals, leading to them dressing up as Indians and dumping the contents of tea ships into the Boston harbor

The Intolerable Acts

• In response to the Boston Tea Party, Parliament passes these acts to chastise Boston.

• Closed the Boston harbor until damages were paid and order could be ensured

• Passed around the same time as the Quebec Act

Continental Congress

• Response to the Intolerable Acts designed to consider ways of redressing colonial grievances

• Created the Declaration of Rights and the Association, which called for a complete boycott of British goods

• Parliament rejects its petitions, furthering the imminence of war

The Beginning of the Revolutionary War

• April 1975: British commander in Boston sends troops to Lexington and Concord where colonial “Minute Men” refused to disperse

• Eight Americans were killed with several wounded, while Britain experienced 300 casualties with 70 killed

• George Washington chosen to lead the army during the war

The 2nd Continental Congress

• Meeting of ambassadors from the thirteen colonies formed shortly after the attacks on Lexington and Concord in 1775

• Began as merely desiring to continue fighting until the king and Parliament addressed colonial grievances

• Ended up wishing for independence and creating the Declaration of Independence

Patriots vs. Loyalists

• American rebels also known as “Whigs”

• Convinced colonists that the British Army had been an unreliable friend

• Thomas Paine’s “Common Sense” questions why the small island of Britain should control the vast continent of America; sells 120,000 copies in a few months

• Colonials loyal to the king also known as “Tories”

• 16% of the American population, more numerous in Anglican churches and the older generation

• Feared that separation from England would disrupt America

Major Battles of The Revolution

• Lexington and Concord: Beginning of the war

• Saratoga (turning point): revives faltering colonial cause and gains much needed aid from France

• Yorktown: marks end to the Revolutionary War when General Cornwallis surrenders after Washington besets British by land and de Grasse blockades the sea

The Declaration of Independence

• Henry Lee of Virginia states first that the United Colonies deserves to be free and independent states on June 7, 1776

• Thomas Jefferson drafts the declaration, getting approval by the congress on July 4, 1776

• Included the “natural rights” of man and claimed that the king denied the colonists of these rights, so their independence was justified

The Treaty of Paris (1783)

• Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and John Jay sent to negotiate peace in Paris

• The British formally recognize the independence of the United States and grant generous boundaries stretching to the Mississippi on the west, the Great Lakes on the north, and Spanish Florida on the South

Constitutions of the States

• Congress called on the colonies to draft new constitutions

• Drew authority from the people

• Many included a Bill of Rights and an annual election of legislators

• Deliberately made the executive and judicial branches weak, giving great power to the legislative branch

The Articles of Confederation

• Provided for a loose confederation or a “firm friendship”

• Congress was to be the chief agency of government, although it was weak at the time

• Clearly outlined the general powers to be executed by the central government

• Kept the idea of union alive and held the states together

Shay’s Rebellion

• Rebellion by backcountry farmers in western Massachusetts led by Revolutionary War Captain Daniel Shays against Boston creditors

• Demanded cheap paper money, lighter taxes, and suspension of property takeovers

• Threatened economic interests of the business elite

• Ended when small army was raised (supported by wealthy citizens) to take action

Federalists vs. Antifederalists

• Federalists had more power and influence, consisting of the wealthiest, more educated, and more organized

• Favored a stronger federal government

• Alexander Hamilton

• Antifederalists consisted of states’ rights devotees, backcountry dwellers, and farmers (generally the poor)

• Opposed stronger federal government in fear that the wealthier aristocrats had created the Constitution to steal power from the common people

• Thomas Jefferson

The Great Compromise

• Larger states were conceded representation by population in the House of Representatives while smaller states were pleased by giving each state equal representation in the Senate (two Senators each), no matter how big or how small the population of the state was.

Land Laws

• Land Ordinance of 1785: provided that the acreage of the Old Northwest be sold and that the proceeds would help pay off national debt

• Northwest Ordinance of 1787: gave territories in the Northwest two settling stages, where the area would be under federal rule, then, when the area had 60,000 inhabitants, it had the chance to become a state

1. Calvinists believed in all of these except?

a) God knows who will go to heaven and hell

b) humans are inherently sinless and good

c) conversion

d) the elect are those who know they will be saved

2. The Colonies traded what in the Triangular trade? a) Sugar

b) Rum

c) Fish

d) Slaves

3. How is each state represented in the Senate? a) By population (bigger=more)

b) By land area (bigger=more)

c) All states receive equal representation (2 each)

d) By date of colonization (older=more)

4. Which of these does not describe the Act of Toleration?

a) passed in 1649 in Maryland

b) death to all those who did not believe in the divinity of Jesus

c) based on the beliefs of Lord Baltimore

d) gave religious tolerance to all religions

5. Why is Saratoga considered the turning point of the Revolutionary War?a) America gained French aid

b) Britain removed all of its troops from American grounds

c) Revived the faltering colonial cause

d) Both a and c

6. Who founded the New York colony?a) England

b) Dutch

c) France

d) Spain

7. Why did the Bacon Rebellion occur?a) A protest against royal taxes

b) Stop the emigration of Germans

c) To stop the corrupt William Berkeleyd) Raise support for Indian land

8. What aspect did the majority of states NOT include in their constitutions? a) A strong legislative branch

b) Drew off the authority of the people

c) A strong executive branch

d) An annual election of legislators

9. What kind of government was established in Plymouth?

a) self-government

b) monarchy

c) royal

d) dictatorship

10. All are apart of the New England Confederation EXCEPTa) Delaware

b) Plymouth

c) Massachusetts

d) Connecticut

11. What group would most likely support Antifederalists?a) A large landowner

b) Poor farmers

c) A wealthy male

d) An educated man

12. Which of these colonies was most democratic?

a) Maryland

b) Massachusetts Bay

c) North Carolina

d) Georgia

13. What was the main cash crop of the south during the colonial era?a) Silk

b) Sugar

c) Cotton

d) Tobacco

14. What did supporters of mercantilism believe in?

a) Wealth was power and a country’s economic wealth could be measured by the amount of gold or silver in its treasury

b) Trade, industry, and the means of production should controlled by private owners with the goal of making profits in a market economy

c) Actions and human institutions are economically determined, that the class struggle is the basic agency of historical change, and that capitalism will ultimately be superseded by communism

d) The advocacy of monetary and fiscal programs by government to increase employment and spending

15. Which of the following was NOT a principal of Roger Williams in Rhode Island?

a) no church taxes

b) simple manhood suffrage

c) freedom of opportunity

d) government regulation of religious activities