European colonialism in the Middle EastIntervention, Transformation,Independence A romanticized painting of Napoleon inspecting a mummy at the Pyramids.

Responses:Transformations in Ottoman ruleOttoman reform: 1830s-1870sNew centralizationNew technologies (railroad)New educationNew institutionsErosion of Ottoman economic and political independenceCapitulationsEuropean protection of non-Muslim minoritiesNationalism loss of Ottoman territories in EuropeTurkish and Arab nationalism

The Age of Empire, 1875-1914Growing global division between the very powerful and the less powerfulRise of colonial empires Between 1876 & 1914 about 25% of the worlds land surface distributed as colonies among European powersReasons: economics (new markets & new resources), strategic reasons, political symbolism, nationalism

European colonialism in the Middle East, late 18th-late 19th c.1798-1801 French invasion of EgyptBritish outposts on the Arabian Peninsula, 1799French annexation of Algeria, 1834 (settler colonialism)British administrative occupation of Egypt, 1882Russian and British imperialism in Iran

Geromes Napoleon in Egypt (1863)

European colonialism in the Middle East, 20th centuryWWI and Competing promises:Husayn-McMahon Correspondence, Sykes-Picot agreement; Balfour Declaration Promised Palestinian Arabs independence if they helped beat the Turks in World War I. Promised Jews a homelandPost WWI: League of Nations-sanctioned Mandate System gives Britain and France administrative control of Palestine, Transjordan, Iraq, Syria, & LebanonMany other areas remain under direct or indirect colonialism

Issues with ColonialismReligions: Judaism, Islam, ChristianityLanguages: Arabic, Turkish, Persian, Hebrew, Kurdish, ArmenianBorders: created by European nations without thought to ethnic makeup of the region

Sykes-Picot Agreement

Gaining FreedomNationalism: Independence was gained in the following years:1923 Trans-Jordan from Britain1930 - Iraq gained freedom from British; borders gave limited access to Persian Gulf and religious and ethnic tensions prevailed1936 - Egypt independence from Britain, but military control of the Suez Canal for Britain for 20 yearsLebanon, Syria, Jordan gained independence after World War IIPan-Arab dream was to create a united Arab state

The Mandate Systemcertain parts of the world put under trusteeship of various victorious European powers British mandates in the MidEast: Palestine, Iraq, TransjordanFrench mandates in the MidEast: Syria, LebanonMandates both sanctify western colonialism but also circumscribe it

ARTICLE 22 OF THE COVENANT OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS June 28, 1919

To those colonies and territories which as a consequence of the late war have ceased to be under the sovereignty of the States which formerly governed them and which are inhabited by peoples not yet able to stand by themselves under the strenuous conditions of the modern world, there should be applied the principle that the well-being and development of such peoples form a sacred trust of civilization and that securities for the performance of this trust should be embodied in this Covenant.

2. The best method of giving practical effect to this principle is that the tutelage of such peoples should be entrusted to advanced nations who by reason of their resources, their experience or their geographical position can best undertake this responsibility, and who are willing to accept it, and that this tutelage should be exercised by them as Mandatories on behalf of the League.

3. The character of the mandate must differ according to the stage of the development of the people, the geographic situation of the territory, its economic conditions and other similar circumstances.

Outside the MandateTrue independence: TurkeyMostly independent: Yemen, S. ArabiaDirect colonial rule: Libya (Italy); Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia (French) External control & influence: Iran (Britain, Russia, U.S.), Egypt (Britain)British treaties of protection: Kuwait, Oman, U.A.E.

Map Correction: Iran and Egypt were not fully independent until much later than indicated here. Both continued to have extensive external involvement in their economic and political affairs.

Full Independence: How and WhenMilitary Coup: Egypt (1952), Iraq (1958)Revolution: Iran (1979)War: Turkey (1920-1923), Algeria (1954-1962), Israel (1948)Uprising and Int. Agreement: Libya, Syria, Lebanon (after WWII) Treaty: Jordan (1946/8), Tunisia (1956), Morocco (1956)Communities promised states/autonomy that did not receive them: Palestinians, Kurds, Armenians

Colonialism: Overarching effectsCreation of new, national states in place of the Ottoman Empire (Iraq, Jordan, Israel, Turkey, etc.)Implanting of western-supported regimes (especially monarchies) that use violence to maintain authority. In many cases, these would later be violently overthrown.Centralization of political power. Loss of rural autonomy.Reorganization of social relationships among different groups. Privileging of some religious and social groups over others, leading to future conflict. Massive economic disruption. New economic relationships, with arrangements particularly benefiting western powersNew models: nationalism, modernity vs traditional

Colonialism & Imperialism,summed up (a perspective)