Samantha Hubbard * BooksAnnotated Bibliography ** Scholarly Articles

Madagascar

Colonial Era:

Country Studies. Library of Congress. “A Country Study: Madagascar”. August 1994. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/mgtoc.html.

This source provides a useful, yet brief overview of Madagascar’s history. The study divides the history into five sections: Pre-colonial Era (prior to 1894), Colonial Era (1894-1960), Independence, The first Republic and the Military Transition (1960-1975), The Second Republic (1975-1992), and The Third Republic (1993- ). The information within the Pre-colonial Era section describes the introduction of foreigners into the Malagasy society, the introduction of slavery (all before colonization), the development of power and rule by the dominant ethnic group, the Merina, and the relationship with Europe that suffered under Queen Ranavalona I (1828-61), flourished under her successor King Radama II (1861-63), and then was maintained by the following ruler King Rainilaiarivony. The second section, Colonial Era (1894-1960) begins with the official French declaration of colonial rule in 1896. The source then moves immediately into nationalist, anti-colonial movements and therefore lacks information about French motives for colonization. This source does, however, provide good evidence of the Malagasy anti-colonial sentiments: the first movements beginning in 1913, the 1947 revolt and France’s response, and then the emergence of the two main Malagasy political parties in 1950. The remaining sections are found under the decolonization heading. This will be helpful in the research paper as to provide a basis from which to start further analysis.

Robinson, Bruce. “Madagascar Captured.” Bbc.co.uk. WW2 People’s War. May 1942. http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/ww2/A1122490.

This is a brief source that described Madagascar’s position during World War II, specifically during the German invasion of France and the creation of the French Vichy. According to Robinson, the colonies were allowed to choose which side to follow and Madagascar chose the French Vichy government. This made the allies nervous as they realized the potential for Japan to take advantage of Madagascar’s position in the Indian Ocean and use them to bomb Allied shipping boats. To prevent this, the Allied forces “simulated” invasion of Madagascar and bombed French Vichy government ships that were in port. There was a small encounter with the French Vichy, but the Allies emerged victorious and the French Vichy governor and troops drew back to the south of the island, making the Allies successful in preventing Madagascar from taking the opposition’s side. This is an interesting article as it describes a brief time in Madagascar’s colonial history when their colonizing authority lost legitimacy, which, it can be argued, was a fundamental factor in decolonization.

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** Cooke, James J. “Madagascar and Zanzibar: A Case Study in African Colonial Friction.” African Studies Review. Vol. 13, No. 3, 435-443. December 1970.

In this article, Cooke focuses on the conflicts that arose between England and France due to the colonial territories, using Madagascar and Zanzibar as classic nineteenth century examples. France initially claimed Madagascar, and demanded large territorial sacrifices by the Malagasy rulers. The British did not acknowledge French presence as valid and insisted that the rulers refuse these land concessions to France. Although in 1890 an agreement was signed between France and Britain to end the conflict, both countries continued to interfere in colonial relationships. The French sent Catholic missionaries to the region, while the British sent Protestant missionaries. According to Cooke, the French Catholics wanted to wage war against the British Protestants in order to drive them from Madagascar (and Zanzibar). The French and British habitant of the colonies would report to their respective state of the offenses and surmounting tension in the area, and the state would respond with empty promises of improvement. Another French offense against Britain was implemented through tariffs. France put a tax much higher than any other nation on British imports into Madagascar. When native uprisings against French colonial powers in Madagascar gave England the opportunity to gain power in the island, they withdrew and refused to do anything that would harm France’s position in Madagascar. After France beat the nationalist uprisings down, they re-issued the high tariff on British imports and arrested several Frenchmen in Madagascar for giving aide to the Malagasy people during the uprising. Just as the conflict had reached a head, the French withdrew the tax and ended conflict in Madagascar and Zanzibar as they realized the upcoming conflicts with their holdings near the Nile, and they did not want anything to jeopardize their position with the Nile. According to Cooke, this conflict shows the European scramble for African land to colonize and the lack of restraint and balance of the Europeans, specifically the French and English. This article is interesting within the context of my research paper in that it shows weakness and uncertainty in a Europe that is usually pictured as unshakable. This article also raises a question of French legitimacy within Madagascar, as they, at one point, rely on England to restrain from invasion so they can conquer ‘their’ colony.

** Campbell, Gwyn. “The Structure of Trade in Madagascar, 1750-1810.” The International Journal of African Historical Studies. Vol. 26, No.1, 111-148. 1993.

In this article, Campbell discusses the status of trade pre-French conquest. She looks at the rise of the Merina empire, which dominated economically and politically from 1820s until 1895 as a small landlocked region in the middle of Madagascar. Campbell focuses on the time period from 1750-1810 so as to analyze the Merina empire’s rise to power and the role that the leader of the empire, Andrianampoinimerina played in the process. In the beginning of the nineteenth century, each region of the empire contained its own markets with some interaction with neighboring markets. The development of the plantation in neighboring islands created a market within Madagascar for slaves, which was the major stimulant to trade. Andrianampoinimerina played the role of organizer and regulation setter for the trade economy that developed. After a series of wars in 1790, a system of weights and measurements was developed which led to the

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development of an inter-island trade network. Regional specialization emerged out of this island trade economy. Goods such as cloth, piastres, and gunpowder were used as money. An interesting point that Campbell states is that this development of a market economy was a direct result from their strong agricultural base. The development could not be maintained given the position of Merina within Madagascar, therefore Merina began to combine their economic and political power in the early 1800s so as to establish the island empire that emerged in the 1820s. This article is relevant in that it shows the economic status of Madagascar pre-French conquest, and establishes that Africa, at least in Madagascar, did have a functioning economic and political system established prior to colonization.

Bureau of African Affairs. US Department of State. “Background Note: Madagascar.” January 2005. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5460.htm.

Country Profiles. BBC News. “Country Profile: Madagascar.” 9 November 2004. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1063208.stm.

The World Factbook. CIA. “The World Factbook: Madagascar.” 10 February 2005. http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ma.html

Timelines. BBC News. “Timeline: Madagascar.” 12 November 2004. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1832645.stm.

These sources provide a recent, brief, and comprehensive outline of Madagascar. They offer general information about the people, the government, the economy, the media, and a plethora of statistics about Madagascar in each of these areas. These sources are useful in gathering basic information and providing a basis for further analysis.

* Fuglestad, Finn and Jarle Simensen, eds. “Norwegian Missions in African History Vol. 2: Madagascar.” Vol. 2. London: Norwegian University Press, 1986.

This book focuses on the influence of Norwegian missionaries throughout Madagascar beginning in 1866. The authors dedicate two chapters to background information and then look at individual regions of Madagascar and role of the Norwegians in their history. The first chapter, The Malagasy Background I: The Early Phase, gives a succinct summary of Malagasy ethnicity, both historically as well as modernly. The chapter then moves into a detailed report of the pre-colonial Merina empire that maintained power in the island, including information on the trading economy as well as on the religious development under the Merina empire. The second chapter of the book, The Malagasy Background II: The Nineteenth Century, begins with a continued description of the end of the Merina empire and the initial contact with Europe, in the form of Britain. The result of this contact is a change in authority to King Radama I, and a strong movement toward paganism that included the persecution of Christians. After the death of the king, King Radama II, there was a time of social unrest and wars for power that caused the leader of one movement to turn to Christianity as a means to power. Christianity also played a role in the economic success of the late nineteenth century as they were so closely affiliated with the government. This source is useful in developing a thorough and clear sense of the pre-colonial years in Madagascar. As the book develops it narrows its focus to specific regions in Madagascar and the direct

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effect the Norwegian missionaries had in each region. This provides a good look into the political, economic, social and religious environment of individualized Malagasy regions pre-French colonial rule. This is useful information in understanding the situation into which the French entered in 1894.

Decolonization:

Country Studies. Library of Congress. “A Country Study: Madagascar”. August 1994. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/mgtoc.html

The continuation of the five segments begins with Independence, the First Republic, and the Military Transition (1960-75). This piece begins with a brief explanation of how Madagascar obtained independence, and how the first president, Tsiranana, signed fourteen agreements to maintain ties with France. There is a brief description of the corruption that came with Tsiranana’s government in the form incumbent favored actions that put his party above the other ethnic parties. The source goes on to describe opposition that arises in response to the corruption and the maintenance of French ties: the unsuccessful 1971 Monima party uprising, the 1972 unsuccessful student protests, and then the final violent uprising of a combination of forces that were successful in forcing Tsiranana to dissolve his government and give power and control to the National Military. This ended the First Republic in 1972. Continued economic stagnation and uprisings led to a deeper divide among ethnic/political parties. Finally, a unifying leader emerged that would initiate the desired “revolution from above”: Ratsiraka, under the ruling body of the Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC). The section, the Second Republic (1975-92), began with the election of Ratsiraka into a seven year term as president on December 21, 1975. Ratsiraka’s presidency focused on implementing a new Malagasy government as it was described in the “Red Book”. This meant a “new society” based on the “five pillars of the revolution”, a focus on a new foreign policy of detachment with the West, a decentralized domestic government, and strong economic development based on careful planning. In March of 1976 the Vanguard of the Malagasy Revolution (Arema) became the government’s party and Ratsiraka was named the secretary general. This party was one of the six parties that formed in a coalition that unified under the National Front for the Dense of the Revolution (FNDR). But after only three years of peaceful rule, policies of centralization of dominant economic sectors uprising and opposition began, and this led to a more authoritarian rule by Ratsiraka. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) successfully pressured Ratsiraka to open the Malagasy economy in order to obtain the economic assistance it offered. Enemies of Ratsiraka saw this as a rejection of the “scientific socialism” to which he had been committed. Ratsiraka’s popularity declined dramatically and he was accused of an unfair election in 1989. This resulted in a peaceful march of 400,000 people on the President’s Palace in August of 1991. The Presidential Guard opened fire on the citizens and a leadership catastrophe occurred. Ratsiraka’s response was to democratize including a rewritten constitution as well as free multiparty elections. The result of those elections was Albert Zafy, the main leader of the opposition forces, a member of the côtier party (coastal party) and the first president of the Third Republic. In August of 1992 a new constitution was approved by 75% of those who voted in the

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national referendum. On February 10, 1993 Zafy beat Ratsiraka with a 67% popular vote and became the next president of Madagascar and as the leader of the Comité des Forces Vives (Forces Vives) coalition party consisting of sixteen other parties. The party and Zafy have experienced problems with the IMF as they require reforms that are of no direct benefit to the Malagasy citizens as well as using inexperienced political institutions to resolve the multitude of problems facing the country. This information will be useful in the paper in that it contains historical background information that can be used to make further connections and comparisons.

Bureau of African Affairs. US Department of State. “Background Note: Madagascar.” January 2005. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5460.htm.

Country Profiles. BBC News. “Country Profile: Madagascar.” 9 November 2004. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1063208.stm.

The World Factbook. CIA. “The World Factbook: Madagascar.” 10 February 2005. http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ma.html

Timelines. BBC News. “Timeline: Madagascar.” 12 November 2004. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1832645.stm.

These sources provide a recent, brief, and comprehensive outline of Madagascar. They offer general information about the people, the government, the economy, the media, and a plethora of statistics about Madagascar in each of these areas. These sources are useful in gathering basic information and providing a basis for further analysis.

** Logan, Rayford W. “Education in Former French West and Equatorial Africa and Madagascar.” The Journal of Negro Education. Vol. 30, No. 3. 1961.

Logan focuses on the education problem that faced the French colonies after decolonization, but he also mentions other problem areas that ex-colonies experienced in their decolonization period. He sites three main reasons for the educational deficiency that ex-French colonies found themselves in: 1) the short duration of stay of France within their colonies (the longest being eight years in Senegal), 2) the premature desertion of the French policy of “assimilation” that left only a small number of Africans actually “civilized”, and 3) a period of decolonization/autonomous rule that did not last long enough for Africa to learn how to be independent. Logan goes on to mention that the extremely diverse people that were left behind had different tribes and dialects of Malagasy. Therefore communication was primarily French as it was the universal languge. Africans were forced to communicate in French which, although it did facilitate unity and growth, it also promoted class divisions and ‘elitism’. Logan states that within Africa, aside from the aforementioned problems as a result of colonization, education also suffered due to environmental issues (rainstorms, moths, mildew), disease (intestinal diseases), social (value of leisure and comfort), financial (without and funding), and philosophical issues (the only teachers available were French, therefore French philosophy was taught). This source provides good examples, with education as a focus, of the struggles and conditions that were facing Madagascar post-French colonialism.

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Economic Development:

Bureau of African Affairs. US Department of State. “Background Note: Madagascar.” January 2005. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5460.htm.

Country Profiles. BBC News. “Country Profile: Madagascar.” 9 November 2004. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1063208.stm.

The World Factbook. CIA. “The World Factbook: Madagascar.” 10 February 2005. http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ma.html

Timelines. BBC News. “Timeline: Madagascar.” 12 November 2004. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1832645.stm.

These sources provide a recent, brief, and comprehensive outline of Madagascar. They offer general information about the people, the government, the economy, the media, and a plethora of statistics about Madagascar in each of these areas. These sources are useful in gathering basic information and providing a basis for further analysis.

Country Studies. Library of Congress. “A Country Study: Madagascar”. August 1994. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/mgtoc.html

The Country Study of Madagascar divides the economic sector of Madagascar into nine areas: Government Policy and Intervention, Structural Adjustment, National Accounts and Budget, Balance of Payments and Debt, Traditional Agriculture, Agricultural Production, Industrial Development, Foreign Trade, and Transportation and Telecommunications. As this source is of 1994, it provides a limited look into the contemporary Malagasy economic situation. In 1994, the President Zafy announced the economy as his focus and set out five major aims for agricultural policy, such as the improvement of existing crop production and the development of new export products. The IMF and World Bank (WB) have been helpful in loaning Madagascar millions of dollars in structural and adjustment funds. This monetary funding came with conditions such as the devaluation of the Malagasy franc and macroeconomic stability. The latter condition, combined with several others, although it was economically beneficial, was politically destructive for Zafy’s presidency. As of November 1993 the external debit loomed at US$4 billion, with an outstanding initial debt of US$295 million and a US$625 million debt as rescheduled. Agriculture is Madagascar’s main source of revenue providing the country with 80% of its exports, employing 80% of the labor force, and containing 33% of GDP in 1993. Industry within Madagascar improved by a small 1.1% from 1987-1991 and in 1993 constituted 13% of the GDP with the major sectors falling in food-processing, mining, and energy. In 1992, 81.1% of Madagascar’s foreign trade sector was located within the West with four main trading partners: France, United States, Germany, and Japan, consecutively. This source offers a strong general background in Malagasy economy during the last decade of the twentieth century, however it lacks great detail in any of the nine subjects. This will be useful in the research paper as background information and a point from which to further investigation. These sources, especially the section on structural adjustment, will be very helpful in determining the economic situation of post-colonial Madagascar.

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Millennium Development Goals. World Development Indicators database. “Madagascar Country Profile.” April 2004. http://devdata.worldbank.org/idg/IDGProfile.asp?CCODE=MDG&CNAME=Madagascar&SelectedCountry=MDG.

This site lists eight areas in which the Millennium Development Goals focus: eradicate extreme poverty and hunger, achieve universal primary education, promote gender equality, reduce child mortality, improve maternal health, combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases, ensure environmental sustainability, and to develop a global partnership for development. The database indicates Madagascar’s statistics in each of the above categories for the years 1990, 1995, 2001, and 2002 as well as the target goal for the year 2015. This site his helpful in providing a clear outline of what the Millennium Project requires of Madagascar for the future and the point from which Madagascar has to start.

Millennium Development Goals. The World Bank Group. World Development Indicators database. “Madagascar Data Profile.” April 2004. http://devdata.worldbank.org/external/CPProfile.asp?CCODE=MDG&PTYPE=CP.

This site is similar to the other country profiles that have been used, however it provides a more in depth look at the people, the environment, the economy, the technology and infrastructure, and the trade and finance of Madagascar. The statistics provided are for the years 1999, 2002, and 2003. This is helpful information in interpreting the Millennium Development Goals that have been set for Madagascar as it indicates the state in which Madagascar has been in the past, as well as the current situation. This will be helpful with the research paper in providing specific data and statistics that is not offered in general country study resources.

The World Bank Group. “Madagascar at a glance.” 29 September 2004. http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/AFRICAEXT/MADAGASCAREXTN/0,,menuPK:356378~pagePK:141132~piPK:141109~theSitePK:356352,00.html.

This site provides the similar information as a country profile with data on Madagascar’s poverty and social climate, the structure of the economy, trade, balance of payments, and external debt. This source provides a comparison both with other African countries and Madagascar, as well as with Malagasy data as far back as 1983, which will provide a better look at the economic situation of Madagascar after independence. This source will be helpful in the research paper as it also contains graphs and charts for some of the data and statistics listed.

Official Website of the Malagasy Government. “Millennium Challenge Corporation.” 5 June 2004. http://www.madagascar.gov.mg/modules.php?name=Sections2&sop=viewarticle2&artid=317.

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This article announces Madagascar’s acceptance into the Millennium Challenge Corporation which is a government corporation that was designed to reward developing countries that have met certain political, economic, and social criteria. This article is short, yet important as it is a clear statement of the improvements that Madagascar has made, and the incentive they have to continue with improvements.

The World Bank Group. Madagascar. “IMF and World Bank Support US$836 Million in Debt Service Relief for Madagascar.” 20 October 2004. http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/AFRICAEXT/MADAGASCAREXTN/0,,contentMDK:20270346~menuPK:356358~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:356352,00.html.

This article describes the reasons for which Madagascar reached its completion point for the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative. The HIPC Initiative was created in 1996 by the IMF and World Bank to offer debt relief to the entire world’s poorest and most indebted countries to decrease the stress and allow for build-up in these countries. The HIPC Initiative contains three areas of advancements: 1) deeper and broader relief, 2) faster relief, and 3) a stronger link between debt relief and poverty reduction. Since 1997, Madagascar has made extensive efforts for structural reforms, for a more welcoming environment for foreign direct investment, and efforts in the way of a more integrated economy. The 2002 political crisis set Madagascar back in the improvements it had made, but the government responded with poverty reduction plans, infrastructure improvement programs, primary education improvement, and made progress in the government. In 2004 there were two natural disasters (cyclones) that destroyed what little infrastructure existed and caused an increase in homelessness, but the government responded quickly to maintain the macroeconomic stability. These are the actions that have allowed Madagascar to reach its completion point and be awarded US$836 million (US$1.9 million nominal terms) in debt relief. This article is important in that it provides a good example of the current condition of the economy and some of the steps and incentives that were necessary in making the improvements.

The World Bank Group. Madagascar. “Madagascar: World Bank Approves a US$125 Million Project Supporting Poverty Reduction And An Additional US$50 Million For A Community Development Fund Project in Madagascar.” 20 July 2004. http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/AFRICAEXT/MADAGASCAREXTN/0,,contentMDK:20228358~menuPK:356358~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:356352,00.html.

The World Bank is providing Madagascar with the Poverty Reduction Support Credit (PRSC) for government improvement and human development reforms. The PRSC loan will increase quality of education, eliminate school fees, improve teacher recruitment processes, and support public expenditure management reforms (anticorruption and judiciary). Madagascar is already offering progress reports that show a growing economy, increased education enrollment rates, and success in the roads

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program which is reconstructing the roads and infrastructure. The Community Development Project credit money is going to help aide in the post-cyclone redevelopment time. This article is important as it shows the strong relationship that Madagascar holds with the international relief bodies, such as the IMF and WB. This article is another example of the positive implementation of relief money within Madagascar and the improvements that the country is making.

Press Release NO. 05/35. International Monetary Fund. “IMF Executive Board Completes Sixth and Final Review Under Madagascar’s PRGF Arrangement and Approves US$17.2 Million Disbursement.” 18 February 2005. http://www.imf.org/external/np/sec/pr/2005/pr0535.htm.

The Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF) arrangement was initiated on March 1, 2001 and reviewed five times after its initiation, with each review ending in the allocation of more money to Madagascar. This final review has found Madagascar’s use of its funding to be successful, and therefore, deserving of another US$17.2 million. The First Deputy Managing Director and Acting Chair of the IMF’s Executive Board, Ms. Anne Krueger, stated that Madagascar’s performance has been successful and outlined the issues in which the country needs to direct its future attention, as well as suggested the areas in which the US$17.2 million should be spent. This is important in that it shows the most recent economic state of Madagascar as improving and committed to the improvement. This article is evidence of the continued dedication of the government to advancement that is further discussed in the annual reports.

USAID Development Experience Clearinghouse. “USAID/Madagascar Annual Report FY 2004.” 14 June 2004. http://www.dec.org/pdf_docs/PDACA033.pdf.

This report states the government of Madagascar’s commitments and priorities in the political, economic, and social arenas. It goes into detail within each arena and indicates specific examples of progress during 2003. The report goes on to state the risks that Madagascar faces in continuing the ambition that the government has had in the recent past. Some of these risks include a weak bureaucracy that will be unable to implement the plans, and the public impatience that will result from that. The Mission Performance Plan in sited as the document in which the U.S. objectives in Madagascar are expressed: promotion of democracy, broad-based economic development, including health, and environmental protection. Also discussed are the challenges that the newly developed government is going to have to overcome in order to maintain this good relationship with the U.S. Finally, the report presents in detail the three key areas of improvement during 2003, which directly follow the three key U.S. objectives: 1) democracy and economic growth, 2) health, population, and nutrition, and 3) environment. Also briefly mentioned at the end of the report is the relationship that Madagascar maintains with its financial donors (World Bank, EU) as well as the advancements in gender equality that are being made along with the economic and political advancements. This report is very useful in determining the current status of the economy. It provides an in-depth review of the improving conditions that have been the reason for the financial rewards from the World Bank and the IMF.

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Bureau for Africa. U.S. Agency for International Development. USAID/Madagascar. “Madagascar Integrated Strategic Plan FY 2003-2008.” November 2002. http://www.dec.org/pdf_docs/PDABY400.pdf.

U.S. financial development assistance in Madagascar will be given for the promotion of good governance and for economic reforms that will allow for the better management of Madagascar’s natural resources, which will lead to a decrease in poverty and an improvement of social conditions. A program that accomplishes the aforementioned improvements, and also created positive secondary effects, such as HIV/AIDS reduction or the increased ability to respond to natural disasters, will be considered a successful program that has best utilized the assistance. The plan goes into detail about Madagascar’s problem areas: poverty, untapped potential of the economy, and governmental corruption. The new Mission Goal of the Integrated Strategic Plan (ISP) for 2003-2008 is “Sustainable and Inclusive Economic Development.” This goal is believed to combine the previous goal of poverty reduction with current concerns as well as with foreign donor priorities. This plan outlines strategic objectives for Madagascar in the five year span the plan covers: “Governance in Targeted Areas Improved”, “Use of Selected Services and Products Increased, and Practiced Improved”, “Biologically Diverse Forest Ecosystems Conversed”, and “Critical Private Markets Expanded”. This source is particularly valuable in establishing the objectives as it gives a more specific and explicit objectives that are then further explained. It is interesting to note that the key areas of improvement in Madagascar (as mentioned in the “USAID/Madagascar Annual Report FY 2004”) follow closely with the four stated objectives. This indicates that Madagascar is seriously and ambitiously pursuing these objectives in what appears to be an honest attempt to eradicate corruption, poverty, etc. as to become a more favorable nation for investment and, subsequently, growth. UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRINNEWS.ORG. “Madagascar:

Debt campaigners call for total write off.” 18 October 2004. http://www.irinnews.org/print.asp?ReportID=43731.

This article calls on the IMF and World Bank to cancel Madagascar’s complete debt, as opposed to only half the debt which is owed, as Madagascar cannot service the remaining US$2 billion. According to the source, the total external debt that Madagascar owes is US$4 billion, and the IMF and World Bank are only prepared to forgive US$2 billion of the debt for completion of the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative. This article is important as it adds another detail to the story of debt relief in Madagascar. The Malagasy government asked for a complete forgiveness of the debt, but it was denied, therefore there remains US$2 billion debt to the IMF and World Bank.

UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRINNEWS.ORG. “Madagascar: Debt write-offs should benefit poor, analysts.” 30 April 2003. http://www.irinnews.org/print.asp?ReportID=33802.

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This article discussed France’s decision to cancel US$55 million of Madagascar’s debt from 2000-2004 so as to allow for more funds to be invested in poverty reduction plans and economic reconstruction. This is a significant step because France initially refused aide to Madagascar during their 2002 political crisis. This article is good evidence of Madagascar’s relationship with its former colony, but also with European nations.

* Andriamananjara, Rajaona. “Economic Development Cycles in Madagascar 1950-1989.” Eds. R.T. Appleyard and R.N. Ghosh. Canberra: Australian National University.1990.

This brief book is a comparative analysis of the economic situation of Madagascar as it were during the final decade of French colonial rule (1950-1960) with the final years of Ratsiraka’s presidency. This is important information in analyzing the effects that colonialism has had on Madagascar and the problems that were left behind. With this information the decolonization period can be better analyzed. The general increase in GDP shows that although there struggles and issues surrounding political legitimacy and economic openness, independence of Madagascar, in general, was beneficial to their economy.

Ethnicity:

Country Studies. Library of Congress. “A Country Study: Madagascar”. August 1994. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/mgtoc.html.

This source divides the Malagasy ethnicities into five groups: 1) the People of the East Coast, 2) the People of the West Coast, 3) the People of the Central Highlands, 4) the People of the Tsaratamana Massif and the Southwest, 5) the Minorities. The division based on geography explains why the cultural similarities in these areas have been determined by the natural environment. The Malagasy population is increasing due to healthier and more youthful citizens that are a result of health care systems and economic growth. The south and west populations are zebu-cattle raising regions, and have a landscape that resembles East Africa while the central-highlands region has rice fields as resembles Southeast Asia. Although Madagascar does have ethnic divisions, they are uniquely homogenous in language (most all speak the indigenous language, Malagasy or a similar form of it) as well as in kinship which can be traced either through their paternal or maternal heritage. They share a similar respect for the dead, and they are divided into the same basic social classes: nobles, commoners, and slaves (or decedents of slaves). It is important to note that in recent years the ethnic divisions have become less important, instead the focus of division is on the côtiers and those of the central highlands (the Betsileo and Merina ethnic groups). This is a very important source in identifying the history of the Malagasy people which directly relates to the current ethnic divisions. The source is also helpful in that it provides a substantial amount of information on each ethnic group individually.

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** Hunt, W. H. “Madagascar.” Journal of the American Geographical Society of New York. Vol. 32, No. 4, 297-307. 1900.

Hunt begins this article proposing the question, who were the first inhabitants of Madagascar and from where did they come? He goes on to propose origins of the word Madagascar, ultimately determining that it was derived from France although its significance is unknown, which makes the ethnology of the Malagasy even more mysterious, according to Hunt. He sites three primary immigrant ethnic groups that came to the island: the Andriana or the Nobles of Imerina in the central highlands, the Antaimoro of the southeast coast, and then the Antalaotra of the northwest coast. After this initial development by these three groups, other groups arrived and there was a mixture of peoples that has left Malagasy peoples almost unidentifiable. Hunt goes on to describe the geography and cartography of Madagascar. This article gives a very in-depth analysis of the origination of the Malagasy people and how the ethnicities continued after the initial settlement.

** Bloch, Maurice. “The Ethno-history of Madagascar.” Ethnohistory. Vol. 48, No 1-2, 293-299. 2001.

Bloch suggests that of all the studies done on Malagasy ethno-history did not make the distinction that is usually made in ethno-historical studies, which is that between ‘anthropologized history and historized anthropology’. The distinction between history (looking at the past) and anthropology (looking more at the present) usually created a dichotomy between the past and the present, but in the case of Madagascar this dichotomy does not exist; there is not a sense of a “traditional society”. The Malagasy people are a people of constant movement and transformation. According to Boch, reconstruction and development have always been present. Whether it was due to Indian Ocean trade, the Napoleonic Wars, or French colonization, the Malagasy people have never been isolated from the rest of the world and left to themselves, the result of this being the lack of a traditional civilization or society. She points out the effect of globalization of Madagascar, asking whether the changes are new for Madagascar, or just at a faster pace. Bloch also makes the distinction between the lack of a traditional society and uniformization within Madagascar by saying that one does not necessarily imply the other. She goes on to lay out two tasks that one must undertake in analyzing ethnicity: questioning the very importance of ethnicity, as well as the political and historical context surrounding the ethnic labeling. This article is beneficial in that it points out an interesting fact about the constantly changing history and ethnicity of the Malagasy people. This raises an interesting question, if the Malagasy people are so used to change and reconstruction, why has Madagascar experienced typical decolonization problems/issues? This article implies they are experienced in change, therefore, it seems to me, Madagascar should have been able to avoid some of the typical decolonization issues (formation of a new government, legitimacy, and economic integration are examples).

** Walsh, Andrew. “When Origins Matter: The Politics of Commemoration in Northern Madagascar.” Ethnohistory. Vol. 48, No. 1-2, 237-256. 2001.

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Walsh begins by describing in great detail the traditions and customs of the Antankaraña polity of northern Madagascar, specifically the Tsangantsainy (“standing up of the mast”) tradition. He uses this example of commemoration to explain his idea that these rituals and rites are understood differently at different times throughout Malagasy history, and that the way in which the ritual was interpreted can speak for the political interests of the time. This article uses an extensive amount of detail in describing the Tsangantsainy tradition and all that follows, although the end point is a good one which can shed some light onto other Malagasy historic traditions.

Ethnologue report for Madagascar. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. “Languages of Madagascar.” December 2004. http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=Madagascar.

This is a brief outline of the seven “spoken living languages” found in Madagascar presently. This is interesting in that it shows the amount of Malagasy people that speak the language and the region in which it is spoken. This division in languages can help explain the current ethnic situation in the country in that although there are different dialects of Malagasy, it is spoken in nearly every ethnic/geographic region in Madagascar.

Fuglestad, Finn and Jarle Simensen, eds. “Norwegian Missions in African History Vol. 2: Madagascar.” Vol. 2. London: Norwegian University Press, 1986.

This book focuses on the influence of Norwegian missionaries throughout Madagascar beginning in 1866. The authors dedicate two chapters to background information and then look at individual regions of Madagascar and role of the Norwegians in their history. The first chapter, The Malagasy Background I: The Early Phase, gives a succinct summary of Malagasy ethnicity, both historically as well as modernly. The chapter then moves into a detailed report of the pre-colonial Merina empire that maintained power in the island, including information on the trading economy as well as on the religious development under the Merina empire. The second chapter of the book, The Malagasy Background II: The Nineteenth Century, begins with a continued description of the end of the Merina empire and the initial contact with Europe, in the form of Britain. The result of this contact is a change in authority to King Radama I, and a strong movement toward paganism that included the persecution of Christians. After the death of the following king, King Radama II, there was a time of social unrest and wars for power that caused the leader of one movement to turn to Christianity as a means to power. Christianity also played a role in the economic success of the late nineteenth century as they were so closely affiliated with the government. This source is useful in developing a thorough and clear sense of the pre-colonial years in Madagascar. As the book develops it narrows its focus to specific regions in Madagascar and the direct effect the Norwegian missionaries had in each region. This provides a good look into the political, economic, social and religious environment of individualized Malagasy regions pre-French colonial rule.

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* Esoavelomandroso, F. “Madagascar and the neighboring islands from the twelfth to the sixteenth century.” Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. Ed. Joseph Ki-Zerbo and Djibril Tamsir Niane. Vol. IV. London: Villiers Publications, 1988.

This brief selection from the volume provides a general overview of the ancient history of the Malagasy island. In particular, there is a helpful breakdown of the African, Islamic, and Asian contributions to the island during this time. It is hard to draw a very clear distinction between these three contributors to Malagasy history, but some variations can be recognized and this brief text, specifically that of religious differences. Although this source lacks depth, it touches on an important aspect of Malagasy background that other sources have failed to mention which is the cultural and religious contributions made to Madagascar prior to the sixteenth century. This blending of backgrounds helps explain the reason for which the ethnohistory of Madagascar is confusing and blurred.

* Vérin, P. “Madagascar.” General History of Africa II.” Ed. G. Mokhtar. Vol. II. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1981.

In this selection, Vérin recognized the mystery and confusion that lies with the Malagasy ethnohistory, as well as the unity that has evolved from the ancient ethnicities. He first discussed the linguistic influences on the Malagasy language that is so common and widely spoken among the present Malagasy citizens. Vérin continues in the analysis of the physical anthropology of Madagascar breaking the population into four divisions with percentages: Indonesion-mongloid type, Negro-Oceanic type, Negro-African type, and European type. In this he offers an explanation of the varying skin tones that can be found on the island that are attributed to the mixture of all the ancient habitants. He then goes on to break down the individual arrivals of each Malagasy settlement: Phoenicians and Hebrews, Indonesians, and African and Swahili immigration. This is an interesting aspect of Madagascar’s history that seems to be different from traditional African history. Whereas the majority of African countries were tribal or at divided in some way before colonization, and then reorganized after colonization, Madagascar has retained its ethnohistory since it began. Although it has undergone changes and developments, it is interesting that the mixture and blending of ethnicities and backgrounds is so predominant in Madagascar, and the absence of post-colonial divisions has led to an ethnically peaceful country free from civil wars based on background differences.

* Southhall, Aidan. “White Strangers and Their Religion in East Africa and Madagascar.” Strangers in African Societies. Eds. William A. Shack and Elliott P. Skinner. Berkeley: University of California Press. 1979.

Southall focuses on two specific “white strangers” in Malagasy history: the Portuguese Luis Mariano to the southeastern coast in the early seventeenth century, and the British James Hastie and his relationship with King Radama I within the Merina empire in the early nineteenth century. Southall focuses on the failed religious influence that Mariano had within the coastal Madagascar. The reason for the failure of this Portuguese, and other, attempts of Christian missionaries, Southall states, was not due to

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the dominance of Islam, but because they were often involved with political motives and power struggles for trade and also because they were attempting to convert small politically and ethnically united African societies. However, as can be seem with the British relationship between Hastie and King Radama I, the white missionaries who focused their efforts on larger inland societies and operated along the side of the ruler were largely successful. It is important to note the difference between the ability of missionary penetration on the coast vs. in the central highlands. The central highlands were able to be politically successful due to their centralized position as can be seen with the Merina empire, however this led to their conversion into Christianity and created problems within the society.

Political Stability:

Country Studies. Library of Congress. “A Country Study: Madagascar”. August 1994. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/mgtoc.html.

The government and politics section of the country study outline is divided into three sections: constitution and institutions of governance, the fokonolona and traditional governance, and foreign relations. The constitutions and institutions of governance section begins with the Third Republic. In signing the new constitution, the voters signed in a system of separation of powers among the legislative, judiciary, and executive branches, the creation of a multiparty political system, and the protection of individual human right and freedom of speech. This section then goes further explaining each branch of the government in detail of responsibilities and expectations. The fokonolona and traditional governments section of the outline explains the initial return of the government to the traditional form (fokonolona) immediately after independence in 1962,and then goes into detail explaining the working fokonolona political system both historically and in post-colonization. The foreign relations section outlines the Franco-Malagasy relationship after independence, and then moves into a wider explanation of Madagascar’s dynamic relationship with the West as it moved through the different political leaders with their different international visions.

Country Profiles. BBC News. “Country Profile: Madagascar.” 9 November 2004. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1063208.stm.

The World Factbook. CIA. “The World Factbook: Madagascar.” 10 February 2005. http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ma.html

Timelines. BBC News. “Timeline: Madagascar.” 12 November 2004. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1832645.stm.

These sources provide a recent, brief, and comprehensive outline of Madagascar. They offer general information about the people, the government, the economy, the media, and a plethora of statistics about Madagascar in each of these areas. These sources are useful in gathering basic information and providing a basis for further analysis.

McNeil, Donald G. Jr. “The Land of Endangered Species in Danger.” The New York Times. 21 July 1996. http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?

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index=0&did=9866885&SrchMode=1&sid=1&Fmt=3&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=PQD&TS=1109313645&clientId=15546.

This article focuses on the problems that face Madagascar and states the most important and most fierce problem is political. McNeil states that the politicians make poor choices that harm the country more than the lack of international concern for the island. Some of the bad choices that the politicians have made include an allying with North Korea from 1975-1990, nationalization of the banks, mines, oil companies, and export houses, and the suppression of the French language which caused many important, influential, helpful Frenchmen to leave the government. These types of actions were under the rule of President Ratsiraka. This is an important article as it gives a brief description of the political turmoil that was present in Madagascar during the late 1980’s and 1990’s and sites these problems as the root of the country’s extended problems with poverty and the economy.

Cauvin, Henri E. “Competing Presidents Worsen the Hardships on Madagascar.” The New York Times. 13 April 2002. http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?index=0&did=113581577&SrchMode=1&sid=4&Fmt=3&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=PQD&TS=1109315350&clientId=15546.

This article refers to the 2002 political crisis in Madagascar that was the result of two politicians claiming the title of President after the 2002 elections. Ratsiraka had been the president for the past twenty-five years and claimed that he was cheated out of his victory in the 2002 election by Ravalomanana, who has since claimed his rightful role as the president, as well as the capital city of Antananarivo. Ratsiraka relocated to another important city, Toamasina, and has set up a blockade not allowing Ravalomanana access to the port. Violent actions have ensued between the two in the form of blowing up bridges and cross fires that occasionally kill and injure innocent citizens. Most of Madagascar’s financial transactions have been cancelled, and most exports have been stopped which caused the economy to suffer drastically. This is an extremely important event that occurred in the recent political past of Madagascar and caused a struggling, yet improving, economy to crash. This source provides a great overview of the crisis with accurate data and clear points.

Bureau of African Affairs. US Department of State. “Background Note: Madagascar.” January 2005. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5460.htm.

This source provides basic information about the government of Madagascar. The government is a Republic that holds Marc Ravalomanana as the President and Jacques Sylla as the Prime Minister. There are eight parties that obtained seats in the 2002 National Assembly elections, with the ruling party (the party of the president) as the I Love Madagascar (TIM) party, and other seats being held by parties such as the Be judged By Your Work (AVI) party and the Rally for Social Democracy (RSPD) party. At the end of 2002 political crisis the emerging President Ravalomanana began a campaign of reform and development targeting corruption and poverty. As part of Ravalomanana’s decentralization program, September 2004 brought about the formation of 22 Regional

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Chiefs that would report directly to the president. This is important background information that provides a basis for the improvements and success that Madagascar has experiences in the last two to three years (using the aforementioned articles on debt relief and completion of the HIPC Initiative as a reference to Malagasy success).

The Official Website of the Malagasy Government. “President Ravalomanana’s Message.” 18 April 2002. http://www.madagascar.gov.mg/modules.php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=59.

This speech made by President Ravalomanana to his citizens marks the end of the 2002 political crisis between him and President Ratsiraka. In his speech, Ravalomanana announces that there will be a recounting of the votes, and the outcome of that will determine the action he will take, but until that time, his Prime Minister and his politicians will maintain power. This is an important speech in that the president is keeping his citizens informed, while taking the most non-corrupt actions possible in calling for a recount. This shows the potential of the current president to be the ambitious leader Madagascar needs.

Reeker, Philip T. “Political Developments in Madagascar.” U.S. Department of State. Washington D.C. 11 April 2002.

This official statement from the U.S. Department of State urges the president of Senegal to help end to political crisis of 2002 in Madagascar. The United States advised both President Ratsiraka and President Ravalomanana to accept President Wade (from Senegal) to peace talks in Dakar. The United Stated openly called for the two presidents to put the issue behind them and put the state of Madagascar in front of them. This is an important statement in showing the U.S. response to the political crisis in Madagascar. It is interesting to note the role that the pressure of the U.S. to end fighting may have had in the peaceful ending of the crisis.

USAID Democracy and Government. Congressional Budget Justification for Madagascar. “Democracy and Governance in Madagascar.” 2005. http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/democracy_and_governance/regions/afr/madagascar.html.

This article is a brief synopsis of the policies that the current President Ravalomanana has set as primary objectives during his regime. These objectives coincide with the recommended objectives by the United States: good governance, economic growth, and social welfare. The article goes on to briefly describe some of the specific plans of the Government of Madagascar (GOM) have taken in order to achieve these objectives. An economic improvement can already be seen after not even one year. This article is important in that it summarizes the objectives of the current political institution and portrays them in a positive and hopeful light.

Opinions concerning the current situation:

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The Official Website of the Malagasy Government. “President Marc Ravalomanana’s Speech at the UNO” 121 September 2004. http://www.madagascar.gov.mg/modules.php?name=Sections2&sop=viewarticle2&artid=344.

This is a speech given by President Ravalomanana to the United Nations Organization that states Madagascar’s commitment to the African Union and other international organizations, including the United Nations. In this speech the president affirms Madagascar’s devotion to the values and objectives that have been set before it; those of good governance, strong economic policies, and the rejection of terrorism. He also reminds the UNO of the dangers and risks that Madagascar faces and suggests investment to help cure those problems. Finally, the president announces five areas in which Africa will flourish: human resources, agricultural potential, economic potential, natural energy, and ecological potential. This is an important statement as it shows the president’s willingness and ambition to step up to Madagascar’s problems and announce to the United Nations that it is ready and willing to handle its responsibilities and wishes to have the continued (financial) opportunities to do so.

Official Website of the Malagasy Government. “Millennium Challenge Corporation.” 5 June 2004. http://www.madagascar.gov.mg/modules.php?name=Sections2&sop=viewarticle2&artid=317.

This article announces Madagascar’s acceptance into the Millennium Challenge Corporation which is a government corporation that was designed to reward developing countries that have met certain political, economic, and social criteria. This article is short, yet important as it is a clear statement of the improvements that Madagascar has made, and the incentive they have to continue with improvements.

Reeker, Philip T. “Political Developments in Madagascar.” U.S. Department of State. Washington D.C. 11 April 2002.

This official statement from the U.S. Department of State urges the president of Senegal to help end to political crisis of 2002 in Madagascar. The United States advised both President Ratsiraka and President Ravalomanana to accept President Wade (from Senegal) to peace talks in Dakar. The United Stated openly called for the two presidents to put the issue behind them and put the state of Madagascar in front of them. This is an important statement in showing the U.S. response to the political crisis in Madagascar. It is interesting to note the role that the pressure of the U.S. to end fighting may have had in the peaceful ending of the crisis. This implies that the United States takes interest in the domestic problem within Madagascar and strongly suggests courses of action of the young government.

Press Release NO. 05/35. International Monetary Fund. “IMF Executive Board Completes Sixth and Final Review Under Madagascar’s PRGF Arrangement and Approves US$17.2 Million Disbursement.” 18 February 2005. http://www.imf.org/external/np/sec/pr/2005/pr0535.htm.

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The Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF) arrangement was initiated on March 1, 2001 and reviewed five times after its initiation, with each review ending in the allocation of more money to Madagascar. This final review has found Madagascar’s use of its funding to be successful, and therefore, deserving of another US$17.2 million. The First Deputy Managing Director and Acting Chair of the IMF’s Executive Board, Ms. Anne Krueger, stated that Madagascar’s performance has been successful and outlined the issues in which the country needs to direct its future attention, as well as suggested the areas in which the US$17.2 million should be spent. This is important in that it shows the most recent economic state of Madagascar as improving and committed. This article is evidence of the continued dedication of the government to advancement that is further discussed in the annual reports.

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