Collier, Ruth. Paths Toward Democracy

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Paths toward Democracy

The qeso of whehe democic isios e iodced hogh

ee led segy fom bove o popl mph fom beow coieso be me of scholy coeo. xmiig he expeeces ofcoes h hve povded he mi empc bse fo ece heozg,mey, Wese ope d oh Amec i he ieeeh d eyweieh ceies d gi i he 7 0s d 80s, his book deiees moe compex d ved se of pes, whch fo boh peiods ie-ges clss d o icsegc pespecives. ofesso oie expeshe poiics of democzo hogh compive ys of wey-oe coies, exmiig he oe of bo i elio o ele seges dchegg coveiol desdgs of boh coempoy d hso-ic peiods. The lysis ecpes egeced oe fo ios d bobsed pies i mos ece cses, d fo boh hsoic peods sggess siiol explo of bos oe, focsed o he wycos esoces d seges wee shped by pio expeeces whdemocic egmes d he mmedely ecede, peefom egime

h Beis oie is ofesso of oc cece he Uvesiy ofClfoBekeey oesso Colie s he ho of Regime in TrpicalAfrica Changing Frms f Supremacy 9 5 97 5 (Uivesiy of lfoess, 82) d The Cntradict Aiance State-Labr Relatinj and RegimeChange in Mexic (eio d Ae des, Uvesy of fo,2), whch ws wded he Hbe Heg ize of he cic osCoci o i Ameic dies. ofesso ole is so coho ofShaping the Plitical Arena: Critical unctures the Labr Mvement and RegimeDynamics in Latin America (iceo Uivesiy ess, ), whch

3 ws wded he pze fo Bes Book by he ompive ocseco of he Ameic oliic cece Associio.



C A M B R I G S U I S I C O M P A R A I V P O I I C S

G EETER LNGE Duke Uiversity

ERO BE RT H BTE S Harvard UiversityELL EN COM S SO Uiversity of Califoria Sa DiegoE TE R HL L Harvard UiversityJO EL S M GDL Uiversity of WashigtoHE LE N M LN ER Colubia UiversiyRO NLD R OG OW SK Uiversity f Califoria Los gelesS DN EY TRR OW Coell Uiversity

OTER OOKS TE SERESCarles Boi Politial Paties Gowth and quality Conseatie and Soial Demoati

onomi Stateies in the od onomyCatherie Booe Mehant Caital and the Roots ofState Powe in Seneal

90-98Micael Batto ad Nicolas a De Wale Demoati xeiments in Afia Reime

Tansitions in Comaatie Pesetieaerie Buce Leain Soialism and Lin the State The nd of Yuoslaia the

Soiet Union and Cehosloakiaoatella Della orta Soial Moements Poltial iolene and the Statead Easte Reonstutin the State Peonal Netwoks and lite dentityberto Frazosi The Pule ofStikes Class and State Stateies in Postwa Italyoffrey Garrett Patisan Politis in the Global onomyia Gode Heoi Dats The Politis ofJob Lossaces Hagoia Taditional Politis and Reime Chane in Bail

ogers Holligsworth ad Robert Boyer eds Contemoa Caitalism The

mbeddedness ofnstitutionsll ergut Health Politis Inteests and Institutions in este oebe verse Contested onomi Institutionsas Jaosk ad leader M Hicks eds The Comaatie Politial onomy of

th elfae Statebr 0 Keoae ad Hee B Miler eds ntationaliation and Domesti

liill Ktschet The Ta/omation of uoean Soial Demoayll tscht ete Lage Gary Marks ad Joh D Stehes eds

tt n he in onem italism



PTHS TOW

OY

The Wking Cass and Eites inWesten Eupe and Suth Ameica

RH ERINS COLLIERUniversity ofCalifornia Berkeley

:: CAMBRIDGEUVERS RESS



PUBLSHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE OF TE NIVERSITY O CABRIDGEhe P Budn umpnon See ambde Uned Kndom

CABRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESShe Ednbuh Budn ambde B U UK0 Wes 0h See ew ok, 1001111, US10 Samfod oad Oakeh, Meboune 3 16 6 usaauz de acn 13 01 Madd Span

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© uh Bens oe 1999

hs book s n copyh Subjec o sauoy exceponand o he povsons of eevan coecve censn aeemensno epoducon of any pa may ake pace whouhe wen pemsson of ambde Unvesy Pess

Fs pubshed 1999

Pned n he Uned Saes of meca

Typace Gaamond no 3 1 1/1 3 p Sstem Pena BV}

atalog reord for this book is availabl fro the British Libra.

Libra of Congress Cataloging in Publiation ta

oe uh BensPahs owad democacy he wokn cass and ees n WesenEuope and Souh meca uh Bens oep. m. ambde sudes n compaave pocs)ncudes bboaphca efeencesSB 051 6369 hb - SB 051 631 pb1 Democacy Euope, Wesen Ele Soca scences)

Euope, Wesen Poca acvy. 3. Wokn cass - EuopeWesen - Poca acvy Democacy Souh meca 5Soca scences - Poca acvy 6 Wokncass Souh meca - Poca acvy . e Sees

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PSB 0 51 6369 hadbackSB 0 51 63 1 papeback

To my mother

sther Mers Berins,

or her sstaining love her generos spirit,and the msic which has so enriched my li



CONTENTS

List ofF igures and Tables

Acknwledgments

Introducton: Ete Conquest or Workng-Cass Trumph?

2 E te-Led Reform n Eary Democratizaton

3 Potca Caculatons and Socast Partes

4 abor Acton n Recent Democratzaon

5 Comparng the Patterns:

The Workng Cass and Democratzaton

Bibliography

Index

page x

l

1

33

77

1 10

166

199

223



FIGURES AND TABLES

F I G U R S

Densons of eocrzon Css ncson nren of con

5 Perns of eocrzon5 Anyc frng of eocrzon: Overvew of

esbshe nerpreons

A B S

Cses of eocrzon Effec of eocrzng refor on enfrnchseen

3 ng of eocrzon sorc cses 4 ng of eocrzon 970s n 980s Perns of eocrzon: sorc cses4 Perns of eocrzon 970s n 980s5 . 1 Econoc ncors by bor roe n ery weneh

cenry eocrzon5 Ses he by borbse pre n ery wenhcenry

eocrzng refor

page 968

89

328

30

3 1

3 5

3

174

8

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Iwn o express y pprecon o ny peope who hve conrbeo n sppore hs reserch rs n foreos I benee fro he

ens energy n negence of nber of gre sens whoere reserch sssns on hs projec Jes Mhoneys conrbon ne ery phses ws sch h he bece he cohor of worng pperhch ws he rs wren proc of hs reserch a we a sbseqenrce Ang Coecve Acors o Coecve Ocoes: Lbor necen Deocrzon n Soh Aerc n Sohern Erope" Cmparve Plii 3 (sprng 997 When ef o ebr on hs sseronserch I ws forne o hve he sf sssnce of Perre Osgyffrey SyerBero n Crg Prsons I so gref for he ve hep prove by Benn Gofrn n Ssn Grbb s we s henrbons of Benjn Lzer Mche Prees Gregory Greenwy Assp�oRorgez Sbe Mshov Noos Bzors Mr Krz n Cro Men

In ng on so ny conry cses I ree on he wngness of ber of specss wh conry experse o ve he nv cseyses In hs regr I gref o coeges n frens on who Ise he reevn secons of he nscrp: An Ange Nncyeo Mxwe Ceron Mche Coppege Nforos Dnoros Dnerey Ger en Rober shn oe orowz G Jonh Levy Aren Ljphr Sco Mnwrng Geronn Ssn Prsn Mr en e Csro Snos SerphSrliades, an n n Go ws rry gen n n Uide m th'OJ�h h nyss o Sn



A C N O L E G M E N T S

Others re the entre nscrpt n prove vbe feebc G-sepp D P P Dre hos Ertn Sergo Fbrn Eveyneber Robert Kfn Leonro Morno Peter Lnge esper Sgrsson n Sney rrow s we s Gerro Mnc who h the grcosness n coegty to respon to reqest for secon reng of prtsof the nscrpt on oents notce

I so wnt to cnowege the nspensbe contrbtons of Sy

Roever who proce the copter grphcs for the cbes n ennferRobn Coer who ssste throghot the pbcton process RobertFshn sppe the cover photo of the Spnsh worer eonstrtonwhch he cqre fro the CCOO rchve n Brceon he other pc-tre Den grundlvgivende Rigsfrsamling 88 9, pnte by Constntnnsen epcts the Consttton Asseby n Denr It s se wththe persson of Det Ntonhstorse Mse p Freersborger¢ Denr I grte to esper Sgrsson for hs hep neng e to t

I ws fortnte n hvng the nnc spport n rerbe nst-tton spport of the Center for Avnce Stes n the Behvor

Scences n the Keogg Insttte t Notre De Unversty Both pro-ve e settngs for concentrte reserch n wrtng Whe I ws Feow t the Center for Avnce Stes nnc spport ws proveby Nton Scence Fonton Grnt no SBR90 1 9 At Bereey theInsttte of Instr Retons hs grety fctte y wor wthnnc n nsttton spport he Unversty of Cforn Center forGern n Eropen Stes so prove ssstnce n pbctonws ssste by the Abg Reynos ogen Pbcton Fn

Gven the stges ennfer Robn n Stephen hve reche n therves I no onger fee obge to s forgveness for the wy y reserchposes on the owever I wnt to express y contn pprecton ofthe wy they enrch y fe wth ther wrth hor n spport therwerngng nterests n ther nteect veness Dv on the otherhn contnes to ber the brnt of y reserch n wrtng ctvtes she so contnes to prove eoton n nteect spport e s tryrerbe n hs cheerf wngness to rg rft chpters to oseteOh tht y grtte for hs feebc were expresse s enthsstcyny I thn y other Esther Meyers Berns to who ths boo secte

INTRODUCTION:

ELIE CONQUEST OR

WORKING-CLASS TRIUMPH?

1

The roe of the worng css n eocrcy n eocrtzton s cssc n conteste qeston Erer fortons centere ron

the hstorc experences of the nneteenth centry n the openng yersof the twenteth prtcry Western Erope Wth the renewe nterest n eocrcy stte by the new eocrces of the 970s n980s ths qeston hs been revve n ore recent tertre n hsbecoe conteste once gn hs boo revsts the worngcss roe neoctzton on the bss of coprtve nyss of these hstorcn conteporry epsoes of eocrtzton n Western Erope nSoth Aerc

he qeston of the worngcss roe n eocrtzton s prt of ongstnng ebte concernng ber eocrcy nerstoo s prtcr set of nstttons Is eocrtc rege rest of vctory

fro beow n whch sbornte or exce grops wrest power fro rectnt ete or conqest fro bove n whch those n power orrsng econoc grops not hong power prse ther own potcgens n see to strengthen ther potc postons? ht qeston scosey rete to nother concernng the ntre of ber eocrcy whts the retonshp between ber eocrcy n thentc re by thepeope or popr soveregnty however tht y be nerstoo Inthe Mrxst trton of corse the sse ws fre n css ters n the ebte centere ron eocrcy s ether echns of cpstre or trph of the worng ss As other trtons hve ephse the o ss s ot the oy sborte ss poty ex p o mss t tht hs ht mo Nthss



2 P A T H S T O WA R D D E M O C R A C Y

he prepondernce of heorizing bou democric pressures from beowhs focused on he working css.

The emergence of mss democrcy s ype of brody incusionryeecor regime bsed on mss pricipion ofen coincided hisoricywih indusriizion he formion of proeri nd is orgnizionino pries nd unions on nion eve. n his conex he hisoriccses quie nury drew enion o he possibiiy h democrcy

emerged s concession exrced by workingcss pressure. Recen regime chnge so rises he quesion of he reionship beween heworking css nd democrizion. In souern urope nd ouh Americhe ougoing uhoririn regimes hd ypicy been founded s nibor forms of governmen h orgnized bor woud hve pricurreson o oppose On he oher hnd he curren "wve of democrizionbrody coincides wih noher mjor mcrosoci chnge occurring heend of he wenieh cenury he gob reorgnizion of cpi whichhs pu orgnized bor on he defensive. If erier democrizion corre-sponded o he emergence of he working css nd new bor movemenorgnized he nion eve s poiic nd secor cor economic

forces of inernionizion nd mrkeizion he ime of he recenround of democrizion hve produced pressures for he frgmenion ofhe working css nd he wekening nd disricuion of is orgnizion nion eve houd hese democrcies be undersood no so much s popur vicory bu rher s produc of he sregies of cerin eiegroups? Indeed eie sregies hve been he core of he mos inueninyic frmework concerning e weniehcenury rnsiions. Is herecen process of democrizion in his sense subsniy differen fromh in he second hf of he nineeenh cenury nd he beginning of hewenieh cenury period of democrizion ofen nyzed in erms ofhe demnds of he working css

The focus of he presen inquiry is he roe of he working css in heprocess of democrizion. Wh is being underken is no n overconcepuizion of he democrizion process or even n effor o deermine wih ny precision he reive weigh of bor orgnizionscompred wih he pnopy of oher groups nd cors. Rher he objecive is more specic nd imied inquiry ino he roe of he workinss s we s he inercion beween workingcss pressure nd eichoice. n his wy he presen sudy evues he wo ersecves hhve fred th dbat abot docratation - on ocs on c

nyss ad he othr on eite sttgis - hrogh a mprative anayi

oWestcm Eropn nd Soh Ame'n on" , whh h bn th

min bs fu· ho·ig on dKIizon Speall it

N T R O D U C T O N3

nyzes he experiences of seveneen hisoric cses nd en conemporry ses nd seeks o move beyond hese ernive frmeworks owrd more inegred frmework h combines css poiic incusion ndarena of action.

These quesions bou democrizion hve subsni ineecupedigree' nd hve been conesed wihin boh Mrxis nd nonMrxis rdiions. The Mrxis debe hinged r

ound no ony he empiric ques-ion bu so he prescripive one h is round wheher he workingcss shoud gh for democrcy. The posiion ken ws reed o hessessmen of how democrcy funcioned. I e_£r oureois democracy" �xpresses o e si .?

f

t

J

:

.!

K

o

the n

ti

n

-

h

�

der !Y v __1 ged i _< ml k;t

Rsariy

invoves he rue of cpi wheher i be hrough n insr �is sru ; ogic or h rough he omizion nd embour-goisemen of workingcss orgnizions pries nd unions s hey priciped in eecor poiics. The ide sems perhps mos srongyfrom Lenin who s1 gesed h democrcy ws he "bes possibe poiic she for bourgeois r Y her rxis s ny posMrxiss hve

seen ib J indeermine Qessop 1 980) wih respec o iscss orienion. For hem iber democrcy coud be used o dvnce

workingcss ineress i couve f rpreenive poeni oow he mny o � -

t

h

�

-

; gi -t pi

is

r s o proec

emseves hrough pubic poicy.2 uh 0 ssessen hs been he bsis >r he view h workers shoud be cive pricipns in he gh foremory

Among nonMrxiss puriss hve emphsized he demnds ricued by socie groups nd hve been incined owrd he ssumpion ! he exension of democrcy represens vicory of he ous of hoseking new cim on power. Oher scors hve inerpreed he eecor cusio

n of he ower csses s pr of n eie sregy for oher endsc s se buiding or poiic enrepreneurship .3 For exmpe s Rok-k n observed for Wesern Europe "The decision o exend he voe ws uniformy response o pressure be; i s s en he resu of coness for inuence o nd d

d

el!

ra

b

roa

baes for n inegr i pow Stfc r e." ( 1970 3 1 ) wen

• St' th sussion n Jesso 1978..! S•t the contributions in Hunt 980 an Bobbio 1984.

This U'gumt is ofte ma wit set to te extnson o te suage rater tan!o'�to. Th• wo shoul o be fus, inc two of te imortant ass oNOI o hs nlyss h mhood s r·ms of Bismck d Napeo II,ly n dOt'lk wnrx.



P A T S T O WA R D D E M O C R A C Y

opposton prty eers In ths ge of nterctng strteges, ss cton(ncung bor protest s genery consere nsofr s t ffects thepotc resources n strteges of the nvu eers who ctuy pythe ete brgnng ge Speccy, eonstrtons y strengthen thehn of opposton oertes by sgnng tht the cost of retretng fro broenng refor trectory y be substnt n even uncceptberepresson Aterntvey these eonstrtons y sgn to hrne n-

cubents tht the te process of berton wthn the context ofstrengthenng the uthortrn rege s gettng out of contro n theyh better crc own gn he ephss fro ths perspectve s thuson the process by whch softne ncubents n oerte oppostonprty eers rech soe pct or expct greeent on trnstonfro n uthortrn to eocrtc rege o substnt extent, thss oe of eocrtton n whch coectve ctors, ss obton,

n protest re rgey exogenousAt the rs of crcture, three rete ponts bout the trnstons

terture cn be e rst, born uner nortve pertve of poss-bs n n escpe fro wht seee e n overeterne structur-

s tht h pessstc pctons for eocrcy, ths terture hsoften ephse the roe of eershp n crftng, thus sgnng theportnce of nvus, rther thn coectve ctors Deprtng fro' rguents bout soc requstes or econoc eternnts tht h er er onte theorng bout rege outcoes, the new perspectve h

fferent focus ow cn ctors e choces to estbs eocrtcrege? Uner wht petus w uthortrn eers wthn the stteove n proeocrtc recton? An how cn opposton eersstrtege to encourge the to o so?

Artcutng perspectve tht hs been genery ccepte, ODonnen Schtter (1986:35 rgue tht trnstons re peros of hgh ne-terncy, chrctere by the stnctve portnce of nvu chocen eershp tent In ther vew, ete spostons, ccutons, n

cts rgey eterne whether or not n openng w occur t ,"pand the ctyst" for ny ensung soc obton coes rst frogestures by exepry nvus, who begn testng the boun

! res of behvor nty pose by the ncubent rege" (O'Donnen Schtter 1986489 he ssy by Guseppe D P (9908 ewse rgues tht eocrtton s ttey ttr of otc 1crftng, n rges schors to os o th o o "noti potcacto I otr vo o o t� ad ocy t Gh a Hgy (1992a:342) w't tu " h fa y m o o d th I JOby o ou

N T R O C T I N 7

etes for chevng, or fng to cheve, the egree of consensus n untynecessry for the estbshent n consoton of eocrcy

A second pont about the transitons literature is that actors tend tobe dened strategically with respect to the position they adopt in the i i(

transition game," thus sidelining questions about classdefned actorsWith ths strategic understanding of actors, the categories of analysis have changed. Whereas democratization in the historical period has typically

been analyzed in terms of classbased actors, in analyses of the 1970sn 1980s the ctegores of upper css n ower css, or bourgeose nworng css, hve tene to be repce by the ctegores of ncu-bents n opposton, hrners n softners, xsts n oer-tes.

Third, despite an emphasis on formal or informal negotiations" between government and opposition, the transitions literature has at thesame time tended to be state-centric, subordinating societal actors. The

· ;

privileged role of state actors can be seen in the conceptualization ofthe transition as beginning with splits among the authoritarian incum-bents. This internalist" account (Fishman 1990b) emphasizes the def-

ciencies and problems that ariseex natura

within authoritarian regimes.Divisions arise among incumbents of the state over solutions to problemsinherent to authoritarianism.7 This conceptualization makes questionsbout the orgns of these vsons exogenous.

he sttecentrc enng so ppers n the typooges of oes oftrnstons" foun n the terture un Ln's (97835 nt typoogystngushe between trnston by rrma n trnston by ruptura.rnstons by ra re ntte by ncubents n to one egree ornother controe by the. Subsequent typoogc octons hvestngushe the egree to whch the rues of the uthortrn ncubents re foowe or, conversey, the egree to whch ncubents ustnegotte" the content of the trnston. rnstons by ruptura coe

7 uh an nenals appoah was usefully evelope n eale wok of boh ODonnell979: see esp 87ff) an hme 975 see esp. 0-) as hey espevelyanalyze auhoaansm n an mea an ouga an pone o he lak of"meaons n many of hese auhoaa egmes an he onaons elae ohe foms n whh sae powe s oganze an ansfee n auhoaan egmes.

H See, respectively Vaenzuea 1992 and Share and Mainwaring 1986 Huntington ( 199:114) is one of the few who use a typology with a ategory that expliity inludes �

·role:.

for the opposition that is nonresidual, making room for the possbility that the opposition'ay initiate the transition. Yet interestingly he suggests that his typoogy is the sames that of She ad Manwaing failg to realze that his category of "tans paement ntoay osen y y f h wngK r ( 10H) xpky dv n yy ha udc n ro >r ne o K d Sh '' I) I :275-76.



8 P A T S T O WA R D D E M O C R A C Y

about when the authoritarian regime collapses. Although such transitions

compleely escpe cmbe corol, eve hs brekdow of he hor-r regme hs bee see erms of secerc mge of mploso!(associated with coups and/or defeats in foreign wars) a d rareJy conne/o socel moblzo or lboro.

The dom mork sed heorecl d comprve ccos, he, hs o oly doped corbsed rher h srcrl

perspecve, b hs eded o prvlege cer kds of cors dvdl eles rher h cective cors, sregclly deed cors rher hdeed cors, d se cors more h scietal cors. As frme

work, lmos precldes he obezo of he role of wossd mss c. deed, mos heorecl d comprve ccos, heorkg clss

d s orgzos receve relvely lle (f y) e

o. ODoell d chmer (19865 5 5 see he workg clss s oelyer of brod, mlclss psrge h, drg delmed perod, cexplo polcl opegs, b oly oce hey re ed by horrcmbes. They do sgges h prclr po "he greeschllege o he rsol regme s lkely o come from he ew or

revved dees d cpcy for collecve co of he workg clss.However, sbseqe comprve lyses d heorecl ccos hveo pcked p o or elbored hs orgl sggeso, d ODoelld chmer hemselves emphsze he "ephemerl re of he "pop-lr psrge d he sbseqe "decle of he people

Lke ll pproches, he rsos frmework evolved rod spe-cic set of substantive concerns and questions, for which it may have been

an appropriate model. But the initial concern regarding how leaders can

sregze o brg bo democrc regmes hrdly exhss he qesos• one might want to ask about democratization, and the framework does not

: esly ccommode oer qesos Wh respec o he crre qeso, obscres s mch s lles lgh of he oger rdo ofpproches o democrzo, s eresg he exe o whch sbse-qe comprve d heorecl semes coed o reec hsfrmework Whe hs frmework becme , becme o js

'amework for p sg � particular qestion, but implicitly, at least, a kind f substantive assertion that sees democratization in terms of the dominant )

role of ele sregc co. The lerre hs eded o coverge o vew of rsos s occrrg eher becse he horr regmecollpses or s resl of he sregc erco, soees eve oreor egoo or n twn sotn cton on th thortrn ncmnts nd ot rty d n th ooston ThItr n·e w n om o som d·di w t £thotns

N T R O C T I O N

dersdg h, lyss oe sser, volves compromsg he er-ess of lbor. The covergece o hs cco s rher perplexg lghof he fc h moogrphc ccos ofe cold o ell he sory ofprclr cses wo sbsl referece o he workg clss, or mssco or proes.

W hs rsos lerre, mel Vlezel (989449447 450 preses oe of he few brodly comprve lyses of he lbor

moveme drg rece democrzo. He cely smmrzes he "spe-cl plce lbor occpes "mog he forces of cvl socey, sch h shold o be dscssed smply o he sme ple wh oher segmes ofsocey. The sorces of s e oso rclrly wh hor r coX le s sl cpcy for moblzo, s exsg orgzol ework, he commoly of eress d collecve dey shred by members, d he reloshp bewee lbor demds dcvy o he oe hd d prodco d mcroecoomc performced polcy o he oher. Vlezel's lyss, however, geerlly ccepshe overll, lrgely secerc frmework of hs lrger lerre, hch chges wh he s (eher crss or cmbe decso o

lberlze, f o clly democrze) cree ew oppores for hebor moveme o become cved. rher, f Vlezels lyssdeprs emprclly from descrbg he lbor role s ephemerl psrge, prescrpvely dvoces hs per s "del mx or seqece ofellmed moblzo followed by resr s he ph o smooherd more sccessfl democrc rso.

eresgly, erly sges of he rece rsos, lyss weresrck wh he "resrreco of cvl socey, d eves d develop-es hese cores hve gve rse o sbsl lerre o soclovemes. Ye, erms of sysemc comprso or heorecl der-dg of democrzo, hs lerre hs proposed lle beyod hel formlos As owerker (1994189 oes, hogh ewererre focses o poplr movemes,

sti stos short o a ssteatic iir ito the olitical rciles ooular orgaizatio ad strategic choice ad so ails to ursue thecoectios betwee oular oitics ad rocesses o istitutioachage withi olitical regies There is a todow ad a bottou aroach but eer the twai do eet because the do otelore ad elai the likages betwee oular oitical actors ad thechagig istitutios Little is reall kow about the oular cotributio to akig deocrac

rthror n th rqnt ttnton to "nw soc ovemes (dsotms nongom oiio, o NOs) he

b

£ vemnt




regime chnge nd democrtiztion, then, is still beginning to tke shpe,s in the work of Fowerker (1994 nd rrow (1995

In shrp contrst to nlyses tht see democrtiztion s n otcome ofelite brgining, second perspective hs emphsized the importnce ofworkingclss pressres. his ccont hs been ssocited with the workof herborn (1977 1979 nd eschemeyer, tephens, nd tephens(199 ike the trnsitions litertre, these nlyses re primrily rooted

in the empiricl experiences of Western rope nd oth Americ,thogh over longer historicl ime spn.

Adopting clss ccont of democrtztion in the trdition of Br-rington Moore, eschemeyer et l. reject his specic rgment tht sso-cites democrcy with the borgeoisie nd rge insted tht the workingclss is the primry crrier of democrcy, plying decisive role in forgingdemocrtic regimes. Unlike the trnsitions pproch, which presents nctorbsed frmework, these thors strt from more strctrl perspec-tive, whose "core . . . is reltive clss power' model of democrtiztion(199:47 Nevertheless, ctors inevitbly become importnt, nd t mnypoints the rgment emphsizes workingclss gency in bringing bot

democrtic chnge. hey see the working clss s the most consistent pro-democrtic clss, the lnded clsses s the most hostile to democrcy, ndthe borgeoisie or middle clsses s inconsistent or mbigos. Democrcyis n otcome of the strggle between the dominnt nd sbordinteclsses nd hence n otcome of the blnce of clss power. Democrtiz-tion occrs when the democrcydemnding clsses, bove ll the workingclss, re stronger thn the democrcyresisting clsses, who reject thedemnds nd pressres of the former, thogh there is lso room in thisccont for democrtic inititives by other clsses s cooptive responseto workingclss thret.

his nlysis hs mch in ommon with nd in mny wys reitertes the erlier ssertion of Grn herborn (1979:80, who stressed the "deter-minnt inence of the working clss, which "demnd[s} democrcyfrom the borgeoisie, which, in trn, "rst resists} then decid[es} whennd how to concede. eschemeyer et l. (199:47 identify with herborn in the wy he "recovered this insight of Mrx bot the centrl roleof the working clss in the process of democrtiztion. hey ths rgetht "the most consistently prodemocrtic force ws the working css

9 g gns a a t subjt f anayss a uly sam as an na ly pa b a s f t d fft t ho z s T nRus y so d h· rh s o s Ccml Anwr·iu, ad t Cabbt�n.On h o h h ! hO o s ot 1y t N ss d usmyt no r up

T R O C T I O N

ich "pshed forwrd nd "foght for democrcy ginst the resistnce other clss ctors, often plying " decisively prodemocrtic role. "ts the sbordinted clsses tht foght for democrcy . . . . Fndmen-ly, democrcy ws chieved by those who were exclded from rle (8, 59 o the extent other clsses were lso exclded, they re seen shting only for their own inclsion nd not for more niverslistic mssmocrcy which ltimtely depends on workingclss demnds.

On the one hnd eschemeyer et l. drw ite sweeping conclsionsbo terly niversl slience of the workingclss role in democrti tion, rging tht "the orgnized working clss ppered s key ctor the development of fll democrcy lmost everywhere . . . [nd} in mostses orgnized workers plyed n importnt role in the development ofstricted democrcy s well (eschemeyer et l. 199:70 On thether hnd, thrge tht in tin A

rica, "compred to rope the j

rbn working cls lye ess of l adi

g'rol s prodemocrtic force. . he driving force behind the initil estblishment of democrcy [intin Americ}, then, ws the middle lss . . . . n somewht crde gen-rliztion we cold sy tht in rope the working clss in most cses

eeded the middle clsses s llies to be sccessfl in its psh for democ-cy, wheres in tin Americ it ws the other wy rond (18, 185 imilrly, herborn (1979:85 rges tht "the democrtic thrst of thebor movement in tin Americ hs in most cses been more indirecthn in Western rope.

In explining these differences, eschemeyer et l. reject the tendencyo red interests off of clss position. ther, they emphsize tht clssnterests re historiclly constrcted, with orgniztionl nd prty fctorslying "crcil role[s} s meditors 199:7, 9 Frther, their explnion rests on model of power tht s three components not only thelnce of power mong different clsses, bt lso the tonomos powerf the stte (nd hence the ntre of sttesociety reltions) nd trnsn-onl power reltions. In this wy, they move nlyticlly in n extrordi-rily brod mltivrite spce. Nevertheless, the thrst of the rgments to dvnce the workingclss ccont nd to se these other fctors inore d hoc fshion in order to ccommodte exceptions to or "modify(63) their primry model of clss blnce nd their ssertion bot theentrlity of the working clss.

hese two nlytic frmeworks, clss pproch nd n elitechoiceproch present two qite different imges. he rst sees democrtiztionrily s prodct of the pressre nd dends of exclded grops nd sborat casss; t od s te te f t strte tercs f ts i p ts i h mti psiti. Te e




my ocs of mos ey democizio. I he e peiod i he 70sd 80s, he wokig css ws decidedy o he defesive he fce ofecoomic ecessio, he ceiy of he oi shocks, he deb cisis, dhe eogizio of podcio he m, io, d gob eves.By he 70s, he ge of io idsiism, wih is mei dpoiic bse fo css compomise, ws dwig o cose. he "posidsi, socioechoogic evoio, d gob eogizio of

cpi bogh eive decie i he size of he wokig css, pios o he defesive, d peseed cheges o wokigcss piesd o he poiic co of wokes, picy i middeicome co-ies, which wee he ocs of e weiehcey democizio.

'}

I hs mkes some sese o hypohesize h he wokig css pyed� a key oe i eie demc�io, whees i yed mgi

oe i

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h ce epsodes. hs s, m sese, he eceved wsdom, whch hs•1book ciicy expoes. I wi sgges h he oe of he wokig csshs geey bee ovesed d misspecied fo he hisoic cses ddeemphsized i he coempoy cses. I desdig he picipio of he wokig css i democizio, i ges h he ype of

ecede egime is ideed impo, b i wys o iciped o hebsis of he iee. he ysis eves he wy he pio egime cffec he esoces d peceived ieess of diffee cos d heefoehei choice o pse he go of democic efom.

I I F Y I G H A C O R S

he isse of democizio om bove o fom beow is hee eed iems of which cos hd expici democic geds d pyed ceoe i chievig democic efom. I is gei qesio bo hgos d effeciveess of cos coceed wih he isio of demo-

cic isiios. he pese ysis di sigishes pes of democ-izio ccodig o which cos pshed fo egime chge o democicefom d fhemoe wee effecive o coseqei i he poiics ofdemocizio. As idiced eie, he ysis focses specicy ohe oe i democizio of he wokig css d h of eies.

T H E W O R K I N G C L S S N D

D E M O C R T I Z T I O N

n hs nss h is mnt by "th ol of th ork ass indmoaton? Thr lmns hr th oln} ss lnd th

R O C T I O N

e. As he vey em sggess, "wokig css, o "bo, i s coecivecep d is o eqive o ggegio of wokes Wh is ke is o picipio by omized idivid wokes, b he cio which some sese of soidiy o ideiy d coecive ppose ms ivoved. his oio of css soidiy o ideiy c ke he fom of commo coscio of meig i he picipoy c, s i hedesdig of democizio s wokes' isse, s bee o wok

s s coeciviy. Usy (b o wys) i is expessed ogizio-y Hece, i mst cses we e kig bo he ogized wokig cssd podemocic cio ed o deke by unins d bofied labr-based parties

ice he ogized wokig css is meicy oy p of heokig css, his poi ises ohe i yzig he oe of heokig css I obviosy do o eqie, o do I w o impy, h eve mos wokes ms be ivoved eihe civey o eve i emsof edig sse. Js s mos pess o wokes did o picipe ie hiese d ssi evoios d ye yss efe o hese sess' d wokes' evoios especivey (d o becse of hei

bseqe "popes o "powoke poicies o cims), so i heese sdy i is hdy ppopie o isis h wokigcss oe iemocizio eqies he picipio of some miimm pecege ofe wokes, who my be d, i fc, ofe wee divided ove hese of democcy he, he isse is whehe gop of wokes becme of he democizio pocess s sefcoscios coeciviy dyed cive roe h ffeced he democic ocome.

Aohe poi bo he cocepio of wokig css empoyed hee is i does o sige o poei wge ees o fcoy wokes sisic fom iss. Whie i is ceiy he cse h i my wysiss occy mbigos css posiio, give he imig of democ-izio we ypicy ecoe hem i he foowig hisoies poi

he hee is evidece of hei coecive ideiy s wokes poi he ieeeh o ey weieh cey whe, s Miche M ( 3 7) p i, hey so "fe eepeei pesse d wee beigispced by he pid gowh of fcoy podcio d he pocess ofoeiizio. ece schoship hs emphsized he wy i whiche sfomio of bo pocesses i ieeehcey idsiizo ceed wokigcss cosciosess o oy mog he isig gop poeis d fcoy wokes, who od cofo empoyes, bso o decig iss, who wee eeig ih he peeio ofory rodion s Mnn sust be ar i ci nd inopat o rsnt oss dra n dstinion aong diT:·n




cegores of worers (rsn proern fcory worer snce he spreof enreprener cps hepe o forge n of css eny crossvery fferen bor processes n hoogenze worers n sncvnerpprece wy" nee he orgns of worngcss conscosness n worer proes cn ofen be rce o he efensve recon ofrsns rher hn he er obzon of proerns As Sewe ( 9 865) sggese wh reference o rnce econoc chnge rnsfore

rsn procon reorgnzng n ncresng he eve of expoonso h rsns eveope css conscosness n h s ch reson oproes s fcory worers" or s Kzneson (986:3) p ore gen-ery rsns pye he ey roe n eveopng response o proern-zon" hs he presen concepon of worng css nces worerson boh ses of he rnson fro se rsn procon o proer-nze wge bor who n response eveope coecve eny nnersnng so nces proernze grcr worers bno pesns

We coe hen o conseron of wh s en by he worngcss pyng roe" n he eocrc process rs of n rbng roe o he worng css nerese n hose cses n whch heworng css (or he reevn pr of oo pr-demcratic poson ono here nce n nrec" roe n whch he worng css presenen ppren hre o he exsng poc or econoc syse h wse wh refor response by hose n power h s for presen pr-poses s nsfcen f bor proes cenere ron econoc orworpce ens or noneocrc revoonry gos whch y hvebeen seen s hre o cps or esbze horrns byhreenng he governens cpcy o nn orer b noconse en for eocrcy n sch son eocrzonwo be beer nyze n ers of n ee sregy o prse prc rgo hn worngcss sregy n scorng" he cses hen he bor

oveen s consere o hve conrbe o eocrzon ony f engge n cvy h ws proeocrc h s f h eocrcgen

hs pon ers soe ephss becse y verge fro soesrcr ccons of eocrzon here s no qeson h he preence of worng css (especy srong n orgnze one y hveere he sregc ccons of ny cors posng chenges or even

Ma 3:8- Th mp l f h ly hy fwkclpro vd my f h yd h. S, wl H

T R O D U C T I O N

es n hos of wys As we sh see worngcss con y provoeopve or sppor obzon responses s we s repressve ones\ hs of corse s qe fferen er fro sserng h herng css fvors or cs o prooe eocrcy s hs er sse s of presen concern

Seco he presen nqry concerns cnsequential roe n eocrc•r h s for he worng css or porn prs of o hve

n proeocrc s no sfcen Rher he creron concerns recvy n prcpon n he evens h conse he eocrzoncess he sncon here s beween wo sepre qesons: ws herng css proeocrc n worngcss con n gon eocrcy hve n porn effec n proong or vncng epsoes eocrc refor or he opon of eocrc nsons? heeron n oher wors cn be se by sng he conerfc qes- n wo he eocrzon process hve been qe fferen f heeocrc cves of he worng css h no occrre? he focs n he pocs of rege chnge rher hn on worngcss cvy se he sse s ess wheher he worng css ws proeocrc hneher eocrc refor ws es n pr n ocoe of proocrc bor con

/! I T E S N D D E M O C R T I Z T I O N

ogh he cenr nqry of hs sy concerns he worng css s n he process of eocrzon s expore n jxposon o h ees" s cerny possbe n no ob reevn o nqre bo r ors b hs jxposon fres he presen scsson gven hery of ee sregy n he crren erre he presen nyss

f

\

worng css n ees n eocrzon ses p nber ofres whch reec fferen concepons of ee" n hs regr

ewy sncon y be e One concepon of ee s soc n1 re poc

he rs s css concepon sngshes he worng css froes bove" n he soc herrchy he ee sr y conss of ore ron ne csses or he e csses" or ers heerogeneos cegory of osy rbn soc secors (nc- borgeos professon peborgeos nger n whecors spwne by he spre of nsrzon coerczon n s wth Here he eson becoes eocrzon s proc wrkig-ss a, as ppsd th to f ee sra




Scon t trm t my rfr to tos with potc powr tt sto incumbnts (ncung thos prtciptng in gornmnt but formingth oppostion). In ts sns to sk bout mocrtiztion s n itstrtgy s to sk bout th strtgy of t ins or tos ry incuby th rgim s oppos to th ro of t outs or groups xcu byt rus of t rgim without potic rghts or ccpt nstitutionnus of prtcpton.

k

A tr concption of it s gin potc n ssnty rfrs toJf rs Muc of th trnsitions itrtur mpsizs tis noton of it.�

f In mor xpict but quit typc pproc Burton t . (199b8)n its s prsons who r b by rtu of thir strtgc positionsn powrfu orgniztions to ffct nton poitic outcoms rguryn substnty. Ets r t princp cson mkrs in th rgst ormost rsourcrich . . . orgniztons n momnts n socty. hisconcption of it mphszs th ro of inus mor thn mssprotst or monstrtions. As in most of th trnsitions trtur thirmpsis s on ngotton brgining n grmnts tht cn bstruck (Burton t . 199b0).

Atoug this concpton thortcy ncus union rs (nprps n rs of mss protst mor gnry) ths r not thprtcur rs gnry sng out in t itrtur. Rtr th tsin ts frmworks tn to orp wt th othr two concptons oft. us most ccunts of th rcnt trnstions focus prtcury ontwo sts of rs: th ncumbnts or t ins wos uthortrinprocts wr cntry ntpopur n spcy ntibor n mongt outs th mort prty or potic rs n th oppositon not bor rs but thos wiing prcisy to rch grmnts n gssurncs bout ny potnti workingcss thrt tht is ssurncsnot ony rgring mnsty to t mity tsf ginst umn rgh sbuss but so rgring th protction of th orign cssrt gos

of th rgim. Atough bor rs r rgy ignor in t thorticitrtur tis r concption of it nrtss nts n nquiryinto th ro of rs of unons n of borfit prts not ony inng n coorintng mss protst but so n ngotiting n rcnggrmnts.

prsnt nysis sks to sntng ts rious concptions ot. In ong so it ooks picity t t procss of mocrtizton i ntrms of th ro of th workng css s oppos to th i pprcsss; thos incu s w s thos by th ntnt im; th oit n o o s, lud o .ds ls o

O D U C T I O N 9

s prtis s w s gornmnt incumbnts n rs of othr

s

> S I O S A P A R S O F > O C R A I Z A I O

rr to stbish n trnti frmwork ths nyss focuss on mnsons tt foow from t forgong. s mnsions r prior inusion, n ren of tin Pttrns of mocrtzton rguish in trms of th ro of ctors oct t th intrsctions of imnsions.

gur 1 . 1 gis n oiw of hs thr imnsions h rst is css with th cntr concrn for prsnt purposs to istinguish orkng css from it strt tht s from th mor trton upprs s w th mi csss or sctors whch in nytic trtions of Europ n Sout Amric r consr t strt h scon nsion s incusion or xcuson unr t prior rgm. It isti nguishs

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wht we my efe o s the ns nd the outs. Finly he thiddimension concens he en of cion dsinguishes moilizion/poest en of coecive cton fom delbeion/negotton en ofuhottive decision mking. The contst is eween on he one hndcollective cton moizion o poes in he stees nd on the othehnd the civiies of individul edes s they negotie legiste nddop poices o posiions in some fceofce foum (e.g. legsue

meeting). The one en employs expessive o coecive ction ngingfom sikes to eelions; he ohe decisions debeton nd/o gining. This dimension of couse diffes fom he ohes in ht gvencto idenied n ems of s positions on one end of ech of he ohewo dmensions cn potentily e oced t both ends of ths dimenson.Fo exmple edes of mss potests my lso c in the delbetion/negotition en.

The contsng imges of demociztion s pocess fom ove o

from eow as the oucome of eie sraegies or working-class acton

implicily combne hese dmensions. In styized fashion and wih some

amguiies and smpicaions, one may sugges tha these wo images of

democraizaon have ended o encompass he folowing consellations

The accoun from above emphasizes the r ole of eaders of he elite ins

pursuing calcuaed sraegies and often "bargaining wih pro-democratic :

reformss excluded from power, wih oth generay represening mdde �

nd uppe-clss ineess (cones 1 nd 2 of Figue 1 . 1 ) The ccoun fom jbelow emphaszes he roe of he excuded ower classes engaging n mass

cion nd poes o demnd democcy nd exc concessions (cone 3) ,

The followng nlyss demonstes th nehe of these mges povides n deque genel desciption of the pocess of democtiztion.No s it ppopite o sugges tht one ts he hsoicl cses wheesthe ohe dequtey descibes the lte cses. The wo ppoches ecomplementy ech cptues menngful spec of the pocess of democ

izon. s mpon to undestnd democizton in tems of ohclss nd sttegic pespecives by he wy i t is pushed fowd by cssneests (Rueschemeye et l. 99:46) nd so moived y poiticsegies n mos cses he polcs of democtzion is cominionof pocesses fom bove nd elow involvng comintions of css inteess stegc cos nd foms sies o ens of cion.

The nysis hen ecoves oe o stegzing poic edes in ehstoicl cses including hose cses n which he wokingcss oe wsmost pomnen. By the sme oken he nlysis ecoves oe fo he woing clss in e ecen cses Tis ceiny is o o s workg cssig-haddy oght aot deocatic taio that oth act

R O D U C TI O N 2

not essentil ut the h the stoy should no be tod without the ngclss coniuion which is ofn negeced especiy in moe com-ve heoetcl ccouns. Conguent wih mny county monogphs e the poin hs not een missed compive heoizing out these tn- 1 ons shoud include moe cen pce fo wokingclss cton.

Beyod th howeve the insighs of he wo ppoches o fme-s of democizton shoud e combned nd ineged n nothe

no only n th mos cses invove oth wokingclss potes nd e stegic ction o s Mkoff (996) hs suggested diogueeen efoming ele insides o powehodes on the one hnd ndlenging msssed socil movemens n the opposion on he ohe. degee to whch he thee dimensions of nyss ppe in diffeentstellions should so be ecognzed. Tht is while hese stylzed es of demociztion end to locte the ction t wo o thee conesf he cue in Fgue . moe cones in fc come no py Fo instnceoctiztion should sometimes be undestood in tems of the ctons cluded mddeclss goups cing in the mobiliztion/poest en; wokng clss coud someimes be couned mong he ins ndes of lo ognizions someimes pticiped in negotitions.

The gol of comptve nlysis is not necessiy to uncove sngeiztion tht encompsses ll he cses unde sudy Whie thee isin oom fo such genezons whee wnted nlyss shouldeed s splites s we s umpes. A ge del of intentionsion is centl to he pocess of democtzton so th democciese (minim) se of insiutionl is o he poin h i is indeedble to k of eivey stnddzed se of fetues tht consttute octc egime. Neveheess his isuton commoniy does notn th the pocess of insiuion dopion poceeds ccodng o he pen. As Rustow (970:345) cuioned yes go thee e mnys o democcy eecting the oucome of wide viey of soci

ics nd polc conexts Diffeent goups push fo egime chnge fom often with quite diffeent gos nd motvtons nd empoying en ens of cion. The wo epochs epesen dispe ptens ofocizon nd futhemoe ech emces wthin i substnti v y. Wihin his divesity howeve distinc pttens cn be discened.

n nlyzing cses of democtiztion deinete he vious pens eent conselions of the thee dimensions diffeen comintions nes i Fige These pes e i ou s nyic consucs h ay cses haig eeens of o en ogh pedominny o Chaptr 2 rt th htca ca whch dmocatia occd i a t th Ko o iitiativ of th midd



22 P A T S T O W A R D D E M O C R A C Y

nd uppe csses. Eihe he woking css did no pusue democizions go o democic insiuions wee doped pio o he emegenceof woking css o ny signicn pocess of poeinizion Thesecses indice h wokingcss pessue is no necessy (no ess sufcien) in eihe geni o sucu ems. A song woking css is nonecessy s podemocic co o s he h povokes coopive(democizing) esponse. Rhe hese cses e nyzed s wo pens

MiddeSeco Democizion nd Eeco Suppo Mobiizion which epesen diffeen conseions of he dimensions unde conside-ion bu boh of which invove he iniiives of midde nd uppe csses

If wokingcss cion does no wys gue in i does in mos csesChpe 3 pesens he Join ojecs pen mong he hisoic cseswhich is nyzed in ems of he inecing segies of boh woking-css ognizions nd pies wih midde nd uppecss consiuencies.Chpe 4 disinguishes fou pens of democizion mong he ecencses hee of which invove he picipion of bo unions nd/o bobsed pies. In Desbiizion/Exicion Tnsiion Gme nd eTcks bo unions nd/o bobsed pies piciped in he pocessin diffeen wys nd wih vying impc. In he Ineeie Gme he oneecen pen wihou bo picipion he miiy fied o win hesuppo of he poiic igh nd democizion poceeded gey inems of he esuing conic beween hose wo goups

ens of democizion wih bo componen hus occu in bohhe hisoic nd ecen peiods. Indeed when hese wo ses of cses econsideed n compive pespecive i is difcu o sy he bo oews moe signicn in one goup s opposed o he ohe In boh ses ofcses mny css cos piciped in he democizion pocess ndboh poes nd negoiion ens cme ino py. In ddiion boh insnd "ous wee ceny invoved; in he hisoic cses howeve hewoking css ws moe ikey o be n in co by he ime i go

invoved whees in he ecen cses i emined n excuded co undehe uhoiin egime Ye boh peiods hd cses in which bo ognizions undeook kind of du miince piciping in negoiionpicuy hough bobsed pies nd ognizing mss poesspicuy hough union civiy.

The n chpe dws compisons coss he pens in he d iffeen ime peiods. Seeking o go beyond economic nd soci sucu exp nions of he pens i suggess n insiuion nd phepenenj expnion of bo picipion in eocizio oe h vies coi

segies in he coex of io exeiece wh eoc ee ) he ye f ncee

O D C T I O N

. . Case ofdemocatzaton

rlad arke ce ·t Britaiay detgaltay·erlads ay ay

Hisorca

18481849, 1915848, 187577864874/911884, 19181898(1906), 199907/9, 918/201 9 1 1 , 1 9 1 81 9 1 2192, (1991 9 7 9 1 8918-191 9 1 81868, 890, 1931

GreeceortugalSaiEcador

erBoivia

rgetaUrguayBrazlChle

I F Y I G P I S O S O F M O C R A I Z A I O

Recet

1974

19761977

1979

1980

23

(979, 1980),1982

1 9831 98519851990

ni of nysis in his sudy is he episode of democic efom wihi emphsis on h specic nsiion which cn be sid o pu ny coss heshod consisen wih concepuizing he poiicme s democic Ahough I discuss eie efoms h occuedo o his nsiion hey e no given equ weigh fo wo esons. in some cses especiy in he 970s nd 1980s hey e moe

opiey consideed p of singe efom pocess Whee hey e especiy in he hisoic cses one shoud no dop eeoogicion egding hese eie episodes nd he democic jecoych in eospec hey ppe o hve been foowing. Teing hese· odes of democizion s sepe woud incese he numbe ofoes in he eie peiod wih no wokingcss oe hus mking ppe ess impon hn in he ecen cses Tbe . pesens oes n he min episodes of emocizion consideed in he ys

N N NN · ( I p



\

2 P A T S T O WA D D E M O C A C Y

The denition of democracy one chooses determines the choice ofepis�: " the bulk of social science writing onldemocratization and use the term democracy to refer to iberal democracyas a set of institutions Democracy, as a regime type, may be dened interms of three components constitutional, eectoral, and egislative Assuch it includes the foowing attributes ( ) iberal conttutonal uleunderwritten by an independent judiciary, in which government eaders

and state actors, incuding the miitary, are constrained from arbitraryaction by the rue of law; ( clacal electon;1 3 and (3) a leglatve aemblythat is popuary elected and has substantial autonomy from the executivepower As Markoff (99) has usefully emphasized, the very meaning andinstitutions of democracy have themseves been the object of poiticastruggle, and these have changed substantiay over the historica sweepcurrenty under consideration. Historica comparisons must come to gripswith these difculties The episodes used here to mark democratizationcorrespond to those widely accepted in the iterature Yet some compicated issues arise, and the criteria empoyed should be made explicit

\(,i If democracy is here understood as a particular set of institutions,; mocratization, in turn, is understood as the introduction, adoption, orinstalation of those institutons, or the events and politics that lead to theintroduction or adoption of the institutions that constitute a democratic

!regime That is, the present study is concerned with democatzaton as the' politics of introducing democratic institutions, not democacy- as a type ofrule4 The criteria employed for identifying a democratic transition do not

3 ollowng ermet 83, lassal eletons are those n whh a mass eletorate atregular ntervals hooses among alternatves to selet leang government esonmakers uh eletons are relatvely unrestrte n terms of "ontestaton the extentto whh eletons are open to ompetng onteners far an relatvely free of frau nonut an supporte by a guarantee array of bas freeoms suh assoaton nexpresson) an nluson the extent of the suffrage or who may vote) ee Dahl

wo oneptons of emoray have mpltly or expltly omnate the urrent

lterature: emoray a type of soveregnty rule by the people) an emoray as atype of regme as ene n te text) he former has been the stuff of poltal theoryn phlosophy sne anent tmes t s normatvely mportant an motvates muhnterest n stuyng emoray an emoratzaton et ths s a fult onept fothe omparatve analyst ong empral work ne must rst etermne who the peoplare an what t means for them to rule see el 3) t ths pont of oursewe are bak to theoretal or oneptual analyss

n general reent anlysts have been areful to set out an nsttutonal entoof emoray of the sort aopte here Nevertheless there has been a teneny to sto a oneptualaton of emoray as rule by the peope ht s the oan oemoray as a onept has often prove slppery n hs hne eoy s type of ege to eory s a type o so v nty. Pal his slippag is a sul t othe iu o stn th "neul nion o wd so poliill nnotivc h1·g Th unt licc hs cncc 1 l o

R O D U C T I O N 2

ire that a democratic regime is sbsequently consoidated or that ase components of democracy are rmy in pace Like Ester (9969) is approach to constitution making, am concerned with the poitics ecisions regarding the regime with reforms or the introduction of ittions that are presumaby intended to matter and to endure, but not wheher they actualy matter or endure agree with Rustow (970) Przeworksi and imongi (1997) that the anaysis and explanation of

·ocratic genesis or transition are quite different from those of demotic persistence or functioning The emphasis is thus on policy making institutiona adoption on the politics of coective decision makingrding institutiona or regime change, but not necessariy on effective lementation or postadoption practice

This decisiona approach involves a rather forma, legal-constitutionalception that incudes cases where democracy was not in fact subsenty consoidated, where it may have been quite eeting or its impletation effectively undermined by informa practices Many anayses ofocratization in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries haveed to focus primariy on episodes in northern European countries,re the process was ore unidirectional, and to ignore cases in bothNthern Europe and South America, where the introduction of democratic1itutions turned out to be a shakier, ess durabe enterprise Either theocratic constitutions were reversed outright, or they were undermined nforma practice as the poitica impications of the new institutions· worked out. t is important, however, to recall that these countriesW' often the early pioneers of democatic institutions. Although one can a democratizing account of most northern European countries and antable and/or authoritarian account of most southern countries, this

entons an subtypes of emoray Coller an evtsky , n pat as analystsve re to make ther nsttutonal entons ompatble wth some noton ofopular soveregnty

Beyon that however the problem amost nevtably rses beause the anaystust mke esons about what to nlue n an nsttutonal enton hs sbvously a trky sse hat may blur the lne beteen emoray as a set of nsttutonsn emoray as a type of soveregnty o what extent for nstane shoul one nuensttutons suh as regstraton or oversght proeures) that have eventually beeney aopte to ensure a ertan kn of emorat funtonng or a "far emorate or that rule ou he nformal ways n whh t may be unermne? f we nsstn hese re e uste n the typal hoes ommonly me suh as nung the ne es s eort even urng the heyay of he eletorl mahne rn s eot eueents other ely aopte nsttutonal arrangements h as popotiona esntton syste whih nze the storton n paryp·sntion n hv o ql wc hting of voes ? exlng , har vnnionin, h wk o opll powss Bish Cn upp hous· cx-p i o sil l) o11 n s o c·(



26 P A T S T O W A R D D E M O C R A C Y

shoud not precude analysis of these often earlier, unsuccessfu episodes of

decisions to introduce democratic institutions, just as recent democratic

transitions are incuded even if they may have been undermined by infor-

mal practice or, as in Peru, even reversed.

It might be noted that with this emphasis on democratization under

stood in terms of the politics of democratic reform, institutional change,

or democratic transition rather than consolidation, the present analysis is

not stricty comparabe to those concerned with a democratic path" or the emergence of democracy as an ongoing pattern of rule. For instance, the

present anaysis treats the reforms that ed to the Weimar Repubic as a

case of democratization, whereas analyses such as those by Moore ( 1966)

Luebbert (1991 ) and Ertman ( 1998), with rather different foci and analyt

ica puzzes, consider Germany in terms of a fascist path. The strict dif-

ferentiation between instaation and consoidation means that certain

! episodes incuded here as cases of democratic instaation are sometimes

\treated by other authors i n terms of democratic failure.

Whie this emphasis on the politics of institutional adoption can be

jused heoeclly s lso helpfu n ems of he pcc dfcues

of esbshng conssen ce fo choosng epsodes h wl be consd-eed cses of democzon. Fo nsnce leves he poblem ofndng sysemc compve d on nge of nfoml pcces oeg mesues fo ddessng hem h wee nvened ony gduly ovehe wo cenues of nnovon n democc nsuons (Mkoff 997).A ssue hee e such hngs s cu (vesus de ue) legsve uonomymy nuence nd peogves judc ndependence nd nobebesm whch my depend on cen ypes of ponge pocssemcoecve vong o he eeco polcs of defeence (Mnn 995 67). Howeve ohe scong dfcules emn Assembng sysemccompve d on seve ngemens cuc fo hodng fee nd feecons s exemey dfcul. Ths nfomon pculy concens s-

sues such s egson pocedues sece vong nd he ovesgh ofeecons Becuse hese ssues cnno be hnded sysemcy coss llcses hey hve no been consdeed n he pesen dng of he csesexcep whee couny specss hve ndced h hese e pcupoblem (e.g. he 9 efom n Agenn whch ddesses such pob-ems s unvesy eed s democzng epsode).

Even beyond hese consdeons esbshng he nsuonl ce fo democcy nd hence he choce of epsodes fo nyss emnsdfcul n few cses. A pcully hony sse fo h ee podconcens he exen of ncluson o enfnchsn id n e e

N T R O D U C T I O N 2

f couse one woud lke o sy h nohng sho of unves suffgen pss s democc bu hs ceon woud excude vuy he enexpeence of Euope n he nneeenh cenuy he ocus clsscus ofebes on he wokng css nd democcy. Typcy n nyses ofsocl pocesses of democzon mnhood suffge s subsued fonvesl suffge nd hve followed hs esech don. Howevehe concepul ssues e complex. nce he equemen of unvesly s

oosened wh s he heoec bss on whch decson egdngncuson should be mde? Does mke heoec sense o ovelook hexcuson ony of women? s he de he h ofpopula eecons bsedn ma eecoe? If so wh knd of decson ule emeges fo esblsh-ng n ppope ceon?

As pcc me of scong hese ssues do no usully se. nhe ecen cses he new democces ll hve unvesl suffge. As cn beeen n Tble . n some of he hsocl cses he epsode h s ofos concen hee ws peceded by n ele efom h noduced veyod suffge o even fu mnhood suffge. n ohes hs epsode sefonsued such efom. n ehe suon he me of he epsode

hosen o mk democc nson egmes wee chcezed by ssve expnson of he suffge encompssng bou heeques ooe of mles bove leg vong ge. Thus f he nlys s wng oop sho of women's suffge ony few cses e pobemc. Fo cses e wo key quesons hen se does he exen of enfnchsemenech es mos of he wokng css ( cenl queson fo he pesennquy) nd wh pecenge of he poenl eecoe emn excuded?

Ge Bn s lwys s dfcul cse. Whe some schos pono he efom lws of 867 nd 884 s he noducon of mssnchse ohes use he 9 8 efom s he heshod. Accodng o hesme of Fo e l. he 884 efom enfnchsed ney wohds ofhe me popuon bove he legl vong ge; he 9 8 lw ney 90

ecen. Appenly mos of he wokng clss ws enfnchsed by 884;deed hee s evdence h hs ws ccompshed by he 867 w nd

I ' n nrsrid surag o ors dos n is insoar a minmm, iiznsipand ag qaiaions xis vrywr, and or minor qaiaions ar ypiayigord by anayss.

I Fora a 83 : 8 Wi is is gr ypiay givn in mos sors ii b n a Maki and os asr a by a is, si ndr sam lgal amk o ror y 2 pr n o ad ma popaionas n abl t ai a v but stt rn rs rd roporti o au T" as ). Mi an s H




Tle 1 . . Ect ofdemocatzg o o efachsemet(pecet efachse ofthose meetg age ad gede estctos)

Prereorm PostreormYear o Percent Percent

Country reorm enranchise enranchise

Argentina 19 12 Manhoo Manhoo

Belgium 19 18 92 93Chie 1874/91 n/a n/aDenmark 1849 73

19 5 88 92Finlan 1906 9' 87

France 1848 3 911875-77 Manhoo 87

Germany 1918-19 94 98Greece 1864 Manhoo ManhooGreat Britain 1884 36 64

9 18 64 89Italy 9 1 2 32 90

9 19 90 03dNetherlans 9 1 7 69' 95

Norway 1898 43 90Portuga 19 Near manhoo Near manhoo

19 8 Near manhoo ManhooSpain 1868, 1890 1 7 Manhoo

9 3 1 Dictatorship ManhooSween 1907/9 34 78

198/20 78 96Switzeran 1848 Varies by canton ManhooUruguay 19 18 63h Manhoo

a Data are not avaiable, but nationaly the number o registere voters increasethreeol between 872 an 1878, presumaby as a result o the reorm J.SValenzuela 1996:234). Census ata inicate that remainng literacy requirements

in the 874 reorm in Chile may have restricte the vote to about 35 percent oaut maes. Accoring to the 8 7 5 census, about a thir o males above the ageo seven were literate at that time While ata or aut males are not availabesubsequent censuses inicate that the gures are only a couple o percentage pointshigher or that group They also inicate an increase in iteracy o about tenpercentage points each ecae rom 8 75 to 930 when threequarters o maesover the age o twenty were iterate.Anren 1964:32Accoring t o Anren (198147 the 1906 reorm in Finan increase he eec-torate tenolFigre is more tan 00 percet becase it reee he pel'Cenag of o efrachied wihi age ad geder resicios, us w mtis of n

N T R O D U C T I O N 29

h e gee impc of e 1884 lw ws in e counyside (seeChpe A fuhe complicion is h duing is whole peiod pluloing coninued, nd i is noewohy h even e 1 9 1 8 efom educedu did no olish i The susequen discussion consides oh e884 nd 1 9 1 8 efoms

The cse of Cile is compliced y liecy equiemen, wichesised unil 1970. Wile o some exen, s Theon (197978 gues,

he long democic ecod of Cile is eefoe myh, ee is noesion h duing e wenie cenuy Cile d mss elecoe nd lge p of e woking clss ws enfncised nd elecolly poweful,is of Cilen poliics h hve led couny speciliss o chceizehile s longsnding democcy despie he ongoing liecy equie-en The impc of he liecy equiemen oviously lessened s ehilen populion ecme moe liee ove e couse of e cenuy inhic i ws in effec nd clculions indice mss elecoeuld e sid o de fom ou 190. Theefoe Chile is included ee s cse of ely democizion sed on e enling efoms of 187491 e 1970 de is used, Cile would dop ou of e nlysis of he elieiod.

Anoe issue concens he exisence of nondemocic uppe house ems of compiliy, i should e ememeed h o is dy

7 e e eom, nivesiy gadaes ompising 3 peen o e eeoae eeedeve MPs and bsine ssmen, ompising peen o e eeoae wee given wovoes, one in e onsieny ee e bsiness was oaed in addiion o one in eonsieny o ei esidene Makie and ose 383

Nes to Table 2

ow the normal voting age who were nevertheess enranchise eg, those who

omplete miitary services [Rokkan an Meyriat 19692089}) lr et a (1983 vo. 1) estimate that the 1896 reorm in the Netherlanschise 5 1 percent o the male population over twentyve years o age, but I 7 those meeting the same restriction ha risen to 69 percent ex ge somewhat restricte in 19 13 See text he 19 5 reorm, the Uruguayan anchise was limite by literacy requireI IU ' IlS . Thi ge w cacate using inormation rom the 1908 census whichs tt 63 ere t les over the age o nineteen were iterate Flom a 98 unes oherwie idicaed Greece Campbell an Sher! l H; Sai: uadao 99 Fiues or Uruguay ad hie are calcate <sus d t .




dissenting ede is invited to exude tese o ote episodes s deemedppopite.

Finy toug demotiztion must e seen s inompete untite tnsfe of powe to n eeted govenment te pesent empsis onte events onening te poitis of efom nd te deision to intoduedemoti institutions invie two fute omments. Fist in te moeeent ses te fous is ptiuy on te point wen utoitin

inuments took te steps tt indited tei deision to eventuy stepdown nd yied to demoti egime. Tis event wi is typiyquite poximte to te eetion tt impements te new demoyepesents onete deision to ndon utoitinism nd to einquis powe in etivey sot peiod of time. Usuy te deision i s toonvoke onstituent ssemy teey nding to te demoti oppo-sition te utoity to detemine te ues of te new egime o to odetivey fee eetions teey eding govenment powe to pty opoiti edes. Te empsis on tis deision often pes te fous ofnysis on point pio to e negotitions nd deisions out te ndetis of te new egime. Atoug te detis of institution design ttis point emin une te issue of demoy is setted nd n effetivetnsfe of powe to demoti foes is mde. Tes 13 nd 1.4 pesentte dtes of te demotizing efom nd te eetion tt inugutedte demoti govenment in te istoi nd eent ses espetivey.

Te seond point onens te dtes tt e used to efe to o etese episodes. In te itetue te istoi ses e usuy designtedy te dte wen te demoti efoms o onstitution nges wepssed; te eent ses y ontst e typiy designted y te dte ofimpementtion of te new ode speiy te insttion of te govenment eeted unde te new demoti ues. As mentioned te pimy empsis of te pesent nysis is on te poitis of deision mkinnd ene on te eie of tese dtes. Neveteess I foow onvention

usge in eing te eent tnsitions wit efeene to te nge ofgovenment. Somewt symmetiy I so foow onvention ptiin dting te istoi ses wit te option of te efoms. Te ein se of onsistent dtes oss te two epos soud onsut T1.3 nd 1.4

H Thus in mos ss nysis mpsizs pois o iod p"o· o aing'in of h n n Lin 1 n m· rck IOVl'l1tn.

LITELED REFORM IN

ARLY DEMOCRATIZATION

2

Among te istoi ses two of te pttens of demotiztion weesped y te gos nd sttegies of eite stt tt is midde nd

ess goups. Te popu sses in gene nd te woking ss tiu d itte o no effetive oe. In MiddeSeto Demotiz ion efom oued wen te outs demnded poiti inusion ut se petitiones wee middeseto goups not te woking ss. Teking ss me to e inuded essentiy y defut. Te seonden Eeto Suppot Moiiztion oued s esut of inumentjets demotiztion ws not esut of te "outs tying to get in te outome of sttegies of tose edy in. Eeto Suppot Moition ws sttegy pusued y poiti pties nd goups wit te of ptisn moiiztion in te ontext of eeto ompetition o ot moiiztion ound "ntion question.

Wt ws te position of te woking ss in tese pttens? In some

tese events oued t vey ey stge of industiiztion pio e emegene of ssonsious wokes ting s goup tiutingkingss gievnes nd dvning wokingss demns in gtf eoy. Tis fto of timing exmined t gete engt in Cp- is mpotnt; oweve tisns dd py key oe in Fne in 184 8 sting tt wokingss ptiiption does not neessiy depend on te eveopment of te poetit o moe moden foms of unioni-�u i

Elsewher e, democrati�ato n ocurrd n a con text in which the work-

�-ss had nlt·endy emrged as a c lassconscious actor, art ic ulate and

1 fhn ogn iz but p' tkul ly in Lin o ts lbo· uJs jtd



38 P A T S T O WA R D D E M O C R A C Y L I T E L E D R E F O R M 39




onee too muh to Germn ntonm" (Hove 943:549 n pro-vng for ommon ShewgHoten government n Mrh theShewg n Hoten eme met together n vote for ommononttuton n norporton nto the Germn Confeerton he Nton Ler rete mmete n ent eegton to the ngemnng popur onttuton tht norporte Shewg He green e for onttuent em eete uner mnhoo uf-

frge he Aem t wor n the ontext of the wr whh roeout wth Hoten. It promugte new onttuton the foowng erhe new provon retne mnhoo uffrge for eeton to the newmer Prment (the upper houe w nret eete n requretht w e pe Prment though the ng retne exeutvepower nung the power to ppont h mnter (Svenon 993 : 7 879. Demortzton n Denmr thu too pe meetor move-ment wthout worng prtpton n Chrtnen note tht tw on fter th onttuto w nttute tht pot movementof n mportne ou e oerve mong the urn worer" (Chrtn-en 988:45

G R E E C E

Moern Gree emor gener te from the 860 even thoughthe power of o pot oe n eetor rregurte ffete tuequent prte ht epoe n e e MeSetor De-mortzton It h t orgn n the Gree wr of nepenene whhw moe Weternze moernzer (nteetu teher profe-on n ourgeo group n n the enung v wr fter whhthee meetor group upporte the Gret Power omntngthe regon (Ru Frne n Brtn mnge to mpoe ther vewon the t et tht the fuure pot nttuton of moern Greeewou te" f pent n rtn prtpte n the er ntontphe of the ghtng gnt ure the were qu mrgnze npe no roe n the enung pot of nttuton hnge n emortzton (Mouze 978: 3

In 8 33 foowng the en of the wr Greee ethe monrhuner Kng tto of Bvr there n ertn ene fng to megoo t new won nepenene Not on h tto een offere the

Mouzes 8 ee aso Damaoos 8; Cmb Shrl"d I \H; Anos 977; Young 969; Woodos 968; Cy n " I9(1

L I T E L E D R E F O R M 39

Gree rown Ru Frne n Brtn Greee protetng power"ut tto rue eree through rge numer of top of nmntrtor mporte from Bvr he reutng exuon of Greerom power fotere wthn Gree oet utnt onenu gntoth Bvrnm n outm n n fvor of er emor hnne for pturng the tte (Dmnouro 983:48 Even memerof the pot ete me to ee prmentr regme n ntrument

or unermnng the monrh n ethng ther own pot uton-om n men to rue gven ther potent nuene over the o votehu the enung epoe of emortzton nnot e een popurvtore" (Mouze 978: 6; rther the hou e een prmr nterm of utnt upper n me onenu

Athough hor oon refer to the ethment of emortnttuton t th tme n term of the promnent roe of ogrh" ornote" fme t hou e ept n mn tht th group w moremr to wht ewhere h een e me etor" thn to thetrtonne upper e uu onnote thoe term Greeeh n unuu o truture e preomnnt on pttern of mhong equethe ttomn rue n on er urnzton ommer

zton n the growth of ver rge tte he reut w n unuu- rge urn group of v ervnt n n extrornr eveopment"of merhnt hee group who were o the trnmtte ofetern e pe eng roe n ntont n nepenene move-ment he more trton o ete w mvent out nepen-ene evng the e open for the mernte ourgeoe to et the newvue n tnr n o mot from the egnnng to hpe the mjornttuton of Gree oet ong erourgeo ne" (Mouze 986:4; ee o 0 3940

he rt tep w the 843 oup mtr ofer from the wr ofnepenene e ffete potn. Reetng more gener

ntpth to the Bvrnzton of the ountr (o een n tto otto Romn Cthom thee ofer ontent w prtur reteto the unempoment n humton tht ttene the monrh' re-ement of the Gree rregur fore wth Bvrn troop (Cmpen Sherrr 968:8586. he oup fore the ng to Ntonem n ept new onttuton whh he negotte wth t heonttton ethe mer egture wth ower houe eete the o mnhoo ffrge ut wth n upper houe pponte e n ther roon we a oporte for ontrong epute corrutio or o a te n eere wt

P A T S T O WA R D D E M O C R A C Y E L I T E L E D R E F O R M




muh of h power ntt Cmpe n Sherrr 1 96886 9 Wth thhnge Augutno 1 977 put t Greee pe from n utorto emonttuton monrh

n 86 roe revot epoe tto A numer of fore honverge: tuent who were nuene the Frenh Revouton neveopment n It n who h ttempte to nte the queen theprevou er; new generton of proWetern potn; n junor

rm ofer who were kewe nuene the new e we ere for promoton n oe of whom n the egnnng of the meer h ttempte mtr revot Lo note one the uprngut wth the rt gn of worker ton n orgnzton t outtwent er w no onou group of rtn or worker wrepreente he foowng er new kng w rerute th tme fromDenmrk In 1864 the Aem wrote new onttuton whh h eenhrterze the mot emort n Europe" te n Nouto 1 990 :440; t mte th e power of the monrh n ethe the overegntof new unmer Prment eete unver mnhoo uffrge

F R N C E

From the tme of the Frenh Revouton the oure of emort reformn Frne foowe ere of nttve n rever Foowng theConventon whh w eete unver mnhoo uffrge ut nevermpemente the onttuton t wrote n 793 n er of ontnungnttuton hnge enue hrterze hftng treoff etweengreter prmentr overegn n fu me urge the tter prom-nent feture of the two Npoeon empre when t w mrre wthretrte ompetton n n mpotent egture he two emortomponent oexte n the Seon n hr Repu re n theformer n more ur n the tter hee epoe of 1849 n 1877

re expore hereAthough the workng more preent n Frenh emortzton

thn n other e n th pttern thee reform re nze heren proet of the me n upper e. Whtever emort mpueh een nvove n the 87 uprng of the Pr Commune thtmovement h een ruhe n worker were not proemort foren the foowng er he ethment of the Seon Repu n 848n o rge e een MeSetor Demortzton wth the gfferene tht the workng pe n mportnt proemort roen ton Vrt torn the etnt h Sn in nt jt ( h ) h

E L I T E L E D R E F O R M

other e n the ontProet tegor n tht meetor out" rtherthn pmentr prte nung workng prte pe theomnnt roe.

he unuu er roe of the workng n Frne grew out ofthe htor experene of the Frenh Revouton whh funmenttere e w worker oneve n tke of [n rete newtegore of tzen n rght" Ktzneon 986:34 he workng

emerge onou tor utzng r repun ourefue to the nguge of om" Ktzneon 986:5. A reut ofthe omnton of the revoutonr oton of gu n moreommon ftor the trnformton of hnrft prouton t w on-tente rtn rther thn ftor worker who were t ver m nnumer who omnte the workng movement A Sewe 198653 h rgue C onoune emerge n Frne trnformtonof the rtn orporte unertnng of or uner the twn mpt ofptt eveopment n revoutonr pot" Prtur mportntn thee eveopment were the pot of the er 83 0: worker prt-pte n the er u revouton o 830 ut the new more errent monrh reete ther emn Sewe 98 6: 5960

he Seon Repu rentroue mnhoo uffrge for the Conttuent Aem eeton of Apr 848 n refrme t n the reutngonttuton hee provon were pemente on for the preenteeton of Deemer 1 848 n the prmentr eeton of M 1 849fter whh the goo howng of the emortot ne e onevtve to ro k the uffrge n fotere rghtt upport for LouNpoeon' oup of Deemer 85

he ontext of the 1848 reform w the Repun henge to themonrht At the ore of Repun movement w ro rnge ofmeetor group Amnze 993 :3 5 tht hmpone repreenttvegovernment n n extenon of the uffrge he onou worker

rge upporte the Repun movement n o put numer ofworkng ue on the gen he 847 mpgn for roenngthe uffrge w rze n the egnnng of 1848 umntng n theFerur nurreton he Repun who eze power n et up provon government were o onervtve Neverthee the work-er' movement fore the government to ntroue numer of meurenung mnhoo uffrge n numer of o reform of prturnteret to the workng uh reue work n nton

- In rhis J't•spec i is similnJ· 0 'du·ms i il, nlHI hos fil iv liwy NVCi1Y whic wuH u m i l 19 L H .

42 P A T S T O WA R D D E M O C R A C Y I T E L E D R E F O R M 43



42 A S A R D D R A

worhop vehe for gurntee rght to wor (Pre 9 75 8nee eortng ot rther thn er form of emoryworer were e to eth te Lemourg Common whh w toformute or egton n whh w e on repreenttve ofworer orporte tre oton he tter n turn were to eomethe onttuent unt of new emort n o repu e onthe overegnty of or" (Sewe 9866667

h emort experment rpy e to porzton he Apr848 eeton rete Conttuent Aemy tht w omnte yConervtve whether Repun or Monrht" (Pre 9753 heAemy repe the provon government wth onervtve exeu-tve ommon roung the upon n tfton of the worerWhen the government mte e to the nton worhop the wor-ng repone wth eon nurreton n une hough the nur-reton w efete t eft egy of porzton n ntgonm Fer-ng ontnue worng revot n nrhy onervtve rre outnreng eve of repreon over the next two yer (Pre 9 7 5 4 n850 Frne reverte to retrte emory when onervtve ntro-ue new eetor w tht enfrnhe 8 mon men moty

worer exung 6 perent of the eetorte n Pr n 40 to 50perent n other retvey nutrze re (Pre 97544

he 848 event n Frne onttute the rre e n wh meetor proet omne wth worng preure n emn to nttute emort reform nee worer were ntrument n rngngout the Repun vtory n ton to ffetng the nttuton ofthe Seon Repu A Amnze (99335 0 h tte Frenhworer mny rtn onttute the revoutonry fore tht put theRepun prty n power n erury 848 n worng pre-ure from the treet of Pr fore er Repun eer to reutnty onee unver me uffrge"

he trnton to emory n 877 h t htor rop theuthortrn regme of Lou Npoeon Bonprte ( 85 70 Uner LouNpoeon eeton wth mnhoo uffrge were regury he ut motform of pot ontetton n orgnzton were mte y w orhrhy repree n prte hu une mny preemort regmemong the htor e t regme w nonemort eue te ontetton rght rther thn ro pot nuon nthe 860 ue to eonom hr tme n ere of pomt etLou Npoeon erze the regme men o mlin tpport (Ruehemeyer et 9990 he vv Rpubn ndwknss sin my v ls isi

erze n orer to gn popurty (Amnze 993 Athough thove w onervtve n t ntenton n y no men rought Frneo the pont of emory t erve to open up ome pot per omet oppoton n hepe trgger renewe for the formtonf Repun government h pot oppoton forme the forhe Repun movement whh wou hmpon the trugge for e-ory n the 870

he ey event tht rought out the f of the o regme wrne' efet n the FrnoPrun Wr n Npoeon pture tSen whh rete pot vuum n Pr he hr Repu wthe n Septemer 870 uner provon eerhp (ronyoty monrh ete unt eeton for Nton Aemy the fo-owng Ferury he Aemy w gven mnte to etermne theform of new nton pot regme wthn fouryer pero hetory of onervtve n the Ferury eeton n the ntworeroe of the new government trggere mjor worng uprngn the ttempt y the Commune to orhetrte revoutonry ezure ofower n My 87 Vere troop uefuy pe the Communeng ome twenty thoun peope n onewee pero

Agnt th groun the emort onttuton of 8 75 n thereouton of the eo n 877 n e unertoo n term of othvon wthn the governng monrh ete n the rp potreovery of the Repun movement Athough monrht won nerytwothr of Nton Aemy et n the eeton of Ferury 8 7 ther Legtmt n rent fton were une to mpement n gree-ent tht wou hve retore onttuton monrhy A Repunreurgene n uy 87 yeeton gruy nue onvergene offore t the pot enter effetvey mrgnzng utr" Legtmton the extreme rght we the mot r Repun on the efth entrt omprome proue the mguou 875 onttuton"

three nttutonenng w tht nue oth preenegne for ey onveron nto nghp" (Wrght 9957 n repun e tht wou ttrt the upport repetvey of moerteonrht n o Repun who ntpte further nttutonhnge n more r emort reton he proem poe y thee

Ad 1977:8. Th quti ai i th d t hih th Cmmmay hav had so ft th dii t itdu mahd ufa u ya aRhmy t l 992), wh a th stongst ant abut a wla i d�otiztion appanty give it no wigh

An OV'viw o ii p'iny poii ing p th I 75 niion an f n omo I %-: p 7 ·- nd W'ilu �



P A T S T O WA R D D E M O C R A C Y E L I T E L E R E O R M



the Reform League, beginning in 1865 By 1866 the Reform League hadenisted the support of much of the growing tradeunion movement (including the London Trades Council, which ofcialy endorsed the ReformLeagues program in January 1 867 ) In the year following June 1 866 theperiod between the defeat of the Liberals' moderate reform bi and thepassage of the Conservative bil l the Reform League mounted demonstra-tions of ten to a hundred thousand participants in London and other maorcities (Finn 1324648 Biagini 1226162)

The main impact of these demands has been much debated (Lee 1 4142), but the mobilization of the Reform League was ess to force conces-sions from a reluctant government than it was to draw attention to anissue over which the game of partisan competition between the majorparties coud be fought In June 1 866, after the defeat of the Libera bil and the fal of the Liberal government, middlecass iberals were forcedto court the working classes in an effort to wrest the initiative of reformfrom the Tories In the process of seeking to mobiize abour in thismanner against the Tory government, middeclass liberas engaged in agradua, public rapprochement with the working cass (Finn 13245)With bourgeois radicalism growing in response to workingcass agitation,

the Tories saw an opportunity to deprive the Libera party of the popularbenet of this expanding liberal vision [and} preempted the Liberalsclaim to constitute the party of parliamentary reform (Finn 1 3 2 5 354)

The politics of the Reform Act of 1884 continued the pattern ofcompetitive support mobiization, but this tim Liberal leader WiliamGadstone was the chief sponsor Gladstone pursued this reform in connection with another strategy as well he saw the reform as a means to addressthe issue of home rule and the Irish problem (Jones 172178) Workershad made their electoral participation felt by helping to bring about aonservative victory in 1874, and, although the 187175 period wasprobaby the ony time in which most workingclass voters supported theTories, a substantial minority continued to vote Conservtive throughoutthe nineteenth century (Luebbert 111516 Hunt 181271)

Disraelis use of a suffrage extension to bring his Conserative Party topower and win a base of workingcass supporters offered a mode forGadstone Just as Disraeli had cut into a natural Liberal constituency,Gladstone saw a suffrage extension o the countryside as a means to increasethe Liberas support base and draw support from a potential Tory sectorAs Wright summarizes, The principle of democracy having been admitted in 1867, the Act of 1884 owed even more to col poltical calculatonLiberals had ong reaie the need broaden te asis o te rt

the countryside, especially since the appearance of new suburban Toryism(Wright 17013 see also Cole 141)

In addition to caculations regarding partisan advantages, Gladstonesaw another benet in extending the franchise it woud make class politicsmore politicaly salient in a way that would not threaten the socia orderbut hep trengthen the empire Specically, it would diffuse the growingnationalism in the periphery [and} dilute the forces for Home Rule. For the Liberas the new identities derived from class coud be seen as

potentially usefu (Wellhofer 1646)Once again, some workingclass agitation was a part of the politics of

reform, though most of the abor movement, whose urban base had beensubstantially enfranchised in 1867, remained aloof Despite the fact thatthe 1867 reform fel short of full manhood suffrage, the question of itsfurther extension was no onger of immediate interest (Biagini 12277 ) to the Reform League Indeed, o n the passing of the Reform Act [of1867}, the eaders of the Reform League held that its work was done,and decided to dissolve it (Coe 14811) Its pace was in some sensetaken by the Labour Representation League, founded in 186 to promoteworkingcass registration and candidaes and to foow the course of egis-

ation of reevance to workers (Humphrey 1123233 Biagini 12288)However, the reform issue was taken up in the 1870s by those workers

sti excluded after the 1867 reform miners in the villages and agricuturalworkers The movement among the miners was largey imited to thenortheast and agitation regarding the franchise ceased after 1874 (Coe1 48 11 ) The agricultura workers, who composed the main popuationexcluded by the suffrage restrictions, generally found ittle sympathy orcooperation among the urban workers, some of whom found the formerwanting in intelligence, education, and habits (Biagini 1221) Indeed,after the radica triennium of 187274, manhood suffrage was reegatedo the margins of pebeian poitics, having more or less the same positionas womens suffrage and a wider lodger franchise, measures which fewradicals objected to n pncple, but which many did their best to obstructn pactce" (Biagini 12306)

Agricultura workers, however, did demonstrate for the county household franchise and, starting in the 1870s, organized a steady succession ofmeetings and demonstrations (Biagini 1 2 22 3 see also 26) Whenthe Thrd Reform Bil was introduced on 28 February 1884, rura workerslaunche a ntesive campaig througout East Aglia and northernla Ae te Los vetoe he bill i Jly, emostratios andee c ( 992 : 29H-30 ; oe 1972 16272) .




d i f di l i h S i Th ki l l d

E L I T E L E R E O R M

f Gi i i' b d h b f hi lib i i



adoption of direct elections to the Strting The working class played somerole in these developments begnnng to nd an ndependent pro-democratic voice with the creation of the Labor Party in 1887 though inthe rst several years the party met with ittle worker receptivty Anindispensable factor however was the poitica strategy of the VenstreAmost mmediately after the 884 reform the coaliton that made up theparty always divided by ruralurban and religious cleavages fell apart andthe moderate wing defected to form a new party (Luebbert 99:6668

12122) Having difcuty in maintaining control over the Stoing theweakened Venstre championed two issues which helped rebuild eectoralsupport folowing the party splt The rst was the nationalist issueconcerning the demand for autonomy in externa reations which remainedat the forefront of Norwegian politics and gained added immediacy wthinthe Venstre at this time as Norway moved to become a major sea powerand trading economy The second was the issue of manhood suffragewhich in turn was also expected o add weight to natonalist demands"(Derry 1973:55)

The main dynamic of the 898 reform was thus strategic supportmobiization by the Venstre which faced greater electoral competiton

after the party spit and was increasngly eager to make a credible claimfor external autonomy from Sweden To some extent however the party'selectoral and poiticaeconomic strategy interacted with workingclasspreferences for an extended franchise The workingclass vote was potentialy avalable to th Venstre as a way to attract support both for the partyn electons and for the nationalst cause: even as the party was breakngapart the working class increasingly offered its support eventually form-ing an alance with a branch of urban radicals At the same time the stltiny Labor Party (which won no seats and fewer than one thousand votesor 0.6 percent in 897 [Mackie and Rose 199:36061) supported fulmanhood suffrage. n presenting an alternative for additional defectionsfrom the Venstre the Labor Party thereby dened a basis on which theVenstre would have to compete for workers votes In the end manhoodsuffrage was established in 898 as a result of Venstre strategy supportedby labor demands for an extended ranchise

I T L Y

The move beyond a restricted pariamentary regime in taly can be datedwith the 912 reforms which estabished manhood sffrage The initiative

1 8 Ne re vi ee biy y ii lHO:HH.

grew out of Gioitti's srategy to broaden the base of his libera coaitionand acheve parliamentary consensus as he pursued expansionst policiesabroad Giolitti vastly extended the suffrage to include neary al of theworking class and peasantry with the hope that the Italan masses woudprovide patriotic support for himself his libera coalition and his pan tomake tly a maor word power. However the colonial venture itselfradicalzed workers and the tradeunon movement as in reaction theymoved from a reformist cooperative orientation to overt opposition Fur-

ther a signicant part of the Sociaist Party recognized the conservativesystemsupportng nature of Gioittis suffrage extension As a conse-quence workers and workingclass organizations were at most divided overthe merits of Gioitti's reform from above with many eaders strongyopposed to the reform

As in Britain the process of expanding participation of the parliamen-tary regime folowed a seres of prevous reforms Inspired by the Frenchrepublican movement and Napoeonic inuence a iberal movement grewin Italy reaching a peak in a series of revolutions n the Italan kngdomsin 848 and the forced ight of the pope from Rome where in 849 aConstituent Assembly elected by universal manhood suffrage procaimed a

Roman Repubc These liberal repubican movements were soon defeateduntil Piedmont succeeded in unting most of Italy in the 1860s compet-ing the process with the annexation of Rome in 870

tay as a unied entity was founded a parliamentary regime witha lower house directy elected on a highly restrictive suffrage whichlimited the vote to iterate males who pad a set minimum in directtaxation thereby enfranchising about 2 percent of the population in870 The next step occurred following the parliamentary revolution"of 1876 when the government of the Right fel and the Left came topower on a program of liberal reforms Quickly however the reformprogram moderated as the Left grew fat and satised in power (SetonWatson 96 7 5 1) Nevertheless in 18 82 a new suffrage law extended thefranchise to iterate males over twentyone who n addition met a loweredproperty qualication or had a primary education Th working class didnot champion the 882 reform Following the Paris Commune t hadbecome strongly inuenced by Bakunist anarchism and adopting a revoutionary rather than reformist line t had attempted two nsurrectons in87 4 and 1 87 7 The more reformist Socialist Party was not formed until892 (Andreucc 1990: 92)

y y 5 W 7 W !7 �

0 P A T S TO WA R D D E M O C R A C Y

Th ff f h l i i l f Fi d i


lib i d f h l i f 93 F i f h



The effecs of he new law were minimal for wo reasons. Firs duringhe nex wo decades he liberas consoidaed a dominan cenris bloc ofhe moderae Righ and moderae Lef o proec hemsees agains hepoenial impac of he elecoral reorm A is core Trasformismo as hepaern of conciiaion was called was a sysem of poiical clieneismbased on he formaion of ad hoc pariamenary groups ha monopoizedpoliical ofce by using paronage and frauduen elecions o ensure elec-oral success Second alhough he broadened suffrage was he projec of

liberas and coninued o excude mos of he lower casses (iruay alhe peasanry and he grea maoriy of arisans and workers [Salemini95:x) i was iewed as oo srongly faoring he aian Socialiss andanarchiss who were gaining considerabe organizaional srengh in heas decades of he nineeenh cenury and hus poeniay hreaeninghe iberas poiica hegemony n 88 Crispis goernmen reised heelecora regiser disenfranchising some 87000 oers a moe adopedin par for he repression of anarchism" (SeonWason 967:67).

Gioliis reforms of 92 esablished nearly uniersa manhood suf-frage and aid he basis for suppor mobiizaion in he elecions of 9 3 ar of Gioii's poliica sraegy was o build as large a suppor base for

he iberas as possibe and o ha end he aemped o coop reformiseemens in he Socialis ary and he working cass more generallyGiolii beieed ha he Sociaiss and abor leagues could be broughino he libera coaiion as subordinae parners a sraegic aernaie osae repression for conroing hese groups According o Webser ( 97 5:23 2) He sroe o bring ino he miniseria sysem all he ousiderswho could bring oes and inuence wih hem: radicas republicanssocialiss and Caholics of arying proenance Only anarchiss andsyndicaliss were permanenly frozen ou hey expliciy adocaed ioence" By bringing new groups ino he coaliion he liberal pariamenary oigarchy woud go on goerning ay would simply assimilae isopponens cooping one group afer anoher"

The specic iming of he 92 reforms was ied o winning supporfor upcoming eecions in he immediae afermah of Gioiis decisiono wage warfare in Africa. rior o his decision o inade Libya in 9 Gioii had aready faced subsanial opposiion from he far Righ whichencouraged him o engage in a much more ambiious war of conues TheLibyan adenure was now cerain o draw criicism from he Lef ye siwihou moifying he Righ hus poenialy leaing Gioii and his

e 1 9 1 eorm c re e vo e y b ke y mrno serve e rme ores o min imum y toc fom � mil ion H ml l in . S lvmi v

liberas isoaed for he elecions of 93 Facing cross pressures from heRigh and Lef Giolii exended he suffrage as a means o mobilize heeecora suppor of ays preiously disenfranchised secors incudinghe working class.

The workingclass organizaions played ile roe in hese deelop-mens Snce he 880s workingcass poliics had been marked by consid-erable ension beween workers and inelecuals a ension ha pushedworkers oward a syndicalis orienaion n 882 workers had formed a

Labor ary specicaly resricing membership o workers ou of disguswih inelecual uibbling (Landauer 959:385) The wo groups uniedin 893 o form he Socialis ary which gained seas in arliamen ediisions remained Alhough he ef syndicaiss did no oppose elecoraand pariamenary paricipaion hey emphasized reoluionary acionhrough he general srike The Lef gradualy grew receiing an impeusfrom he same een ha moiaed Gioiis suffrage reform he LibyanWar which was opposed as a colonia adenure by he General LaborConfederaion. Many workers who a shor ime before had supporedreformism urned o he radical side because hey waned a compleebreak wih he liberas whom hey considered war mongers (Landauer

959:389).The Sociais ary ise f was spl i oer he war and diided oer how

o respond o a suffrage exension iniiaed by Gioii. Socialis eaderswidey recognized ha Gioliis moies had a doube purpose: o emper if no acualy o ame he reouionary endencies of [he Socialissand o assure himself he necessary Sciais oes o mainain his parliamenary maoriies" (Saomone 95 :5 8) The famous debae beween heSociaiss Gaeano Salemini and Fiippo Turai oer Gioii's poeniaelecoral reform ilusraes his diision een among reformis SociaissSalemini held ha uniersal suffrage mus be won by he people raherhan besowed from aboe by Giolii o which Turai repied: woudaccep i no only from Gioii bu f necessary from he pope himself"(Salomone 95 :70) Whie Turais resouion was niialy approed hewas o confess in 9 ha Saeminis predicion in regard o uniersasuffrage as a mere gran from aboe was on is way o reaizaion" (Saomone 5 :5 8). n he end Gi olii's gambe failed. Through he reformhe had hoped o win Socialis suppor bu in 92 he reouionarysyndicalis facion won a majoriy a he pary congress By hen howeerGioii was commied and coud no go back on he reform een hough Soiit gone ino opposiio (Lanaer 959389) The domin iw witi b on ws ess by Bnio Muii,w utd tt Gi i tt i' t 1d u "w ·y t


m dm t d t th d l m t m d t


accountablty of the ndrectly elected presdent the effecte po er of the



oxygen pump admnstered to the dyng parlamentary regme n order toprolong ts lfe a whle, but t could not be the nstrument for the completeemancpaton of the proletarat" (Landauer 959 :77 )

Wth the 1912 reforms, Italy met the nsttutonal crtera employedn the present analyss Neertheless, because of the ongong nformalpractce of nterenton n the electoral process, some analysts hae datedthe moe to a democratc regme wth the 199 reforms, whch, n addton to elmnatng the remanng restrctons on the suffrage for males

between twentyone and thrty, ntroduced proportonal representaton,thereby substantally curbng those practces by gng an adantage towellorganzed partes Ths reform epsode was also concerned wth sup-port moblzaton as partes already partcpatng n the electoral arenaattempted to oppose the Golttan partes and gan a compette adan-tage Workngclass organzatons played a mnor role n ths reform theSocalst Party was splt between the reformsts and the reolutonarymaxmalsts nspred by the Russan Reoluton, wth the former happy toreap the benets of the reform but the latter n control of the partyapparatus Although reformsts were promnent n the Socalstaflatedunons, the strke wae of 919, whch preceded the reforms, was not

orented toward ssues of democratc reforms Rather than a workngclassproject, the reforms were a product of the broad consensus that, n thecontext of deep dsons oer the war, the old parlamentary regme hadbeen dscredted The reforms were champoned by, perhaps more than anyother party, the Popular Party, newly organzed out of earler Catholcgroups and ntent on moblng a broad multlass support base (Seton-Watson 1 9675 107).

R G Y

Uruguayan democracy can be dated to the 198 consttuton n the

nneteenth century the country had been poltcally unstable, wth foregnnterentons, mltary nterentons, and dctatorshps more characterstcthan the restrcted democratc rule outlned n the countrys foundngconsttuton of 1 83 0 Neertheless, out of the turmol emerged two olgarchc partes that became deeply entrenched and well nsttutonalzed andthat would contnue to domnate Uruguayan poltcs It s dfcut oassess the perod pror to the 9 1 8 consttut onal reforms n ters of the

2 I oud be noed a differen ahor refer o n da (> h· m r>m,deending on en ey ere doed o mmn. Th dt•moruk 'Oi on

dfed nd roe by in 1 1 7 , my ec h w i H , w mm h1oh on h h w vNOM ) 19

accountablty of the ndrectly elected presdent, the effecte power of thelegslature, and the mpact of the lteracy restrcton on the franchse n1893 and 1898 reforms had ncreased the suffrage, mproed regstratonprocedures, and changed the electoral law, but the lteracy ualcatonand the lack of a proson for the secret ballot contnued as mportantlmtaons These were addressed n the 918 consttuton, whch accord-ng to Gonzlez (991:4) brought Uruguay to the pont of democracy The98 prosons were brought about as a reform from aboe and resulted

from the changng strategc calculatons of Uruguays two, hghly compette, tradtonal poltcal partes

The reforms of 98, as well as those of the 1890s, must be seenaganst the background of a long hstory of both ntense partsan conctand also cooperaton among factons of the two opposng partes that hadcome to domnate poltcs durng the nneteenth century The last half ofthe 880s naugurated a perod of clan poltcal supremacy based onthe domnant poltcal poston of a facton of the Colorado Party, aposton that electoral fraud helped to perpetuate In the 890s two groupsengaged n copette moblzaton aganst the hegemonc Colorado fac-ton: the opposton Blancos and a Colorado facton, the latter led by Jos

Batlle y Ordez and representng a new mddlesector consttuency (ReyesAbde and Vuez Romero nd.:498, 507) The ntate for the 1898reform came from the Blancos. In 897 the opposton Blancos rebelled nfaor of clean electons, the secet ote, and mnorty representaton ngoernment In the pact that brought the Reoluton of 867 to an end,the partes agreed on a plan of copartcpaton that turned poltcal controlof eght departents oer to the Blancos The pact also commtted thepartes to refor the electoral laws the followng year (Reyes Abade andVzuez Romer nd.24048)

The reform ntate subseuently passed to the Batllsta facton ofthe Colorados In 903, Jos Batlle was elected presdent, and sought torestructure Uruuayan poltcs Hs reform project had three man components Frst, he broke the copartcpaton pact wth the opposton Blancos and proceeded to lay down the condtons and groundwork for partygoernment based on securng the electoral domnance of hs ColoradoParty Second, at the same tme he sought to establsh a collecte execteas an nsttutoal aenue through whch the opposton party wouldartcpate Thrd, Batlle sought to establsh a odel cotry" toh aset of proresse socal ad wear eors

Batll sa t wok ass as o his oj. Woksw n ny ys h min ns of h• soi , whihnd on th gu o wok on h �h oU d


suppor of srkes n aon o wierangng soa reforms suh as

E L I T E L E R E O R M 75

Wih he aisas eary on he efensive he eeora reforms ame



suppor of srkes n aon o wie rangng soa reforms suh aseuaion an pensions An expane suffrage was a enra par of Baesvision These reforms no ony enee he workers n aorane wihBaes progressive orenaon an his vision of he worker as izen(Nahum 1 995: 2 36 Vanger 1 980:2091 1), u hey were aso inene owin Coorao suppor among ha growing ass Tha suppor wou eruia o seuring a ominan eeora poson for he Cooraos over heonger erm an n he shor run o passing his onsuona reforms

mos saeny his exremey onroversia proposa for a oeive exeuive Thus moizaion of a majoriarian an seure eeora suppor asewas essena o his insiuionuing an poia resruuring pro-je an i s ear ha Bae sough worker suppor ae an egsaen orer o ahieve i" (Ban an Nahum 1982:28)

In 1913 Bae proue an oune of his onsiuona reforms anin 1 91 5 he Coorao majory n he egisaure passe a new eeora awha provie for fu manhoo suffrage an he sere ao for eeonso a Consuen Assemy he foowing year Ahough hose eeionsame uring he me when he Basas were mos ave n passingsoia reforms he Cooraos no suee n winnng a majory

Raher eeions whh were har fough paruary aroun he onro-versa exeuive reform proposa proue a viory for he onseraivefores he Banos in omnaion wh a issien faion of he Coora-s

In he nex sep he Banos resume he ea Having enee fromhe reform provisions he Banos aempe o nroue smiar measuresfor he upomng egisave eeons For heir par reognzing ha hereforms ha paye ino he hans o heir poiia opponens Baesupporers in he egisaure reverse hemseves They proeee o okhe proposas rey on o resriions an nroue new mehansms ywhih hey ensure her onnue u reue majoriy n he egisaure

In he en he reforms emoe n he 1918 onsuion ame as aompromse eween he pares Se p for a onfronaion eween heBanoominae Consuen Assemy an he Cooraoominae eg-isure he pares mae a pa an ame o an agreemen on he newprovsons Fresh from her vory uner he reforms ha ha governehe eeions for he Consiuen Assemy i was now he Banos whohampione he inrouion of he 1915 egisaion no he onsiion

y bie V C Bo

Wih he aisas eary on he efensive he eeora reforms ameaou urng a perio ha has een anayze as he Conserave Repuor he onserave reaon agains he progressive program of Bae(Caeano 1992; Coier an Coier 1991)

Workngass emans were no par of he reform proess Ineeworkers were o pariuary oriene o eeora pois as a vehe forahieving her oeive ens Anarhism was s inuenia whin heaor movemen an n he new FORU whh ha een foune as a aor

enra in 1905 In aorane wh hs oienaion workers were ofenenourage no o ake par n eeora pois Wh worker emansenere on eonomi raher han poiia ssues an expresse prmariyhrough srikes raher han he voe he poiis of emorai reformmus e seen in erms of he ompeve moizaion an sraeg ner-aion of Uruguays wo raona pares

C O C L U S I O

Ths haper has examne wo paerns of emorazaon from aove

wo paerns ha foow he poa og no of popuar or owerassgroups an heir emans u of an ee sraum of me an upperass groups In he rs paern primary mieseor groups somemes jone y fraions of more raiiona upper asses pursue ieraor repuian projes These groups sough o furher her poiia aimsy seeking a new asis of egimay an hanging sae insiuions in away ha wou give hem aess o sae power Ofen he pois ofregme hange or emorai reform n his paern ook pae n heproes arena proeeing hrough reeions revos an/or oups anofen inung mary groups The wo ases whou ourgh reeonsor revos were Argenina an Denmark In Argenna however he mi-e seors in he UCR ha areay emonsrae a wngness o uner-ake nsurreionary aves an he governmen nay foowe hepruen ourse an aope he reform The Dansh mie seors exerepressure primary hrough heir poson in he exising onsuaive as-semy ahough he reforms were nay aope n he onex of a warin whh he mie seors of Sheswig an Hosen paripae n he88 wave of naona iera uprisngs an ao emane seesson fromenark Ths paern hen prmariy onsise of meseor ous"kn eori reform in he proes arena

Th oh pa o oaizaio fro ove ws haraerie yavs o h pa o ho i ow a hy udok sagy o


Suppor Mobilizaion. hese are no cases of ous seeking inclusion or

3



pp gaccess o power bu of hose already included as formal powerholderswihin he regime seeking o soliify heir posiions or gain he advanagein he conex of parisan compeiion.

In hese paerns of democraizaion from above, he popular classes ingeneral and he working class n paricular played lile or no role nneiher paern was i envisioned ha power would effecively pass o hemajoriy his calculaion resed eiher on he anicipaion of coopaion

or on condence in he operaion of clienelism and deferenial communiies (Mann 9952627) he hree cases where he working classparicipaed as a prodemocraic acor are France, Briain, and NorwayNeverheless, hese democraizing episodes are bes undersood primarilyin erms of he goals, sraegies, and iniiaives of he upper or middleclass groups

POLITICAL CALCULATIONSAND SOCIALIST PARTIES

3

The adven of social democracy brough abu a hird paern, Joinrojecs, in which he working class mos clearly played an imporan

role Alhough hese are he cases mos ofen described as workingclass

democraizaion, a number of feaures in his depicion lack sufcienrecogniion his paern combines projecs from above and from below inclass erms, in ha democraic reform was he oucom of he sraegies ofhe working class as well as oher classes Also hese cases primarily enailincumben proecs ha is, all he maor acors, including he workingclass by he ime i go involved, had he poliical saus of an in groupA nal feaure is ha boh arenas of acion came ino play he deliberaion/negoiaion arena and he proes arena of mass mobilizaion In hepaern of Suppor Mobilizaion, analyzed in he preceding chper, democraic reform was pursued by sraegizing elies or poliical leaders obuild an elecoral suppor base. Wha has ofen been overlooked is heexen o which his sraegic dynamic was also par of he cases in heJoin rojecs paern and he fac ha parliamenary laborbased parieswere players in his game of compeiive sruggles among paries

J O I P R O J C S

he emporal and geographical clusering of he cases characerized byoi rojcs s srik a reecs poran processes of ecooicvo olcal sra a dffuso of ocal ovosW l'curn this issue Ch1p 5 Fo· now, suf o sy


ae cases wh he songes mos oganzed wokng class and he cases

S O C I A L I S T A R T I E S

democac agaon bu he evouonay ahe han democac exame



g g gwhee wokngcass oganzaon ook lace n a way ha ade unonswee deey negaed" wh he socas ay (Kaznelson 1986:27)Ths of couse s no o say ha he whole wokngclass movemen wasaled wh he socas ay; ndeed n Gemany Belgum Nehelandsand Ban was ocally dvded Neveheless he socals ay andhe unon movemen agned wh moblzed mass demonsaons andgeneal skes n usu of democac efom and consued an mo-

an a of he olcs of democazaon On he ohe sde fom heon of vew of sae and caal neess he emegence of a wokngcass oganzed and ocay acvaed osed he oblem of eachng anaccommodaon wh Such an accommodaon s an ssue confonedeveywhee n he couse of caals deveomen n many of hese cases acheved gea e ugency fom W od Wa whch heghened he needfo wokngcass cooeaon wh esec o boh oducon and mlayecumen

A fuhe obsevaon may be made abou he effec of W od Wa The concenaon of efoms a he end o f he wa even n he sngeyea of 19 1 8 ums ou s commony asseed ha he wa had

moan democazng nuence n he way senghened and egmaed he cams and demands of an emboldened wokng cass whoseconbuon and suffeng n he wa effo eaned he gaude of hewhoe naon Whle hee s ceany some uh o hs accoun oneshoud no ovesae hs exanaon a may no descbe he mandynamc of hese democac efoms Fs of al n some counes heyea s an afac. n he Neheands he efom measue was oosedbefoe he wa and consdeed dung s couse n Begum coud beagued ha efom occued n 1918 as a oduc of wanduced deayahe han ecaon Second n some ways he evens of ha eodno ony nceased he leveage of a democacydemandng wokng cassbu hey aso bough ohe casses o he odemocac coumn n some

cases nonwokngclass ncumbens came o enean democac efommoe seousy n connecon wh he necessy o seek he cooeaon oflabo unons and aes fo wa mobzaon boh fo oducon andconscon n ohes he cou of wokngcass aes was nceasedfom above by he fomaon of coaon o naona uny govenmens (asn Ban and Gemany) agan n connecon wh he conduc of he wao (n Begum) by he fomaon of a uny govenen n ee Thheghened wokngcass essue was sely cvae s ch b heRussan Revolon as by Wo W Fom h s of h onca wha eh chn mot ws not h o of ts o-

g y of he Russan Revoluon and hence he coove odemocac saegyof ohe classes and oca acos Ths endency was aaen n Ge-many Begum and Sweden The evouonay hea was aculalycena n Fnland whee he na se of alamenay soveegny wasaken by consevaves no as a coove esonse bu n a deseaeaem o acheve ndeendence fom Bolshevk Russa

Whn he Jon Poecs aen he balance of foces and he eave

wegh of dffeen gous vaed A one end of he secum he wokngcass was a elavey mno aco; a he ohe we come cose o a suaonn whch he wokng cass coud be sad o have foced concessons acuay noewohy n hs esec ae Sweden Belgum and GemanyWhaeve he elave wegh he cases n he Jon Poecs aen aehose fo whch he songes agumen has been made fo a key wokngcass oe and acuay fo he moance of wokngclass oes aswokes engaged n demonsaons ha wee n some cases vey messveand nssen Neveheless he mage esened n some of he leaueof an excluded wokng cass demandng acaon and ncuson n heoca aena of wokngclass ous" yng o ge n" and wesng

concessons fom an unwllng ee s no a As aleady suggesed snaoae n wo waysFs o one exen o anohe he wokng class was aeady n"

nd ha n" oson was a cuca elemen of s olcal saegy oadvance efom Tha s o say a he me of he efom he wokng cassas aeady a leas ay enfanchsed (wh he exceon of Fnland906), wh he esul ha a abobased ay had aeady won seas nalamen. Fuhemoe ha ay was somemes he ages n ala-en (Denmak Sweden n 1 91 8 , Gemany); was ofen n he govenngcoaon (Denmak Sweden n 1918 Gemany he Neheands); and nGemany even headed he govenng coalon The eale efoms hanfanchsed he wokng cass wee ycay no he dong of he wokng

ass sef bu usualy beonged o one of he ohe aens descbed nhae 2 Somemes hese efoms had esuled fom an aay of saegesom above fom he eale be a oec n Denmak n 1 89 o he smackan auhoaan oec of 18 67/7 1 , boh of whch esabshednvesa mae suffage Somemes aes ha engaged n suo mobon as saeges of asan comeon as n he Neheands andm (ahogh n he ae he wokng cass dd exe essue) Ande e l oknclss enfanchseen cme hogh a1·ocss h cn cl ket c i n hch he fe o efocv sffg quints sd on om o1 tx n


n a progressvey ower barrer as economc and socal change proceeded

S O C I A L I S T A R T I E S 8

cteron for the upper house, an arguent coud be made that these cases



(Sweden the Netherands) For al these reasons, then, the workng casshad already been at east partly ncuded n the formal, consttutonalpoltcal arena when t became an actor n the potcs of democratcreform

The second pont about ths pattern s that even though the workngclass had representatves n parlament where they coud champon reformsand furthermore exerted substanta pressure outsde of parament through

demonstratons and general strkes, other partes were aso nvoved andnot just n terms of makng concessons that were n effect forced uponthem Rather, they must be seen as followng ther own postve strateges,though cearly the very presence of mportant and growng workngcasspartes apart from any substantve demands had atered ther strategcenvronment In ths respect, the structura argument about the mpact ofthe workng class s mportant The pont s not smply that the workngcass demanded democratc reform, though ths s part of t, at east n thenal steps of th democratzaton process. The pont s equaly that thepresence of a strong workng class aready admtted to the eectoral arenathrough prevous reforms made t necessary for a partes to reassess ther

strategc stuatons, choose new optons, and strke bargans to maxmzether eectora postons and mnmze ther vulnerabltes Confronted wthths stuaton, nonlabor party strateges vared and ncluded attempts to moblze partsan votes of ther own, to pursue coaltons wth the laborbasedparty, or to engage n ogrols n whch, for nstance, decnng conservatveforces sought to survve through proportonal representaton schems

Two subtypes can be dstngushed wthn ths pattern The rst s thejont lbab project, n whch abor and beral forces aled to brng aboutchange n the face of conservatve resstance (Denmark n 95, Belgumn 893, Fnland n 906, Sweden n 98) The second s the grndcompromse, n whch a broad consensus, one that also ncuded more conservatve forces pursung ther own strateges, was negotated (the Nether

lands n 9 7 , Germany n 9 89, Sweden n 907 , Brtan n 9 8)Two scorng problems were dscussed at the outset (see Chapter ):

the mnma crtera for a democratc suffrage as mass" rather than man-hood or unversal enfranchsement, and the crtera regardng the upperhouse n ths pattern we confront these ssues These scorng decsonsaffect the democratc status of Brtan n 88, Sweden n 907/9, andDenmark pror to 95 Based on a mass suffrage and a less deandng

he Beln eom o 18 ene omnton o niy �ov•nt n onent mly elee ne om In NJ10n o nyton oknl

t the mnma democratc requrements Because o the way these caseshave often been treated n the terature however, ths anayss wl ncudethe subsequent reforms n Denmark n 95, and Brtan and Sweden n9 8

Fnand s ncluded n ths category despte ts somewhat equvocalworkngcass role n the reforms through whch Fnand acqured demo-cratc status n 98. The Fnnsh Socal Democratc Party partcpated n

the poltcs of reform n 906 However, the establshment of paramentary soveregnty n 98 was prmary a bourgeos proect, and many ofthe workngclass organzatons had largely abandoned a democratc for arevoutonary path. Dvded over the ssue, the Socal Democrats had ostther paramentary majorty, and the reform to acheve parlamentarsoveregnty was carred out by bourgeos groups seekng ndependencefrom Bolshevk Russa.

D E N M R K

n Denmark, as we saw, pressures for a consttutonal democracy were ed

by a coalton of urban berals and farmers n the md830s, culmnatngn the consttuton of 89, whch establshed manhood suffrage Fromthen unt 86 the Natonal Lberal Party of the urban mddle sectorsdomnated Dansh potcs n alance wth the peasantorented VenstreIn 866 somethng of a democratc setback occurred when the franchse wasrestrcted for half of the (ndrectly) el ected seats n the Landstng (the upperchamber of the bcameral system), and tweve seats (onesxth the tota)became apponted by the kng (Rokkan and Meyrat 969:60) The suffrage requrements for the lower house (the Foketng) remaned unchanged The context for ths reversa was the defeat n the DanoPrussanWar of 86, for whch Lberals were held accountabe, athough rura-urban ceavages had graduay weakened the governng coaton even

before ths event (Luebbert 99:7577).n the cosng three decades of the nneteenth century, two ssues be-

came mportant to reformers the appontment of mnsters from the ma-orty party n the lower, democratc chamber rather than the upper, nownondemocratc chamber, as was the practce and the restoraton of fullffrage for electons to the upper house The reform movement gatheredtngth as the groth of a workn class an the formaton of proreformats to he t o the Vnstre chagd th party syste One may recallth b•ue h uffage r irmn > he Folkein r unchngd 84 "h Dm1iNh workng s ws ry nfnised


(Luebbert 99:134). Yet the incipient working cass overwhemingy


W E D E N



voted for the urbanbased Right in he Foketing unti the 880s n the870s workers organizations were formed incuding the Socia Demo-cratic Party which won one to three seats in Foketing eections from 1884to 1892 and increased that number to twelve by 898 (Mackie and Rose1991:88) After the mid1890s the Socia Democrats began to play acritica roe in reaigning urban workers from the right to the eft"shifting their support from Conservatives to urban iberas as wel as Social

Democrats both of which championed the restoration of manhood suffragein the Landsting (Luebbert 199136) The poitical realignment of theworking class was reected in the party system. n the 890s an urbanradical wing within the Venstre gained strength and this Reform Venstre" formed a coalition with the Social Democrats as the subordinatepartner. n 1901 with their Socia Democratic partners winning 4seats and 9 percent of the vote and Conservatives winning us t 8 seatsout of 102 the Venstre forced the king to cede ministerial responsibiityto the Folketing and to accept the formation of the rst Venstre govern-ment

The suffrage reform for the upper house occurred in 95 after politi-

cal reaignment took a further step n 1905 the Venstre moving to thepolitical center spit producing a proreform coalition between the newRadical Venstre and the Social Democrats. By 1913 this coaition enoyednew success with the Socia Democrats becoming the leading party interms of popular votes and the aied Radicals forming the government.n 1914 the Conservatives ost their Landsting majority to the Venstrewhich offered little resistance to reform of the upper chamber since a suf-frage extension stood to broaden its constituency among the rura poorThe folowing year a constitutional amendment introduced universalsuffrage (mae and female) for both chambers (th second chamber re-mained indirecty elected) The democratic transition in Denmark can thusbe seen as the outcome of goas of both the growing Socia Democratic

Party with its workingclass constituency and the Radical Venstre witha base among urban intelectuals middleclass progressives and ruralsmalholders as wel as the eectoral strategy of the increasingly conserva-tive Venstre.

ebber 199178 136 Dybl 196967. The Soc l Dt•mork Py ws 187 b o olkt � I HH4 no p o•com s a"ty until that vko·y (Cl's 1 0: 40-4 )

W E D E N

Swedish democratization foowed a process of gradual regime reform asthe franchise was extended through a series of reform acts in 1866 909and 98 in a manner simir to Engands. Although abor payed norole in the initial Reform Act of 1866 one can make a case for a signicantabor roe in the Reform Act of 907/9 and its roe was cleary decisive inthe nal step of 198.

The Pariament Reform of 866 repaced the ongstanding fourestates system with a bicamera parliamentary system but estabished onyimited suffrage. The First Chamber was indirectly eected by taxpayersaccording to taxabe income with wealthy individuals granted as many asve thousand votes. Property qualications restricted the eectorate for theSecond Chamber. The Reform Act was directed primariy at the incipienturban bourgeoisie and the midde peasantry which were now incorporatedinto the Second Chamber and was enacted before the historical appearanceof a signicant Swedish working cass. Although the reform was sponsoredby a moderate libera Louis de Geer opposition to the bill was not verygreat and the legislation is best viewed as a shrewd conservative accom-

modation" that would not change the existing socioeconomic order andthat indeed initialy changed very itte in terms of the composition of theRiksdag (Titon 974: 567 ) n fact for many conservatives control of onehouse out of two was in some ways better than one Estate out of four"(Verney 957:89)

The reform of 907/9 represented what has been caled a great com-promise" (Rustow 97120) n the 1890s the suffrage became a maorissue pushed especially by the creation of suffrage associations two Peo-pes' Pariaments" and the Liberal and Social Democratic parties whoseowermidde and workingcass constituencies respectivey were affectedby the suffrage restrictions. Though they disagreed over tactics with theLiberas reecting the use of the politica strike favored by the Social

Democrats the two parties cooperated on the suffrage issue. Popuar pres sre and abor agitation thus payed an important roe in the passage of

lo 1974567. For oo orl overvew o ee re exeo ee Verey57 ow 1955 197196.

Rut 95504 lo e 1866 qlo or e eo ber erent changed o o 1909 orker rlly eee e rk o oe qle o voeas th wage o l orker roe Fro 187 o 1908 e pereef nfanchi male oe eyoe ye o e roe rom pere rrl ren 1 urban aras rcent rectivey See S 1 99088

� 'lh ws dd n in lly pprov·d in I bt n I passae �q i e thfunlwr pp y h n·x Plin.


ths egisation. In 1902, for exampe, the Socia Democrats and the tradei d f t ik i t f ff f


Russia, Germany, and AustriaHungay (Titon 1974:568) In the end,h h f f 1918/20 d f f f f



unions organzed a successfu genera strike expicty for suffrage reformFor ts part, the Libera Party was makng headway in the Second Chamberand repeatedy, though unsuccessfuy, introduced measures for poiticareform. In 1905 the Liberas edged out the Conseraties n the owerchamber as the Soca Democrats aso started to gain seats, and for the rsttme a Libera prime minister formed a goernment. Yet, athough theLiberas faored manhood suffrage, they did not succeed in this effort Kar

Staaff and hs Libera goernment faed n the attempt to pass a reform ofthe ower house n 1906

The reform of 1907/9 was nay passed by a Conserate goernment,both respondng to opposton pressure and pursung ts own strategy.Aid Lndman and hs Conserate Ministry, which took ofce after theLberas 1906 faure, saw an opportunity to pass a poitica reform on itsown terms. The reform represented an accommodaton that conceded man-hood surage in the ower chamber whie t aso contaned seera measuresthat guaranteed ongong Conserate power, such as proportona repre-sentaton, and mutipe otes and taxpayers suffrage in the upper house.At the same tme, the combinaton of reforms fashioned in the compromisedeat a maor bow to the Lberas, who in this decade remained the othermajor party, weakening partcuary the dominant reformist wing andbreaking up their aance with the Soca Democrats, who, unike theirformer partners, rejected the reform (Luebbert 1 991 :707 2, 1 30)

The Thrd Reform of Parament in 1918/20 estabished unersasuffrage wthout maor quaications in both chambers. Like the 1907/9reform, the 1918 egsaton was the resut of the concidence of interestsof arious groups, athough worker demonstrations were een more centran ths na step of democratzaton. In 1 91 7 Liberas and Soca Democratsagain formed a coaiton in the Second Chamber and the foowing yearput forward a bi to extend the suffrage. The bi, howeer, was defeatedin the First Chamber. It was ony after the economc crisis of 1918 and

ensuing worker protests for democacy ed by the Socia Democrats thatthe Reform Act was passed. Indeed, n Noember 1918 abor protestsreached such a pont as to be perceied as a reoutonary threat bySwedens Conserate Party and the upper casses. In ths ery month,Conserate eaders renounced their opposition to a fuy democratic regime for fear that Sweden might foow the reoutionary exampes o

6 the Frst Cher eer were d hgh on k·on s. ere 195713

then the eforms of 1918/20 passed a a resut of a ery forcefu roe ofabor organzatons, both party and unons, acting in Parament and inthe streets combned wth Libera Party strategy and Conserate Partyconcessions.

F I N L N D

Two epsodes in Finnsh history potentiay mark the transition to democ-racy. The rst is the famous aw of 1906 that, irtuay in one step, tookFnand from a grand duchy in the Rssan Empire with an unreformedDiet under tsarst contro to a parament with substantia soereignty anduniersa suffrage, the rst n Europe to enfranchise women. The second,foowing a democratc retrogresson, is the set of eents of 191719 thatconcuded with the 19 19 democratic constitution of an independent coun-try. Both of these epsodes can be categorzed as Joint Projects.

After being united wth Sweden for six hundred years, Fnand wasinaded by Russa in 1 808 and, upon Russas mii tary defeat of Sweden,was incorporated nto the Russian empre as a grand duchy, formayretainng ts own nstitutons under the Russian tsar as its constitutionamonarch Yet, despite the autonomy spposedy granted by Aexander I,after an intia meeting the Diet was not conened again unt 1863 Afterthis period of rue by a bureaucracy chosen by the tsar, modest reformstoward a more representatie system were adopted in 1869, incuding acommitment to conene a Diet eery e years. Athough hese reformsaso expanded the franchise to underpriieged" estates (burghers andfarmers), the eectorate represented ony about 4 percent of the popuation(Arter 1987:8) Moreoer, unti 1886, the Det acked independent egs-atie authority and coud ony present petitions for egsation to theRussiandomnated Senate (the counc that consttuted the executiepower).

The 1906 eectora reform was the resut of the imperia and anti-imperia strategies of the tsar and Finnish iberas, respectiey, in combi-nation with workngcass demands. From 1890 to 1905 in reaction tothe rising power of Germany, Russia caried out a pocy of Russicationwithin Finand that affected recruitment in the poice, dsbanded theinish army increased the use of the Russian anguage, and nay n 89 reduced the power of the Diet, centrazing power and pacing

ro o a eisation with the tsar This poicy had the eect ofttin il nsiiniss (Yng Finns nd wis ls)


who advoaed passive resisance, agains he Compliers, who were wiingo appease and accommodae Russia 7 The former coleced peiions of


suppor could bes sand up agains Russia" (Tornudd 96828). I hasl b d h h i f i ff



o appease and accommodae Russia The former coleced peiions ofopposiion, and for his purpose hey sough o mobilize he suppor ofhe ower classes, paricularly he working class, which was beginning oorganize and engage in srikes, albei argely under middeclass eader-ship This suppor mobiizaion was already an esablished paern as labororganizaion had had is origin in he 1880s when middleclass groups inhe Finnish paries had sough o organize a mass base for he naionalis

movemen (Nousiainen 1972; Kirby 1990524) n order o appea oworker suppor in he face of he Russicaion policy, he oung FinnishLef wihin he Consiuionaliss backed he righ o srike and supporeduniversa suffrage, a key goal of he Social Democraic ary (SD), whichhad emerged in 903 ou of he Finnish Workers ary, formed in 899 he working class began o ac more independenly (Aapuro 988 1 12 ).Despie hese overures, he SD sayed largey aoof from naionalisaciviy, concenraing insead on buiding is own membership (Kirby199052425)

The SD became more cenrally involved in poiical issues wih he1 905 revouion in Russia, which reverberaed in many pars of he empire,incuding Finland. A his poin he SD joined he Consiuionaiss ina naional, parioic srike Wih Russia weakened boh inernally fromrevoluionary unres and exernaly from he miiary defea by Japan, hesrike succeeded in forcing concessions from he sar The resul wasEurope's mos radica parliamenary reform," wih he replacemen ofhe FourEsae Die wih a unicamera pariamen eeced by universaland equal suffrage of all aduls over wenyfour. Subsanial parliamenarysovereigny and hence social reforms were anicipaed, ahough nal ap-prova of legisaion coninued o res wih he sar (Alapuro 988 1 6)

The 906 reform can be seen as a Join rojec resued from acombinaion of (1) a Consiuionalis mobiizaion agains he Russica-ion poicy and for poiical auonomy and (2) he mobiizaion of he SD

and is worker base in favor of heir perennial demand for universalsuffrage When he ime came, boh groups paricipaed and cooperaed inhe decisive 1905 srike, and bo groups championed a ful suffrage heworkers, whose own enfranchisemen was a sake and he Consiuionaliss, among whom i was widely fe ha a egislaure wih broad popuar

7 oikkanen 9a5 okkan 910 osiainen 970 e aest o tese petitions isted ove onet t nti inni ti

apro 1 9 1 ).9 tikkaa and inen 9 ite in � nlso I %H

also been suggesed ha he reaivey easy gran of universa suffragecorresponded o an explici sraegy on he par of he Russian rulers, whosaw i as a way o bene he sil smal SD, which i regarded as lessdangerous han he more resive bourgeois groups" and as a vehicle hacould be sed agains hem The Russians also hough hey could herebywin suppor for he empire as champions of social reforms, agains hoseFinns who woud oppose hem (Aapuro 198834) In he end hen,

he democraic reform was an achievemen boh of he working cass andof differen groups of powerholders ha suppored i for heir own sraegicreasons

As radica as he 906 reforms were, he one remaining consrainmade hem largey ilusory. From 1 907 o 91 4 he new arliamen passeda egisaive program, bu his was veoed by he RussiandominaedSenae, over which imperia conro was even ighened Afer 909 a newgovernorgeneral purged he Senae, and for he rs ime is membershipbecame compeely Russian (Smih 9586). When war broke ou in 1914,Russia imposed a miliary governmen on Finland. n he 196 eecions,he SD won an absoue majoriy, bu ariamen was no aowed o

convene Thus he quesion of pariamenary sovereigny was esseniallyhe quesion of naionalism and aniimperialism. The srugge for paria-menary sovereigny and Finnish auonomy and naly ourigh indepen-dence in 9178 ook place in he rapidy changing conex of heunfoding Russian Revoluion.

The rs move came from above. Wihin a week of he FebruaryRevoluion in Russia, he rovisiona Governmen resored Finnish consi-uiona righs and alowed he ariamen eleced in 1916 o convene.The second sep came from he rapidly growing workers' movemen, fromboh he pary and he unions The SD, folowing a period afer 906 inwhich i emphasized elecora and paiamenary aciviy, now rejecedcollaboraion and aliances wih bourgeois paries, and a pary conferences

i sressed he inensicaion and broadening of he class sruggle" (H. Soikkanen 1 984 22) The unions meanwhie forged an increasingy inde-

penden and more miian workers' movemen, which mouned srikesand mobiized a miiia in he face of he void ef by he earlier Russi-caion of he army and poice. The SD governmen inroduced a numberf reforms, including a Law on Auhoriy, which procaimed ful auonomy(ave for forin poicy and miliary affairs). n he conex of high mobi-ao nd revlutny fervor boh n Rssa and Finland, he Kerenskyvm kd y innis uis s jted a he efors




1 928 30) The OB folowed up the next year with a genera strike, whichended ony when the goenment announced the fothcoming eections of


of other players, particuarly the Liberas and, to some extent, aso the Catholics mportant in this regard are the competitive stategies of these



ended ony when the goenment announced the fothcoming eections ofa Constituent Assembly to reise the electora artices of the constitutionariament's reection of the proposed reform was answered with yet another genera strike in 1893 constituting a second show of strength thatresulted in the September reforms Terinden 92830; H Linden 920).A goernmentOB compromise mediated by the rogressie wing of theLiberal arty introduced manhood suffrage aong with plura oting, so

that 37 percent of the eectorate had 58 percent of the otes Zoberg1978:122)

In 893 then, workers were enfranchised, but the issue of eectoralreform for equal otes was stil ery much on the OB agenda In contin-uing the strugge, the OB was now abe to take adantage of its newywon seats in ariament, where indeed it oertook the Liberals Despitethis opportunity to pursue reform in a new, parliamentary arena, the streetsremained important in the ongoing strugge The next maor successoccurred in 1912 following a big Cathoic electoral ictory, when theOB transformed a wae of demonstrations and rioting into a strike inwhich neary haf a miion workers brought amost al maor industry toa halt Mabille 19 86:2 1 1) Again, the strike ended when the prime min-ister agreed to put electora reform on the agenda Howeer, the momen-tum of reform was stopped short by the outbreak of war

The nal step quicky followed the end of the war By 198 workerswere in a good position to press their demands Their claim to equaoting weight was bolstered by thei role in the ghting Beyond themora argument, howeer, they were politically in a strong position theOB had participated in the wartime unity goernment in exile; ust daysbefore the armistice, workers had exed their muscles and struck miitaryproduction factories; and upon dissoution of the German miitary goern-ment, councis of workers and sodiers in Brussels briey constituted theony pretender to nationa authority It became cear to members of the

returning goernment that socia stability and reconstruction depended oncooperation with the OB Accordingly, with the decisie interention ofthe king, a new unity goernment was formed, folowed by the election ofa Constituent Assembly based on equa oting After the electoral reformwas written into the constitution, a new democratic goernment waseected in 199

The woking class was thus a central part of the stoy of democratiation in Belgium Yet the process s t als b t of t rs

2 Cudcll lO; Lnd ut YY Mbill� 1 9H6.

Catholics mportant in this regard are the competitive stategies of theseparties, though attachment to ibera and ater Christian social prin-cipes played some role, particulary on the part of the ProgressiveLiberas. In this light, democratization was not ony a question of conces-sions, thugh the nal step in 1918 may argey be characterized in thisway.

Virtually from the beginning, the Liberal arty, formed in 1846 as

the party of the anticerical urban bourgeoisie, was diided oe thesuffrage, with the rogressies, who faored its expansion, at odds withthe Doctrinaires, who did not Linden 920:269) n 1848 the rst al-Libera goernment passed a suffrage reform, reecting, no doubt, someinuence from the February Reoution in France, but aso an electoamotiation the reform had a differenia impact on the constituencies ofthe Liberas and Catholics, doubling the urban eectorate while addingony a third to the rural eectorate Mabille 986: 1 34) As a resut, theLiberals stayed in power for most of the next forty years, with the exceptionof 85257 and 87078

nterestingy, the Catholics aso supported this reform in the hope ofgaining petit bourgeois and peasant otes, though Liberals in the endbeneted disproportionately Linden 1 920: 276 ) Neertheess, the Cathoicposition presaged subsequent episodes of strategiing with respect to suf-frage expansion In 864 they introduced a proposa for owering suffragerestrictions on communal and proincial eections, which was aimed atsplitting the Liberals ony the rogesies suppoted it) and fashioning aCatholic maority, but the king, who opposed the measure, dissoledarliament, and new elections returned a stronger Liberal maority Terlin-den 1 92830 : 5) Another iteration a few years ater fared better in869 on the same calcuation, Cathoics founded an Association for Eec-tora Reform, which faored suffrage reform at the communa and proin-cial ees, and oined with rogressies to pass a compromise measure in

1870, which had the expected payoff; it further fragmented the Liberasand ed to a Catholic ictory in the same year, een though the new awhad not yet been put into effect Terinden 192830:29) The Cathoicgoernment passed additional minor electora reforms with the support ofthe ogressies

The role of the rogressie Liberals was also important in the 893electoral refor The arge Catholic ictory of 884 which put an end tothe erio of Libra re l t ira ooperation betwen thebe th PO b t o t t ofov pare seb1k to h o o su rr th


Progressives n 1 887 formay though temporariy eft the party over the

ssue and soon came out n favor of full manhood suffrage without teracy

S O C I A L I S T P A R T I E S 93

postwar concessions to workingclass demands eectora caculatons hadlr d l d th Lib r s t lin p n th sid f r f rm s m rs rli r



ssue and soon came out n favor of full manhood suffrage without teracy

reqirements as advocated by the newly formed POB (Mabile 1 986 : 8 7) Two fronts were thus opened in the struggle for reform: the streets uderthe eadership of the POB and the Parliament under the nitiative of the

Progressves The rst has already been dscussed Of the second Landauerstates: It soon became cear that the presence of supporters of universasuffrage in pariament made a great dea of dfference The government

showed a less unyielding atttude than before" (Landauer 1959:463) Thecombination of the poitical strike and parliamentary acton produced the1 893 compromise reform of fu manhood but unequa surage

Athough the reform measures of the 1 910s were more opsidedy theresut of workingcass pressure even here Libera strategc cacuations

played a role Proportiona representation introduced in 899, had theeffect of strengthening the Progressives and the POB yet Catholics contin

ued to have a arge majority of seats with ony a minority of votesTherefore both Liberals (reunied n 1892) and labor continued to pace

high prority on the ssue of electora reform Wth the Doctrinares

ncreasingly coming to agree with the Progressive position on reform aformal libab aliance was created in 902, with al Liberas now endorsingunqualied manhood suffrage in exchange for POB acceptance of enlarged

nationa electora districts (to the benet of the geographicay dispersedLiberas) and the postponement of women's suffrage (which everyone be-lieved woud advantage the Cathoics) (Carstars 1 980: 55 ) The big Cath-

oic victory and Liberal losses in the 92 eectons dimnished remainingdisagreements over tactics The iberals became wlling to toerate the

strike weapon which was used the same year to force the government totake up the reform issue A further boost to libab cooperation came withthe outbreak of World War and the formation of a unity government in

exeUltimatey democratization in Begum can be seen as a Joint Project

of the workng class and the Libera bourgeoisie as both came together onsubstantive reforms and undertook coordinated action to achieve them.

The earlier reforms were the result of workingcass pressure outside Paria-ment and Lbera intatives within t. Once the workng cass achievedparliamentary representation through the POB a pariamentary reform

alliance of Liberas and labor was bolstered by insistent workngcassagtation in the streets Though the last step can be see largey ters of

1 3 Whl the ogessivs nourg s dcmolHtl"ouN, hry i u n his picgd gml st i ke nepnblc tk,

already led the Liberas to line up on the side of reform some years earlier

T H E N E T H E R L A N D S

Democraizaton in the Netherlands started quite eary folowng deveopments in France The French nvason of 1795 brought about a briefexperment with democracy in the form of the Batavian Republic which

introduced manhood suffrage for an elected Assembly but Napoleon soontook a number of steps that establshed control over the Dutch govern-ment nally establshng a monarchy in 806 and installing his brotheras king. The more durable process of democratzaton began wth the

ibera reform constituton of 848, which introduced a imited franchise

for elections to the lower house; by 868, wth the estabshment ofparamentary sovereignty the Netherlands had the basic components of ademocratc regime except for a mass suffrage The subsequent extensions

of the suffrage took pace n 1887, 1896, and 917 n the context of twodeveopments: (1) the compex strategies of competitive support mobiza-

tion and compromse among partes dvided aong a reigioussecular axis

and (2) the growth of a prodemocratic working class with increasingpotica nuence n this sense democratzation in the Netherands canbe seen as a Joint Project

Although Dutch potcs has often been anayzed as rooted n a segmented or plura society wth a dominant cleavage what seems most

striking wth respect to the politics of suffrage reform is the way n whchthat issue cut across what was becomng the princpal religioussecular

ceavage and produced a compex pattern of partisan cleavages bothamong parties and aso wthn them. In ths context each of the majordemocratic reforms ( 18 87 8 96, 1 9 1 3 7) took pace as a result of broad

compromse among the major competng mobizng multiclass partiesthe rst two reforms eading to limted unsatisfactory compromise the

ast to manhood suffrage.Mass poitics and support mobization started eary in the Nether

ands when the dominant iberalconservative ceavage gave way to a

reigioussecular cleavage The change started n the 860s as the poiti-cally dominant beras became more secuar and ther opposition to state

fuding of denomnational schools became an important issue for bothProtestants ad Catholics The new ceavage ed to a pattern of politcacoptitio hich ss obiiztio becae a proinent feature

reultng th faton o multiclas pts , Th y vnt ccr n1878 th Pstnt 1·gnzd h A-Rvolutionry Party as a


Calvinis mass movemen The AnRevoluionary Pary pioneered mod-ern masspary organizaion echniues (Daader 1987201 and uickly


hese ambiguies would heighen in he folowng years. Whie he Lib-eral Union remaned he arges par, in 1888 was ouvoed by he



ern mass pary organizaion echniues (Daader 1987201 and uicklydsplaced he conservaives as he man opposion pary. Ths conex ofcompeiive moblizaion provded an incenve for a paries o seek a suf-frage exenson in an aemp o nd new sources of parisan suppor A hesame ime, however, he pul of class ineress mean ha he Lberals, heAniRevouonaries, and aer he Cahocs were al dvded on hs ssue.

The rs reform was passed in 1 887 by a LiberaConseraive coaiion

governmen wih suppor from mos of he AnRevoluionares and someCaholics (Newon 1978:93; Friedman 1943:116. The suffrage, however,remained very resriced, rsng from 12 o 27 percen of he adul malepopuaon (Lphar 1975:107 Poliicized boh by he emergence of asocais pary and he moblizng effors of he oher pares, he workngcass became a parcipan in he pocs surrounding hs reform Never-heless, is independen role remaned ue margina a his ime In 18 7 1he ANWV was founded as a labor group ha was closely ed o heLibera Pary i reeced cass sruggle and favored cooperaion wih em-ployers. In 187778 urned is aenion o he exension of he suffrageAround he same me, he spli, wih he righ wng oining heProesan mass movemen and he lef wing founding wha n 1881became he SDB, he Socia Democrac Pary, based n he unions andchampioning a suffrage reform (Buiing 1989:6163 Wndmuler 1969:817 Despe hs acvy, he 1887 reform reeced he poliica dynamcs of he major, mulcass paries, raher han socias or specicayworkngclass demands.

Nor was workngclass pressure a par of he 1896 reform. Indeed, nreacon o he feeing of poliica faiure due o he very resriced andunsasfacory naure of he 1887 reform, he SDB abandoned an elecoralsraegy and he srugge for he popuar voe n favor of rade unionorganzing and he genera srke As he SDB hardened is rejeconis,aniparliamenary poson, he poiica or parlamenary facon spli off

and in 1 894 formed he SDAP, which soon ecpsed he SDB Ye, heSDAP was sill young and weak by he ime of he 1896 reform omnga a ime of fragmenaion and organzaiona udiy wihn he workers'movemen and a a ime when he rejecionis sraegy was si imporanand he parliamenary wng was sll formng, his second reform waspassed wh lile workingcass inuence or parcpaon 14

The expanded suffrage of 1887 provded no clear winners, as g beexpeced from he fac ha he isse inernaly dvde ajor aries

W Nwt :\ B L

e U o em ed he ges p , 888 s ou o ed by hecombined religious paries, whch fomed he rs posreform govern-men In 1 89 1 he Liberals reganed a majory of seas (Mackie and Rose1991330, and he progressive wng of he pary, longes associaed wiha prosuffage poson, ook he niiave n he nex reform. Progressveineror miniser Tak van Poorvlie aemped o inroduce a lieraesuffrage by reinerpreing he exising aw, a proposal ha spi Lberas,

AniRevouionares, and Cahoics ino hosie groups of Takkians andanTakkians (Friedman 1 943 : 1 16 . The Liberas sp ino hree (whhe righ wing breakng away o form he Od Independen Lberals andmany progressives joinng he Radical League he resul of an oder spliha had derived from dssasfacon wih he imied 1887 reform). TheAnRevouonaries also suffered a permanen spl (wih he conservaive,aniTakkan wing breakng away o form wha aer became he ChrisanHsorica Union)

The siuaion was emporariy resoved by he 1896 reform, a compromse measure ha agan doubled he elecorae, hs ime o nearly halfhe adu males (Carsairs 1980:61 Lijphar 1975:107. Ahough heSDAP suppored he campaign for an expanded suffrage, i was sill a verysma and weak organizaion a his me, wh no pariamenary seas andreceiving ony 365 voes n 1894. The reform, hen, was a compromiseamong he oher pares All he paes were engaged in compeiiveelecora moblizaion and saw a paricular kind of suffrage exension inher neres. In addiion, he reform can be seen as an aemp a compro-mise wihin paries, whch had been seriously divided over he issue andhad, as a resul, suffered damagng defecons In hs conex, i seemsha suffrage reform may have occurred as a resul of compromse wihinas much as beween he pares. 5

Be ha as i may, he compromse faied o see he issue, as had heprevious one in 1887 The na sep occurred n he nex wo decades,

and, wih he growh of unon organzng during hs period, he workingclass enered he scene more decsvey. Unsased wih he si imedoucome of 1896 progressive Liberals sepped up her campagn for hesuffrage, and n 1901 anoher large group defeced o he Radcal League.Workngcass organzaions aso joned he bale in a more forcefu wayThe SDAP uickly began o arac voes and win paramenary seas, anda he same ime i niaed he creaion of a new cenrazed labor

I I hv t b b t vrf th t t tr f Dth t.Nvth, th ttr f th tt SHtvc, d I ff• th xt h " hoh


federation, the N, which grew rapidy and with which the party hadclose reations. In 899 the SDAP had founded the Dutch Committee for


anaysts of British history, a point made by Matthew, McKi bbin, and Key,who disagree with the general assessment that the 884 reform instituted



Universa Suffrage but eft it in 908 to organize an independent campaignwith the N. Together, these two workingcass organizations mounteda large suffrage movement, with mass petitions and largescale demonstrations, the most notabe being the Red Tuesdays" of 9 and 9 2which undoubtedly helped precipitate the introduction of universal suf-frage for men in 97 (Buiting 990:74)

By 93 the left (SDAP, Radicas, and the two Liberal parties) won amaority in Parliament Yet, it was not this maority that was responsiblefor the 97 reform. The suffrage remained a highly contentious andcompex issue Christian Historicas and conservative Liberas opposed anychange; the AntiRevolutionaries favored a suffrage extension weightedtoward rural areas; centrist Liberas favored a suffrage extension weightedtoward urban areas and progressive Liberals and the SDAP favored a fuextension (Windmuler 969:32 n 59) In addition, the uestion ofpubic funding of reigious schoos was sti a festering and highy conic-tua probem. Out of this multifod pattern of issues and ceavages, acompromise soution was again struck In 93 the Liberal governmentappointed two aparty specia commissions, one on the franchise, theother on the schoos, to recommend a policy The folowing year, theeectora commission proposed manhood suffrage combined with an elec-toral system based on proportiona representation The parliamentary debates took place on both sets of recommendations during the war and theproposas became law in 97 This nal step, then, can be seen as a JointProec t The campaign orchestrated by workingcass organizations par-ties and unions, inside and outside of Parliament payed a part Inaddition, the regime issue concerning the suffrage and the eectoral systemas naly resolved in concert with the maor substantive issue that hadcome to dominate Dutch politics for the previous haf century. The grandcompromise" was thus the next step in the ongoing pattern of conict and

compromise that had come to characterize party politics in what has wideybeen interpreted as the segmented, pura society of the Netherands(Daader 987 Liphart 975).

G R E T R I T I N

By 884 Britain coud be said to have become a mass democracy with theworking cass constituting a aority of voters (P 78 3) ee toit stil di not have fl mahod sa a sao qees et the lmd t s w of mos

g gan almost universa manhood suffrage and that it was not casses whowere disenfranchised, but individuas who were, for the most part temporarily, excuded particularly by the residency reuirement for registrationIn opposig this view, they suggest that in effect four categories weredenied the suffrage (paupers, ivein servants, most of the military, andmany sons iving with parents) and that the occupational and lodger

franchises contained some onerous reuirements that affected muchof the working class (Matthew, McKibbin, and Key 976:72435) In amore recent rebuttal, i n turn, Tanner ( 990: 920) calculates that theunderrepresentation of the working class probaby came to about only3 percent

Whatever the extent of the continuing exclusions, the fourth reformlaw of 98 substantialy reduced (but did not completey eliminate) theexisting shortcomings Whie most analysts have traditionaly viewed this98 reform as a minor one, some (incuding Rueschemeyer et al 992 aswel as Therborn 977) date the attainment of democracy only with thisact and the substitution of the accumuated body of complicated, anachro-nistic (Tanner 990:00) and sti somewhat restrictive franchises withthe straightforward grant of manhood suffrage At least as important after884 was another remaining issue the status of the noneective House ofLords and its veto power. This issue was addressed in 9 withoutsignicant workingclass participation Aso controversia was the uestionof pura voting, provisions for which were reduced but not eliminated in98. The 98 reform came as part of a broad agreement of the parties,that included aso the redrawing of constituency boundaries Whie theLabour Party favored reform and participated in the pariamentary negoti-ations, workingcass organizations were not a maor force in bringing thereform about.

After 884 the reform issue subsided It received little popuar atten

tion, and was not high on the agenda of any of the poitica parties,including the new Labour Party It was not a high priority issue amongthe working class, with the organized sector largey enfranchised and the

1 Pgh 1 97 3 for intnce tte tht "ong the for nd hlf illion en whowere not on the egiter t n one te on one nd hf llion were exreexcded in lw fro the frnchie [nd} te jorit [of thee} filed to e regiteredowig to the colexit of the regitrtion te nd rticlrl to the need fotweve th cntio edence n col th ove ck nd forth etweenti vti the ivii e etwee the efrnchied n the nei w h·· mh it th th w etT�1· ( 1 \ O: h ) 1 i n· iw


poorer unorganized sector showing itte interest (Pugh 1978: 29, 3;Thomas 956:78)

S O C I A L I S T P A R T I E S

(Seymour and Frary 98: :168) Thus, this democratic reform was

achieved by the Liberals, with the help of the king The way then seemed



The folowing decades saw active union and sociaist organizing, and

in 1 900 the TUC (Trades Union Congress, which grew out of annuameetings begun in 1 868) and socialist groups formed the Labour Representation Committee, which became the Labour Party in 1 906, specically toput forth parliamentary candidates independent of the Libera party However, as Thomas has suggested, after 1884, the extension of the franchise

never again became a centra issue in workingcass poitics Indeed Labourand Socialist eaders often spoke as though parliamentary democracy was

already an accomplished fact" (Thomas 956:77) Indeed, workers were

rst elected to Parliament in 1874 (as Liberals) Their numbers grewgradually in the 1880s, and in 1892 the rst independent labor MPs were

eected In 1 906 the Labour Party was formed out of the Labour Representation Committee, and by 191 4 the working class movement faced astate that was increasingly open to its inuence Parliament contained 42

Labour members" (Price 19 90:4 , 6, 1 1) Whie not yet strong in any sense,the Labour Party and its constituency was cleary not an excluded actor In

fact, in 903 the Liberal and Labour parties made a pact not to presentcompeting candidates against the Conservatives

Nevertheess, the reform issue was kept aive by the suffragette movement and by partisan rivalry between Conservatives and Liberals The

former were eager for a redistribution of seats to eliminate the overrepresentation of reland (which redounded to the Liberas, who were more

sympathetic to home rule), and the atter were particuarly eager to eiminate plural voting (which was said to result in an additional forty to eightyConservative seats) n addition, workingclass organizations, including theLabour Party, were on record as favoring a suffrage reform (Seymour and

Frary 198: :166) Reform bills were introduced, but other issues claimedmore immediate attention.

Despite the Liberas' return to power in 1906, no reform was passed

in the prewar period. Libera attention focused primarily on the issue ofplura voting, and the House of Commons passed more than one bill toaboish plura voting, but they did not pass in the House of Lords This

was a period when the Liberas introduced new socia legislation, and aconstitutional crisis erupted over the House of Lords' attempt to reject the

budget In this context, the Liberals introduced a bil to reduce the powerof the nonelected upper house and enlisted the support of the king, whothreatened to appoint the number of peers ncssay t ensu sccess

Faced with this threat the House of Los absi nd o n th 9 1 asu

tat m inate its veto, eaving it wi t ly powr dy islatio

y p g y

clear for the electoral reform, and in 192 the party did introduce a seriousreform bill, but it foundered on a weak sop to the suffragettes (Thomas

956:58; Tanner 990:385)Durin this period, the Labour Party took a position in favor of

electoral reform and universal suffrage but it was not the central focus ofattention

Although the party was committed to adult suffrage it did not on thewhole bring the Government under pressure to legislate except in so faras its position on the suffrage was an embarrassment to the Liberals .The partys immediate interest ay in the organised politicaly awaresections of the working class aready on the parliamenary regiser; noh-ing was as yet to be expected from domestic servants living with theirempoyers or abourers residing with farmers who bulked large amongthe unenfranchised or indeed from many industrial workers in which inRamsay MacDonald's words, "poverty and degradation are of the worsttype17

In any case, the Labour Party had increased its representation in the

910 eections, but reached only 6 percent of the seats, hardy a majorforce in its own right Labour MPs wee the most unequivocal supportersof the failed Libera bil of 1 91 2 (Matthew et al 97 6:74 6), and in ad-

dition they introduced their own bils, but these did not succeed

t was the war that brought the issue to a head Anaysts have often

suggested that the war precipitated electoral reform, owing to its impacton the working cass qua producer and soldier Specicay, two effects of

the war are often emphasized: the empowerment of the working class,

whose cooperation was crucia for both wartime production and conscrip-tion; and the ethica response to the lower classes whose members hadfought and risked their lives and thus merited poitica inclusion. In the

British case, the war had an even more direct impact on eectora reform

because of its relationship to the specc terms of the existing aw Thewar ushered in the breakdown of the old electoral system because massivewartime displacement and changes of domicile and occupation disqualied

17 amsay MacDonald was the rst secretary of the abour epresentation Committee.ited in ugh 978:30 .

I H Because ofth e war effort, working-class organzations achieved a n unprecedented degreeof olitica inuence rade union cooperaion was essental to manpower alocationwith reect t the rule of entry into eployment and conscrption.

othr d"ct o h w w tis cooeto d the enty of the abour artyio 1 wulit ion goveent. S, fo xmplc, Moor 197R: I )H-0; nd Pox l9H5:2HO

H2,




with a virulnt attack and sought to crush th Socia Dmocrats throughth antisociaist laws of 878 which reprssd Social Dmocratic adrs

i i d i i N h l h i l d d h '


mand of th military and th industriaists al ralizd thy nedd workingcass coopration for th war ffort. For thir part with the outbrak

f ki l i i b h d i h i i



organizations and activity Nvrthlss th poicy xcludd th party'sdgats to th Richstag from the rprssion and Socia Dmocrats weralowd to run for lctora ofc (Nipprdy 990: 2:35556)

Th 860s and 870s had sn th stabishmnt of th principl offu manhood suffrag as part of a consrvativ stratgy from above and itwas not accompanid by othr componnts of a democratic regim spcif-

icaly pariamentary sovrignty civi librtis or in Prussia quaity ofth vot The rmaining stps were takn at th nd of World War I whnth Bismarckian stat ong in crisis coapsd and was repacd by apariamntary dmocracy

Th ongrrun contxt was th unstab coaitiona politics and poitica rcaculations that cam with th ris of th SPD Th antisocialistaws had not ralized thir intended rsult of stopping socialism in itstracks Rathr the tolration for ectora participation had alowd thparty to gain ctoral strength In 890 th yar the aws wre rpaledth party doubld its percntag of th vote (to nary 20 prcent) gainingth puraity of votes and more than triping its numbr of sats in th(malproportioned) Richstag (to 35 or 9 prcnt) Thereaftr gains contin-ud to scaate and by 92 the party won ovr a third of th vot and 0 seats (or 28 percnt) (Rokkan and Meyriat 969 : 5 556 ).

During th same priod union strength mounted in paral fashionwith membrship in th Frei Gwerkschaften swing from 300000mmbers in 890 to 26 million by 93 and orkr actions averaging04 pr yar in 89093 and thn spiraing upward by a factor of 25btwen 909 and 93 (Nipprdy 990: 2:55455). Th abor cntrahowevr was principally orintd toward bradandbuttr issues and in-srted a quietist rformist mntaity" into th SPD (Wehr 985:90):with incrasing numbrs of Richstag mmbers rcruitd from th ranksof th trad unions the unions prevntd th party from continuing its

use of the political mass strik caling it gnra crazinss" (Craig 978:268 Nipperdy 990: 2:570) Nevrtheess th growing organzationaland poitical strngth of th working cass particulary in the SPD pro-ducd a situation of poitical impass and polarization and again chalngdconservativ imprial intersts

Th outbrak of Word War further wakned th Bismarckiancoalition and incrasd th pressur for ralignmnt Whras the prwaralignmnt pitted th miitry rightwing part s and moyrs againstthe sociaists and letwing iberls the ot o of h war shdowa lass ollaoao Th ksrs ovm h Sp1·m om

of war workingclass organizations both party and unions enthusiasti-cally fll in bhind the nationalist caus and supportd th war (se Roth963:287ff) though the workingclass movment latr split ovr thisissue wit th dpartur of what bcam th USPD and Spartacists fromthe Maority SPD (MSPD). With th support of th MSPD and th unionsa pattrn of class collaboration did dvlop during th war with two

important effects First it furthr changd th balance of class powr:From the political standpoint the war had bn a disastr for th mpoy-rs and a bessing for th unions" (Fdman 966:473). Scond it maddmocratic reform a saint issue as from th bginning he MSPD hadinsistd on rform as a condition of its coopration

The immdiat contxt for th rform was the na yar of th warwhen a numbr of things cam togethr that affcted th stratgic cacu-ations of various groups and produced a nw alignmnt reprsenting anaccommodation of th right and th modrat Socia Dmocrats nowdevoid of indd challngd by thir ft wing. Thre factors wr partic-uarly important The rst was workingcass protest ld by th groupsthat had spit from the SPD This radica militant and potntially rvo-utionary movmnt dvlopd in the wak of th Russian Revolution inOctober 97 and amid acclrating hardship and dprivation: in th rsthalf of 98 brad rations were reducd; ra wags fel; clothing shosand coa wer in short suppy; and ongoing political stalmat prvntdprogrss on the promisd rform of the Prussian suffrag and a WorkrChambrs bi (Fldman 966:492) Scond with th prospct of miitarydfat th Suprme Command saw a continued ned for class colaborationand workingcass cooperation for th task of demobiization and pactimconvrsion (Fdman 966:435) Third facing th need to ca for anarmistice th govrnment and th army cam to viw a democratic rvolution from abov" as a vita necssity" both to scur th bst possib

pac trms from th democratic Alis and to sidstep responsibiity for th miitary dbac and for the anticipatd postwar difcuties (Fldman

96654)In October 98 a broad coalition of forcs that had supportd th

governmnt's military vntur including workingclass organizationscam togethr bhind a projct for democratic rform whn suddny tharmy and te govrnmnt commanded [th prorform opposition partis}t take ovr power" (Craig 978397) Varios stratgis convrgd to seth form oss otion h rm Commad srh for asapgt sw volo fom ov s •d l mov: as


the Baaran representate to the Supreme Command sad It s erygood that the eft wng partes w hae to take the odum for the peace

th Th t f th d t t f t


and soders were estabshed and on 7 Noember a Socast Repubcwa decared n Baara. The response wa mounted on two ees.

One ee saw the margnazaton of the rght effected n two days



upon themsees. The storm of popuar anger w then drect tsef aganstthem . . . Later one hopes to swng nto the sadde agan and rue onaccordng to the od prescrpton (quoted n Fedman 966 5 6) The So-ca Democrats had aways pressed for democratc reform and ke therght the MSPD too now saw t n a further ght a means to preempt theforces that had emerged to the partys eft and ther threatenng workng-

cass reouton The kaser who was becomng potcay soated nowthought t necessary to make good on hs earer promse of eectorareform an attempt at whch had recenty been defeated In the begnnngof October the kaser apponted Prnce Maxman of Baden as chanceorof the empre and prme mnster of Prussa Under ncreasng pressurefrom Presdent Wson who made cear hs unwngness to dea wth thekaser and n opposton to the mtarys consderaton of proongng thewar Prnce Max formed a new goernment whch turned to a more serousreform project. The new goernment based on the BackRedGod coa-ton of the Cathoc Center Democratc and Majorty Soca Democratcpartes effected a consttutona transformaton that ncuded a reformof the Prussan suffrage mnstera responsbty to the Rechstag andcan contro of the mtary but dd not abosh the monarchy (Crag978:397; Fubrook 990:57)

The democratc reform of October 98, whch represented a reagnment of forces was thus based on a combnaton of dstnct strateges anda common fear of reouton on the part of the army the goernment andthe centrst and Majorty Soca Democratc partes. Workngcass organ-zatons were mportant partcpants but they were ony one of the strategc actors. Furthermore they were dded oer the project wth moreradca factons representng probaby 0 percent of the SPD before tspt (Roth 963292), rejectng the MSPD factons goa of bera demo-cratc reforms and pursung nsead a more radca soca transformaton

based on aternate potca structures Indeed the Jont Project had tosure a major reoutonary chaenge from these groups before t wasnsttutonazed n the new consttuton of the Wemar Repubc Thereouton from beow that broke out ater the same month threw the newaance off baance unt t was n effect reconsttuted two months ater

The reoutonary chaenge began wth the 22 October strkes thatfor the rst tme oerty oppoed the kaser and struck prorepubcantheme (Crag 978 :397 98) By the begnnng of Noember nsurrectonary moeents took pace n eera port cte whe cnc o woke

One ee saw the margnazaton of the rght effected n two dayson Noember 90 Prnce Max preempted mpera optons by announcng the ntenton of the kaser to abdcate and then passed the goernmentnto the ands of the MSPD Fredrch Ebert who became chanceor tredto mantan eadershp of the reoutonary moement and carred out anapparent coatona shft n repacng the BackRedGod coaton go-

ernment wth a socast goernment based on MSPD and the USPD Onthe forma goernmenta ee then a shft to the eft occurred as themonarchy was aboshed and a repubc decared the center was coaton-ay excuded nd under pressure from the USPD the moe toward abera paramentary democracy was repaced wth the estabshment of aCounc of Peope's Representates eected by workers' and soders coun-cs

On another ee howeer the aance underyng the Jont Project ofOctober sured takng ts most concrete form n two pacts the Stnnes-Legen Agreement and the Groener Pact The StnnesLegen Agreementrepresented a soca partnershp between ndustrasts and unons Wththe fastmong deeopments of October the bg ndustrasts decded toabandon ther coaton wth the Conserates n faor of an agreementwth the unons Taks mmedatey ensued and the agreement of 2Noember by whch the ndustrasts formay recognzed unons const-tuted a truce between abor and management on whch} the WemarRepubc was} . founded (Fedma 966532) The Groener Pact represented an accommodaton between the Supreme Command and the Ebertgoernment. Wthn hours of becomng chanceor and formng a Socastgoernment Ebert receed a ca from Groener the new supreme com-mander offerng the armys support to the new goernment n exchangefor whch Ebert agreed nter aa to mt the reoutonary moementand suppress the workers and soders councs (Fubrook 990:59)

Thus the Soca Democrats ooked n two drectons at once At the sametme that a new eftst coaton was constructed among potca partes nthe goernment a centrst coaton was reconsttuted through pacts onthe part of major corporate group

The tenson between these contradctory coatona responses was efectey resoed the foowng month. In the mdde of December thert Congres of Workers and Soders Councs was caed to chart theutre coe Te choce ptte te SPD son o a at to ocasmbae kr an er cn r t o a te


MSPD of ber primentry repubc. The sentiment n the Congressof Councs ws moderte, with the MSPD consttutng 60 percent of therepresenttves Opting for the prmentry system the Congress of


suppor by borbe socist prties, whch were redy sgncntctors n the compette eector ren. With respect to ren of ctionh k k b h h h i i h



representtves. Opting for the prmentry system, the Congress ofCouncs voted to hod eectons in Jnury for Constituent Assembywhich woud wrte the new constituton. The Congress so voted torepce the rmy with popur mit, but gin Ebert reched ngreement with the rmy, whch vigorousy opposed such move. n thesewys, the cotion of the October ont Project ws i n effect reconsttuted.

ndeed, the refurbshed ince ws be to put down the Sprtcist uprising tht occurred n Jnury, nd wth the regnment the USPD utimtey eft the government.

n the next hf yer, the Jont Proect ws bck on trck. The Jnuryeectons to the Constituent Assemby were hed on the bsis of pnsdrwn up by the Ebert government nd reected ongstndng postonsof the SPD, such s proporton representtion nd unvers suffrge for men nd women ged twenty nd over. n those eections the MSPDwon purity of 38 percent of the vote nd 63 of 2 sets, whe tscosest ssoctes of the wr period (nd the comng perod) won combined 1 66 (91 for the Center nd 7 5 for the Democrts) (Crg 978 : 21 3) Thus, encompssng one fcton of dvided workers' movement,

combnton of forces simr to tht whch hd formed the BckRedGod coition cme together to write the Wemr consttution (promugted the foowing August) nd estbished the bsis for Germnys rstdemortc regime.

C O C U S I O

n the Joint Projects pttern, democrtizton proceeded prmriy throughthe nterctons mong n groups. Not ony the mdde nd upper cssesbut so the working css hd edy been rgey enfrnchised nd even

represented in prment through borbsed, socist prtes. ndeed,wht distingushes these cses is not ony the prticpton of workingcss groups s mportnt prodemocrtc ctors but so the fct tht theyprtcipted rgey from position of pror incusion. Two points foow.Frst, s ctors withn the priment, the prties incuding the socistprties, must be seen both s css ctors nd so s strtegic ctorsengged n poitc gme of prtisn competition. Second, the workngcss roe took on du form nd operted n d re. wsmotivted by a comen o e subsn rforms a ece erereenon of worng nerss so by h moblton of

the orkngcss roe took pce both through prty negotitions wthpr

ment

_nd through mss mobiztions, in which unions so becme

ctve prtpnts.

4

R E C E N T E M O C R A T I Z A T I O N

As discussed in Chapter 1, in expaining the iniia sources of democraic transiions, he ieraure has ended to emphasize an inernaist"accoun hat begins with the divisions and straegies of authoritarian



LABOR ACION IN RECENTDEMOCRATIZATION

The processes of democratizaion a the end of he twenieh cenuryare paricuary compex in that they ypicay invove ins" as we as

ous," boh he negotiation and roest arenas, and many different cass

acors among he outs," incuding, wih he exception of wo cases, aborgroups Within this commonaiy, differen paerns can be distinguishedaccording to he roe of the working cass and he incumbent proect

The counry anayses in this chaper suggest that the comparative andheoretica ieraure has argey missed he imporance of he workingcass and the abor movemen in he democratizaion process in the 1970sand 1980s The argumen, of corse, is no that hese democraic ransi-tions shoud be considered a workingcass or abor proect, ha eiestrategies were not aso important, or ha he abor movement and union-ed proest were he mos conseuenia sources of prodemocratic pressure.Furthermore, one mus aso recognize ha other groups aso engaged inprotes, incuding, variousy, human righs groups, nationais groups, and

urban socia movemens These as ypicay organized and mobiizedarger workingcass groups in poor neighborhoods, rather han in theworkpace, and ofen invoved cassreaed grievances, demands, and iden-tiies. However, mobiizaion of he working cass q working cass mosceary occurred hrough unions and unionafiated parties, and this is thefocus in the foowing anaysis. In he overwheming majority of cases, heroes of unions and aborafiaed paries were imporan o a degree thatis a most hined a in he ierature. Cerainy i ost cases ter roeswere a eas as sigcant as hse soe of t rlr f Jotjcs , Br d

accoun hat begins with the divisions and straegies of authoritarianincumbents as they respond to probems of egitimation; in anayzing heprocess of democratic transitions, he iterature has emphasized the centraity of eite bargaining beween incumbens and moderate opposition paryeaders. This approach can usefuy be suppemened by expicating heroe of abor in both hese phases: ( 1) is contribuion to he deegitimaion

and destabiization of the auhoritarian regime and hence is roe in provoking he transiion and (2) the oppositiona roe of abor during heransition process itsef.

Wih respec o he rst phase, he case anayses indicae that in somecounries the egiimaion and consoidation probems of auhoritarianregimes were preceded and at eas partiay caused by expicit opposiionfrom society, which demanded a response from authoriarian incumbentsabor protes was often an importan factor in generating egitimacyprobems indeed, in some cases abor opposition prevented the consoida-ion of auhoriarian rue from he very onse of he regime. Regarding hesecond phase, he weight and shape of abor opposiion aso varied some-times i payed a eading roe, coordinaing and gavanizing the anti-

auhoriarian opposition in oher cases i payed a more suppemenaryroe, bu nevertheess was imporan in affecing the pace and rhythm ofhe ransiion and providing a more eftis democraic aernative, herebyincreasing contestation.

Wih regard o he roe of incumbents in he transition, i is usefu odistinguish a specrum of hree aternaives A one end are cases in whichincumbents faied o pursue any expici and autonomous project fromabove, thus paying an essentiay negative" roe of rereating from formerpositions and bargaining for he terms of heir wihdrawa in he democ-raization process In these cases, incumbens defensivey extricaed them-seves from power once the regime was desabiized At the other end,

incumbens carried out an expiciy staed ransition proect ha deneda contex, a se of procedures, and a timeabe for a regime change. Such aproec was iniiated and impemened by the governmen. In the middere cases in which authoriarian incumbens adopted egiimaion projecsithout an expici or wedened formua for a transition though thereay ave been some noion of future goas ad some piecemea moves in aocratiz rectio. In hese nereae cases, defesive ad ocs k h cbet os ool ov h rso po.

h h mo, fo p s, o o wh or mov y o




8) . a addtoa argmet some aaysts ave sggested tat aborprotest drety ed te geeras to mpemet pas for te Mavasvaso. Wt or wtot ts seod argmet oed protest was a f d b


arod te aes of Geera Voa voked a oder patter of stateaborreatos worked ot der te prevos mtary regmes w abormoderato cod be bogt wt some cocessos regardg a st m d b f k T



mportat factor destabg te mtary regme.Sce te 90s, we Per came to power o te soders of

workgass spport te abor qesto ad bee at te very core ofArgete potcs ad t certay remaed cetra 976, we temtary terveed to overtrow te rst Perost govermet t adaowed to ome to power e terveg decades. Massve workerdemostratos ad strkes ad orred trogot te Perost gover-met from 973 to 976, ad as Epste (989:26) pots ot teagrato of mtary re was a respose to ts worker actvsm "temage of a weak govermet at te mercy of te trade os . . . o-vced te mtary of te eed to act potay to ed wat to tem wasa aceptabe stato.

Te mmedate respose of te ew mtary govermet was repres-so. May os were terveed ad tosads of abor eaders keddsappeared or aed. Te represso deaptated te most promet adcombatve abor eadersp eavg bed te prevosy more moderatead "partcpatost eaders ess cetra ecoomc setors addto

to te oaboratost eaders te terveed os (Ferde 985 :737). Te mportae of te abor qesto od be see ot oy te speed ad scope of te represso bt aso te fact tat a ew aboraw to deatvate te abor movemet was der atve cosderato byte mtary govermet wt a mot of te Mar op. espte tecear cetraty of ts sse most trasto aaysts ave as Mk potsot argey mssed tese dyamcs tog as e adds some ave stressedtat te mtary regme Argeta aways feared te possbty of asoca exposo ed by te workers (G. Mk 990:3885, . 6).

Te rst terpretato of abors roe te Argete trastoceters o ts cotrbto to egteg mtary factoasm ad

tereby redcg te tas abty to osodate a atortara regme.Eary mtary factoasm was cosey ked to dvsos over ow toade te abor qesto ad te abor sse was drecty oeted tote ecoomc mode adopted by te ew govermet eaded by GeeraVdea: based o eoom beraato ad free markets te modeosttted a assat o os tat was tmatey emboded te ewabor aw. A ateratve approa take by a mtary ato etered

5 vr y v o od o oy s oi sos tc ii b so s xii oii y wek pow o wki ss. S, fo is i 19H7 : n IJHI),

ted bt more postve roe for os rater ta a aot attack Tstog atos wt te mtary formed aog varos es te majorceavag tat was to emerge caot be derstood apart from te storad ogog posto of abor Argete pots.

Despte cpet factoasm m tary ty was mataed trog

te ta years of te "drty war a perod of arde domace. Teweakess ad effectveess of te softe fato was see te twodomets pbsed at te ed of 979: a potca docmet ad a aboraw eter of wc qte potedy prodced ay proet for potcaberaato or opeg. deed e abor aw as bee descrbed ascompetg te precedeted osagt agast abor (G. Mck 998:9802). Neverteess bot te represso ad te pedg aw faed to"sove te probem of o power. stead dferet ways bot edto abor resposes tat brogt to te srface te embryo factoswt te mtary.

Te represso was extesve ad effetve bt t dd ot ompeteypt a ed to abor opposto Eve after te cop abor actvty ad

coted. "Beyg te mage of a socety mmobed by repressodvda strkes bega amost mmedatey after te 976 cop. At teotset workers some o te stroger os ad staged a seres o"defesve strkes desged to prevet govermet assats o strategcabor setors. More mportat owever te represso of te atoa aboreadersp ad two terestg effets. Frst te ewy emerget atoaeadersp w eter ad srvved or ad repaed tose wo ad beeemoved paradoxcay reforced mtary factoasm. Ts grop ofbor eaders was ot free of dvsos oe wg prmary based teos te state ad terveed was more cooperatve ad wg tobmt to mtary tatves wereas eaders from te oter wg took a

ore rta posto. Neverteess te commo wgess of botgs to egotate or eter to daoge wt te govermet te postp perod fatated te tradtoa corporatst strategy of te regmesor mster Geera Ledo a represetatve of te softere fato bor opposto srged 977, oweve dvsos wt te mtary over abor poy wt ardere eaders more actvey opposed h ormtary daoge ag or edos oster order to bock

I MC uir I 'J�: fn. 1 5 . St• nlso 1ps e <HJ2o-·27 ; It Munck l )H7 :2 1 2 Po��i JH:H(; Jd 1 H� t -' .


abr's pla aess ad uee (Pzz 988:15052; Abs 1984:37)The sed effe f he repress f aa abr leaders mbed whhe emerge abr leadershps wgess pursue a raher supeegag sraegy was ha reaed spae fr a ew geera f


mveme he ew psure frmaly adped ad he aves f aleas e f he wgs represeed a sga hage A he same meabr avy reased a he mre deeralzed leve f dvdua



egag sraegy was ha reaed spae fr a ew geera fleaders whse reasgly ra sae ward he aa labr bureauray reeed shpr pressures fr greaer mbaveess Theseeaders arse bh a he level f fary mmsss paruary sersdmaed by servave abr eaders ad a he eve f prval labrrgazas smaler es

Based hese ew sures f labr avsm lae 1977 a wave fsrkes spread hrughu he ury a varey f em sersrm Ober Deember sme e m wrkers parpaed margal semladesey rgazed srkes smemes amed a heu bureauray (erdez 985:91) The resul was a hage herrela f fres bewee he wrkers mveme ad he mlaryregme (Pzz: 988 :8 ) The srke wave pushed he mre ra aaleaders ward a mre fras ad mblzg sae By Marh 978 he Cmmss f 25 was frmed rgazaally ug a mreppss grup f aa abr eaders I a publ speeh Deem-ber 978 Sal Ubald eader f he 25 delared ha he urys

prbems uld be slved ly hrugh a gverme eleed by hepepe ad demaded he esablshme f a full demray (ed See Gzez 1984:97 12)

The 197 9 labr law als had he ueded sequee f prvdghe mpeus fr reased labr pps O 27 Apr 979 whe heew abr law was beg sdered he 25 rgazed he rs geerasrke uder he mary darshp The labr aw as spurred a urryf reewed avy a he aa level Sepember apa fhe law he 25 ad he herefre aplal r prfessal CNTued frm he CUTA; ad rea he pubshed aw heCUTA mmedaely uderk verly ppsal aves a umber

f frs: aued a pla f a gh he ew law hrughaa plebses he wrkplae; aed a wh plapares labr awyers ad he LO; ad uderk rgazaal wrkdevepg regal labr grupgs Dvss remaed wh hCUTA ad he mderae CNT wg dd le mpleme he pla fa; furhermre sme f he rgazg effrs a he regal levelreeed a mpeve sraegy ake he par f he 25 agas heCNT (Pzz 1988:2829) Neverheess he br f b

7 9H926-27; Fnd· 9H�9 9 i HH:O U .

usI hs way us mved ake a ave mbzg pps-

ad aempg rdae her sal sers a he same meha he pa pares reeed he ave ad busess grups weredvded (G Muk 998:224; Pzz 1988:94128) shud be re-membered ha he rease ppsal avy ha urred re-spse he abr law was a resul f a py f pal lberaza(he very labr aw was da ha he harde fa remaeddma) bu raher f wha Muk has referred as he degdesp pwer f he sae as he dry war uleashed agas he ef adlabr wud dw (G Muk 1990:269) Ths mbza kep heabr ques alve a ques ha ued dvde he mlary

Ope dvss wh he rug auhrara regme emerged hsex f abr pres as well as em deerra The peleavage wh he gverme beame mre ree uder he mpaf aa rss em reess a subsaa rease rakadle labr pres ad a mpedg presdeal suess The frage

labr uy havg llapsed May 1980 e abr fa rdags avy hrugh he Iersera CNT20 was wllg eer adague wh he Vla mlary fa; he her ppss labrfa w rgazed as he Geeral Labr Cfedera (CGT) ds-played grwg bldess wrked devep hker rgazaal ewrks hrugh a wh varus ars wh sey ad made dreals fr a hage labr ply ad f he regme sel (G Muk990:3056)

hs ex he presdea suess f he sfer GeeralVla Marh 981 beame he fus fr delgaly based aagsmsmg p fers The dse f he avy was parulary prued

e add havg bee u u f s ur he suess s deed wh a harde apprah ad ppsed Vla wh favred are pragma em py ad mre rmalzed relas wh p-al pary ad ary u eaders (MGure 1995:86)

The gg pps f he labr mvme rbued Vla'sbly sldae pwer Iay sp ver he pssbly f pertig wh e Vla gverme ad sl rgazaaly dvded bhwis of un veme ame are a very pss

H A 1 9H:7H d I 9HH i 9HH:




with the regime, and it cnstituted pwerful evidence that demcratiza-

tin was necessary t reslve the ptential fr scial cnict (Keck 1989

42).By the late 1970 a substanial and diverse ppsitin mvement had

l d d Th l h h h k did b i lf

-

-

R E C E N T D E M O C R AT I Z A T I O N37

its accmplishments was helping t regain the streets fr public prtest

(Skidmre 1988 18) Hence, the labr mvement did nt initiate either

the ppsitin mvement r mass prtest. Its dramatic reemergence, hw-ever, placed it at the frefrnt f the brad segment f scial mvements



already emerged. Thus, althugh the wrkers mvement did nt by itself

prvide the pening wedge f prtest, it did cntribute t the verall

prcess f demcratic transitin. As Nrnha has suggested, the strikes fthe late 1970 were a direct challenge t the regime and can be seen as

expanding the scpe f the transiin bth by extending the prdemcracy

struggle beynd the electral arena and by challenging the gvernmentsmechanisms f crpratist cntrl. In bt h the shrt and l ng run (thugh

nt withut setbacks), the strike cnstituted a successful blw against the

gvernment's industrial relatins system regarding unins' right t elect

leaders, strike, and bargain cllectively. The military prect, in Nrnhas

wrds, "neither included nr fresaw, at least in the shrt term, an increase

in unin freedm. In this sense [the 1978 st rikes ] . . . raised the level f

the abertura's plicy debates by frcing the questin f labr unin freedm

t be included n the agenda (Nrnha 1992:2:8586).In additin, the Brazilian labr mvement made anther cntributin

t the transitin: it intensied and helped t change the nature f the

ppsitin. Befre its resurgence in 1978 many ther grups had takenadvantage f the Geisel decmpressin plicies t ppse the military

regime. These included the Chrch, the bar, the media, and, smewhat

later, elements f the business cmmunity. This ppsitin mstly tk a

verbal frm thrugh manifests articles and s frth While plitical

leaders and intellectuals in the ppsitin had been debating ways t

establish links t the ppular sectrs, "the massive strike waves f 1978and 1979 changed the cntext f the debate. The prblem . . . ceased t be

nly a questin t be debated amng intellectuals; it became instead a

matter fr negtiatin amng increasingly rganized cnstituencies. Many

wrkingclass leaders were n lnger willing t leave the act f interpreta-tin t thers they wanted t create an rganizatinal pprtunity fr

wrkers t speak fr themselves (Keck 19895859)The new unin mvement was nt the nly mass mvement t emerge

A genuine grassrts urban scial mvement in the frm f CEBs (ecce

sial base cmmunities) prmted by the Church had been prliferatin

thrughut the cuntry. Indeed, the new uninism in large measure

emerged frm these same rganizing effrts and the tw scial mvemes

develped in a pattern f mutual supprt Frm 1973 te CEBs d b

active in the Cst f Living Mvement clmini in L 977-7R . "Among

then emerging in ppsitin t the authritarian regime. Accrding t

Keck (1989:51) "the rebirth f the labr mvement . . . happened dramat-

ically enugh t gain ascendancy quickly in the scial prcess and claim a

leadership rle in the brad tissue f mvements then appearing.

Initially factry based, the prtest mvement led by labr spread in

tw cmplementary directins. First, it extended beynd the unin sectr

prper, stimulating greater activism within the larger wrkingclass neigh-brhds and cmmunities (Seidman 1994:208) Frm the 197879

strikes the new uninism galvanized a brader ppsitin, winning nt

nly passive supprt but the active invlvement f church grups and the

larger cmmunity in prviding material supprt. "In the prcess f sup

prting the strikers . . . a functining netwrk f alliances was established

amng grassrts rganizatins, scialmvement rganizatins linked t

the church, and the labr unins (Mreira Alves 198520).Secnd, and relatedly, demands became brader and mre vertly

plitical as the labr mvement mved beynd an emphasis n shpr,

wage, and industrial relatins issues and champined the demands andcncerns f the lwer classes mre generally. In the wake f the strikes

labr leaders became imprtant natinal plitical gures articulating

brad plitical demands.19 When the gvernment abandned its tw-

arty prject, unin activists tk advantage f the new plitical space by

organizing an explicitly scialist Wrkers Party (PT).

As a new actr n the scene, the PT had an impact n the prjects fbth the gvernment and the ppsitin. With respect t the frmer, it

·strated the gvernment's attempt t exrcise the left. At the same timet undermined the strategy f the ppsitin, and especially f the leading

psitin party, the PMDB, the successr f the "fcial ppsitin

ty in the gvernment's riginal twparty system. Prir t the frma f the PT, the ppsitin tended t see the PMDB as the nly viable

sitin party and t call fr ppsitin unity under its leadership,

iving f te struggle fr demcracy in uniimensinal, plar terms

1 ggle taking place between pr and antregime frces (Keck 1989I 2, 27) Te PT refsed t in r merge with the PMDB and insisted

I ') S'dmn I Ct : ,n . Set· also Miscs I C O: l - 1->r gue ha h 1 97H-80 sriksprd h lW uiism it h• · ( lJ ln r/ dHKtk 0V'.


on povdng an atenatve opposton voce tat wod asset a dscoseof ctzensp and cass and a poga of popla patcpaton, epaszng te potance of popla oganzatons (Keck 989:3940) In tsway, te new nons gave se to a new paty acto and nceased

l


ton and te colaboaton of potcal pates. As n Bazl, te Ugayantay cotted tself to eglay sceded eectons and developedpoects to otlne and od a new ege. In ts way, te ltay cosepotcal pates as potagonsts n ts ege poect we epessng ote

N l b b



contestaton n te patyelectoa aena.Te stke oveent cnated n 980 wen te etalwokes

caled a stke tat, wt a c ge evel of oganzaton and closecoodnaton wt te ban popa oveent, was sstaned fo fotyone days. Hadlnes wtn te govenent engaged n povocatve

oves, bt Kcnsk (198:55) ages tat popa sypaty fo testkes pevented a cop and canged te balance of powe wtn teege, solatng te adnes. Afte tat, te tanston was oe yon cose.

Labo oganzatons, ten, cae togete wt boade soca ove-ents oganzed aond oweclass negbooods to fo age assopposton oveents tat engaged n potests fo deocacy. Te newnos tsef exeted sbstantal popa pesse on te govenent.Altog te leve of stkes fel off n te eay 1980s wen te goven-ent stepped p te epesson and te econoy went nto ecesson, by983 esgent labo potest was evdent n a stke of ove tee lon

wokes. Te folowng yea, labo and socal oveents onted a as-sve capagn fo dect pesdental eectons Te capagn was notsccessfl n ts edate goas, bt t dd contbte to deepenng tesccesson css faced by te ege and to focng te govenent toallow an opposton vctoy wen te Eectoa olege cose te nextpesdent n 985 (Keck 1989:37). Ts, oganzed abo was a patcpantn a ass oveent fo deocacy tat was boady based n a vaety ofsoca gops. Beyond tat, te new nons payed a oe ndependentole n affectng te tanston by expandng potca space fo a new foceon te eft, ceatng and secng te egalty and patcpaton of tenonbased Bazlan Wokes' aty, gvng voce to a popa consttency, atcatng a dffeent pespectve, and teeby expandng contestaton.

R G Y

Uuguay's authoitaian egime did not have its og in a denitive

militay coup, but athe in a two-sided pocess of the eosion of deocay

and te gradal takeover by a tary ganng ncreasng aooy as

conducted an intenal wa" against uban urr ls . Tis ns a rs

to a iity-oite reie tha coniued to sed< elcrml lgitima-

soca actos Neveteless, te abo oveent becae an potantpodeoatc acto n te tanston pocess, constttng an ant-atotaan foce at te vey otset and sbseqently gng po-nenty n te events leadng p to te nstaaton of a deocatc egen 985

n te gada cop tat nfoded n te yeas po to 1 9 73 teltay nceasngy eld de facto powe bend a cvan facade. It asbeen sggested tat even te 1 9 7 1 electons wee ed at te please ofte ltay, wc sogt eectoa egtaton (Ra 1984: 1 :57). In1973 te cop was copeted wen te ltay cosed ongess anddssoved potca pates. Even ten, oweve, te ltays contnedoentaton towad legtaton tog te tadtona pates (excldngte left was evdent te eected pesdent was etaned n ofce, acotent to oldng te eectons sceded fo 976 was eteated,and a oncl of State ade p of ebes of te tadtona potcapates was nonated to epace te legsate n 1976 te tatteed

eans of te eectoal facade wee swept away wt te postponeent ofte electons and te appontent of a new pesdent. Howeve, ts ovewas taken as a st step n te eaboaton of a new potcal poect, onetat contned to ely on eectoal legtaton and te coopeaton of tetadtona pates n accodance wt ts pan fo lted edeocatzaton nde tay conto (Ra 984: 1:7374) te nta caged anew body, consstng of te oncl of State aong wt te nta, wtdaftng a new consttton. It aso set a tetable tat foesaw a plebscteon te consttton n 980 and electons te foowng yea based on teatcpaton of te tadtona pates, wc between te wod no-ate and pesent a sngle canddate.

Te egtacy poect faed. Wen te plebscte was eld, votesefeated te consttton, towng te govenent poect off tack. Wts nexpected defeat, te poect fo above enteed a new pase, and govenent cae p wt anote pan. Once agan eyng on patyoaboaton, te tay ntated convesatons wt te tadtonal

Ts t Bacos ad te Coodos, i d domted U pots t tt tr.

I I is icest tt t dismiss of t psid i I 96 as d t mtarp•' ny-bnsed cim io nd is oppositio t t rid' ' ropoHul ( oy, i g.




For the next year, mass actors, especially the PIT, set the pace and led

the prodemocracy opposition. n the face of constant pressure from massprotest, the military was ultimately forced to retreat. In the 1980 plebisciteand the 19 82 primaries, popular action had dealt the military severe blows,

each time forcing it to scuttle its political project Each time however the

R E C E N T D E M O C R A T I Z A T I O N143

formation of the Multipartidaria as a more inclusive democratic oppositionthat could negotiate the end of authoitaianism



each time forcing it to scuttle its political project. Each time, however, themilitary came back with a new political plan In the beginning of 19 83 , the

military still thought it could mold a new regime and set out to write a newconstitution during the course of the year (Caetano and Rilla 1 991 :9 1) That goal too was thwarted, and by the end of the year important sectors

of the military had dropped the idea of a political proect and began tofocus instead on the problem of the best exit" (Caetano and Rilla 1991 :9 5)

These tendencies seem to ave been given a decisive impetus by the

geneal strike called by the PIT in January 1 984 The result of the strikewas a substantial change in the balance of forces Up to that point, the mil

itary persisted in taking a hard line and was unwilling to compromise inthe Parque Hotel negotiations it initiated in May 1983. When thosenegotiations broke down, the military increased repression in the context

of the growing mobilization After the general strike of January 1984,

however, the balance changed substantially Shortly thereafter the government lifted censorship and allowed the Communist leader of the leftwing

Frente Amplio to return to the countryThe strike also changed the relationship between the traditional parties

and the social movement Sanguinetti, the leader of the opposition factionof the Colorado Party, in effect apologized to the PIT for his party's

opposition to the successful January strike and poposed a reorganizationof the democratic opposition to coordinate the activities of the parties

including the left and the PIT in a new Multipartidaria (Chagas andTonarelli 1989:240; Gillespie 1991:135)

During the next months the Multipartidaria entered prenegotiation

with the government while it maintained the pressure through a series

symbolic one-day strikes, the most important occurring at the end of Jun .

The government made a series of concessions, and, at the end of July 1984 ·

legalized the Frente Amplio and its constituent parties, except for t

Communist Party and the Tupamaros. Negotiations came to a rapid c•

lusion in the Naval Club Pact, which was signed in August and in wh·

the military gained few concessions, except that the most popular Bla

candidate as well as some Frentistas were excluded from running in he ·

transition elections that quickly followed in November25 PIT protest Wi.

thus important not only in pshin the tansitn forward bt lso n th

25 Whi k th militry nso salvagd i �w tmnsitO l'ag!lts, WllS expl c tly

ni�cd tha dKt woul lmn i dlet only \t e 1\lhrl ' str n w w· ' ., . " ' , f;�l i n "l hw· l � In JtH . SN• Dr Si�l'1 1 ):26-7

B OL IV,IA

Bolivian political history is remarkable for two traits: its extreme instabil-ity and a labor movement of perhaps unparalleled strength relative to othersocial forces, in one of atin Americas least developed economies With its

strength in the mining sector, the militant, syndicalist labor movementhas historically been capable of effective, disciplined, mass mobilization.In Bolivia, the main political actors have been the military and the work-

ers.26

Against this background, it is perhaps not surprising that democratization in the 1970s and 1980s was anything bu a smooth process and

that the labor movement was a central actor in the unfolding events(although it is surprising what scant attention it has received in mostaccounts)27

The complex pattern of democratization in Bolivia challenges theanalyst It has been seen as a combination of a failed transition, under-

ined by labor protest, followed by democratization as a faute de mieux(Whitehead 1986), or as an exhaustion of the military option (Conaghan

nd Malloy 199496) It is an interpretive decision to treat the Bolivianvents as a single transition or as severaL The sequence of events between

977 and 198 2 includes the following a legitimation proect by thethoritarian incumbents, fraudulent elections, a coup, another coup, elec

ons for a new democratic government, a coup against the new civilianernment, restoration of the civilian government, new elections, another

p, and the reinstatement of the elected governmentThe Bolivian transition began with an incumbent proect that was

iled by labor protest and other opposition, and ended with a transitionin hich labor protest quickened the pace, helped to keep it on track, andnded or ensured a wide scope of contestation The kaleidoscopic eventslt' seen here in terms of three episodes, in each of which the laborment played an important democratic role. The rst episode is the

r i I i ry governents legitimation project, a episode in which the labor

,'(• l_ h Lti Aic text, Blva s smlar ly to rgenti in the wy socilfot hve (Ofrotd ch othr dictly wth rlativly lttle reourse to th eletorlysm. They re t rototypical exampls o Hntigon s pmcrian ism , i n whih"m(h gwp emoys mens whih f is ·l nt and pabilitis . .

W'krs r . um h mlu1·y up" ( JI l 6H:I o).n S f K1!, Cughun Ml 194: ltld Whheu 9Ho UN pd o

'




tem pesdet ut ew elects cud e hed the flwg yea, theew demcacy was wthut legtmacy, devd f ay gveacecapalty, ad stuctually uale t pusue ctetus ecmc pcesthat wee pe fce the ageda. Futheme, patculaly ths ctextt was the gvemet as much as the CO that decded t t pusue a

R E C E N T E M O C R A T I T I O N 7

th the pates ad the Uted States wee a mptat pat f theppst t Natusch t wud seem that the CO had a speca p-demcatc le dectg the mass mzat ad twce ejectgpatcpat a ptetaly vale demcatc gvemet WheNatusch esged, the CO sued a statemet efeg t "the wkes



s e g e me s muc s e CO dec ded pu sue cmpmse pcy, ad deed the CO chaged the gvemet wthdemcatc faue seekg extaday pwes t pass ts ecmcplces ad tedg t clse the legsatue ad gve ly wthmtay suppt

The secd epsde whch the lva la mveet was amptat, deed a decsve, pdemcatc playe vlved the defeat fthe Natusch cup that vethew the ew demcacy ad the defese fthe susequet elects scheduled f 980. Natusch teveed wth thesuppt f sme sca gups ad pltcas, ad tay made vetuest th the Cgess ad the CO, pmsg t claate wth thThe CO, hweve, acted mmedatey ad fcefuly t ppse the cupad defed the demcatc de Wth hus t caed a geea stke,whch shut dw La az ad the mes, ad t sustaed the stke fseve days epite Natuschs ffe f cgvemet t the CO ad accep-tace f ts ecmc package exchage f the ed f demcatc ule

(Dukeley 19847).Faced wth ths tasget ppst, the Natusch stategy tuedutal ad ldy. Gvemet tps lew up the CO uldg adkled wuded hudeds f peple the "Massace f Al Sats. Yetthe CO ctued the stke utl the Cgess, the mltay, ad theCO al ageed t egtate a pltca sut Whe the mtay p-psed a tpatte gvemet, the CO aga ejected the ffe, udesustatal pessue fm the mes ad the ak ad e geealyAlthugh the Cgess was me pe t the scheme, t was uwkaewthut the CO The falue f the ppsal (cmed wth U.S. pessuead the mpedg pltcal tap f espdg t the eewed IMF casf uppula plces cvced Natusch t esg Wth sxtee days,the, the cup was defeated ad the demcatc egme was ested Whe

azae 199 :1 51 nay ae oen oo qick o bame e abo movemen odeabiizn eeced ovenmen e a i ake wo de o ave a pocy mpae- and in a dieen day and wii n ceain cice e oe ide (e. . e IMF) we objec o cpabiiy eme one mi do we o emembe a e eaadia mobiizaion by e Boivian abo movemen wa moned aain e olceo e new aie democacy ae 19 in e one o oliicl i andinaion caclaed in e oan o een Yt h il and mil stgyo e COB o eeen" dmo·ay Myg ) C id no n motrakdown.

wh wth the d successfully defeded the demcatc pcess theestat [f whch}, despte ts mtats, s f emus mptacef the wkg cass (cted azate, 19895; my tasat.

I smethg f a epett, athe weak gvemet came t pwe

whe the legslatue chse the head f the Chame f Deputes as tempesdet, aga ut the schedued 980 eects, w seve mthshece ue 980). Als a seemg eplay, plazat ve ecmcpcy ctued, as e f the gvemets st decss was t mpe-met the IMF ageemet, a mve that pvked a ppstst eactthat cluded t y a stkes, ut as a shft t the eft y themddle class ad, me damatcaly ad uexpectedy, a mtat ualmzat the pat f a ecsttuted ad depedet peasat mve-met At the same tme, csevatve fces wth the mtay assetedthemseves, ad the ped was fe wth ums f mltay cups.

I ths ctext, the CO emeged as a cucay mptat p-

demcatc act, esug the path t the 1980 elects. Fst, det defed the fagle gvemet ad the demcatc pcess, t mdeatedts mlzatal actvtes agast the gvemets ecmc plcy addd t fm a age wkepeasat agtat campag Secd, wthsg ums f a cup y the extemeght mtay fact the COad the ma pates mved t defed the demcatc egme y ssug a"Cal f the Defese f Demcacy ad fudg CONADE, whsestategy was mass mzats lke thse that tk place agast Natusch:geal stkes ad ad lcks, fms f cllectve act that the COwas uquey capale f calg ad dectg Fay, whe Gaa Meza,the mst pmet meme f the hadle fact wth the mltay,ecame the ew amy cmmade ad made pulc statemets that seemed

t pepae the gud f athe cup, the CO (wthut the ageCONADE) ad the mtay hgh cmmad, ag wth the pesdet,sged a pact pledgg espect f the csttut, dague ad espectamg the sgates, ad a jt cmmtmet t the demcatc pcessad ew eects The elects wee held as schedued ad the leftstUD w

9 h COB i " n no h h n :n h mocic h pop ln oili �ions" (L�'1 tH\: I y mnslu on) .


The proemocrc force i no previ for on, however in iemore hn wo week Grc Mez e coup, which he CONADEener rike c n coninue rike in he mne were unbe o efewhen fce wh ferocou re u, mcre, n n ck onCOB hequrer The hr epioe, hen, he 98 rnon from

R E C E N T E M O C R A T I A T I O N

o uphoin he eecor proce n boh mry hre n morerevouionry enencie wihn he ef n he bor movemen Anunuuy ron, rony ynic bor movemen hife from workeri orenon n enere he poiic ren n orer o pre noony for union or worker emn bu for eecor eocrcy; n ue

b



he hrh Grc Mez icorhipMo nerpreion hve emphize h he Grc Mez overn-

men fe of i own weh epenen on ru rfckn, hhy repre-ve, kepocric, n inerniony oe, he overnmen w unbe

o mnin ny embnce of pubc uhory n he conex of wiepreoppoiion h ncue he buine comuny we fcion whnhe miry Given he wekne of he reime, wo more he of eroe in power before he miry w force o concee o he civinSi, i nrucve o nquire bou he nure of he preure exerein he overnmen

The r preien chne, n he efe of Grc Mez yerfer he coup, were rey he reu of miry rebeion, houhuppore by n nenie ener rike n he mne n fcore In hefoown yer, he roe of he bor movemen becme more cenr ,ccorin o Dunkerey (98:40) he xi of conic hfe bck o heworkn c Fro November 9 8 o Februry 98 he bor move-men, e by he mner, crrie ou ere of rike h force heovernmen o bnon i bor repreion, reconze inepenen union,n eize he COB, hu openn poiic pce n owin union npoic eer o reurn o he counry The overnmen cou nowihn he mounn preure n w force o concee o eecon,r cheue for 98 hen brouh forwr o 198 The nex roionprouce miiry overnmen h wou overee he miry wihrw n he 198 eecon Ain, however, popur mobizion forn mmeie emocric rniion ere h pn In Sepember 98m wepre rke n ee confronon n L Pz, he COBce m mrch o be foowe by n nenie ener rike The

ve repone convnce he iry o yie mmeey, n by heen of he y ree o rene he 1980 Conre (Dunkerey 98).

Lookn he whoe 978 pero, mny ny, uch Whiehe, eek o expn he reve fiure of emocrc rnion in Bovemphizn he rever n ebck on he wy n pcn muchof he be on popur movemen for whch or eocry y nobe n enrey convncin en (Whiehe 1986:67). on g bipree wi reciy oos COB sny i

i enormo mobiizion cpciy o h en In he proce, i myinee hve "eye he rniion, bu he unuccefu "emocrcrniion of Bnzer w cripe, conroe projec from bove Theunion movemen w n mporn force in conemnin he Bnzer pro

jec, brnin bou open eecon in 979 reecin cooperion nhereby efein he Nuch coup, renin n efenin he eeceovernmen, cern he wy for he cheue eecion of 1980 nny efein he Grc Mez corhip One hou no oe hof he f h ken whoe (98) he rniion w uccefu mey, bu uccefu boh n he ene of proucin more open ninee "emocrc rniion hn oriiny conempe n n heene of perin, ri h pek more for Bovi hn for mny ohercounre

P A R A R A C K S

noher pern chrcerize by he mpemenon of n expicovernmen rniion projec ccorin o i own pece mebe nh minim neoiion beween incumben n he oppoiion In hern more hn he oher, hen, he rnion ke pce ccorn oe rue i own by uhoririn incumben, o ue ] S Venzue'( 99) erm An inerein feure of hi pern h whe henon foow n expci overnmen projec n occur whin pr-er ene "from bove, unone proe emere n mpornemocric force, openin poiic pce n, ome pon, pyn ey roe n ein, mobizn, n coornin he oppoon, even if

i no uccefu in erin he coure of he rniion from he ruene by he reime In oher wor, he bor movemen n impor, n perhp he mo onien, force for emocrcy, bu i i unbe1 0 al er he ncumben projec I oe, however, conrbue o ncrein k o he ncumben nheren n her own projec (he rik ofdg n eecon h were erier cheue wh conence), n'ng ry rojec n he fce of hoe rk or ebck Frher ould b rgud bo e d enure e rcipion lf nd bo·HlLd ri i nw dory, gn xnd ng

50 P A T S T O WA R D D E M O R A C Y

the cope of contetation The abe Paralel Track highlight thelargel noninterecting trajectorie of the athoritarian incmbent and thelabor organization Althogh the pattern correpond to onl the Chileancae it doe contitte a ogical tpological categor in term of the twodimenion of labor role and incmbent project

E E N T E M O A T Z A T I O N

proceed A important at thi point Pinochet had no intention of alowingor anthing more than a protected emocrac which wold exclde theleft and within which the militar wod maintain btantial everage(Garretn 99a 13 73; Arriagada Herrera 19 6 4 he planketched in 1977 wa never impemented and 19779 witneed an

f f



C H I L E

The Chilean tranition to democrac in 990 folowed the broad otine

laid down in the miitar government' 190 contittion Althogh Pin-oche did not anticipate the otcome of the 19 pebicite rejecting acontination of hi preidenc and althogh ome of the pecic remainedto be negotiated the democratic tranition nfolded within the frameworkof the government 90 project At the ame time the labor movementgiven the pecial organizational reorce at it dipoal plaed a eadingrole in opening political pace for the formation of a broader democratioppoition and in eading and coordinating protet and oppoition atimportant jnctre Althogh it did not remain at the hem in the amewa it contined to be a part of a broader democratic oppoition move-ment which nable to alter he government' timetable nevertheleltimatel defeated Pinochet at hi own game Then a part of an implicitthreat of collective action it enforced a democratic otcome

The government' tranition project emerged ot of Pinochet' effortto intittionalize militar power and hi own perona eaderhip foow-ing the cop of September 197 3. Dring the rt ear of the miitarregime Pinochet gradal conolidated hi power a preident etabihing an intittional framework whereb he peronall overaw al kegovernmenta deciion (ee A aenzela 991 B 976 Pinochet' per-ona athorit wa o great relative to the power of the militar intittiona a hoe that ome oberver have ikened hi re to patrimonia domi-nation (ee Remmer 9914970 The important point for preent pr-poe i that diviion within the government were mted and the incm

bent roe in the proce of Chilean democratization wold large revovearond the individal deciion of Pinochet (Garretn 99a 6

Once having ecred hi poition within the regime Pinochet nextoght to intittionaize the regime in power The rt major ggetionof hi pan for achieving thi end came with the 977 Chacarilapeech in which he ggeted that the regime wold go throgh everaliberalizing phae timatel cminating in cviian re b 9 Thipropoed pan however di nt t ottt a traition rjct trained va lacki scic forlao �)1 hw the mnsiion would

internal ebate with in the government over the ftre core of the regimeand the natre and timing of it intittionaization B 90 there waan imminent need for Pinochet to take ome action (Garretn 99a3 n the midde of the ear Pinochet decided in favor of a new

contittiona propoa and annonced it wod be bmitted to a pebi-cite for approva in one monthThe 90 contittion pt an end to interna debate within the mii-

tar and wa the cornertone of the poject from above t extended Pin-oche' rle nti at eat 99 and enred that he wod maintaindictatoria power After 199 the contination of the crrent regimewold be contingent on the relt of a plebicite to be hed in 9 Avote of approval wold enable Pinoche to remain in power nti 997 nthe event of a negative vote the contittion called for competitive eec-tion for preident and Congre within a hort period of time

Pinochet adopted the new contittiona and tranitiona framework

amid internationa prere a well a internal debate The Carter adminitration exerted prere with it greaer attention to hman right violation a did part international particlar the Chritian Democrat andSociait international n addition internationa abor organization cha the O and the ALCO montd vigoro and high pbicizedcriticim of the government abridgment of labor right Their activitieincded the threat of a bocott of Chilean import and export (eeCampero and aenzea 946667 3 Barrera and alenzea96493

Dring thi period the labor movement began to reorganize and be-come more oppoitionit Some oberve arge that nti 9 the Chieandictatorhip rled withot ignicant oppoition bt poitical oppoition

had begn in the earl ear of the militar government After the copthe government carried ot a prge of the eft and intigated a period ofharh repreion againt the labor movement which Drake ( 996 3 hacaled a "pogrom againt Marxit The vacm wa ed b the noneft-it abor leaderhip from the Chritian Democratic Part who fond aninitia afnit with the miitar government (Barrera and aenzea96:30 B the ed of 197 however thee coervatve abor ledr

�0 lor Cxnmpi, De d .Jsk 1 :4 n Gt< 1 Hb:265-o<.

152 P A T H S TO WA R D D E M O C R A C Y

began to come out in opposition to the dictatorship under pressure fromlocal union leaders and the rank and le Ten of the most prominent ofthese leaders formed the Group of Ten in an attempt to nd a moreindependent voice. In mid1976, they issued an open letter to the junta,defending workers interests against the government's economic policy and

R E C E N T D E M O C R A T I Z A T I O N 1 5 3

ecame an opening wedge in creating political space in the context ofrepressive authoritarian control (Campero and Valenzuela 1984:26265,

27677; Barrera and Valenzuela 1986:248-49). Finally, labor reactivationwithin Chile was paralleled and supported by the activity of a number ofinternational labor organizations. Intenational ties were particularly im-

f



its political exclusion of the labor movement The letter, and the govern-ment's quick reection of its contents, clearly left the Group of Ten withno other alternative . . . than the pursuit of a confrontational and oppositionist course in order to retain a place among the leading sectors of

Chilean unionism."3Thus, by 1977 growing oposition within the labor movement was

already apparent. Furthermore, this denitive break of the nonleftistunion leaders with the government" provided a basis for their cooperationwith the leftist labor sectors, and the different factions began to drawcloser together rapidly on the basis of a commonly shaed opposition tothe military regime's economic and labor policies" (Barrera and Valenzuela1986:245). The growth of labor opposition was sustained by the activitiesof the Catholic Church, which had given signicant physical, legal, andsocial protection to labor leaders and had kept alive" the trade unionmovement after 1973 (Angell 1996:187). Through its Vicara de la Pas

toral Obrera, the Church provided moral, material, and political supportto union leaders, leftist as well as Christian Democratic, creating space forreconciliation and unity among the bitterly divided partisan groups withinthe labor movement (Lowden 1996:77-78).

In the aftermath of the 1 977 Chacarillas speech labor opposition

stepped up on a number of fronts. First, that speech provoked a respons

from the Group of Ten that went beyond more narrowly construed work-

ers' issues and directly addressed larger regime issues, explicitly rejectin

Pinochet's call for a protected and authoritarian democracy" and t ·

transition process he set out (Barrera and Valenzuela 1986:245) . Second a

number of new, oppositional labor organizations became active, includin

most importantly the CNS, which provided space for more opposition

labor leaders. The slogan of their joint May Day celebration in 197 8 was .

freedom, participation, pluralism: the pillars of democracy" (Falab

1990: 233) . Third, during late 1 977 and 1 978 , a variety of rank-and

labor protests were mounted by workers in the large copper mines as·

as among textile, port, and construction workers These collective a

resistane were more limited stoppages slowdowns, and oter pb c dem•

onstrations of grievances rather than outriht striks bt ty

3 1 Bn1·era nd Vl�uc 19Ho:2tt , S lso CmJ'o d Vltw 1 9H:�4-60

portant i the case of Chile, where the trade union movement, includingsalaries, training programs, and travel abroad, was largely funded by theseorganizations (Angell 1996: 190).

After repression failed to break domestic labor activism and only

heightened the pressure from abroad, the government was led to restruc-ture institutions for managing industrial relations by holding union elec-tions and introducing new labor legislation in 1978 and 1979. In October1978, in the hope of catching the opposition off guard and depriving it ofan opportunity to organize, the government called for union elections tobe held ust four days hence Furthermore, the government barred theelection of anyone who had previously held ofce or had been afliatedwith a political party. The government hus tried to respond to democraticpressures and deect international condemnation by reintroducing unionelections but in a form calculated to produce a cooperative, nonleftist unioneadership.

The attempt, however, backred. The new labor legislation did intro-uce a legal framework that provided for highly constrained and weaknions (Campero and Valenzuela 1984:125-50; Vergara 1985:21529).

n the other hand, it also permitted the reactivation of local leaders andnkandle workers. Ineiew evidence suggests that the new generan of leaders were} opponents of the military government, that theytained} partisan afliaions or at least identities and sympathies, and!hat the relative weight of the ideologcal and political leanings amongI h remained} mostly unchanged from the previous period" (Barrera andenzuela 1986:25051) when the left had been predominant. Further frequent union assemblies turned into channels for the expression ofers' opinion over a broad range of local and national questions"

rera and Valenzuela 1986:259). In addition labor policy had the effectof ouraging concerted action and cooperation. In August 1979, the labor currents unite to form the Defense of Labor Rights Com1d, hch was unable to secure more favorable policies but did succeedI climate of resistance" or a symbolic power" that later social tios ol bi l upo (Capeo and Valenzuela 1984:318; Falllu d Cpe 9 9 1 : 35 )

'h mvme nt t lr f the C psi-i o nt' t OVlls 1 980 lojc wus In 9 8 CNS


pnd a Naina iin wih a li f fm dmcai hunin mvmn and al cnmic plic, an ac h gvnmn an-wd b aling h p CNS ad In 98 and 98 h gvnmnpad fuh lab gilain ha libaid h ab mak (g,alwing mp wk a wi and liminaing pviul

d d ) (B d V l l 98 58)

R E C E N T E M O C R T I T I O N 1 5 5

flwing wk, h Dmcaic Alianc wa fmd a a caiin fgup ha includd h nvad Sciali bu xplici xcudd hCmmuni I nd ngiain wih h gvnmn A h amim, h mnhl p incaingl cam und h inunc f mmilian "ua, wh ba wa in h p nighbhd ah hanh unin Nih f h avnu vd abl budg h gvnmn



guaand wag and aa nca) (Baa and Valnula 9858)Th u f h mau, in cnuncin wih a v cnmic dwnun, wa ha "wk pcivd hmv a a ca pd bcnmic and lga ucu impd b h auhiaian a Evn

h ankand aw h nd bain h wk incuin in hcnmic and cia m, a incuin ha quid a dmcaic -ganiain f h piical m (RuTagl 98988) In 983 labppiin incad In Ma, h CNT wa fmd uni h cn andf unin bhind a dmcaic agnda. In h am mnh h Cnfd-ain f Cpp Wk (CTC iniiad a maiv p wih h gaf hwing h wk cin f h cnmic and piica m na maiv cal (RuTagl 98990) ab lad cad f h paicipain f al ppula ganian and vn h pubic a lag Thbciv f h mvmn w gnalid appa a c, hpincipal n bing h un dmcac. Th vwhlming ucc fh p d ab ad cal quick f a cnd p, which aaacd bad ciin paicipain Th p bcam mnhvn

ab acin hu wa cna in pning pliica pac f h pp-in Aciv nng h p w uban cal mvmn ha hadfmd a uvival agi f h p in h fac f cnmic cii Incaling f h p, h unin mvmn bcam h cmnbinding diffn cia fc ha had bn paiv, ha had aiacd in a diganid wa (RuTagl 989:90) uhm, hmbiliain awd h pai ablih hmv A n pmnn Chiian Dmcaic pliician a aid, Bcau f ab, hpiical pai managd g ganid again. Th pa ladhip wa

ab un fm xi Tha wa pmi d bcau f h pi wudn' hav happnd hwi [and ubqunl} h labmvmn wkd v c wh h pai

Thi wa h hig h pin f unin adip f h p mvmIn Augu 983 a nw i f piica acivi pnd whn h gvmn, n h dfniv, appind a ighwing piician h cabi aac h upp f and p a dialgu i ivilia g T

32 lmcrvicw onduted by Cro Md, Jy ' �

h unin Nih f h avnu vd abl budg h gvnmn al inch' pc inch d ngia an cncinwih h Dmcaic Aianc, n w an fcd b h p, whichw incaingl m wih pin unil h pd u in 98

Thugh i cdd ladhip f h dmcaic mvmn, labd phad pnd pac f a bad dmcaic ppiin h p hadacivad h pa lad and pvidd an impu div and mnaw ppula ganiain cm g a a cdinad nwkand piica ac, which fgd a bad cial mvmn and in 98fmd h Civic Amb

Th aniin pcdd accding h gvnmn pc, and hfcu f acivi und h chduld pbici which h paidcidd gh, af m iniia uncain wing upicin abuh cndiin, cnduc, and fain f h v. In bua 988 a gupf ixn pai cam gh a h Caiin f ai f h N V, bad fn ha ld h ppiin inch aicain wingh vic f h n v n 5 cb 988 inch ulimapcd h cnqunc and pcdd wih h p h himf hadaid u in h 980 cniuin Accding, gna lcin whduld f Dcmb 989 In h invning a, man nw und iniuinal aangmn w abihd, incuding h lcalw, u f udicia appinmn, and h cp f milia aunmhugh h w ngiad wih h ppiin and m cmpmia hf nca, i i iking ha h dciin w n akny a nw Cniun Ambl, laivl fw cncin w ad, andI pc maind m cnd b h gvnmn han in h Th aniin dmcac k pac wih h aumpin f pw

y aici Alwin f h Chiian Dmcaic a n Mach 990

N T E R E L I E G A M

d n Gc ab gup plad n cnqunial l in h e o doczn. i i h w ca (i pa cu 1 Lutl Am ny n n Eo h hv vd l rs cnon n do:miz•n l) nd



15 8 P A T H S T O WA R D D E M O C R A C Y

eodeng of powe among the thee ghtst foces (monachy, palamentay ght, and mtay), the consevatve coalton ost ts coheence Theappea to antcommunsm was now unable to countebalance the goven-ments hostty to paamentasm n the eyes of a poltcal ght that hadong mantaned hegemony though paamentay nstttons Wth theght tsef dvded the mltay egme was unable to establsh ethe a

R E C E N T D E M O C R A T I Z A T I O N 15 9

ho had been magnalzed fom the govenment snce the j uno ofces' l1 967 coup The Jont Chefs of Staff pusued an mmedate tanston, 1jwthn days handng powe to Kaamanls, the ghtst leade who had \domnated Geek poltcs fom 19 55 to 196 3. '

The Geek case dffes fom the othes n the nal baganng poweof the mltay and ts ablty to e cl d th l f O h h d i



ght tsef dvded, the mltay egme was unable to establsh ethe asold base of suppot o potcal legtmacy

Statng the yea afte the coup and eectng spts wthn the ght

\(athe than popula pessue), the clnels undeto�k a lbealzato p

o-

ject n an attempt to boste and egtmate the egme In a move smato those subsequently taken n Che and Uuguay, a new consttuton waspepaed: wth povsons fo contnued ltay cont�l, t ted to es:oe \the coheence of the ght, though povsons fo palamentay tappgsand a monachy, and to moblze o demonstate popula suppot, thoughappoval n a tghty contolled plebscte Though t won the plebscte,the govenment deayed the enfocement of ts own consttuton, and n1973, folowng a coup attempt, the govenment of Papadopouos devel-oped a second poect Ths poect was at once moe "authotaan andmoe tanstonal, envsonng a "pesdental palamentay epublc,headed by a " supepesdent' who etaned contol of defense, ntenalsecuty, and foegn polcy (Damandouos 1986:152; Danopouos 1989

359) Eected to th e new pesdency n a n unopposed plebscte, Papadopoulos dd embak on a couse of potca bealzaton, lftng the stateof sege, enactng an amnesty, estong cvl betes, and povdng fo anew, cvlan govenment to be fomed by ghtst Makens unl thenew electons pomsed by the end of 1974.

Ths poect, howeve, faed to wn suppotes and ony deepenedvsons wthn the mtay In the end, t was dealed by the Novembe1 9 73 student upsng that "futhe solated and dvded the mltay(Lnz, Stepan, and Gunthe 1995 1 1 0) povokng a hash eacton anfolowng a coup, the ascendancy of the amy hadlnes The coup gace and the dsntegaton of the egme came wth the Juy 1974 Cyp

debacle, n whch the Geek mltay was unabe to espond to the Tuknvason povoked by the Geekled coup on the sland34 In the event, Cypus developments meant that an ovety mltay msson was ascendant and ed to the easseton of conto by the mtay comma

34 Whil tsions had bn salating for som im ad wr gv a w boot yurky's laims of rights to nwly diovrd oil h Ag d by Mk1 dmand for withdrawal of Grk ofcr of h Cy Nl Gd, 8Iitrprt the Grk g ' "dl (l I \92: 1 67) d

.ff ly l � ( Dpl 1 9H),

of the mltay and ts ablty to exclude the centeleft On the one hand, i"the mtay ugency of mmedate extcaton may ndeed have meant ;that the mltay "was not able to mpose any connng condtons on the \cvans egadng the "military-as-institution (Lnz et al 1 995: 1 1 1 ; my em?hass) Futhe h� mltay faled t� tansfe powe to ts suppotes o \to mpose any condtons on Kaamanls, who succeeded to the pesdency as pat of the extcaton On the othe hand, though the ecsons of a \handpcked councl chaged wth detemnng a tansfe fomat, the ml

tay govenment was unquely abe to sdelne n the tanstonal pocess the county's poltcal pates, whch togethe had captued nealy 90pecent of the ast vote befoe the cop (Damandouos 1 986 1 58) The mltay ejected the poposa of the eades of the Cent Unon, whch had ued befoe the coup, and f the Natona Radca Unon to fom thetanstona govenment, nstead ecutng Kaamans to fom a "non-aty govenment Though he engneeed a successfu tanston whch culmnated n fee and

fa electons wthn fou months, t s pobable hat, as the opposton agued, the pomnence and popua gattude thatKaamans eaped fom hs oe n oveseeng the nal steps and the speedth whch they wee held gave hm an unfa advantage and deayed the tun of the centeeft to powe (Cogg 1986 :205) .

Whle n some sense t s obvously the case, as most anaysts ague, at the Geek tanston occued as a esult of egme colapse occasoned mtay falue, the debace epesents the nal agony of a egme ady doomed and ndeed aleady n the thoes of wthdawal, povdngfil· eectons and a tansfe of powe to a cvan govenment The same d be sad about the student demonstatons Nethe n the end ed the tmetable of tanston o the capacty of the depatng m- to put n pace a ghtst tanstona govenment

I ! C .' UAD OR

W a ey smal and weak wokng cass an tte tadton of nsttu1 i � > Ju l :ed ol ates Ecados tanston was an ete affa It wasNftrked mly by sse fom te vat secto, whch had felt•[Hvcd of oll ess d o Huene nder th my e

Minw t wk osd ov's ·ms onon. Ycr


business community and the political right, which had played the majorrole in bringing about the transition, did not are well during it themilitary government retained sucient control o the process to marginalize their inuence and prevent a return to the old structures and oligarchicpolitics (Conaghan and Malloy 1994:94)

The Rodrguez Lara government, which came to power in a military

R E C E N T D E M O C R A T I Z A T I O 161

elections The government rejected the plan o the right and insteadestablished three civilian commissions charged with proposing a politicalramework or a constitution and electoral laws, commissions on which itgave the leadership role to reormists and allocated business interests asingle seat (Conaghan and Malloy 994:92-94) n 1979 new electionswere held; and the reormists won The labor movement played little role



gu g , p ycoup in 1972, took a reormist direction somewhat along the lines oVelasco two years earlier in neighboring Peru Even the mild reorms,however, were opposed and blocked by the business community, which

became more class consciou s and cohesively organized during the militarygovernment (Conaghan and Malloy 1994:71) By 1975 an economic crisisprovoked intensifed opposition, as business interests and the center andright parties ormed the oppositionist Civic Front and called or an end tothe government The labor movement, whose three major conederationsachieved some unity the previous year with the ormation o the UnitedWorkers' Front (FUT), was unable to counterbalance this pressure. Interms o the dynamics o democratization, the labor movement tended tosupport the government as much a s oppose it, its primary demand, backedby a general strike in November 975, being the ulfllment o the gove ·ments own reormist agenda (Isaacs 993:88).

The transition came in the context o pressure rom the right, intens-

fed by business mobilization in reaction to the November labor strikeThe decision to undertake a transition came in two steps Politicallyisolated and acing a complete lack o popular support as well as divisios

within the military (as reected in the unsuccessul conservative cou• ;<

attempt in August 975), Rodrguez Lara made a last ditch eort toappease his critics by promising a return to civilian rule" (Corkill and ·

Cubitt 1988:38) The tactic was unsuccessul, and in January 976 themilitary removed Rodrguez Lara, established a governing junta, and announced its own plan or democratization.

Despite its withdrawal and extrication as a regime that had never bee able to consolidate power, the cuadoran military government, like th

Greek ofcers, retained some capacity to shape the transition The gover� ment adopted a transition pro ject , labeled a Process o Juridical Restruturing o the Nation, that was designed to prevent a return to old stru

ures and to leave behind a more open political system than tpreexisting regime For three months a series o public meetings or

dialogues," was held to elicit comments and sggestions by artes social groups: the business chabers advae a see r a costit

assebly a a slow transiton hat woul avanag he paris o the .

igh, whi h centr and lf pi 1 n qick· mov• t

were held; and the reormists won. The labor movement played little rolein the unolding o these events, joining the prodemocracy movementonly ater the military junta had already announced its intentions and inreaction to a crackdown on labor mobilization.

PORTUGAL

The democratic transition in Portugal s not easy to classify. t occurred in rthe brief, very uid period following the 974 coup by the Armed Forces

Movement (MFA) that brought an end to the longest authoritarian regime

considered here The authoritarian regime had lost all support and had clearly become bankrupt Portugal is not the only case characterized by coups or other methods by which actors within the state ousted reluctanteads of government to advance a transition when the authoritarian regimewas in trouble. Like those other c

ases, the postcoup government immedi-tely announced a transition t imetable Yet Portugal does not readily fall to either of our other patterns where collapsing regimes led to extrica ons: Destabilization/Extrication (where the labor movement played a ·,

ading role in destabilizing the regime) or Interelite Games (where it ayed no effective role at all ). The working class was centrally invoved inI he Portuguese transition Labor protes was important in the form of both ionled strikes and a grassroots workingclass mobilization which was reasingly taking matters into its own hands at important points in theess. Drawing on the workingclass movement, the radical military � ion and the Communist Party vacillated between a more liberal demo- c outcome and more social revolutionary goals. In a way somewhat' niscent of Finland in 1 98, the ultimate achievement of the demo-C'· regime conformed mostly to the project of the liberals to the right,"l ogh it reected a compromise hammered ut by all parties, Yet, in Pa , as in Spain, the Socialist and Communist parties were partici

jl i t s n the transition and their partiipation had the effect of "driv[ing ) d1•mocraizat on a ore inclusionary ad reformist direction once it was 'k� abov Worers'} bellieree made it more l kely that \ · otiza ion wo cme about an that i t m iht nc ude th eir oran-l ut ions, prties , (Drke 1 99 :6 )




edge beteen deocatc and oe adica ocat taectoe. A pa-zaton nceaed, te FA announced tat it did not ntend to tdaafte a ne govenent a elected but ould etan an intitutonalizedpolit ica oe Afte a faled coup attept by te Spnola faction , te FA concetzed toe pan by ignng a pact it te potca pate (tougonly te Count oed any entua on a tee to veyea

R E C E N T D E M O C R A T I Z A T I O N6

tanton to deocacy and to detene n a lage pat te cla caacteof ti poce. In ake 99664) od, "oke pued te ay'evolution to te eft, and tey ee abe to enue tat, "oe tan nte ote cae . , te govenent tat ucceeded captalt autota-ani n Potugal ipleented uc of te oke agenda Fute-oe, a Scitte 9867) acknoledge, te but of a obzaton



y y ytanitional peiod of a guided deocacy n c te FA oud oldubtantia poe in putting te county "ievebly on te oad toPotuguee ocial. Te vctoy of te odeate n te Api Contit-

uent Aebly eection fute calenged te attacton of deocacy fote eft. Te FA Revolutonay Counci began to conde otecee of alance beteen govenent and oke cottee a abai fo te evolutonay poce In Juy tey appoved a pan fo "dectdeocacy baed on oke contol of and govenent coit-tee

In te end, te deocatc tanton cae about en odeateeetabled a doinant poition and ted ti advance toad a litayguded deocacy. A poaizaton poceeded, te balance of poefted to te odeate. By Septebe a ne copoe govenenta naed n ic te poe of te Counit Paty a ecped andcvlian patcipaton eected te odeate eectoa victoy of te pevou Api odeate ao gained nuence tn te FA

Te ne contitution epeented a copoe aong te donanocal foce It a te eult of te delbeaton of te ConttuentAebly (n ic te labobaed Counit Paty ad on a pacetoug it elative poition a ady peive copaed t t eae peeinence, and it a ao te eut of eale pact te FA ad foceupon te pate at te oent of te ical zent . In due coue eglative and pedential eecton ee ed a cedued in Apl anJune 976, and a ne govenent a poptly inauguated albet onin c te ongong poe of te litay continued to be intitutionzed unt te eve ceduled fo 980

Toug it al, te okng cla ad een a ajo potagonit It been actve in te antfacit oppoton befoe te coup, and once dctatop fel, te oking cla eaded a ave ave of oblzaand potet tat undened te copoatt tuctue of te Saazege. A Stoeoff 98890) te, "te union oveent cae ife n uc a ay a to etabi tef a one of te pcipal acto 37 oe ortugus ?wolton, 776 97o9738 02-5

39 Ii, 1 4 .

oe, a Scitte 9867) acknoledge, te but of a obzatontat fooed te coup ade it "vitualy poible fo te taniton totop ot of ful deocatzation Tu te ole of labo potet and teactvtie of paty and union oganization ee oeat eciped at te

end but ad been cental dung uc of te poce, ad eved toadvance it, and ad affected te nal copoie

C O C L U S I O

Te foregong analyses suggest tat r conentona understandngs ofrecen d

ocatizaton soud be suppeented by a consderation of teroe laed by abor organztions, argely ignored in teoretica an co aratve anayses, toug not in onograpic accounts of indvdual casesTs labor roe as not lited to an "indirect one, i n c te govern-ent responded to

labor protest focused on orkpace deands. Rater,e unon oveent, or portant parts of t, as typcaly one of teaor actors n te potcal opposton, explictly deanding a deocraticegie More tan erey one coponent or "ayer of a resurrected c v ociety tat oved into te nterstices of political space opened by ncu-nts and foloed te ead of any oter groups, te union oveents soeties able to create politica space for antautortarian, pro-ocratic protest. In soe cases, unionled protest for deocracy contrib { d to a cate of delegtiaton tat provoked te nitiation of te

nsiton; in oters it elped derai te egitation proects o{ oritarian reges Protest continung to te end o te transton,·e r tan creatng an autortaran backlas, often kept te transton ·

ng forard Fnally, ile te protes of oter groups also put te} e on te defensve, laborbased organzations ent furter in affecting ocratc transtons n to ays: in any cases aborbased partes andNtmes unons won a place n the negotatons, and they derailed the >rtve rojecs o e autriaran rulers to exclude any futurepui c iat ion o e ad aborbase prtes tereby eanding e scopeof' nt·sa io n i n he sucss regms.

5

C O M P A R I N G T H E P A T T E R N S 67

wnh cnrs and n h 9 70s ad 980s Ths sdy has ampdo clar som concpal grond o oln som dmnsons or analyssand o sggs h way n whch q drn parns o dmocraaonoccr whn boh hsorcal prods Th comparav analyss dos nosppor h gnral proposon ha workngclass prssr s a dcsv orvn ncsary no lss scn acor n dmocraaon or ha mass



COMPARING THE PATTERNS:

THE WORKING CLASS AND

DEMOCRATIZATION

The struggle for a democratic regime has been one of the most impor-

tant processes of political change across two centuries of Western

history. It has constituted a major political drama of the opening and

closing years of the twentieth century, with substantial institutional con-

tinuity across the two periods: after evolving more slowly during the

nineteenth century, the democratic institutions being adopted at the end

of the twentieth century are remarkably similar to those that were the

center of political struggle nearly a century earlier. European countries and

their ighteenth and nineteenthcentury olonial offshoots have witnesse

an extended experience with the struggle to adopt democratic institutions

et the processes through which such regime change takes place remain

poorly understood, and they continue to be debated.

The goal of the present analysis has been to examine the role o th

working class i n the process of democratization and to do so in a way th

integrates a literature that has been rooted alternatively in either class or

strategic frameworks and has asserted (or implie

d) that the working cass

was alternatively the major, even decisive force in democratization or at

most a rather marginal player in a process dominated by elite strateg

Democratization is a complex, multifaceted process involving a large var• ·

ety of groups actors, and interests, and following different trajetor

Several patterns can be distinguished, involving different combination or

class actors engaging in different arenas of action

The role of the working class in democratiation has been alye in

the two historial perios that have bee th mai n empir cal sourcs o

theorii West Eulpc and Sou th Amtrca n th inttcn th 1d uly .

dmocracy s dpndn on mass prssr On h ohr hand workng-class parcpaon n dmocraaon has on bn a componn o hprocss so ha a gnrald mag o dmocraaon as an l projc

or a procss o l sragc nracon s also msladng vn or hrcn cass Accordngly h comparav analyss dos no sppor hsggsons ha h workng class was conssnly dcsv n h hsorcal cass n h nnnh and arly wnh cnrs and rlavlymargnal o wha was ndamnally an l procss n h 970s and980s Whn prods hn dmocraaon has ollowd q drnparns and hs parns shold b locad n a horcal spac hacombns boh l and mass acon

Ths sdy has ampd o mov oward an ngraon o dsncnalyc prspcvs on h bass o hr dmnsons o analyss classolcal sas and arna o acon Th ocs parclarly on h worknglass and s rol n rlaon o l srags allows s o dlna a nw o parns on h bass o hs dmnsons Fgr 5 smmars hajor dynamcs ha hav bn dscssd n conncon wh hs parnsIt dpcs h commonals shard whn ach parn and may nor h addonal "cornrs ha may hav com no play n parclar<s For nsanc laborbasd organaons wr cnral acors n ha ngoaons n h Urgaya Transon Gam Frhr snc a•ld ovrall characraon ha wold lay o h rol o all acorswa o ndrakn h dagrams do no rprsn a compl characr-on ahr as a smmary o h parclar analycal ocs o hong hy rc h ac ha h rol o nonworkngclass gropsW o sysmacally xamnd (g naonals grops n Span sdns

· i rc as wll as som poplar grops ha dd no com oghrOn workr or lass dns As wh workngclass organaons h and rol o hs ohr grops vard sbsanally across cass r rsarch wll hav o ngra hs grops comparavly and sticlly

th s h rocss o ocraao procd whoWOki-ass ro lS Doraao a Elcoral Moiiaion ar quit straightwar patts in which th ini oms om an prss gups though hs r qu it



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dfferently located in terms of ther politica ncson or eclsion and,correspondingy, they have distinct goas and operate in qite differentarenas of action The pattern of nterelte Games incldes the recent caseswithot signicant workingclass particpation, in whch middle and pperclass ots played the eading oe bt, nlike most cases of Middle-Sector Democratzaton, they act pimarly in the negotiation arena andh i b i i h l i i

C O M P A R I N G T H E P A T T E R N

contna pressre to keep the transition moving forward, and epandcontestation n the sccessor regimes Finay, we retrn to the iportanceof anayzing democratizaton in terms of a framework that integrates cassand strategc perspectves



the incmbents retain greater inence over the otcome, at least initayThe other patterns nvolve the working class and a re ths more com-

ple The pattern of Jont Proects s characterzed by the interacting

political strateges of the ns representng many cass grops, incldingthe working cass, whose organizations act on two fronts: aborbasedparties engage in strategc interaction with other partes in the negotiationarena, and in addition parties and nons present demands n the protestarena The Destablzationtrication process occrs in two stages therst s labor mobilzation that desabizes the athortaran regme; thesecond, following the etricaton decision, s negotations between representatives of al classes and the athoritarian ncmbents, whose strengthvaries The mportance of these negotiatons aso varies, from Argentna,where an older constittion was reinstated, to Per, where a new constitton was wrtten In Transton Games a rigged, incmbentdened nego-tiating arena, to which ony parties with midde and pperclass constit-encies are admitted, is ndermined by its own contradictions and frtherderaied by the mobilzation and protest of labor and other grops InParalle Tracks ltte nteraction takes place: incmbents take the intativein dening a ongterm transition and the ots protest folowing theintial eample and eadng role of abor grops The protests do notmanage to ater the transitiona project, bt in Chie they scceeded at theend of the process n electing the opposition and rejecting the incmbents

The folowing dscssion frther smmarzes and compares these patterns It trns rst to a discsson of the labor role in democratzation andepanations concerning the conditions nder which abor grops becamea force for democratzation An instittona and pathdependent epana

ton is sggested: labor participation n democratization can be seen as anotcome of antecedent regme and the natre of past democratc eperience Sbseqent sectons address the pont n the process when laboractivty occrred, the form it took, and the instittiona otcome Athogh the workngcass roe n the Joint Projects was often centra aneven dramatic, it was also key to be more incremental whe n therecent cases abor organiztions participated n ore sweepin reechanges and were often nqey ab o o oil sc stain

P R T I C I P T I O O F L B O RO R G I Z T O S

First, we may revew whether the working class or labor organizationspayed a role n the process of regime change or democratic reform nboth hi storca periods the partcipaton of labor grops n democratizatonwas n part reated to instttona fators It was reated rst to prioreperiences (or the lack of sch eperience) when democratc nstittionswere adopted and to lessons earned rom the way democratc nstit-tions had earer fnctioned in practice Second, the antecedent (prereformor pretransition) regme had an mpact in the way t raised cass ssesand gave abor grops specal resorces for instance, aowing aborbasedpartes to gan pariamentary seats or social movements to acqre partclar capacities

H I S T O R I C A L C A S E S

Among the historica cases, three patterns were distngished, two ofhich can be characterized as democratizaton from above, in the sensehat these were not poplar vctories of owercass grops bt came abothrogh the intiatves of eite socia strata These two patterns representemocratc reform withot workngcass partcipation MddeSector Deocratizaton occrred throgh the acion of an ascendant bt stll eded grop seeking potcal incsion and access to power, often in theobilzationprotest arena Regime change was a rest of pressre on thet of the potical "ots, bt in social terms these were an elite stratm

of rsing middeclass grops, not the working cass Togh the goa canb seen as their own nclsion, these were liberal movements whose

y bppropr bry o rmn h rr wh s mn by lbor or workn

ss ol n ocrzon s lbor n hpr A cnrl spc s sm noon rk y hs I o no mn prpon by nvl workrs s czns s ss ss s o krs llcv on ypclly (b no ncssr iy

_ s c RH) sch c s k on h pr o lbor

s s or bor-sd s A h c s h b pc

mus be sql regme g




Table 5 . 1 Economic inictor by lbor role in erly twentieth-cent emocrtition

No role Some role

EAP in agriculture forestshing in 19 10-1 1

Fnlan 693HgherPortugal 57 4


Ohe acos mus supplemen his expanaion I is no only aquesion o social sucue o he poeaia as a numeica oce bu alsohe way he woing class comes o consiue ise as a poiical ocempoan hee ae he dieen ems in which ideniies wee conceivedand ineess consuced he analysis o he siuaion and he poposedsouions (see Kanelson 198). Timing is also a sandin o souces oideoogy and discouse and he invenion o social o poiica echnologies



Portugal 57.4Span 561 (1920Italy 5 5 .4

Sween 462

Denmark 417Norway 39.6

Germany 368 ( 1Netherans 283 (1

Uruguay 265 (908Belgum 23.2

Argentna 76 (1914

Lower Great Brtan 88

GDP per capita in 1913Lower Portugal 1 ,354

Fnlan 2,050

Span 2 ,2 5 5Norway 2275

Itay 2,507Sween 3,096Denmark 3764

Argentna 3797Gemany 3,833Netherlans 3,950Belgum 4,130

Hgher Great Brtan 5032

Sources: For EAP Mtchell 1980 1983 Ral 1980. For GDP, Mason 1995.

pattern with perhaps a somewhat stronger reationship. More specic abor

force data that afford measures hat are conceptuay more satisfactorybut more partial with respect to coverage tend to separate out the four

most advanced European countries where abor organizations played a roe

in democratization, but show ite relationship among the remainin '

cases

3 Erly lbor force dt e not redily vilble for ll cses. F ptil dt p

EAP in mnufcturing lbor foce in idstry, nd lab in manufactr ing, ·

strucion, extrcto d tsptatin d comunkti on, se 'tvy PN

1 990:444; Fla t al . l9H3: 2: ch, 7; 1Ld M I )HO, 1 9H �.

ideoogy and discouse and he invenion o social o poiica echnologiessuch as oganiing in unions and abobased paies and epeoies oacion and in his egad o couse he eec o he Socias nenaional

is impoan. Mao (99) has moe geneay suggesed he ansna-ional naue o many socia movemens paiculaly hose o democaiceoms. Howeve we ae sill cononed wih he pobem o explaininghe hisoica cases o lae democaic eom whee he woingclass didno adop a podemocaic posiion o choose acivey o pusue democaic eom ha in ohe wods ae he pahs o diusion?

A his poin he aco o egion becomes appaen: woes paici-paed in hese lae episodes in nohen Euope bu no in Lain couniesIdeology and oganiaion help us o dis inguish he social democaic paho he nohen woing casses om he anachosyndicalis pah o heLain woing classes. Accodingy in he nohen counies he woingcasses embaced a poliical oe and ough o democaic eom a

osiion ha he ain woing casses wee moe liely o eec Theegional basis o his dieence may sugges simpy ha diusion is easiemong neighboing counies o possibly among counies in a closenguage amily o among counies wh dense exising lines o commu-caion and ineacion These acos eaed o ansmission howeve doo seem saisacoy

Given he impoance o he Socais Inenaional o boh egions and e ansnaional lines o communicaion i esabished some addiionaanaion o pahs o diusion seems necessay egading he eceiv end ahe han he ansmission mechanisms The peceding anaysis hasesed an addiiona insiuional aco in explaining he social demo-

c pah in he noh and he anachosyndicalis pah in he souh o n Pewosi and Spagues (98 ) ems ae he conasing s o he quesion ha was a he cene o sociais debaes and ha con- naiona labo oganiaions in he ace o democaiing pocesses: o picipae I poins o he impoance o he aneceden pe- i d pi i epeience wih emocaic eom

I sm Lti uis ocac onsions d bee tily ly b t m ( "m ki ) wi ss s o 1 li tCJY b; d o s


ubqutl r ptca o th ttuto a approprat vhc ororgca dmad urthr ptcm a gdrd b th at group oc t lood a cotrol mght dd p aa romthm rortd to orma mcham (pattr o drc ctmad patroag a a raud) to mt comptto dvd ctorabt ad ctv mt th potca rght o lor cla cahr th r ormal gratd at hav ot vd th prc

C O M P A R N G H E P A E R NS 177

rorm had potca tatu ad th ght o th org cla th dmocratzato proc o mal maur dpdd o th dgrto hch a uoalatd part had alrad o parlamtar at Thratohp do ot mp rct h drc bt pod odmocratzato that occurrd bor th cod dutra rvouto thormato ·o uo ad th oudg o ocat or labor part (coutr hch thr r hard a ca o a abor ro) ad tho that occurrd



hr th r ormal gratd at hav ot vd th prco th dmocratc dcc a groud or xcudg th a ca odmocratzato Th prt pont that udr om codto uch

orma mcham ar qut a commooutcome

o dmocratzato u-drtood a hr ot trm o dmocratc coodato but trm oth troducto o a partcuar t o rgm ttuto

Th orgog ca tud hav provdd amp vdc o thdvopmt Spa El Turo a th orma olgarchc rpo toa ga ormall adoptd dmocratc ordr pr92 rgt poltcao curd olgarchc cotrol dpt a dmocratc cottuto Uru-gua comptto amog th ogarchc part a trov th alog htor o pact mag b hch tho part ctvl moopozdth partlctoral trra ut th lat quartr o th ttth ctur Portuga ad Chl ormal practc curd t poltca domacdpt a broad ot u mahood urag ta th Traormmo

tm hch rorcd orma rtrcto th pr912 prod aalo a car dcato o th dmporg ct o ormal practcWhr uch practc dvlopd abor group ubqutl optd or -dcat tratg rctg th potta bt orthr labor groupcoud atcpat poltcal dmocrac

Th coutr th orth had qut drt xprc thorgcla partcpato pror to tho rorm pod Wth th xcpto o Dmar th had ot tdd to xprmt th ar dmocratccottuto Coqutl ormal practc to lmt ma potca

uc dd ot dvlop th am a ad th major lmtato rmbodd a lga grgato th outhr Utd Stat th

tuato ma hav gratd a mor optmtc amt hch thprobm appard th am a th oluto: gal provo thcoutr labor orgazato partcpatd th ght or rorm

othr mportat ttutoal actor dtguh tho htorca hr labor pad a promt rol dmocratzato: th coutr th Jot Projct pattr gra had qut dtct atcdt rgpror to th pod o dmocratc ror Uu t th tm abor grop od th dortt oess t la a to (T x o Be� iu in H3 Fnlnd 06 Th bor - scd t d n d m O '

hch thr r hard a ca o a abor ro) ad tho that occurrdatrard Rathr th corrato ca b obrvd amog th lattr a l( Tabl 5 2)

bral ad corvatv part laborbad part arad opr-atg a compttv ctoral ara purud tratgc a a ubtatv goa So t ot o that oc th orgca part rormd th ought or mahood urag a ma hav otd urthrpot that th pror rachmt o much o th org ca otdmotratd to th part that th urag coud b bca ad tgav thm a poto th th ormal gal cottutd potca tmrom hch th had gad mportat poltca rourc ad poltcalpor to ag that urthr truggl a a tratgc trt dogo Th pot provd a urthr ght to th orthr dco topartcpat ad th Lat drc

E C E N T C A S E S

a group th rct ca o dmocratzato r th Jot Projct n to rpct: mot o thm abor orgazato r actor thmocratzato proc ad mot th pattr r compx volvga cla group ad out ad both ara o acto ma or combato our pattr o dmocratzato r dtguhdd labor group mrgd a prodmocratc actor al but o o thmI Dtabzato/Extrcato uo group too th tatv to opc th authortara rgm ad dtabzd thm or prvtd throldato Oc authortara cumbt too th dco to xtrcat

v rom a uutaabl tuato abor group uo ad/ort cotud to b actv utag tr ad partcpatg a gotato Th Trato Gam bga th a r o mov authortara ubt g gtmato ad a t o (o-) ar ar ho rcvd pcal rcogto a part o th

·I t a S�ni the PSOE hud o1 ly I 0 pca't of h urlmcny snts in he pc-ahor a rnl'timr, n thc a· h� PSOH no u nins pluyrd 1 bi� '<lt in h uni -hcH'tua·uJh, ho}h he h·�a wo 1rl y I thv Cos ti nwnt Asby l In 1 9 3 1 h ll o h oh



8 A T S T O WA D D E M O C A C

o nto s tht ws on zng gs ut ws tot tht s Eswh, s n ugu, wh unons w fftss o onto, th on th sn t on ft sos ws on fo o Rt s of sson n th -xstng stngth of unons xn gt out th nt qusnof th o ont n th g to whh ths qusn hn oo n th s, whth th h t n xn

C O M P A R I N G T H E P A T T E R NS183

o onsson ostu h w nz o of ot ts wng to o to n gnt wth th uthotn nuntsn t o th ontons tht ftt uthotn wthws on t of th sto. Anoth t s th ontnu ssu xt o gous usung th ntrsts t on tust no n o, hun, n ot ghts. In hngng th thof oton" tht s th trtu on otzton



j I

s o o nto on s, unon otst ontnu toxt ssu to th tnston oss gong. n n ss o

otst ws ott n st tu to th n of th tnstonnng th oss uh o onsstnt thn oong shsh tht xst" rssu tht jt oos wou

thtn th tnston o tht otst, wh usfu n stgs, wous ng t tow th n ght st. t s tu tht Potugus o ognztons w outon," ut th fft, s n thhsto ss, ws not to tt nto uthotns ut, n nnnsnt of so of th hsto ss, to nfo th noton oo s n tnt n o, th ns of stong snso ont n h n t of th ns of tnstonn whh ous n uthotn ostons w not ftu. on ust not toog out ot n ont n nzn

th oss of g hng As ws t s oss to un thountftu, ut on nnot unot ssu tht th ouw ntutons of ot th, o tht f th o ont hn o ot, n u ot" tnston wou h o

u . o ws on of th ss wh g of ou o ft sut n ous; t t ou just s s gu tht th offt of th o o ws to unn th unot o ot ojts of th nunts n, s sut of os ooot ssu, utt to th w fo o o

tnston, to whh th t n on whn onfontng COs fo n nnt gn st.

Eswh, o ognztons not ot xst" out th tn to u ssu to th n. nnt o ozton w sustn n Sn u though th 977o otst ontnu n Pu unt th Consttunt Assn n Agntn unt th nw tons onsttons tht nlo tton t n t n stgs n z n ssu n Ch n n ugu th o ont onn xts uss thoug ss ona t ad 4 ge!l st al l a bla o w '·d m l wy eo

of oton tht s th trtu on otzton, (1997) hs suggst tht ou hngs ss to ot tnstons tn hs oftn n ssu On ght go n

futh n suggst tt ot otst h oftn ush fowth tnston n h to nt rtt.

In t stgs n n ss, o ognztons n th fo of o-s ts so tt n th n ngottons onnng thtnston n Pu n Potug, oft ft ts won nth onsttunt sss tht t th ts of th nw os n Agntn n ugu, unon s tt n th multprdrs tht w stsh n h ount to ngott wth th utho-n nunts In onstutng onsnsus fo tnston n Sn,z nt nto ts wth th jo ot tos, n thstn nu th oft Counst Pt

O R M O F P A R I C I P A I O

I n te recent cases as well as the northern European historical cases,ingclass participation in democratization was characterized by a kind' ual m ilitance in terms of organizations and i n terms of arenas of action:i t ok place trough both laborbased parties and unions; and it too in both protest and negotiating arenas. France in 1848 is the unusualse hat alerts us to the possibility of workingclass action that is not inated by or does not occur through the vehicle of parties and unions.I n mo cases, however, workingclass participation did occur through

1 s rganizations The different patterns of democratization varied in •m o the relative weight of parties and unions and the relative impor-l "t' of te two arenas These differences were related to the antecedentr lnw .

W e anteedent regime had already afforded the opportunity forluhr-acd ts o gain a resen in arliament, as in most of the7 I ',T!W ( I \9�), SI J� h i n cnut t h usti d pc in pi n, he filmc of l i r l i wok1· nov n in h lv l of pst n mob l zt in r 'J. I C rbd 1 h kdown o dO':y nd h r o h 1sdst "i!ht.


stoc cses n noten Euoe, te t ctng n tt negottngen qute ntu ece n otnt enue o wongcss tcton Oten, owee, ts ent oe ws coonte wt nsueente e otnt ctt n te steets, n n soe cseste otc ste ws n otnt weon Atoug unons wee ctte n te ozton o ts otest, n soe cses tese tctcs weecone te tes, we unons wee oe euctnt n cutous,

C O A R I N G T H E A T T E R N S IH�

s secto n otc cto, o cetn fuzzness etwee wht hgoenent egugng to conse egtte, ccee desu now see of nust etons n oe oe etenng otc see Stes, wc oe te cuttng ege o otcton n eoctzton, often stte out wt ess tetenngwoe concens egng te tes of eoent ut ten seeon tt nowe conceton nto te oe oet otc8 As n



ocusng on woce te tn otc consetonsWee nteceent eges n te stoc cses not oe o-se tes te ootunt to ecoe ent ctos s n Fnnn 196 n Fnce n 1848 s we s tn n 1884) te otest enws use oe excuse

As n tese tte cses, te steets wee so oe eonnt eno cton n ttens o oe ecent eoctzton ecuse te nteceentege ene tu sc ctos s outs" Hee too, ten, o-se tes wee excue o te etnston eges Coenot on wt tes ut so wt ote coecte ctos, unons weeete ege stes o otest n ozton ctt Unonoeents cetn ntges n esouces tt ge te te otent o ng eng n coontng oe n ountng otest gnstutotns e sto of coecte exstence n cton,

owee contoe, stteenette, n eesse te een n soeo tese countes, n een otnt esouces In s nss osoc oeents, ow (1994:7 18) eszes te otc ootu-nt stuctue tt soc oeents seze n exn, et s outon ens qute cose to te tnstons tetue n entngtose ootuntes st o wt ete sts, ege ezton,oents o egnent, n te e wou ut oe stess on te w eseo o esouces outne esze soc oeent nstsncung ow) ge unons gete osstes o tng te ntten creting sce ese esouces ncue netwos ot oestc nntenton), eetoes n stoc eoes o coecte cton, s

oc es, cutue, n, o couse, ongong ognztonn n of tese countes, te o oeents eous eeng eeoe, wt c ttons n stoes o coecte ctonSoe ee sgncnt enets o ntenton netwos, ncunte ILO, te AFLCIO, n te ntenton Socst n Counognztons Unons so cetn ntge n tt, to tewee n ecnss to conto te, ost o th t they eeeg, egtte onztos eve de thoitism. Fthorte could tk dvte ti biity ow thi1 dl l

z, o nstnce, wge ens cou s oe nto oe ntgoenent ostons n context n wc te goenent jon n wge etenton; o, s often ene, unon gts, sttngwt oe secc secto ssues concenng te constnts on te og-nzton n cttes o unons, ece nextc ne wt gessues o otc conto n eesson, eeo n otc gts, nsot, wt utotn ue tsef Wt tese ntges, unons weeoten e to oen otc sce tt otewse not exst

oug eonnt, otest ws not te on o o o tcton n te ecent cses We sou not ose sgt o wt ws entoneee n see o te ecent cses ees o eesenttes of ose tes n unons won ce n negottons o scussons eg-ng te tnstons o wee ees o te consttuent ssees ttoesw te tnston n wote te new cte n tetue tt s

ce ess on negottons, te tcton o o ognztonsn tese negottons s een nsucent ecognze Neeess to s,e ete owe n ts en e, n ceu cote nsswts ute esec

H E S U O C O E O FD E M O C R C Y

, we oe to os oe n sng te nst tuton content of octzton It s n exggeton to s tt te ntoucton o

oo suge ws te stoc ts of te wong css s ws te woe te stoc oject of ote csses, n n ost countes1 nce o ss o noo sge ws st ntouce wtout

H In i s regard, I wo uld go furthr than Foweraker (1 994:221) , who has suggested that while ntial d'·mand wr often bout read-nbutter issus rther thn ovetyoliicl or pro-dmocraic, ndr condit ions of uor iaian conrol "it ws mkingm ds l 1· m•d " W hil is oi sold no b ovrookd hese iniial, r Cads oo c o br rxplii "ly idtfd wih 1 n n-hit'in 'odmoy


workingcass demands. With quite different degrees of inuence, working-

cass organizations participated in the politics of the country's rst reform

introducing manhood suffrage in ony six of the historical cases: Sweden in

1907/9, Finand in 1906, Belgium in 1893, the Netherlands in 1917,

Norway in 1898, and Britain in 1918

Further, in many of the reform episodes in which abor participated,

the major thrust of the reform was about something else In most cases of

f ff b

C O M P A R I N G T H E P A T T R N S 187

for obvious and important reasons, the transitions literature, with a focus

on degree of incumbent control, has in some ways been more helpfu in

accounting for the concessions extracted by the incumbents for exampe,

the limits in various posttransition constitutional arrangements, the rea-

tive continuity of poicy, military amnesty, and the ongoing militaryprerogaties It has been less hepfu in accounting for certain democratic

achievements 10



recent democratization the principle of universal suffrage was already estab-

ished and arger regime issues were at stake But something of this sort

was also operating in many of the historica cases as wel. Indeed, as

mentioned, a strong effective labor roe was virtualy premised on in"

status based on the success of the working class in having elected members

of parliament from laborbased parties. Thus, in many episodes when labor

organizations participated in the ght for democratic reform it was not so

much to extend the right to vote as to bestow greater authority on elected

bodies, extend the institutional appication of the full suffrage, or to make

it equa, and this was particularly true in those cases where the participa-

tion of labor organizations was te most decisive the 19 18 reforms in

Germany, Belgium, and Sweden. Related but analytically distinct fromextending the suffrage per se, these reforms (sometimes in addition to the

goa of full suffrage) were aimed at establishing pariamentary sovereignty

(most dramaticay in Germany in 191819, but also in Finand in 1906and 1919, and Norway in 1898); democratizing the upper house by ex-tending to it the aready established principle of manhood suffrage (Den-

mark in 1915, Sweden in 1918) or achieving greater equality of the vote,by aboishing (Begium in 1918) or reducing (Britain in 1918) plural

votig While cleary related to increasing workingcass political inu-

ence, these reforms were aimed not only at a particularistic class interest

but, like those for which labor organizations fought in the 1970s and

1980s, at a arger pubic interest related to the overa structure of the

regimeIn the recent cases, in addition to pressing for a more general regime

change, abor organizations made particular substantive contributions thathave been neglected in theoretica accounts of democratization. In their

anaysis of labor in the South African transition, Adler and Webster (1 99 576) argue that socia movements can inject more progressive content into

democratization and wrest important concessions." While the Soth Afri

can labor movement may have been more successful than many others i

this regard, the point has been unduy inore n other settngs. Perhap

\ Th xeptos wcc Bn1il, Pr•u nd kun w pli m t hr mln·y rimK'

· I • ' 1 ' ·� l I� HC I 1d T t Mnf't"J!,

Particuarly important in this regard is the way in which abor activa-

tion expanded the scope of contestation in the new democracies by securing

the legalization of laborbased parties, whether of Marxist or populistbackground Virtually al these authoritarian regimes were estabished as

transformative regimes with the motivation of excluding precisey these

parties from the poitical arena and from poitical inuence Yet the au

thoritarian incumbents were ultimatey prevented from reaizing their goa

to exorcise these parties That they did not succeed should not be attrib-

uted to something inherent in the transition process but rather, in most

cases, to labor activation. As a result in a way that is unprecedented in

many of these countries, these parties have been admitted as norma partic-

ipants to the democratic arena.Eectoraly these reactivated (or in the case of Brazil, newly founded)

parties hav often done surprisingly well in the new democracies If their

workingclass constituencies and union movement have ost poitica inuence, it is not because these transformative projects succeeded, but because

of the new conjuncture in word historica time, in which Marxism is seen

to be defeated and gobalied markets are providing a new opportunity

structure within which interests are formed, power is realigned, and deci-

sions are made Indeed it is an ironic moment in world historic time for

the triumph of the left or laborbased parties. At the end of the twentieth

century the task of governing has put great strains on these parties and

exerted enormous pressures to restructure their constituency reations, and

he weakness of unions has often in part been advanced by aborbasedarties confronting difcult contradictions and dilemmas once they have

come to power

N A L Y T I C F R A M E W O R K S

O the bass o the pesent stuy, we can revisit existing comparative and heortical acnts of demoatization . Thee eneral observatios abou t

I 0 A i tc·cs'j cm t ns ou h wn sodnl mvm niv i y n Inbo protesmny 'ot·ihf! o Nrcul' in ci ti �rnship ijhts i thr n ulysi i owekrt u Lud n

7.


the roe of the worng css n emocrtzton hve emerge from thsnyss. rst for those (hstorc) cses th hve ecome the prgm exmpes of the cm tht or protest ws cruc n chevngemocrtc reform nother type of or prtcpton ws so mportnt:orse prtes wth cose tes to the unon movement were reypromnent prmentry ctors enggng wth other prtes n compet <tve eector strteges. Secon the roe of or protest n the recent cses <= f h h

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s more consstenty n mportnt fctor thn hs een suggeste n com prtve n theoretc ccounts hr espte the focus on negotton £ (rther thn protest) these ccounts hve offere tte recognton of the

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extent to whch eers of orse orgnztons (prtes n unons)prtcpte n the negotton ren often n centr wys Why hvethese ponts rgey een msse? or most cses the ssue oes not concernemprc sgreements: the ccounts presente here genery o noteprt sustnty from stnr country monogrphs n nyses onwhch ths stu hs n fct ree or nee from those gven yRueschemeyer et or the cse stues n the Transitions from AuthoritarianRule voumes. he screpncy rther s prmry one of nterprettonn retes to the nytc frmewors empoye. or oth peros theomnnt frmewors hve conceptuze the process s pttng the ns"versus the outs" ut consstent wth fferent vews of the potcs of

emocrtzton those ctors hve een ent e fferent! y thereyrwng ttenton to the worngcss roe n the hstorc cses noscurng t n the recent ones (see gure 5 .) H I S T O R I C A L C A S E S l= Certny the two peros of emocrtzton consste of fferent emoc rtzton processes n most of the erer cses emocrtzton ws more ncrement. We my return to our enton of emocrtc regme s lone nvovng consttuton rue egstve uthorty n cssc eec =tons wth mss suffrge n most of the hstorc cses these components

tene to e ntrouce n more peceme fshon rther thn n snge reform epsoe of sweepng regme chnge whch ws more chrcterstc of the te twenteth century cses. Of the hstorc cses onyDenmr n 1 849 n Spn n 1 9 1 (n to some extent nn n 190 though prmentry soveregnty remne noty cng) cou e sto hve experence compre chnges Among the recent cses the rereform governments were not constrne y a fnamet or constton or csscy eece toratve � ; e oly oonn

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P A T S T O WA D D E M O C A C Y

hus pror o he reform epoes on whch hs nyss hs focusehe neceen regmes ene o e que fferen n he wo hsorcperos n he recen pero hese were uhorrn regmes or uocrces wh few f ny emocrc componens whe n he erer perosome of hese componens were more key o e n pce Reecng hefc h mss suffrge ws componen h ofen cme e he nycfrmework use n he hsorc cses hs ofen presene emocrzons process of ncuson he frmng of he ssue of emocrzon n

C O M A R I N G T H A T T R N S

Secon hen he ncuson gme s no necessry pye s prc-pon gme on he pr of he ous" my so ke he form of mozon gme on he pr of he ns" even nonorfe ns"(whch ncue oh governmen" n opposon") seekng pocsuppor ofen n he conex o prsn compeon nee hs seconpossy s mporn precsey when he neceen regme s resrceemocrcy h s when compeve ren n poc coneson h f f



s process of ncuson he frmng of he ssue of emocrzon nhese cses hs ene o e orene roun he mpc ssumpon hhe neceen regmes were resrce emocrces or wh Dh 19 7 :7 ) hs ce compeve ogrches n whch vruy he componensof emocrcy were n pce wh he excepon h mss prcpon wss ckng Democrzon ccorng!y hs een seen s he css-ene exenson of prcpon. hs mge s suggese for nsncewhen Rueschemeyer e presen moe of emocrzon n whchech css ghs for s own ncuson

Accorngy he cors hve ypcy een conceve of n css ermswh groo modo, he upper csses sngushe from he ower csseshe former whch pror o he rnson were seen s prcpns nresrce emocrces hve ofen een ve no consevves ners rgey corresponng o poc persuson or o he pres h

were he vehces for her poc expresson. he er n keepng whher poc excuson hve ene o e ene n css rher hnpoc or pry erms: workng css n pesnry n oher wors wherenyss sw emocrzon s n ssue of he poc ncuson of heower csses he ns" n he ous" hve een ene n erms ofcsses corresponng o upper csses versus ower csses wh he mecsses ncue ccorng o sncve rhyhm n ech counry hsfrmework focuses on he roe of he ower csses pyng n ncusongme n whch hey wres he concesson of her own prcpon

here re however hree proems wh hs concepuzon whchhe foregong nyss mkes cer. rs hough he pocs of ncuson

my ke he form of prcpon gme n whch he ous" soughpoc rghs poc nuence n mnce o he form pocren ws no necessry he ower csses who were he mn coeven wh regr o her own ncuson n sever cses he me fough for ro suffrge h esseny y efu ncue he workncss An somemes workngcss orgnzons fough for ufaexenson u n mos ces ony fer he workng cs ey es pry enfrnchse opeg aty o postowe lao-ad paty oul se o gg a ppl • n ! 0 l ffo\i

rey exs he compeve ren sef enes gme of ee sregeson he pr of he ns" gme n whch suppor mozon s mpor-

n.he hr proem s h he mge of emocrzon s n ncusongme my sef e overrwn Que ofen ncuson ws no he emo-crc componen or no he ony emocrc componen h wsmssng Oher ssues were oen nvove s we. In some cses ncusonn he sense of mss enfrnchsemen no come s he n sep n nncremen process; rher my hve een resse revey eryefore oher componens (eg efore prmeny soveregny n Ger-mny or rnce or efore componens provng for free n fr eeconss n Argenn) n Begum n Brn he ssue ws pur vong nn Denmrk n Sween he n sep concerne he reform of he upperhouse whch ws eece on more resrce frnchse. More ofen

mupe ssues were resse smuneousy n he n sep n heern of MeSecor Democrzon ncuson ws ypcy pr of rger pckge of er reforms rmenry soveregny ws rvngssue n nn n Norwy where ws e up wh he ssue ofon uonomy. Mos of hese ssues ffece no ony he workngss u oher groups or pres s we As resu emocrzon wsa more mufcee process n ess owercss or workngcss processn suggese y moe of emocrzon s process of sepwsecuson own he soc sr

U B C E N T C AS E S

he nyc frmework use for he hsorc cses hs ene o over-hsze he roe of he workng css prcury he expense of oheregc cors he rnsons frmework use for he recen cses hsepze or he recen emocrc rnsons where he n<e rege ws uocrcy fferen frmework of nys hs poy Here e ocess o eoco hs een chrcerze a rtal) uo ga ut a a cge ge holly a vully y Alysts av o

· "

92 P A T H S T O WA D D E M O C A C Y

outs pitted authoritarian incumbents of the state against a repressed civil

society Thus, actors have tended to be identied not by lass but in termscloser to a statesociety distinction. The main distinction has typically

been between the authoritarian (usually military) incumbents of the state

and the democratic opposition in society. The former have been differenti-ated by political strategy into hardliners and softliners, and the latter

primarily into party leaders and social movements (or sometimes strategi-cally into moderate and maximalist opposition) With this identication


were analyzed as reactions to workingclass mobilization and a Commu

nist or Marxist threat associated with the working class Yet this issue wasnot incorporated as a central concern in the dominant framework, whichwas useful for addressing certain qestions but went too far in becoming

hegemonized in the transitions literature.

T O WA R D C O M B I N I N G F R A M E W O R K S



cally into moderate and maximalist opposition). With this identicationof the actors, the class question is submerged, and the spotlight is put on

the negotiations of individual leaders.

The regime change game could also take two different forms. Theins" could play a restructuring game, by which they sought to change the ca

pacity for collective action of social groups Different approaches were

adopted for systems of interest representation (those more corporative and

those more atomized through the market) and for the limitation of contes-tation through the party system (by restricting the party system, particu-larly excluding the left). The restructuring game aimed at legitimationand institutionalization, but stopped short of democratization. The outson the other hand could play a transformation game, which, unlike therestructuring game of the ins, had an explicit goal of democracy.

If a problem with the framework for the historical cases is that it has

privileged social classes over strategizing actors, a problem with the transitions perspective used for the recent cases is that it has done the oppositeIt has privileged elites as strategic players strategizing leaders, whose

class identities are either left undifferentiated and dened instead on he

basis of strategic posture, or, among the outs asserted to be compromising moderates" who eschew class issues in favor of a willingness to reassureskittish incumbents The overtly comparative or theoretical literaturewhere this analytic framework has been most explicitly artiulated, ha

captured an important part of the dynamic of recent democratization, b

it is not the whole picture. The more empirically based monograpaccounts have emphasized the role of labor organizations, but this aspeof recent democratization has not been incorporated systematically in

comparative or theoretical accontsIf analyses of the historical cases have implicitly tended to overs

the degree to which the prereform regime was a restricted demor

lacking only the inclusion of he lower classes, a drawbak for prespurposes of the transitions liteature is that it has underempased

extent to whih an autocratic regime that poliially exles aost ll of .

civil soiety may nevertheless hve a lass oloao Te las cnten these regies oes as o upris: fom he nsaaon thy we· - 1d .

O WA R C O M N N G F R A M W O R K S

At a general level, the two frameworks come from very different analytic

traditions. The rst continues a long tradition of class analysis that has itsroots not only in Marxist analysis bt also in historical sociology, particu-

larly as inaugurated by Barrington Moore (1966). The second frameworkhas emphasized strategic interation and has not engaged strutural issues

or class analysis. Each has certain advantages but, like all frameworks, isnecessarily partial. Each thus adds a useful perspective, and each benetsfrom the complementarity of the other

Rueschemeyer et al. , explicitly locating their analysis within the Mooretradition, contest his substantive assertion that associates democracy withthe bourgeoisie Yet they in turn are too quick to identify democratizationwith the working class and to reect it as a liberal proect, which it

sometimes was. Furthermore, it is important to keep structure (class bal

ance) and agency analytically distinct. The structural argument is that thepresence of a rising working class alters the strategic calculations of allactors. This is correct, but it does not necessarily imply workingclass

geny. Often a growing working class did champion democratic reforms.But equally important was the way it affected the strategies of other class

ctors and made th advocates of democratic reform. Sometimes the work-ng class seemed to present a revolutionary threat, which they answered

ith a cooptive response. More important was the partisan challengeosed as rising social democratic parties changed the balance of power

ong parties, causing other parties to adopt coalitional strategies withr social democrats or to promote democratic reforms such as proportional

resentation systems. Thus, although democracy may be a class proect,i r i not necessarily the project of a single class. The opposition of democ-y as a bourgeois versus a workingclass proect may be a false onetimes i is both.

I The d of win the sY o o csss Jd vig mk ass impy OJ' upobmntiy XIi :Ocssious is mdc -r ro th• I(>Jo�'Us. U ow :1SN 1 ' i�., r•l, o l ih " poi of ' H h p pk" e o


he vnge of ths perspectve s h s hepfu n frmng thequeson regrng the wy eocrtzton shou be nyze n pr s css process; he svnge s ht rgnzes the stregc ccu-ons of pres Ruescheeyer e (99:87), for nstnce, cnow-ege the roe of pres, bu s etng mechnsms" by whch heyen css nsruents not s srtegc cors heseves Wth ths(over)emphss on css structure, there s, n cern sense, too uchsocoogy here or rher oo te poc scence As suggeste ths s

C O M A R I N G T H E A T T E R N S 5

worngcss groups got nvove q worngcss groups hroughunons n borbse prtes, s groups wh speccy worngcssemns ebee whn the rger gh for eocrcy

Secon, eocrtzon s pocosrtegc process Qute cer sthe temp of he ous" o pursue ccess o power Beyon tht, hetrnston terure hs be en prtcury hepfu n suggesng he po c motvtons of he ns s hey embr on refor n he strtegcntercon by whch the hey coe o foow ph o emocrcy Furher



socoogy here or, rher, oo te poc scence As suggeste, ths sprcury probetc n contex of n ncremen process of eoc-rtzon wth copettve potc ren rey n exsence n enng se of eector rher thn csserve pyoffs for pres, whch rehe n srtegc ctors n hs ren A stregc nercton pproch ofthe ype proffere n he trnstons terte s usefu here ts svn-ge, n turn, s the mrror mge oo e socoogy. Acors re enestregcy n ters of stregc posure, bu whou soc conen Inhs frmewor here s negec of csses, n no enton s p to hesoc constructon of he trnston s mbue wh css enng for theworng css or, for h mter, oher csses For nsnce, stues ofbusness pressure hve not e ther wy no the theorec ertureon recen eocrtzton n sufcent or sysetc wy et, s hemonogrphc erure mes cer, ny css ssues were beng pye

ou Wth respect to the worng css, he bor queson ws centr nthe orgns n repressve prctces of hese uhortrn reges, ntherefore t ws so reevnt to her ese

he presen suy suggess th t s usefu o nyze eortzonn es hree nterrete wys Frst, shou be seen s cssbse

/ process hs perspectve s s ppropre n the recent cses s n hehsorc cses A cssbse perspecve oes not py tht n ny gvennsnce emocrzton s the projec of snge css. Rher, vroucsses, pursung cssbse neress, cn prooe eocrc chngesuneousy. Among the hstorc cses, pern of utpe csorgns ws seen prcury mong the ont Proecs, n hs ptern

even ore chrcterstc ong the recen cses h s, the roe bor orgnzons hs been prtcury negecte n the er cses

demorat tratege on the part o other ae Qoint Projet demoratiatiowherea in other t led to antidemorati tratee (rearatahortaran

1 n additon to many other tdie that have ine appeared it i intere tin tht heompendm to whh the ODonnell and hmitter eay 1 86) th cusoninlde a hapter that analye the role o Brain ntrrr (t t nomparae hapter on the lar mvmn.) Y ss ('rs no systm< · ' .� norporated nt hetl r mpaiv lysis in w s s l Mo

/ i

re uds f th f rv s Ch nd ly 1 94 Rld

ntercon by whch the hey coe o foow ph o emocrcy Furhernyss ong these nes wou be wecoe for the hsorc cses, s hesregy of he ns" s not spy concesson o he pressure of heous Pres re the ey sregc cors n emocrtzton. he ns"of he Suppor Mobzton ptern h ther own ncumbencyenhncngresons for proong refor, but so hose n the ont Poes hesere the stutons n whch, beyon provng n ncenve for coopon,he presence of he unonfe pres chnge he sregc suonof pres representng oher csses n neress, n ny n cors(prtes wth n whout worngcss constuences) ce to pursueeocrc refor

hr, n reey, eocrtzton s resourcebse process htopertes n fferen rens of cton. In he cse hsores presente heree hve encounere he se fctors emphsze by he soc oveents

erture resources such s hstorc meores, symboc fres, org-zon, n power resources. hese resources re embee n hsorcxperence n nsttutons. Among he hstorc cses, these fcors wereporn for sngushng he bor roe n northern s oppose o tnounres, s ws the cruc resource of hong prmentry sets

he mpornce of smr ns of resources s so suggeste n thecen cses bor unons were prtcury we posone wth respect· nuber of resources tht hve been ene orgnzon, scpne, eene consttuency, n obzton cpcy hey were soen fe wth pres h were theseves scpne n wenze soetes wth pres tht h experence wh unergroun

v es n on, n the negotng ren, these borbse prtes h he resources to become cruc nerocutors for uthorrnbents n gne pce n he n rege negottons

Cery of these perspecves mus come together o unersnoz he potcs of emoctc nnovon re both vrbeo ss d midms wh he s such hey re no esyd by h vig mwoks y hr vry ntre, f corse

nsos ·umwrk Ily 1 h s p , rs, s lubor v� u lv i oe• c• l y cs ·� f c�otn}



A



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979 Te Trvl o tn Amercn Democrcy New Le Reiew 113-4nury - Aprl 71 109

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PressTlon Tim ohy 97 Soc Ogn s o erl Democrcy Te Sweds Cse

Ac olil Sdme Rew 6H no. 2 71 o+kof Goge. 9H P A h hr D n Aai! ofhe

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Socia Dopmn and h Sa Th Foaion of h Pubic Sphr inrc. Atens: Temelo

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Upton A. F . Th Communis Paris of Scandinaia and Finand LondonWedende and Ncolson.

Th Finnish Rouion 19 1 -1 91 8 Mnneapols: Unversty o Mnnesota ress

Uray Dreccn Jenera! de Estadstca. Cnso nra d a Rpbica n

L O G R A H Y

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llarrea Jan. . Canes n Arentne ocety Te Hertae o te Dctatorsp In From iia Ru o Libra Dmocra in Argnina edMonca eraltaRamos and Carlos Wasman - Bolder ColoWestvew ress

Webster R A ndusria mpriaism in ay 1 908-19 1 . Berkeley Unversty o Calorna ress

Weler HansUlrc Th rman Empir, 18 1 191 8 Trans Km Traynor.Dover N.H: Ber blsers.

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Urza alenzela Germn Diccionario poico insiuciona d Chi antaoEdtoral Arete

Hisoria poica d Chi y su oucin cora antao Edtoral Jrda de Ce

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Te Orns o Democray Teoretca Reectons on te CleanCase Workn aper no Wasnton D.C. Latn Amerca roram Wlson Center

Te Mltary n ower: Te Consoldaton o OneMan Re In ThSrugg for Dmocracy in Chi 1 982-1 990 ed. al Drake and IvanJaksc - Lncoln Unversty o Nebraska ress

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Labor Movements n Trnstons to Democracy A Framework forAnalyss Comparai Poiics no

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Zbllaa Carlos . El Batlsmo Una Eperenca oplsta In E primrbaismo - Montevdeo Edcones de la Banda Orenta

INDEX



As Alvaro 1 15ators: in eonstratons 16 6-71 n i

ensions an patterns o eoratation 19- 166-71 elites 1719workng lass 15-17

ADAV Geran 103Aler Glenn 186

Alapuro isto 86 87 8 8Ainzae onal 41 4 43anarosnals 35 Argentina 45

tal 69 Portugal 49 Spain 5 154Urugua 75

Anreui Frano 69Angell Alan 15 1 53anteeent rege 1 -14 1 8 53

170 17 1 173 17577 179 1 80-81183-84 190-91

Antevolutonar Part Neterlans 94-96

ANWV Neterlans 94PA Peru 115 11819renas o ation 19- 1 66 168-69

170 19596 letoral Molizatonpattern 17 1 oint Poets attern 7708 171 183-84 MileSetor Deoratiation pattern 36 75 171 rent eoratation 110 177 18384

ntn C onstttions 44 CUA rtition innntn cntry 4446; ili: un/Extrtun t l 970s-l 9H0), l 4 ·6 1 70

83 elites 46 General aor Coneeration (CG) 135 laor oveent45-46 1 14-15 10-6 179 Malvnasinvasion 1 19 10 145 MileSetor pattern in earl twentiet entur8t 34-35 35t 4446 73 75 178tMultipartiaria 16 politial strke

1 1 14 aial Civi Unon 45 7 5surage 44 workng lass 35 45 6Are Fores Moveent MFA) Portugal

161 16 3-64Arriagaa Herrera Genaro 1 5 1Ater Dav 85Augustinos G 40

Balora nrque A. 16Banner Surez Hugo (Bolvia) 14445Barrn os 74Barrera Manuel 151 15 153 154Batlle Orez os (Urugua) 73-74Belgiu: Catoli Part 89-9 oint Proj

ets pattern in nineteent an twentiet

enturies 3 5t 78-80 89-93 ieralPart 909 parliaentar soveregnt89 polital strke 90 Progressive eral Part 91-9 Soalist aor Part89 surage 9091 workng lass 7778 8990 9

BnAi Sloo 54ni in Bclu NKy, I H3BI'W Rptu Pnul

agn ugeno 6 65 66mark Otto von (Germany) 101-akurn oert 61ake oert 6ano Party Uruguay 1auten ert P 51ova CO 159 COD 17

FS 1-5 aor movement 1 33 139 ranton Game pattern(190-190) 113t 139

raz onttuton 1 3 aor movement13-3 PD 137 pota trke

CO ova 159Coe G D . 65Coer Davd 75Coer uth 75Coomo re 1 19

I N D E X

Coorado Party Uruguay 73-7 1Communt Party Greee 156 Peru

(PCP) 116 Portuga 161 163 Span17131

Comper Fnand 6COD ova 17Conaghan Catherne 13 160 161

I N D E X

Demorat ane oaton Che 155demorat tranton dentng epode

o 33demoratzaton a anay approah 5

1013 19-0 17-91 193 duono 175 dmenon o 19t 19- 16-69 epde o 33 htora ae3 1-91 trateg nteraton approah 9 1 19 191-93 tmngn nneteenth and eary twenteth enture 30t 3 tmng (1970190) 1331t 3 10

k

wtt Sanord pten dward C 10rtman homa 6

Fahrn Deter 59Faaea Gonzao 15 153Fedman Gerad 1 05 1 06 107Fernndez rturo 10 1

Fnand Comper 6 ConttutonaParty and Conttutonat Party 5-6 onttuton 5 9 ndependenerom ua (1917-19) 5 7



13 537 oa movement 136-3

ranton Game pattern (1970190)1 13t 133 orker' Party 137utng enry 9 96urton hae 6 1uter D 66 100

Caetano Gerardo 75 11 1Campar Guermo 15 1 15 15 3Campe ohn 390Carr aymond 53 1 1930 130Cartar ndrew 9 95Cato Santago 5 5 3Catho Party egum 99 ether

and 995Cavarozz ereo 1 19

CCOO (Comone Orera) Span 1-9

CDS Portuga 1 63Center Unon Greee 15 7Chagaorge 11 1Che etora Support ozaton pat

tern n nneteenth entury 35t 5961aor movement 150-55 teray requrement or ranhe t 9 59-60mtary regme 150-55 Parae rakpattern (1970190) 1 13t 15 0-5517

Chrtenen en 37Chrtan V (Denmark) 3 7Chrtan Demorat Party Che 151

5 155Chrtanen e 3Cv emy Che 155Cv Front uador 160a anay approah to demoratzaton

1013 190 1791 193Cogg hard 1 59CS Che 155C renta Sa , 3-54

Conederaton o Copper orker Che

15Conederaton o Peruvan orker (CP)116 119

Congre o orker' and Soder' Coun Germany 107-10

Conervatve Party rtan 66 100Che 60-61 Denmark orway 67Span 5 Sweden 5

Conttuent emy Che 15 5 Denmark 3 Frane 1 Greee 390tay 69 Peru 1 1 1 1 1 19 Portuga9 16 16 Span 5 131 Uruguay 7

Conttutonat Party Fnand 56Conttutona Party Fnand 5-6

onttuton rgentna (153) 15raz (1967) 13 Che (190) 151Denmark (19) 3 1 Fnand(1919) 5 9 Frane (1793 11 75) 01 3 Germany (19 19) 10Greee (13 16) 390 atnmeran demorat 175-76 etherand (1) 93 Portuga (1 1 91 1new) 67 16 16 Span (11 137 169 1 977) 51-5 1 31 Swtzerand (1) 55 5 Uruguay (191)7-7

Cork Davd 160Coter uo 1 16 1 1Crag Gordon 10 103 10 105 106

10Cuadrado gue . 5Cutt Davd 160CU rgentna 1

Daader an 9 96Dah o 9D C P. , I Hdt•mocruy: dind 224 mK

2

Denmark Conervatve Party onttu

ton 3 1 ont Proet pattern neary twenteth entury 35t 7 era Party 1 ddeSetor Demoratzaton pattern 35 36-3 73 75 natonam 36 atona era Party 1ada Ventre Soa Demoratparty urage 36-3 1 upperhoue 31 36 1 workng a 1

Derry K 67 6De Serra Gernmo 11Detazaton/xtraton pattern

1 13t 11-15 169 170 177 11rgentna (1970190) 1196 Peru(1970-190) 1 119 Span (1 970)163

Damandouro P. koro 39 157 15159

Detz enry 11 119duon 175D Pama Gueppe 6Drae enjamn (rtan) 6 6 65Drake Pau 16 151 161 165Dunkerey ame 15 16 1

uador nterete Game pattern (1970)113 15556 159-61 aor movement16061 11

etora Support ozaton pattern 33 336 35t 5-55 75 76 16716 17 195 rtan n nneteenth

entury 6166 Che n nneteenth entury 596 1 tay n eary twentethetry 67 orway n nneteenthetury 666 Swtzerand n nne entury 5559 Uruguay n earywh r 775

: A r n 46 7 1 9; n d nwnss nd paes -m�>r·n 72 n Sph rus- n l 0), 2

ont Proet pattern n eary twenteth

entury 35t 70 59 aormovement 7- natonam 6 paramentary overegnty 1 16 Soa Demorat Party 1 69 urage 57 orkerParty 6

Fnn argot C 6 Fhman oert 7 1Ftzmaure ohn 37Fora Peter 7Fontana ndre 119FOU Uruguay 75Foweraker oe 9 10 19Frane onttuton 01 3 dde

Setor Demoratzaton pattern n nneteenth entury 35t 35-36 0 e

puan movement 1 worknga 33 03

Frary Donad P 37 9 99 10Frederk V (Denmak) 3 7Free Gewerkhaten Germany 10Frente mpo Uruguay 133 1Fredman Davd 9 95FS ova 15Furook ary 106 107Fu zpurua uan Pao 1 19 130

Gadame u 61Gamarra duardo 15Garguo artn 11Garretn anue 150 151

Genera Conederaton o Peruvan orker(CGP) 1 6

Genera aor Conederaton (CG) rgentna 135

Genera orker Unon (UG) Span 5-5

Geay DV 103 Congre o orkr 107 onn I OH; P· Gwrkhft I 04 P I Jt Pj

226

Geray opatter early twetet cetry, 35t,78-80, 101-8; labor oveet, 103057; Majorty SPD, 105 8; Natoalberal Party, 38, 102; parlaetarysoverety, 1023 186; ec, 102;SDAP, 103; Socal Deocratc Party101, 103-8; Spartcsts, 105; Stesee Areeet 10 7; s rae adeletoral reor, 1018; USPD, 105,07-8; work class 77-78 101 1038 See so Bsarck, Otto vo; NortGera oederato; ec

I N D E X

terUo Pleary o orkers (P),Uray 4-42

terelte Gae patter, 22 1 12, 1 13t,15 5-57, 1 69, 170; ddle ad pperclas role , 170; cador (1970s-1980s), 55-56, 15 961; Greece(1970s), 15559

saacs Ata, 60taly: cleels, 70; lectoral Spport

Moblzato patter early twetetcetry, 35t 68-72; labor oveet,69, 71; lteracy rereet, 69; Poplar Party 72; Socalst Party 69 72; s

I N D E X

patter, 78; labor os GeraStesee Areeet, 07; protestad strkes, 5, 9 19-20 78 11 2 1 4,32-34 149 184-85; stret o 156-5 7 17 9; der ew deocratc rees197; Areta, 456, 1 14-11 5 120126 179; Bolva 1 3234, 143-49;Brazl, 1 3138; Brta, 6466, 98;le 15 0-55 ; cador, 160-61, 1 81 ;Flad 87-88; Geray 103 1057;taly, 69, 7 1; Mexco, 1 81 ; Neterlads,9496; Per, 1 141 19; Portal, 4850 161 65; Sot rca 186; Spa

7

owde, Paela 152ebbert, Greory M, 26 64 68 81 , 82 84

Mablle, aver, 90, 91, 92McGre, Jaes , 123 , 126McKbb, oss 97, 99 100Macke, oas, 52 68, 82 95Majorty SPD (MSPD), Geray 105-8Malloy, Jaes M, 143, 145 160, 16Malvas vaso 19-21, 120, 24-25Ma, Mcael, 5-16 26 62, 76, 102Maravall Jos, 127, 130Marko o 21 24 26 175



Gera oederato; ec

Gllespe, arles G, 140 14 142Glor, Davd, 129Goltt, Gova (taly), 69-72Gladstoe, lla (Brta), 64 65 66Gozlez, s , 7 3Gold, Adrew 56, 57Graa, arol 1 17 , 1 19rad coprose, 80, 172Great Brta oservatve Party, 62-64;

lectoral Spport Moblzato patter eteet cetry 35t, 6166; JoProjects patter early twetet cetry 35t, 78, 80, 96-01; labor oveet 6466 98; abor Party, 34 97-100; beral Party 62, 6466 98100;

srae, 27-29, 61-66 96-97; pperose, 29-30, 98-99; work class, 34,6266 7778, 8

Greece cvl wars (94649), 5 6; !erelte Gae patter (1970s), 113t, 155-59; MddleSector Deocratzato patter eteet cetry 35 , 3 5t, 3840; ltary ree, 156-59

Groeer Pact, Geray, 107Gter, card 6 158, 59

Hart, Frts 103Hawort, Nel, 16, 11 8Hley, Jo 6Helarb Gertrde, 62, 63

Hovde B ], 37 , 38Hprey, A 65Ht, H 64

clso, pror poltcal 1820, 28t, 34,55, 75-77, 79, 1089, 167, 168697072, 17677 178t 18893

oral practces ad deocracy, 252676, 176; Areta, 44; le, 6061Greece 38; tay 7 Sa

lar Party, 72; Socalst Party 69-72; s

rae, 6871; pper ose 30; workclass, 69, 71, 73-77

Jessop, Bob, 3Jot Projects patter, 22, 3 5t 778 108

9 68, 176, 177, 80, 181, 194-95;workclass ad labor partcpato ,77-81 170, 17 2 18 1; Bel earlytwetet cetry, 89-93; Deark early twetet cety 8182; Flad early twetet cetry, 85-89; Geray early twetet cetry, 10-109; Great Brta early twetetcetry 96101; Neterlads earlytwetet cetry, 93-96; Swede

early twetet cetry, 83-85Joes, Adrew, 64, 65 66Jde, Davd 66

Katsaevas, eodore K 57Katzelso ra, 16 41, 78, 175Keck Mararet , 1 36, 137 , 1 38Key,] A, 97, 99 100Krby, Davd, 86Kocka, Jre 103Kcsk Berardo, 138

labor oveet storcal partcpato ree cae or deocratc reor,35t , 7 1-77; Destablzatoxtrca

to patter, 1 2 1 4 17 778; terelte Gae patter, 155-57; JotProjects patter, 7780 172 17879; Parallel rack patter, 1 12 , 149-50; recet deocratzato process (1 970s1980s), 110-12, 3t, 7781; terpretatos o role deocratato 5

14; rasto Gae attr, 1 2 ,

32-34 777 lbr u lsh sls ps js

50, 161-65; Sot rca, 186; Spa,

5154 15 12732; Swede 84; Uray, 73-75, 132-34, 1383. See sowork class

abor Party, Norway, 34 68abor Party (POB), Bel, 89-92labor os, ee labor oveet See so

dvdal labor os ad coederatos

laborbased partes: 1 75 178, 86; adeotato area 77, 79, 115, 165,170 18384 185; ot Projects patter, 77-79, 172 176-77, 186; recet deocratzato 1 15 165 180-81 183

abor Party Brta 3 4, 97-00

adaer, arl 7, 72, 9 2azarte, Jore, 147ee Stepe] 63 64lberal oveets 33-34 75, 71-72. See

so MddleSector Deocrtzato Areta, Deark, Frace, GreecePortal, ad Spa

beral Party Bel, 9092; Brta,62, 6466, 98-100; Deark, 8;Neterlads 9495; Spa 5 2; Swede83-85

beral Uo Party, Neterlads, 95lblab allaces, 80, 92 172jpart Ared, 94, 9 5, 96o, Ferado 25

de, H, 90, 91z a, 6, 13 158, 159lteracy as rereet or racse t

aly, 6 9; as rereet or Portesevot rts 4750; as vot rereet eteetcery le 28t9 96 ay 73

Lvcrm, V. 4HL Jh R I 6�Lmx Bll 3

Marko o 21 24 26 175

Mares A H d e Olvera 48, 49 , 5 0Mattew, H G, 97 , 99 100Maxwell, Keet, 162Meaker, Gerald H, 53Meyrat, Jea 81 , 04MddleSector Deocratzato patter, 22

33, 34, 35t 36, 7576 168 19;workclass ad labor partcpato 55, 167, 170, 17172; Area early twetet cetry, 4446 73;Deark etee cety 36-38,73; Frace eteet cetry 4044;Greece eteet cetry, 3840;Portal eteet ad early twetet cetres, 46-50; Spa e

teet ad early twetet cetres, 5154; Swss catos eteet cety56-57

Mller Keet 37oblzato, protest ad: desos

ad patters o deocratzato, 19-22,25, 168-69£, 170; MddleSector Deocratzato patter 36, 75; opartcpato 9 34, 18485 See solabor oveet: protests ad strkes; socal oveets

Moore, Barrto 26, 193Morales Berde, Fracsco (Per), 1 17 ,

118Morera Alves, Mara H 135, 37

Mozels, Ncos P, 38 39Mltpartdara Areta, 126; Uray,142-43

Mck, Gerardo, 120 12, 123, 124, 125Mck, oaldo, 124, 1 25 1 35

Na, Beja 74eo a eocratc reors

l 9 Neterlas, 93;Sp l Szld

228

Napoleon , 414naionalim: Denmak, 6 Finland, 6

eece, 8 Noway, 67-68 Spain,114, 12

Naional ibeal Pay Denmak, 1 emany, , 102

Naval lub Pac (14), uguay 140142

Neheland: nievoluionay Pay 46 aholic Pay, 45 coniuion Join Poec paen in ealy wenieh cenuy, 5 , 78-0, 6 laomovemen 4 6 ibeal Pay 4 5

I N X

movemen, 1 141 poliical ike 11 1 SNOS, 1 16-1 7 oke enal of he Peuvian evoluion, 116

Pinoche uguo (hile), 150-51, 155Pino, nonio , 4PD, azil 17poliical paie: new democacie of labo

baed, 178 ole of labobaed paie in ealy and lae weniehcenuyefom, 77-1 , 177 1 a aegic aco in democaizaion, , 54-55, 751, 10, 177-1 177, 15

Popula Pay aly 72

I N X

ialJuan, 1 141illa, Jo, 141, 142obinon, . H. 47 4, 50ock, David, 45, 46okkan, Sein, 67, 1 104oe, ichad 52, 6 2, 5oh, uene, 101 , 10 5, 1 06uechemeye, Dieich, 10, 11 1 2, 1,

20, 42, 61, 7, 14uzagle, Jaime, 154uian evoluion 72, 77, , 101uow, Dankwa ., 21, 25,

22

movemen, 5154, 11415, 127-2ibeal Pay, 52 iddleSeco Democaizaion paen in nineeenh and ealywenieh cenuie, 4-5, 5, 5154naionalim, 1 14, 1 2 poliical ike,12 0 epublican movemen 5 54Sociali Pay 5154 1 1 age, 5152 uppe houe, 01 woking cla,5, 52-5

Spaaci emany 105Spague John, 175Sepan lfed, 11, 18, 15Sephen velyn H 10 11 12 1 20



movemen 4-6 ibeal Pay, 45

ibeal nion Pay 5 NVV, 6SDP, 4-6 Social Democaic Pay,4 uffage, 5 woking cla, 77-7

Newon, eald, 4Nippedey, homa, 10 , 104Noonha duado , 16Noh, iia , 1 16, 1 17, 11 Noh eman onfedeaion, , 102Noway lecoal Suppo obilizaion in

nineeenh cenuy, 5 666 independence fom Sweden (105) 67 paliamenay oveeigny 67, 16 woing cla, 4, 67-6

Nouianen, Jaakko, 6Nouo, Panagioi, 40

NVV, Neheland, 6

ODonnell, uillemo, 5 6, , 125Oo of avaia (eece) ,

Pai, Sidoni (Pougal), 50Palemo, V. 1 1Paallel ack paen 22, 1 12 , 1 1 1 4

50, 16f, 170, 17 in hile (17010), 15055

paliamenay oveeigny elgium, inland 1, 186 Fance in nineeenh cenuy, 404 emany, 10210, 16 Noway, 67, 16 Pougal innineeenh and ealy wenienh cenuy

46Payne, Sanley , 52, 5, 54Peae aca, Heny, 1 17 1 1PezDaz, Vico ., 12Peu: ommuni Pay 1 16 onfedea

ion of Peuvian oke, 1 16, 1 1oniuen embly, 1 14, 1 1, 11 Deabilizaion/xicaion paen(170), 1 1, 1 141 eeal nfd-eaion f Peruvian Wrkers, 6 l·

Popula Pay, aly, 72

Pougal med Foce ovemen, 161,1664 DS 16 oniuen embly 4, 16 2, 164 coniuion, 447, 162 164 democaic efom innineeenh and wenieh cenuie 464 democaic aniion (1 70), 1 6165 iddleSeco Democaizaion paen in ealy wenieh cenuy, 5, 46-50 paliamenay oveeigny, 464poliical ike 4, 50, 1626 PPD16 epublican movemen 4-50 epublican Pay, 4 Sociali Pay, 161uffage, 47 ON 50 uppe houe,47 woking cla, 4

Powell, David 100

Pozi Pablo, 122, 12 124, 125PPD, Pougal, 16Peon, Paul 10Pice, oge, 42, 62 Pimo de ivea, iguel (Spain), 51 , 5 ,

54Pogeive ibeal Pay, elgium, 1-2poleaianiaion hypohei 2, 17

75, 10Pzewoki, dam, 25, 175Pugh, ain, 6,

aby, David ., 162adical ivic nion (), genina, 45

75

adical Pay, genina 126adical Pay, hile 60adical Vene, Denmak, 2eich, eman, 102eid, ichael, 117, 118, 11emme, Kaen, 60, 150eublan mvemen: 4 Fran,

Prtugal 450 Spai �54Rublin Py (RP) Prtu! H

ys Ai Wshinn 73

Salomone illiam, 7 1Salvemini, aeano, 70Schachneide, ., 4Schmie Philippe 5 6, 8, 125, 165Scoland, Nigel, 66SDP emany, 10SDP, Neheland, 4-6Seale, . ., 62Seidman, ay , 1 7Senen onzlez, Saniago, 122 126Seao, Joel, 4Seonaon, hiophe, 6 70 72Sewell, illiam H., J., 1 6, 41 , 42Seymou, hale, 7, , , 102Sheehan, Jame, 102

Shead, Philip, 0Sigle, Jay ., 51SNOS Peu, 11617Skidmoe homa, 17Smih, . Jay, J, 7Smih, Paul 62, 6Smih, Pee H. , 46Social Democaic Pay: Denmak, 2

Finland, 81, 68 emany, 101, 10- Neheland, 4 Sweden, -4

Sociali abo Pay elgium, Sociali Pay: genina, 45 aly, 672

Pougal, 161 Spain, 51, 11Sociali Pay (PSO), Spain, 52-54ocial movemen: 5, 1 10, 1 14, 17 , 1 4,

16 1f, 12, 15 azil, 16hile, 154 Peu, 116ocioeconoic faco and democaiaion,

2, 171-1Soikanen, Hanne, 87Sain: OO, 2 2 N, 55

servative Py 52; nstitutins 152 3 Dsbili�in/xiin p

•r ( 1970s l ", 2-;Gnrl WO '

Sephen velyn H., 10, 11, 12 1, 20,

4 2, 6 1, 7 , 1 1 6 , 1 1 7 , 1 4Sephen, John D. 10, 11 12, 1, 20, 42,61, 7 14

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Hebert Kshet Zdeka Masfedova Radek Makowsk ad Gbo Tka Posommunis Pary Sysms

Davd Koke Fraz Uba app Jeffrey Boadbet ad Yuaka Tsuaka edsompaing Poicy Nworks

Aa Korberg ad Harod D Cake iins and ommuniy Poiica Suppor ina Rprsnai Dmocracy

Davd D. Lat Languag Rproris and Sa onsrucion in fricaMak Ivg Lhbah ad Aa S Zukea eds omparai Poiics

Raionaiy uur and Srucur



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rdes Unin ngress U) Britin 98rnsitin Gme pttern 1 1 1 1 3t1334 169f 170 177-78 re f brbsed prties in 177-78 Bivi1970s1980s) 14349 Brzi 1970s-1980s) 13-38 Uruguy 1970s1980s) 13-33 13843 167

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Raionaiy uur, and Srucur

Doug MAda Joh MCathy ad Maye Zad eds omparai Prspcis onSocia Momns

So Mawarg ad Matthew Soberg Shuga eds Prsidniaism and Dmocracyin Lain mrica

Athoy W. Ma Making Rac and Naion omparison of h Unid Sas, Souhfrica, and Brai

Joe S Mgda Atu Koh ad vee Shue eds Sa Powr and Socia ForcsDominaion and Transformaion in h Third Wod

au erso Dismaning h War Sa? Ragan Thachr, and h Poiics ofRrnchmn

Maro Reg Uncrain Bou nris Th Scia and Poiica onsrucion ofEuropanEconomis

Yoss Sha ad Jua Lz eds Inrim Gomns and Dmocraic TransiionsTheda Skopo Socia Rouions in h Morn WordDavd Stark ad Lsz Busz Possociais Pahways Transforming Poiics and

Propry in Ea nra EuropSve Steo Kahee Thea ad Frak Logseth eds Srucuring Poiics

Hisorica Insiuionaism in omparai naysisSdey Taow Powr in Mmn Socia Mmns and onnious PoiicsAhuosh arshey a, Dopmn and h onsi

Collier, Ruth. Paths Toward Democracy

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