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Collaborative Public Management:

Where Have We Been and Where Are We Going?

By Rosemary O’Leary and Nidhi Vij

The Maxwell School of Syracuse University

400 Eggers Hall

Syracuse, NY 13244

315-443-4991

Corresponding author: roleary@maxwell.syr.edu

Bios

Rosemary O’Leary is Distinguished Professor and Phanstiel Chair in Strategic Management and

Leadership at the Maxwell School of Syracuse University. Her research concerns collaboration as a

management strategy.

Nidhi Vij is a Ph.D. candidate in Public Administration at the Maxwell School of Syracuse University.

Her dissertation analyzes the use of collaboration as a management strategy among high level public

servants in the Indian government

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Abstract

This article analyzes where we have been in collaborative public management research and practice by

focusing on the most important issues, concepts and ideas in the literature today. The issues, concepts

and ideas are: (1) competing definitions of collaboration; (2) changes in the environment of public

management that have encouraged the growth of collaborative public management; (3) “thinking

DaVinci” – lateral thinking and interdisciplinarity; (4) the management challenges of working in

networks; (5) the paradox of balancing autonomy and interdependence; (6) factors to consider before

collaborating; (7) the importance of the individual; (8) the shifting leadership challenge; (9)

weaknesses in collaborative public management research; and (10) the missing link between theory

and practice. The authors conclude that the study and practice of collaborative public management is

generally fragmented with low level of consensus. From a research perspective, it is a low paradigm

field. The authors close with a view to the future. To advance the study and practice of collaborative

public management the authors urge (1) agreement on definitions of commonly used terms, beginning

with the term “collaboration;” (2) agreement on pressing collaborative public management challenges

and substantive research and practice questions; (3) more precise theoretical models of behavior; and

(4) agreement on the measurement of relevant variables.

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Collaborative Public Management:

Where Have We Been and Where Are We Going?

By Rosemary O’Leary and Nidhi Vij

The Maxwell School of Syracuse University

With the evolution from government to governance, public management scholars have given

renewed attention to forms of organization that cross agency boundaries. This phenomenon has been

the subject of an explosion of research in recent years. The new collaborative public management

scholarship responds in part to the growth of collaborations among public, private, and nonprofit

organizations; the context, environment, and constraints within which they work; the situation of the

public manager in a network; the governance processes and decision rules collaborators use; the ways

they define their work, tasks, and goals; and their impact on public policy and the policy process. The

collaborative public management literature uses a variety of sound bites to describe the importance of

this phenomenon to our field. Sometimes, scholars talk about the public manager’s ‘toolkit,’ or

‘strategies.’ Sometimes, they talk about collaborative public management as an ‘option’ or a ‘choice.’

Sometimes, they refer to collaborative networks as ‘models’ or ‘structures’ within which managers

find themselves. There is a tension between literature on a manager’s (or his/her organization’s)

individual choice to collaborate, contrasted with literature that looks at intentional or fortuitous

collaborative collective design.

In this article we focus on collaborative public management, and more particularly, on what we

think are the most important issues, concepts and ideas in collaborative public management research

and practice today. Some issues, concepts, or ideas require great length to explore, while others may be

explained easily in a paragraph or two. Behind these issues, concepts and ideas is our belief that

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academic work on collaboration has much to offer the world of practice. At the same time, we believe

that practitioners have insights about collaboration that inform academic work.

For the first two parts of this article, we focus on competing definitions of collaboration and the

changing environment of public management. Both ideas are important to practice and theory. Next,

for parts three to eight, we focus on the world of the practitioner including what it means to be a

collaborative thinker, on-the-ground challenges and paradoxes of collaborating, factors to consider

before collaborating, new notions of collaborative leadership, and the skills and traits of the effective

collaborator. Then, for parts nine and ten we reflect on some theoretical and research weaknesses and

the seeming disconnect between theory and practice. We close with predictions for the future.

#1: Competing Definitions of Collaboration

Collaborative public management is an idea that resonates with many, yet the term

“collaboration” lacks a common lens or definition; there are seemingly “101 definitions of

collaboration.” Three examples from three different decades are provided here for illustrative purposes.

Each is widely cited today. Gray (1989) defined interorganizational collaboration as an emergent

process between interdependent organizational actors who negotiate the answers to shared concerns

(pp. 12-13). Huxham (1996) defined collaboration as “working in association with others for some

form of mutual benefit” (p. 1). Bardach (1998) defined collaboration as “any joint activity by two or

more agencies working together that is intended to increase public value by their working together

rather than separately” (p. 8).

Accordingly, we were forced to make strategic choices as to how to define collaborative public

management for the purposes of this article. Although scholars have developed additional definitions

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of collaboration, some emphasizing the preconditions, process, or outcomes of the relationship, for this

article we adopted the following definitions, adopted from Agranoff and McGuire (2003):

Collaborative public management is a concept that describes the process of facilitating and

operating in multi-organizational arrangements to solve problems that cannot be solved or easily

solved by single organizations. Collaborative means to co-labor, to achieve common goals, often

working across boundaries and in multi-sector and multi-actor relationships. Collaboration is based

on the value of reciprocity and can include the public.

There is considerable confusion in the literature regarding the distinction between

collaboration, coordination and cooperation. Gray (1989) and Gray and Wood (1991) observe that

these concepts are different because “cooperation” and “coordination” do not capture the dynamic,

evolutionary nature of “collaboration.” Collaboration from this perspective is best examined as a

dynamic or emergent process rather than a static condition. In Selden, Sowa, and Sandfort’s

dimensional illustration of a collaborative continuum (Figure 1), the right-hand side of the continuum

describes the highest level of service integration and the least autonomous relationships, while the left

side describes relationships where the joint action is less central to organizational mission. Feiock

(2000) and Feiock and Scholz (2010), examining these concepts through the lenses of decision making

and game theory literatures, argue that these are not points on a single scale, and that problems of

coordination and cooperation are fundamentally different forms of collaboration in terms of the risks

faced by potential collaborators. One seemingly simple yet powerfully important challenge for

practitioners and researchers alike, then, is to define what they mean by collaboration and to make sure

that there is a shared definition.

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Figure 1

Differences among Cooperation, Coordination, and Collaboration

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Cooperation……….…… Coordination…….……... Collaboration………….... Service Integration

(Selden, Sowa, & Sandfort, 2002)

#2: Changing Environment, Changing Practices

Public managers who work collaboratively find themselves not solely as unitary leaders of

unitary organizations. Instead, they often find themselves facilitating and operating in

multiorganizational arrangements to solve problems that cannot be solved, or solved easily, by single

organizations. While collaborative public management has been around a long time (O’Leary, Gazley,

McGuire, & Bingham, 2009; Agranoff & McGuire, 2003; Hall & O’Toole, 2000, 2004; Hull & Hjern,

1987; O’Toole, 1985; Hanf, Hjern, & Porter, 1978; Pressman & Wildavsky, 1973; Grodzins, 1960),

there have been many changes in the environment of public, private, and nonprofit organizations that

have encouraged the growth of collaborative public management. All are important for researchers and

managers alike to understand.

First, most major public challenges are larger than one organization, requiring new approaches

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to addressing public issues. Second, in many jurisdictions, outsourcing has grown in volume and dollar

amount. By its very nature, outsourcing is a collaborative endeavor between the public agencies

awarding the contract and the organizations performing the contracted tasks. Third, the desire to

improve the effectiveness of publicly funded programs is encouraging public officials to identify new

ways of providing public services. Fourth, technology is helping government agencies and personnel

share information in a way that is integrative and interoperable, with the outcome being a greater

emphasis on collaborative governance. Finally, citizens are seeking additional avenues for engaging in

governance, which can result in new and different forms of collaborative problem solving and decision

making.

Reflections on the Practice of Collaboration

The literature on the practice of collaboration is vast. In this section we present what we think

are the most compelling ideas concerning what it means to be a lateral thinker, on-the-ground

challenges and paradoxes of collaborating, factors to consider before collaborating, new notions of

leadership, and the skills and traits of the effective collaborator.

#3: Think Da Vinci - Lateral Thinking and Interdiscipinarity

The phrase “lateral thinking” is used to describe creativity that stems from taking knowledge

from one substantive context or discipline and applying it to an entirely different one. For example,

Leonardo da Vinci’s genius stemmed from his mastery of lateral thinking. He moved fluidly from art

to science, engineering, mathematics, medicine, architecture, and beyond, finding universal rules of

nature manifest in widely varying contexts (Riding, 2006). He dissected the human arm and a bird’s

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wing, and then tried to engineer a machine to enable people to fly; in this way, he applied what he

learned from human physiology and natural science to engineering.

“Think DaVinci” is important for any collaborator to remember because in an ideal world, the

primary reason to collaborate is if you think you can create something better than if you did it yourself.

Huxham (1993) writes that “collaborative advantage will be achieved when something unusually

creative is produced – perhaps an objective is met – that no organization could have produced on its

own and when each organization, through the collaboration, is able to achieve its own objectives better

than it could alone. In some cases, it should also be possible to achieve some higher-level … objectives

for society as a whole rather than just for the participating organizations” (p. 603).

And yet, much of collaboration is mandated, where at least some of the partners may not have a

choice whether to collaborate or not. Huxham (2000) documents the downside to collaboration and

echoes the sentiment that collaboration is very difficult to do. If one can achieve the same outcome

acting independently, Huxham advises one to avoid collaborating if possible.

#4: Major Challenges of Collaborative Networks: Paradoxes and Complexities

There are many challenges in all collaborative endeavors; here we focus on collaborative

networks. For example, all networks are not created equal. Some are sophisticated and well run; others

are awkward and poorly run; most are somewhere in-between. In addition, motivation to collaborate

varies. Some leaders choose to collaborate to increase performance, to better serve the public, or to

“think DaVinci”. Others may collaborate in order to be free-riders and obtain benefits without

commensurate effort. For these and other reasons, collaboration is not always wise. In fact, it could

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negatively impact the primary mission of one’s organization. Tied in with this, it is a paradox that

collaboration may yield conflict. Managing that conflict can be a formidable challenge.

Networks by definition are complex conglomerations of diverse organizations and individuals.

The characteristics that add to the complexity of network disputes are numerous (O’Leary & Bingham,

2007):

There are multiple members. Network disputes typically involve many individuals and organizations.

Each member brings their own interests that must be met. If interests are not met, members may leave

the network.

Network members bring both different and common missions. There must be some commonality of

purpose to provide incentive for becoming a member of a network. Yet each organization also has its

own unique mission that that must be followed. These can at times clash with the mission of the

network.

Network organizations each have a different organization culture. Culture is to the organization what

character is to the individual. Just as each individual is unique, so is each organization culture.

Diversity among network organizations’ cultures may present challenges within the network itself.

Network organizations have different methods of operation. They will differ in degrees of hierarchy.

They will differ in degrees of management control. These and other differences may affect what a

network can and cannot accomplish and the speed at which it is accomplished.

Network members have different stakeholder groups and different funders. In order to satisfy their

diverse constituencies, network members will have different perspectives on appropriate direction and

activities. Some of these preferences will overlap, some will not.

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Network members have different degrees of power. Not all members of a network are created equal.

Despite network rules that may give an equal vote to each member, some are typically more powerful

than others. For example, in emergency management networks, often times federal organizations are

the beneficiaries of legislation that allows them to preempt local and state actions. Differences in

power can pose immense challenges to collaborative entities.

There are often multiple issues. Networks typically are formed to address complex problems that are

not easily solved by one organization. Complex problems bring with them multiple issues and sub-

issues. Multiple issues and sub-issues typically yield multiple challenges.

There are multiple forums for decision-making. Public decisions may be made by networks. At the

same time, the same public issue may be debated and dealt with in the legislature, in the courts, or in

the offices of career public servants. Whether and how a decision is made by a network can be a

challenge.

Networks are both interorganizational and interpersonal. The networks studied in the management

literature typically are spider webs of organizations. But each organization typically is represented in

the network by one or more agents of that organization. Just as networked organizations may clash, so

too may networked individuals.

There are a variety of governance structures available to networks. How the network chooses to

govern itself, lead members, develop consensus, and create conventions for dialogue and deliberative

processes all are exceedingly important and demanding for networks. Just the design of governance

rules for the network can be an exceedingly complex procedure.

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Networks may encounter conflict with the public. Increasingly, collaborative public management

networks are engaging citizens through a variety of means. Because networks often address issues of

concern to a diverse public with multiple interests, conflict may emerge.

#5: The Management Paradox - Balancing Autonomy and Interdependence

Connelly, Zhang, and Faerman (2008) write of additional paradoxes involved in being a

collaborative manager. As managers work both within their own organizations and within networks,

they are challenged in ways very different from traditional management. These challenges demand

different skill sets from managers. Borrowing from Connelly, Zhang, and Faerman, here are more

paradoxes of being a collaborative manager. While we focus on networks, these challenges pertain also

to collaborations outside of networks.

Collaborative managers must work both with autonomy and interdependence. As a leader of a single

program or organization, managers often work with independence, setting the rules and calling the

shots. As a member of a collaborative network, a manager is typically now one of many managers with

numerous intertwining interests that must be met.

Collaborative managers and their networks have both common and diverse goals. Each member of a

network has goals that typically are unique to that member’s organization or program. At the same

time, as members of a network, managers typically share common goals.

Collaborative managers must work both with a fewer number and a greater variety of groups which

are increasingly more diverse. When organizations combine to form a network, they become one body

– hence the fewer number. Yet within this one body typically is a great variety of organizations with

different cultures, missions, and ways of operating – hence the greater diversity.

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Collaborative managers need to be both participative and authoritative. Behavior within a network is

typically participative as the members make decisions concerning the direction of the group. Yet as a

manager of a single program or organization, a manager is expected at times to take command and call

the shots as he or she sees them. (Connelly, Zhang, and Faerman emphasize that authoritative is the

key word here, not authoritarian which connotes a more dictatorial style.)

Collaborative managers need to see the forest and the trees. A manager of a single program or

organization needs to master the details and fine points of what they do on a daily basis. At the same

time, as a member of a network, that same manager needs to think holistically and laterally.

Collaborative managers need to balance advocacy and inquiry. Every manager has an obligation to

promote, support, and act in favor of his or her organization. Yet because of the intertwining interests,

managers need to probe and question to gather the information for decisions necessary to act in the

best interests of the network.

What is a collaborative manager to do? Connelly, Zhang, and Faerman emphasize that these

paradoxes should be accepted, embraced, and transcended, not resolved. These paradoxes are

fundamental challenges of working collaboratively both within and outside of networks.

#6: Factors to Consider Before Collaborating

Collaboration for public managers can be complex. There are no one-size-fits-all recipes for a

successful collaboration as managers need to balance many factors. Some of the most important factors

that affect collaborations are presented in this section. These factors come from fourteen case studies

from nine countries (Mexico, Ecuador, Mali, Madagascar, France, Nepal, Belize, Ecuador, and the

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United States) presented at a Maxwell School conference (see Benjamin, Brechin, & Thoms, 2011) as

well as from Vij’s research in India (2011).

Context

All collaborations are embedded in a specific policy context, and the behavior of collaborators

is influenced by that context (Isett, Mergel, LeRoux, Mischen, & Rethemeyer, 2011). Contextual

factors, however, may also include environmental complexity and turbulence due market competition,

government regulation, litigation, legal and tort reform, statutory and court mandates, and unionization

that interact with organizational culture and management practices. A collaboration that works in one

context may be unsuccessful in another.

The Purpose or the Mission of the Collaboration

Collaborations serve a variety of purposes. The interests of collaborators may conflict with

each other, but collaborators must agree on the overall purpose of the collaboration to work together.

Numerous studies conclude that among the success factors in collaboration is a clearly mutually agreed

upon purpose or mission (Agranoff & McGuire, 2003; Bryson, Crosby, & Stone, 2006; Ingraham &

Getha-Taylor, 2008; Page, 2008; Provan, Kenis, & Human, 2008; McGuire & Silvia, 2010). One factor

to weigh when considering collaborating is whether your organization’s mission is compatible with the

purpose or mission of the collaboration.

Member Selection and Capacity Building

Those who collaborate bring their unique skills, resources, expertise, experience, perspectives,

knowledge, diverse educational and cultural backgrounds, as well as values to collaborative endeavors.

Capacity is the ability of a member to secure the human, technological, political, or other necessary

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resources that allow it to participate in collaborative activities (Gazley, 2008). A collaborating group’s

“representativeness” could suffer if participants lack sufficient competence to participate effectively

(Leach, 2006). Communication, training, and a diverse selection of participants with multiple

(representative) perspectives often are needed for building capacities. Further, as individuals

collaborate, they most likely will learn from other individuals and there typically will be a generation

of social capital (Agranoff & McGuire, 2003; Waugh & Streib, 2006) and shared meaning (Gray,

2000). Capacity building often times increases the likelihood of success in collaborations and could

help in developing an inter-organizational mission and a collaborative culture. Hence, among the

factors to consider when weighing whether to collaborate or not is how members will be selected, who

will participate, and how or if collaborative capacity can be built.

Motivation and Commitment of the Collaborators

Individuals and organizations come together to collaborate for a wide array of reasons

including economic, social, organizational or political, to address cross-sector failure (Bryson et al.,

2006), leverage resources and knowledge (Graddy & Chen, 2009), for more efficient delivery of

services (Agranoff & McGuire, 2003; Bardach, 1998), to seek visibility or legitimacy, and to build

collaborative relationships. Before one agrees to collaborate, one should weigh the motivation and

commitment of other collaborators.

Structure and Governance of the Collaboration

Among the factors that may affect the success or the failure of a collaboration are “the structure

of the collaborative effort and how … [it] will be governed” (McGuire, 2006, p. 38). Structure in part

delineates authority and responsibilities within the collaboration. Collaborators face a paradox of

flexibility-stability here. Collaboration is often preferred over bureaucratic structures because it may be

more flexible. But it can also be unstable, and may make accountability difficult. A centralized

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structure tends to yield coordination and efficiency to the collaborative arrangement (Milward &

Provan, 2003, p. 8). Governance is the activity of making joint decisions and rules to govern the

collaboration. These might include rule making and agreements concerning how collaborators will

interact, communicate, and work within the collaborative structure in order to achieve the outcome.

O’Leary and Bingham (2007, p. 27) provide a nine-step process for building a collaborative

governance structure with the aim of trying to prevent conflict through forethought and adaption to the

needs of the collaborators, resource and power distribution, communication, context, and the degree of

flexibility required for the collaboration to progress.

Power in Collaborations

Power imbalances within collaborations may result in conflict and cooptation, and may affect

the success of the collaboration. Structure and governance mechanisms can be both a source of and a

remedy to power imbalances as they delineate the power sharing arrangement and authority among

collaborators. Collaborators with resources may have stronger bargaining power. Sometimes, the

reputation of the collaborators may also be source of power. Government officials may be able to

exercise power over the other collaborators because they represent the government. Agranoff (2006)

concludes that a legal mandate will increase authority and power and hence will tend to increase the

likelihood of success of a collaboration. Hence, when considering whether to collaborate or not, one

should analyze sources of power as well as possible power imbalances.

Accountability

Accountability in collaborations has been defined as “ensuring that collaborators work together

in ways that accord with the intent of voters and public officials who authorize their joint efforts”

(Page, 2008, p. 138). Collaborations often address policy problems that cross jurisdictional and

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sectoral boundaries. Solutions require the collaboration of multiple stakeholders, such as national,

regional, and local government actors; nonprofit organizations; and the private sector. Private

organizations that work in collaborations, in particular, have a unique responsibility to citizens.

Collaborative networks to carry out the business of government have received criticism for perceived

problems with accountability and, tied in with this, a lack of transparency. Unlike an agency that acts

alone in a traditional bureaucratic way, a network does not present a clear chain of command.

Responsibility is dispersed. Network meetings are not always open to the public. And yet,

collaborative public management networks often are carrying out the essential missions of governance:

They are making, implementing, and carrying out public policy. Before agreeing to a collaborative

arrangement, it is important to determine if and how a collaborative group will be held accountable to

citizens and public officials.

Communication

Information exchange, dialogue, sharing ideas, brainstorming, articulating and asserting views,

negotiations, bargaining, deliberations, problem solving, conflict management, and conflict resolution

are important for collaborations (Bingham, O’Leary, & Carlson, 2008). Deliberation and dialogue

allow collaborators to brainstorm, critically examine each other's arguments, identify common

interests, and build a base of shared knowledge and social capital (Creighton, 2005; Leach, 2006;

Roberts, 2002). Those who are weighing whether to collaborate or not should make sure that

communication channels are inclusive, transparent, and regular. These can be formalized in

governance mechanisms.

Perceived Legitimacy

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Legitimacy is a generalized perception that the actions of a collaborating entity are desirable,

proper, or within some system of norms, beliefs, and definitions. For a collaboration to exist, work, and

achieve its purpose, collaborators should consider how they will build and manage legitimacy

(Milward & Provan, 2006). Legitimacy may help in securing political and financial resources, as well

as assuring the perpetuation of organization activity (Alexander & O’Leary, 2009). Legally mandated

collaborations have a certain degree of granted legitimacy. Legitimacy can also be built through

trusting previous relationships, and by conforming to the norms of the institutional environment

(Bryson et al., 2006). Hence, one factor to consider before collaborating is what is the perceived

legitimacy of the collaborating group?

Trust

Many scholars maintain that trust is critical for building relationships and sustaining a

collaboration (Bardach, 1998; Gray, 1985; Huxham, 2003; Huxham, 1996; Milward & Provan, 2006;

Van Slyke, 2007). Cummings and Bromiley analyze trust as keeping commitments, negotiating

honestly, and not taking undue advantage of individuals or groups (Cummings & Bromiley, 1996).

Some collaborators prefer to work with others with whom they have a previous history of relationships

or associations, as an element of trust is already built in between them (Tschirtart, Amezcua, & Anker,

2009). Trust can be developed among new collaborators, however, through clear communication,

reciprocity, goal alignment, transparency, information and knowledge sharing, and by demonstrating

competency, good intentions, and follow-through. Before agreeing to a collaboration, ask if you trust

those with whom you might be collaborating, or if trust may be built.

Information Technology

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Some collaborations have transgressed geographical borders to become virtual organizations

and networks almost limitless in their scale, scope, and structure. Integrated information networks can

now link all major components of organizations, management information systems, geographic

information systems, intranet, and internet. Communication technologies, social media, and other

technological innovations have led to a more intricate, integrated, and interactive form of e-

governance. Collaborators must understand how best to harness the potential of information

technology but should also be cautious of the challenges it poses. Those contemplating a collaboration

should fully understand the need, role, and nature of the technology required to participate fully in a

particular collaboration, as well as their own capability to manage the information technology needed

for effective collaboration. (Pardo, Gil-Garcia, & Luna-Reyes, 2010; Rainey, 2009)

#7: The Importance of the Individual in Collaborative Partnerships

The role of the individual in collaborations has largely been given short shrift in the public

management literature. Much of the published research is on networks of organizations, with little

mention of the fact that while organizations and jurisdictions collaborate, it is always in the form of

individuals. For example, Huxham early on researched organizations’ “collaborative capability” (1993)

but emphasized that she was focusing “not on collaboration … between individuals, but on

collaboration … between organizations” (1996, p. 1).

Four years later, Huxham shifted her lens to include, in part, the people who represent their

organizations in collaborations, writing that the relationships between individual participants in

collaborations are often fundamental to getting things done (Huxham, 2000, p. 341; 2005, p. 74). In a

later work, Huxham explained:

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Collaborations are, of course, enacted by individuals. …[T]hese individuals are generally

linked to the various organizations that form the collaboration. Commonly, they are acting in a

representative function. In the course of collaborative activities, such individuals tend

implicitly (and often unwittingly) to converse about their aims, and those of their partners at

three levels: the level of the collaboration; the level of the participating organizations; and the

level of the participating individuals (Huxham & Vangen, 2005, p. 84).

Indeed, throughout Huxham’s large body of work on collaboration are repeated findings about, and

references to, the difficulties and challenges involved among the individuals who represent the

organizations that collaborate.

This sentiment is echoed by Frederickson (2007). Clearly, collaboration is deeply dependent on

the skills of officials and managers. Important is who is representing an organization, agency, or

jurisdiction at the table and whether they have the necessary skills to be an effective collaborator.

In 2010, O’Leary, Gerard, and Choi surveyed members of the U.S. Senior Executive Service

(SES) and asked them the question, “What is the skill set for the successful collaborator?” Based on

the literature on collaboration and networks, and given the fact that SES members are standard-setting

senior executives who often times have immense decision authority as well as deep knowledge,

extensive experience, and long tenure in national governance issues, these researchers thought they

would find three things. First and foremost, they thought these executives would tell them that the most

important skills in the skillset of the collaborative manager are thinking and acting strategically,

including visioning (Goldsmith & Eggers, 2004; Milward & Provan, 2006; McGuire & Silvia, 2009).

Second, based on their own work facilitating collaborative groups, as well as the literature, they

thought that the desired skills, after strategy, would be facilitation, collaborative problem-solving, and

conflict management (Huxham et al., 1993, 1996, 2000, 2004, 2005; Williams, 2002; Crosby &

Bryson, 1992, McGuire & Silvia, 2009; Silvia & McGuire, 2010; Getha-Taylor, 2008; Emerson &

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Smutco, 2011). Finally, again based on their “real world” work with collaborative groups, as well as

the literature, O’Leary, Gerard, and Choi predicted that interpersonal skills would be highly ranked

(Getha-Taylor, 2008; Silvia & McGuire, 2010; Emerson & Smutco, 2011).

Their respondents surprised them: The most frequently mentioned answers to the question of

what is the skill set of the collaborative manager dealt with personal characteristics and interpersonal

skills, followed by group process skills, strategic leadership skills, and substantive/technical expertise

(in that order). Personal characteristics outnumbered strategy and expertise in the responses two-to-

one.

The most frequently mentioned personal characteristics were (in order): open minded, patient,

change oriented, flexible, unselfish, persistent, diplomatic, honest, trustworthy, respectful, empathetic,

goal oriented, decisive, friendly, and a sense of humor. The most frequently mentioned interpersonal

skills were good communication, listening, and the ability to work with people. Tied with this were

group process skills, mentioned third in importance as part of the skill set for the successful

collaborator. These included facilitation; interest-based negotiation; collaborative problem solving;

skill in understanding group dynamics, culture and personalities; compromise; conflict resolution; and

mediation. The common thread here is the emphasis on people and people skills.

#8: The Shifting Leadership Challenge - Leading When You Are Not in Charge

More than 90 percent of global executives who were surveyed by the Center for Creative

Leadership said that collaboration is vital for leadership success (www.ccl.org). But when the follow-

up question was asked, “Are the leaders of your organization good at collaboration?”, less than 50

percent of the respondents said that their leaders were good at collaboration. In a horizontal world,

there are many times when collaboration is needed, but often one does not know how to do it and do it

well. Collaboration yields immense leadership challenges.

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Tied in with this, often times when one is working in a collaborative capacity, one is not in

charge and so one is leading in a way that is nontraditional. In the early 1900s “great man” theories of

leadership were popular. These theories focused on “identifying the innate qualities and characteristics

possessed by great social, political, and military leaders” (Northouse, 2001, p. 15). Scholars at that

time believed that leaders were born, not made, and numerous studies of “great” leaders were carried

out to determine the specific traits that clearly separated leaders from followers (Bass, 1990; Jago,

1982). The focus was solely on the talented individual who could single-handedly enter the picture and

save the day.

Yet in a world where collaboration is common place and where most complex public policy

problems are larger than one organization to handle, very different leadership skills – the skills of

being a leader when one is working in a network for example – have become very important. Lester

Salamon (2002) observed that collaboration and collaborative governance shift the emphasis from the

control of large bureaucratic organizations and the bureaucratic way of managing public programs to

enablement skills. These enablement skills are used to bring people together, to engage partners

horizontally, and to bring multiple collaborators together for a common end in a situation of

interdependence. Examples include negotiation, facilitation, collaborative problem solving, and

conflict management.

Reflections on the Theories of Collaboration

Every academic discipline and subdiscipline has enduring theoretical, empirical,

methodological and conceptual challenges. Collaborative public management is no different. In this

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section we reflect on weaknesses in collaborative public management research, and the seeming

disconnect between theory and practice.

#9: Weaknesses in Collaborative Public Management Research

When one looks at collaborative public management research through a theoretical lens, five

inherent weaknesses emerge. First, while the literature of collaborative public management is rich in

insights from numerous disciplines, there is a need for a consistent overarching theory. Instead, what

we have is a piece-meal approach (Wood & Gray, 1991; Gray, 1985; Cooper, Bryer, & Meek, 2006;

Graddy & Chen, 2009; Bingham & O’Leary, 2006; Ring & Van de Ven, 1994; Thomson & Perry,

2006). For example, there is a need to have a comprehensive vision of the antecedents, processes, and

outcomes (Bingham, O’Leary, & Carlson, 2008; Thomson & Perry, 2006). This is reminiscent of the

riddle of the elephant and the six blind men, and Waldo’s comment five decades ago (referring to

organization theory research as a whole): While “there is little doubt here that it is a single elephant

being discussed....Each of the observers begins his description from a different point and often with a

special end in view” (Waldo, 1961, p. 216). It seems we still have not explained the entire elephant.

Second, while the field derives richness from incorporating theories from other fields, it also

suffers from blind spots concerning theoretical diversity and fragmentation, and lacks depth (Nesbit et

al., 2011). Third, the present research tends to limit itself to cross-sectional analysis with often a

retrospective perception of collaborative management cases, while we need to understand how

collaboration actually performs over time from its inception to its culmination. This may involve

actually tracking collaborations in real time and more longitudinal studies. Fourth, there has not been

enough research to distinguish and study mandated collaboration separate from voluntary

collaboration. Fifth, collaborative public management still lacks a distinct identity as distinct area of

inquiry. Contrast this to the area of public deliberation which now has its own journal.

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Conceptual Weaknesses

The next weakness of collaborative public management research comes from conceptual

stretching. For example, conceptual boundaries among coordination, cooperation, coalition,

collaboration, network structures, collaborative public management, collaborative governance, civic

engagement, alliances, mergers, and partnership are blurred and lack clear, coherent, operational

definitions which can be mutually agreed upon by researchers. The multiple terms, meanings, and

implications are overlapping, elusive, and unclear, leading to inconsistencies in the nomenclature

(Huxham, 2003; McGuire, 2006; Nesbit et al., 2011; Isett et al., 2011). This is most acute between the

research on collaborative governance and the research on network governance. Although collaboration

can be a feature of networks, it can also exist outside of networks. Similarly, networks too can extend

beyond collaborative linkages. Since the terms are often used interchangeably, however, the incorrect

impression is that all networks are collaborative and all collaborations happen in networks.

Methodological weaknesses

Deriving from theoretical and conceptual weaknesses, there are two primary methodological

shortcomings in collaborative public management research. First is weak empirical validation and a

greater reliance on anecdotal description, which prevents the field from improving itself as an applied

science. There is no single or even a set of valid, reliable, recognizable measures for analyzing and

comparing different collaborations and drawing conclusions on how to foster and maintain effective

collaborations (Gazley, 2008; Graddy & Chen, 2009; McGuire and Silvia, 2009; Moynihan et al.,

2011; O’Leary & Bingham, 2009; Tschirhart, Amezcua, & Anker, 2009).

Second, there are inherent inconsistencies in identifying the unit of analysis. If one is studying

collaborative networks, for example, ideally, the unit of analysis as per definition should be the

complete collaborative network. However, conceptual, resource, and time constraints tend to permit

only formal collaborative networks to be captured, instead of including their informal extensions as

23

well (for instance behind-the-scene interpersonal interactions or relationship-building that have an

important bearing on collaborations (Isett et al., 2011)).

Grappling with Globalization

Collaborative public management research has fallen short of keeping pace with the increased

impact of globalization on network governance scholarship and academic discourse. Globalization has

posed unprecedented opportunities as well as challenges for collaborative public management research.

Governance has become more global, diverse, and represented by complex governing arrangements

and values. Research has been lagging in two main global areas: globalized problems faced by public

management as well as the emergence of transnational and regional networks (Bowornwathana, 2010).

Collaborative Public Management in the New InformationTechnology (IT) Era

A fifth weakness is that collaborative public management researchers are just warming up to

the importance of the already emerged new forms of collaboration catalyzed by social networking

media tools. There is an expanded scope and complexity of web-based social networks in which

collaborators can communicate. There is a need for further research analyzing how IT applications

enhance or hinder inter-organizational information integration, the sharing of knowledge in

collaborative governance, the solving of transnational problems, and the utilization of analytical tools

to deal with complex and uncertain problems.

#10: The Missing Link Between Theory and Practice

We close by emphasizing the seeming disconnect between theory and practice in collaborative

public management research (Bushouse et al., 2011). It is disturbing and worrisome that the academic

community is not able significantly to impact the world of collaborative practice. Research seemingly

does not inform or influence the world of practice at large. In addition, there is a general lack of

aggregation of knowledge on collaborative public management. As a result, we are not making great

24

breakthroughs in understanding. The knowledge that is produced is not widely read, and so has little

relevance to scholarly and academic readership, as well as practitioners. This leads to the problem of

producing more research but running the risk of knowing relatively less. Although a certain amount of

fragmentation will occur in any field so diverse, too much diffusion and fragmentation leads

researchers to isolate themselves from each other and limits their ability to access the work in other

traditions and approaches (Nesbit et al., 2011).

A View to the Future

This article has highlighted what we think are the most important issues, concepts, and ideas in

collaborative public management research and practice today. It is safe to say that the study and

practice of collaborative public management is generally fragmented with low level of consensus.

From a research perspective, it is a low paradigm field. Some of the specific reasons behind this slow

knowledge development include the lack of agreed-upon definitions of commonly used terms and

variables, little consensus on significant research topics, a piece-meal approach to theory building,

reliance on anecdotal description, differing and incomplete units of analysis, and a failure to keep up

with global and IT developments. From a practice perspective, there is a poor connection between

practice and theory, a lack of agreed-upon definitions of commonly used terms, paradoxes and

complexities in collaborative practices, challenges in balancing autonomy with interdependence,

difficulties that arise when leading when one is not in charge, and limited transfer of knowledge and

lessons learned from one manager to another.

To advance the study and practice of collaborative public management, we need agreement on

definitions of commonly used terms, beginning with the word “collaboration.” We need more precise

theoretical models of behavior. We need agreement on the measurement of relevant variables.

25

We need deeper discussion of pressing collaborative public management challenges and

substantive research and practice questions. For example, it will be important to understand the

interplay of factors such as public leadership and social equity in collaborative public management.

This requires us to broaden and sharpen our methods of inquiry and to understand how collaboration is

itself interpreted and practiced differently by public administrators in many countries around the world.

Recent international phenomena like the Arab Spring further reinforce the need for theories and

models to understand collaborative leadership in local governance in global communities. The role of

technology in collaborative public management needs to be better understood, including virtual

transnational collaborative networks as well as web-based social networks. The advancement of

knowledge concerning collaborative public management is likely to remain slow, but we are optimistic

that it is well worth the effort to improve research on, and the practice of, collaborative public

management.

26

Helpful Sources:

PARCC, Collaborative Governance Annotated Bibliography (compiled by O’Leary et al.) available at:

http://www.maxwell.syr.edu/uploadedFiles/parcc/Research/Collaborative/2011%20PARC%20

Collaboration-Annotated%20Bibliography.pdf.

Networks & Network Theory Bibliography (compiled by Kapucu et al.) available at:

http://pegasus.cc.ucf.edu/~nkapucu/documents/Network%20Theory%20Bibliography%20Cate

gorized.pdf

For cases, simulations, and syllabi concerning collaboration, see www.e-parc.org

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