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G . A . C O H E N

R O B E R T N O Z I C K A N D W I L T C H A M B E R L A I N : H O W

P A T T E R N S P R E S E R V E L I B E R T Y

L e t u s n o w s u p p o s e t h a t I h a v e s o l d th e p r o d u c t o f m y o w n l a b o u r f o r m o n e y , a n d h a v e u s e d

t h e m o n e y t o h i re a l a b o u r e r , i .e ., I h a v e b o u g h t s o m e b o d y e l s e s l a b o u r - p o w e r . H a v i n g

t a k e n a d v a n t a g e o f th i s l a b o u r - p o w e r o f a n o t h e r , I tu r n o u t t o b e t h e o w n e r o f v al u e w h i c h is

c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r t h a n t h e v a l u e I s p e n t o n i t s p u r c h a s e . T h i s , from one point of v iew is

v e r y j u s t , b e c a u s e i t h a s a l r e a d y b e e~ , r e c o g n i z e d , a f t e r a l l, t h a t I c a n u s e w h a t I h a v e s e c u r e d

b y e x c h a n g e a s is b e s t a n d m o s t a d v a n t a g e o u s t o m y s e l f . . . 1

P e r s o n s , w h o u n d e r a v i ci o u s o r d e r o f th i n g s h a v e o b t a i n e d a c o m p e t e n t s h a r e o f so c ia l

e n j o y m e n t s , a r e n e v e r i n w a n t o f a r g u m e n t s t o j u s t if y to t h e e y e o f r e a s o n s u c h a s t at e o f

s o c ie t y ; f o r w h a t m a y n o t a d m i t o f a p o l o g y w h e n e x h i b i t e d in b u t one point of view? I f t h e

s a m e i n d iv i d u al s w e r e t o m o r r o w r e q u i r e d t o c a s t a n e w t h e l o t s as s i g n in g t h e m a p l ac e i n

s o c ie t y , t h e y w o u l d f in d m a n y t h i n g s t o o b j e c t t o 9

R o b e r t N o z i c k o c c u p i e s th e p o i n t o f v ie w P l e k h a n o v d e s c ri b e s, a n d h is

An arch y S ta te an d Utopia is i n l a r g e m e a s u r e a n i n g e n i o u s e l a b o r a t i o n o f

t h e a r g u m e n t f o r c a p i t a l i s m P l e k h a n o v a d u m b r a t e s . T h e c a p i t a l i s m

N o z i c k a d v o c a t e s i s m o r e p u r e t h a n t h e o n e w e k n o w t o d a y . I t l a c k s

t a x a t i o n f o r s o c i a l w e l f a r e , a n d i t p e r m i t s d e g r e e s o f i n e q u a l i t y f a r g r e a t e r

t h a n m o s t a p o l og i s ts fo r c o n t e m p o r a r y b o u r g e o i s s o c i e t y w o u l d n o w

c o u n t e n a n c e .

T h i s p a p e r is o n l y i n d i re c t l y a c r i ti q u e o f N o z i c k s d e f e n s e o f c a p i t a l-

i sm . 3 I t s i m m e d i a t e a i m is to r e f u t e N o z i c k s m a j o r a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t a

r iva l o f cap i t a l i sm, soc ia l i sm. The r e fu ta t ion v ind ica tes soc ia l i sm aga ins t

t h a t a r g u m e n t , b u t n o o n e o p p o s e d t o so c ia li sm o n o t h e r g r o u n d s s h o u l d

e x p e c t t o b e c o n v e r t e d b y th is p a p e r .

N o z i c k s c a s e a g a in s t s o c ia l is m c a n b e t a k e n i n t w o w a y s . H e p r o p o s e s a

d e f i n it i o n o f j u s t ic e i n t e r m s o f li b e r t y , a n d o n t h a t b a s i s h e a r g u e s t h a t

w ha t soc ia l is t s 4 con s ide r ju s t is no t in f ac t ju s t . B u t e ve n i f h i s de f in i t ion o f

jus t i ce i s wro ng , so tha t the bas i s o f h is c r i t ique , t ak en in th is f i rs t wa y , is

f a u l ty , h e s till h a s a c l a im a g a i n s t so c i a li s m , n a m e l y t h a t h o w e v e r / u s t i t

m a y b e i t i s i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h liberty. E v e n i f N o z i c k is m i s t a k e n a b o u t

wha t ju s t i ce i s , he migh t s t i l l be r igh t tha t the cos t in lo s s o f l ibe r ty

i m p o s e d b y w h a t s o c i a l is t s r e g a r d a s j u s t is i n t o l e r a b l y h i g h . ( H e n c e t h e

Erkenntnis 1 1 ( 1 9 7 7 ) 5 - 2 3 . A ll R ights Reserved

Copyright @ 1 9 7 7 by D. Re idel Publishing Company Dordrecht-Holland

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t i t l e o f t h e s e c t i o n o f t h e b o o k o n w h i c h w e s h a l l f o c u s : ' H o w L i b e r t y

U p s e t s P a t t e r n s ' -p a t t e r n s b e i n g d i s t r ib u t i o n s a n s w e r i n g t o , fo r e x a m p l e ,

a so c i a l i st p r i n c i p le o f ju s t i c e ) . S o i t i s n o t e n o u g h , i n d e f e n d i n g s o c i a l i s m

a g a i n st N o z i c k , t o p r o v e t h a t h e h a s n o t s h o w n i t i s u n ju s t 9 I t m u s t a l s o b e

p r o v e d t h a t h e h a s n o t s h o w n t h a t it is o p p o s e d t o l ib e r ty .

A f u l l d e f i n i t i o n o f s o c i a l i s m i s n o t r e q u i r e d f o r o u r p u r p o s e s . A l l w e

n e e d s u p p o s e i s t h a t a s o c ia l is t s o c i e t y u p h o l d s s o m e p r i n ci p le o f e q u a l i ty

i n th e d i s t r ib u t i o n o f b e n e f i ts e n j o y e d a n d b u r d e n s b o r n e b y i ts m e m b e r s .

T h e p r i n c ip l e n e e d n o t b e s p e c if ie d f u r t h er , fo r N o z i c k ' s a r g u m e n t is

a g a i n s t t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f

n y

s u c h p r i n ci p le 9 L e t u s n o w i m a g i n e t h a t s u c h

a n eg a l i t a r ia n p r in c ip l e i s in s t i t u t ed , a n d t h a t i t l ea d s t o a d i s t r ib u t io n o f

g o o d s a n d b a d s w h i c h , fo l l o w i n g N o z i c k , w e c all D 1 . T h e n N o z i c k

r e a s o n s b y e x a m p l e t h a t D 1 c a n b e m a i n t a i n e d o n l y a t t h e p r ic e o f

t y r a n n y a n d i n ju s t ic e . T h e e x a m p l e c o n c e r n s t h e b e s t b a s k e tb a l l p l a y e r in

t h e i m a g i n e d s o c i e t y : 5

9

s u p p o s e t h a t W i l t C h a m b e r l a i n is g r e at ly i n d e m a n d b y b a s k e t b a l l t e am s , b e i n g a g r e a t

g a t e a t t r a c t i o n . . . H e s ig n s t h e f o l lo w i n g s o r t o f c o n t r a c t w i t h a te a m : I n e a c h h o m e g a m e ,

t w e n t y -f i ve c e n t s fr o m t h e p r i ce o f e a c h t i c k e t o f a d m i s s io n g o e s t o h i m . . . T h e s e a s o n

s t a r t s , a n d p e o p l e c h e e r f u l l y a t t e n d h i s t e a m ' s g a m e s ; t h e y b u y t h e i r t i c k e t s , e a c h t i m e

d r o p p i n g a s e p a r a t e t w e n t y - f i v e c e n t s o f t h e i r a d m i s s i o n p r i c e i n t o a s p e c i a l b o x w i t h

C h a m b e r l a i n ' s n a m e o n i t. T h e y a r e e x c i t ed a b o u t s e e i n g h i m p l a y ; it is w o r t h t h e t o t a l

a d m i s s i o n p r i c e t o t h e m . L e t u s s u p p o s e t h a t i n o n e s e a s o n o n e m i l li o n p e r s o n s a t t e n d h i s

h o m e g a m e s , a n d W i l t C h a m b e r l a i n w i n d s u p w i th 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 , a m u c h l a r g e r s u m t h a n t h e

a v e r a g e i n c o m e . . . I s h e e n t i t l e d t o t h is i n c o m e ? I s t h is n e w d i s t r ib u t i o n , D 2 , u n j u s t ? I f s o ,

w h y ? T h e r e i s n o q u e s t i o n a b o u t w h e t h e r e a c h o f t h e p e o p l e W a s e n t i tl e d t o t h e c o n t r o l o v e r

t h e r e s o u r c e s t h e y h e l d i n D 1 ; b e c a u s e t h a t w a s t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n . . , t h a t ( f o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f

a r g u m e n t ) w e a s s u m e d w a s a c c e p t a b l e . E a c h o f t h e s e p e r s o n s chose t o g i v e t wen t y - f i v e

c e n t s o f th e i r m o n e y t o C h a m b e r l a i n . T h e y c o u l d h a v e s p e n t i t o n g o i n g to t h e m o v i es , o r o n

c a n d y b a r s , o r o n c o p i e s o f

D i s s e n t

m a g a z i n e , o r o f

M o n t h l y R e v ie w

B u t t h e y a l l, a t l e a s t o n e

m i l li o n o f t h e m , c o n v e r g e d o n g i v in g it t o W i l t C h a m b e r l a i n i n e x c h a n g e f o r w a t c h in g h i m

p l a y b a s k e t b a l l . I f D 1 w a s a j u s t d i s tr i b u t i o n , a n d p e o p l e v o l u n t a r i l y m o v e d f r o m i t to D 2 ,

t r a n s f e r r i n g p a r t s o f t h e i r s h a r e s t h e y w e r e g i v e n u n d e r D 1 ( w h a t w a s i t f o r i f n o t t o d o

s o m e t h i n g w i t h ? ) , i s n ' t D 2 a l s o j u s t ? I f t h e p e o p l e w e r e e n t i t l e d t o d i s p o s e o f th e r e s o u r c e s

t o w h i c h t h e y w e r e e n t i t l e d ( u n d e r D 1 ) , d i d n ' t t h i s i n c l u d e t h e i r b e i n g e n t i t l e d t o g i v e i t t o , o r

e x c h a n g e i t w i t h , W i l t C h a m b e r l a i n ? C a n a n y o n e e l s e c o m p l a i n o n g r o u n d s o f ju s t ic e ? E a c h

o t h e r p e r s o n a l r e a d y h a s h i s l e g i t i m a t e s h a r e u n d e r D 1 . U n d e r D 1 , t h e r e i s n o t h i n g

t h a t a n y o n e h a s t h a t a n y o n e e l s e h a s a c l a i m o f j u s t i c e a g a i n s t . A f t e r s o m e o n e

t r a n s f er s s o m e t h i n g t o W i l t C h a m b e r l a i n , t h i r d p a r ti e s st i l l h a v e t h e i r l e g i t i m a t e s h a r e s ;

the ir s h a r e s a r e n o t c h a n g e d . B y w h a t p r o c e s s c o u l d s u c h a t r a n s f e r a m o n g t w o p e r s o n s

g i v e ri s e t o a l e g i t i m a t e c l a i m o f d i s t r ib u t i v e ju s t i c e o n a p o r t i o n o f w h a t w a s t r a n s f e r r e d ,

b y a t h i r d p a r t y w h o h a d n o c l a i m o f j u s t i c e o n a n y h o l d i n g o f t h e o t h e r s before t h e

t r a n s f e r ?

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A c c o r d i n g t o N o z i c k

(1) W ha tev er a r i s es f rom a ju s t s i tua t ion by ju s t s t eps is i t s e l f ju s t .

(p. 151)

S t e p s a r e j u s t i f t h e y a r e f r e e o f i n ju s t ic e , a n d t h e y a r e f r e e o f i n j u s ti c e i f

t h e y a r e f u l l y v o l u n t a r y o n t h e p a r t o f all le g i t i m a t e l y c o n c e r n e d p e r s o n s .

H e n c e

(2) W ha tev er a r i s es f rom a ju s t s i tua t ion as a r e su l t o f fu l ly

v o l u n t a r y t r a n s a c t i o n s o n t h e p a r t o f a l l l e g i t i m a t e l y c o n -

ce rned pe r sons i s i t s e l f ju s t .

S o c o n v i n c e d is N o z i c k t h a t ( 2 ) is t r u e t h a t h e t h i n k s i t m u s t b e a c c e p t e d

b y p e o p l e a t t a c h e d t o a d o c t r i n e o f j u s t i c e w h i c h i n o t h e r r e s p e c t s d i ff e rs

f r o m h is o w n . T h a t i s w h y h e f e e l s a b l e t o e m p l o y (2 ) i n t h e C h a m b e r l a i n

p a r a b l e , d e s p i t e h a v i n g g r a n t e d , f o r t h e s a k e o f a r g u m e n t , t h e j u s t i c e o f

a n i n it ia l s i t u a t io n p a t t e r n e d b y a n e g a l i ta r i a n p r i n c ip l e . 6

E v e n i f (2 ) is t r u e , i t d o e s n o t f o l l o w t h a t p a t t e r n D 1 c a n b e m a i n t a i n e d

o n l y a t t h e p r i c e o f i n j u s t i c e , f o r p e o p l e m i g h t s i m p l y f i l t o u s e t h e i r

l i b e r t y i n a p a t t e r n - s u b v e r t i n g m a n n e r . B u t t h a t i s n o t a n i n t e r e s t i n g

p o s s ib i l it y . A m o r e i n t e r e s t i n g o n e is t h a t t h e y d e l i b e r a t e l y

re fuse

t o u s e

t h e i r l i b e r t y s u b v e r s i v e l y . R e a s o n s f o r r e f u s in g w ill b e a d d u c e d s h o r tl y .

B u t is (2 ) tr u e ? D o e s l i b e r t y a lw a y s p r e s e r v e j u s t i c e ?

A s t a n d a r d w a y o f t e st in g t h e c la im w o u l d b e t o l o o k f o r s t a t e s o f a ff ai rs

w h i c h w o u l d b e a c c o u n t e d u n j u s t b u t w h i c h m i g h t b e g e n e r a t e d b y t h e

r o u t e (2 ) a p p r o v e s . P e r h a p s t h e s t r o n g e s t c o u n t e r e x a m p l e o f t hi s f o r m

w o u l d b e s l a v e r y . W e t h e n s a y : v o l u n t a r y s e l f - e n s l a v e m e n t i s p o s s i b l e ,

s l a v e r y is u n j u s t , t h e r e f o r e ( 2) i s f a ls e . B u t w h a t e v e r m a y b e t h e m e r i t s o f

t h a t a r g u m e n t , w e k n o w t h a t N o z i c k is n o t m o v e d b y it. F o r h e t h i n k s

t h e r e i s n o i n j u s t i c e i n s l a v e r y t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t i t a r i s e s o u t o f t h e

a p p r o v e d p r o c e s se s .

T h o u g h N o z i c k c o n s i s t e n tl y e n d o r s e s s l a v e ry o f a p p r o p r i a t e g e n e si s,

the re i s a r e s tr i c t ion , de r ived f rom (2) it s el f , on the k ind o f s l ave ry he

a c c e p t s . ( 2) d o e s n o t a l l o w s l a v e s ta t u s t o b e i n h e r i t e d b y o f fs p r i n g o f t h e

s e l f- e n s la v e d , f o r th e n a c o n c e r n e d p a r t y ' s s i tu a t io n w o u l d b e d e c i d e d f o r

h i m , i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f h is w ill. S o m e t hi n g s i n d i v id u a l s m a y c h o o s e f o r

t h e m s e l v e s n o o n e m a y c h o o s e f o r a n o t h e r (p . 3 3 1 ). L e t u s r e m e m b e r

t h i s w h e n w e c o m e t o s c r u t i n i z e t h e W i l t C h a m b e r l a i n t r a n s a c t i o n , f o r

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widespread contracting of the kind which occurs in the parable might

have the effect of seriously modifying, for the worse, the situation of

members of future generations.

Should we say that in Nozick's conception of justice a slave society

need be no less just than one where people are free? That would be a

tendentious formulation 9For Nozick can add to what was reported above

that it is most unlikely that rational persons in an initially just situation

will in full knowledge of what they are doing contract into slavery, except,

indeed, where it would be wrong to forbid them to do so. This diminishes

the danger that (2) can be used to stamp approval on morally repellent

social arrangements 9

I attribute some such response to Nozick on the basis, inter li of this

passage:

9 i t m u s t b e g r a n t e d t h a t w e r e p e o p l e ' s r e a s o n s f o r t r a n s f e r r i n g s o m e o f t h e i r h o l d i n g s to

o t h e r s a l w a y s i r ra t i o n a l o r a r b i t r a r y , w e w o u l d f in d th i s d i s t u r b i n g . . . W e f e e l m o r e

c o m f o r t a b l e u p h o l d i n g t h e j u s ti c e o f a n e n t i t l e m e n t s y s t e m if m o s t o f t h e t r a n s f e r s u n d e r i t

a r e d o n e f o r r e a s o n s . T h i s d o e s n o t m e a n n e c e s s a r i ly t h a t a ll d e s e r v e w h a t h o l d i n g s t h e y

r e c e iv e . I t m e a n s o n l y t h a t t h e r e i s a p u r p o s e o r p o i n t t o s o m e o n e ' s t r a n s f e r r i n g a h o l d i n g t o

o n e p e r s o n r a t h e r t h a n t o a n o t h e r ; t h a t u s u al ly w e c a n s e e w h a t t h e t r a n s f e r r e r

thinks

h e ' s

g a i n i n g , w h a t c a u s e h e

thinks

h e ' s s e r v i n g , w h a t g o a l s h e

thinks

h e ' s h e l p i n g t o a c h i e v e , a n d

s o f o r th . S i n c e i n a c a p it a l is t s o c i e ty p e o p l e o f t e n t r a n s f e r h o l d i n g s t o o t h e r s i n a c c o r d a n c e

w i t h h o w m u c h t h e y per eive t h e s e o t h e r s b e n e f i t i n g t h e m , t h e f a b r i c c o n s t i t u t e d b y t h e

i n d i v i d u a l t r a n s a c t i o n s a n d t r a n s f e r s i s l a r g e ly r e a s o n a b l e a n d i n t el l ig i b l e (p . 1 5 9 , m y

e m p h a s e s ) .

Accordingly, Nozick emphasizes the motives people have when they

pay to watch Chamberlain, instead of stipulating that they do so freely

and leaving us to guess why. The example would be less impressive

if Chamberlain or his agent had induced in the fans an inordinate taste

for basketball, by means which fall short of what Nozick would consider

coercive or fraudulent, but which remain unattractive. It is important to

the persuasive allure of the example that we should think what the fans

are doing not only voluntary but sensible.

So transactions are disturbing, even though they are just - Nozick does

not quite say that what dis turbs us undermines the jus t ice of the transac-

tion - when we cannot see what the (or some of the) contracting parties

think they are gaining by them. But we should surely also be disturbed if

though we can see what the agent

t h i n k s

he's gaining, we know that what

he

wil l

gain is not that, but something he thinks less valuable; or that what

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r e s u l ts is ' n o t o n l y t h e g a i n h e e x p e c t s b u t a l s o u n f o r e s e e n c o n s e q u e n c e s

w h i c h r e n d e r n e g a t i v e t h e n e t v a l u e , a c c o r d in g t o his p r e f e r e n c e s a n d

s t a n d a r d s , o f t h e t ra n s a c t i o n . W e s h o u l d n o t b e c o n t e n t i f w h a t h e

t h i n k s

h e i s g e t t i n g i s g o o d , b u t w h a t h e a c t u a l l y g e t s is b a d , b y h is o w n l ig h t s. I

s h al l a s s u m e t h a t N o z i c k w o u l d a c c e p t t h i s p l a u s i b l e e x t e n s i o n o f h is

c o n c e s s i o n . I f h e w o u l d n o t , s o m u c h t h e w o r s e f o r hi s p o s i t i o n .

H e n c e i f w e c a n s h o w t h a t C h a m b e r l a i n ' s f a n s g e t n o t o n l y t h e p l e a s u r e

o f w a t c h i n g h i m m i n u s t w e n t y - f iv e c e n t s b u t a ls o u n c o n t e m p l a t e d d i s-

b e n e f i t s o f a hi g h o r d e r , t h e n e v e n i f f o r N o z i c k t h e o u t c o m e r e m a i n s j u s t ;

i t s h o u l d , e v e n t o N o z i c k , b e r a t h e r d i s tu r b i n g . W e s h a ll n e e d t o a sk

w h e t h e r w e d o n o t fi nd i r r a t i o n a l it y i n th e C h a m b e r l a i n t ra n s a c t i o n , w h e n

w e t h i n k t h r o u g h , a s N o z i c k ' s f a n s d o n o t , t h e f u l l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f w h a t

t h e y a r e d o i n g .

B u t n o w w e c a n g o f u r th e r . F o r , i n t h e l ig h t o f t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s j u s t

r e v i e w e d , ( 2) a p p e a r s v e r y p r o b a b l y f a ls e . N o z i c k s a y s a t r a n s a c t i o n is

f r e e o f in j u s t i c e i f e v e r y c o n c e r n e d p a r t y a g r e e s t o it . P e r h a p s t h a t i s s o .

B u t t ra n s a c t i o n a l j u s t ic e , s o c h a r a c t e r i z e d , is s u p p o s e d - g i v e n a n in i ti a ll y

j u s t s i t u a t i o n - t o c o n f e r j u s t i c e o n w h a t r e s u l t s f r o m i t. ( T h a t i s w h y ( 2 )

f o l lo w s fr o m (1 )) . A n d t h a t i s q u e s t i o n a b l e . O f e a c h p e r s o n w h o a g r e e s t o

a t r a n s a c t i o n w e m a y a s k : w o u l d h e h a v e a g r ee d to it h a d h e k n o w n w h a t its

o u t c o m e w a s t o b e

S i n c e t h e a n s w e r m a y b e n e g a t i v e , i t is f a r f r o m

e v i d e n t t h a t t r a n s a c t i o n a l j u s t i c e , a s d e s c r i b e d , t r a n s m i t s j u s t i c e t o i ts

r e s u lt s . P e r h a p s t h e e f f e c t o b t a i n s w h e n t h e a n s w e r is p o s i t iv e . T h i s l e a d s

u s t o r e v i s e ( 2 ) , a s f o l l o w s :

( 3) W h a t e v e r a r i s e s f r o m a j u s t s i t u a t i o n a s a r e s u l t o f f u l l y

v o l u n t a r y t r a n s a c t i o n s w h i c h a ll t r a n s a g e n t s w o u l d s ti l l h a v e

a g r e e d t o if t h e y h a d k n o w n w h a t t h e r e s u l t s o f s o tr a n s a c t i n g

w e r e t o b e i s i t se l f ju s t .

(3 ) l o o k s p l a u si b le , b u t its p o w e r t o e n d o r s e m a r k e t - g e n e r a t e d s t a te s o f

a f fa i rs is , w h i l e n o t n i l, v e r y w e a k . S t r o n g e r p r i n c i p l e s m a y a l s o b e

a v a i l a b l e , 7 b u t ( 2 ) , N o z i c k ' s p r i n c i p l e , is c e r t a i n l y t o o s t r o n g .

L e t u s n o w a p p l y t h i s c r i ti q u e o f N o z i c k ' s p r i n c i p le s t o t h e p a r a b l e

w h i c h i s s u p p o s e d t o s e c u r e ( o r r e v e a l ) o u r a l le g i a n c e t o t h e m .

B e f o r e d e s c r i b i n g t h e C h a m b e r l a i n t r a n s a c t io n , N o z i c k s a y s : I t is n o t

c l e a r h o w t h o s e h o l d i n g a l t e r n a t i v e c o n c e p t i o n s o f d i s t r i b u t i v e j u s t i c e c a n

r e j e c t th e e n t i t l e m e n t c o n c e p t i o n o f j u s t ic e i n h o l d i n g s (p . 1 6 0 ). T h e r e

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f o l lo w s th e C h a m b e r l a i n s t o ry , w h e r e w e a s s u m e t h a t D 1 is j u st , a n d a r e

t h e n , s u p p o s e d l y , c o n s t r a i n e d t o a d m i t t h a t D 2 , i n t o w h i c h it is c o n v e r t e d ,

m u s t a l s o b e j u s t; a n a d m i s s i o n , a c c o r d i n g t o N o z i c k , w h i c h i s t a n t a m o u n t

t o a c c e p t i n g t h e e n t i t l e m e n t c o n c e p t i o n . B u t h o w m u c h o f i t m u s t w e

a c c e p t i f w e e n d o r s e D 2 a s j u s t ? A t m o s t t h a t t h e r e is a r o l e fo r th e

e n t i t l e m e n t p r in c i p l e. F o r w h a t t h e t r a n s a c t i o n s u b v e r t s i s t h e o ri g in a l

p a t t e r n , n o t t h e p r i n c ip l e g o v e r n i n g i t, t a k e n a s a p r i n c i p le c o n j o i n a b l e

w i t h o t h e r s t o f o r m a to t a l t h e o r y o f j u s t o r l e g it i m a t e h o l d in g s . T h e

e x a m p l e , e v e n i f s u c c e s s fu l , d o e s n o t d e f e a t t h e i n it ia l a s s u m p t i o n t h a t D 1

i s j u s t. R a t h e r , i t e x p l o i t s t h a t a s s u m p t i o n t o a r g u e t h a t D 2 , t h o u g h i t

b r e a k s D l ' s p a t t e r n , is a l s o j u s t. T h e s t o r y , if s o u n d , i m p u g n s n o t t h e

o r i g in a l d i s t ri b u t i o n , b u t t h e ex lusive r i g h t n e s s o f t h e p r in c i p l e d e t e r -

m i n i n g i t .

N o w N o z i c k i s c e r t a in l y r i g h t t o t h is e x t e n t , e v e n i f w e r e j e c t t h e

C h a m b e r l a i n s to r y : t h e r e m u s t b e a r o le fo r e n t i t le m e n t in d e t e r m i n i n g

a c c e p t a b l e h o l d i n g s. F o r u n l e s s t h e j u s t s o c i e t y f o r b i d s g if t, it m u s t a l l o w

t r a n s f e rs w h i c h d o n o t a n s w e r t o a p a t t e r n i n g p r i n c ip l e . T h i s is c o m p a t i b l e

w i t h p l a c i n g r e s t r a in t s o n t h e s c o p e o f g i ft , a n d w e s h a ll s h o r t l y s e e w h y i t

m a y b e j u s t i f ie d i n d o i n g s o . M o r e g e n e r a l l y , a s s i g n in g a c e r t a in r o l e t o

u n r e g u l a t e d t r a n s a c t i o n s i n t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f h o l d i n g s is c o m p a t i b l e

w i t h u s i n g an e g a l it a r ia n p r i n c ip l e t o d e c i d e t h e m a j o r d i s t ri b u t i o n o f

g o o d s a n d t o l im i t, f o r e x a m p l e b y t ax a t io n , h o w m u c h m o r e o r le ss t h a n

w h a t h e w o u l d g e t u n d e r t h a t p r i n ci p le a l o n e a p e r s o n m a y c o m e to h a v e

i n v i r t u e o f t ra n s a c t i o n s w h i c h e s c a p e i t s w r i t . I t h i n k s o c i a l is t s d o w e l l t o

c o n c e d e t h a t a n e g a l i t a ri a n p r i n c ip l e s h o u l d n o t b e t h e o n l y g u i d e t o t h e

j u s t i c e o f h o l d i n g s , o r , if i t is , t h e n j u s t i c e s h o u l d n o t b e t h e o n l y g u i d e t o

t h e m o r a l l e g i t im a c y o f h o l d in g s . 8

A m o n g t h e r e a s o n s f o r l i m i t i n g h o w m u c h a n i n d i v i d u a l m a y h o l d ,

r e g a r d l e s s o f h o w h e c a m e t o h o l d it , is t o p r e v e n t h i m f r o m a c q u i ri n g ,

t h r o u g h h is h o ld i n gs , a n u n a c c e p t a b l e a m o u n t o f power o v e r o t h e r s . 9

I s t h e C h a m b e r l a i n t r a n s a c t i o n r e a l ly b e n e f ic i a l (o r a t w o r s t h a rm l e s s )

t o e v e r y o n e w i t h a n i n t e r e s t i n i t ? I s h a ll a r g u e t h a t i t t h r e a t e n s t o

g e n e r a t e a s i tu a t io n in w h i c h s o m e c o m e t o h a v e u n a c c e p t a b l e a m o u n t s o f

p o w e r o v e r o t h e r s .

T h e f a n s a r e e x c i t e d a b o u t s e e i n g h im p l a y ; i t is w o r t h t h e to t a l

a d m i s s io n p r i c e t o th e m . T h e i d e a i s t h a t t h e y s e e h i m p l a y if a n d o n l y if

t h e y p a y , a n d s e e i n g h i m p l a y is w o r t h m o r e t o t h e m t h a n a n y t h i n g e l s e

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H O W P T T E R N S P R E S E R V E L I B E R T Y 11

they can get for twenty-five cents. So it

m a y

be, but this fails to capture

everything in the outcome which is relevant. For once Chamberlain has

received the payments he is in a very special position of power in what was

previously an egalitarian society. The fans access to resources in future

may be prejudiced by the disproportionate access Chamberlain s wealth

gives him, and the consequent power over others he now has.

For a l l

N o z i c k s a y s the socialist may claim that this is not a bargain informed

people in an egalitarian society will be apt to make: they will refrain from

so contracting as to upset the equality they prize. They will be specially

averse to doing so because the resulting changes would profoundly affect

their children. (This may seem an hysterical projection of the effect of the

Chamberlain transaction, but I take it we have to consider the upshot of

general performance of transactions of that kind, and then the projection

is, I submit, entirely realistic).

It is easy to think carelessly about the example. How we feel about

people like Chamberlain getting a lot of money

as t h ings are

is a poor

index of how people would feel in the imagined situation. Among us the

ranks of the rich and the powerful exist, and it can be pleasing, given that

they do, when a figure like Chamberlain joins them. Who better and more

innocently deserves to be among them? But the case before us is a society

of equality in danger of corruption. Reflective people would have to

consider not only the joy of watching Chamberlain and its immediate

money price but also the fact, which socialists say they would deplore,

that their society would be set on the road to class division. In presenting

the Chamberlain fable Nozick ignores the commitment people may have

to living in a society of a particular kind, and the rhetorical power of the

illustration depends on that omission. Later - see p. 14 below - Nozick

takes up this point, but he says nothing interesting about it.

Nozick tacitly supposes that a person willing to pay twenty-five cents to

watch Wilt play is i p s o f a c t o a person willing to pay W i l t twenty-five cents

to watch him play. It is no doubt true that in our society people rarely care

who gets the money they forgo to obtain goods. But the tacit supposition

is false, and the common unconcern is irrational. Nozick exploits our

familiarity with this unconcern. Yet a person might welcome a world in

which he and a million others watch Wilt play, at a cost of twenty-five

cents to each, and consistently disfavour one in which, in addition, Wilt

receives a cool quarter million.

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12 G . A . C O H E N

So if a citizen of the D1 society joins with others in paying twenty-five

cents to Wilt to watch Wilt play, without thinking about the effect on

Wilt's power, then the result may be deemed 'disturbing' in the sense of p.

159. Of course a single person's paying a quarte r will make no appreci-

able difference if the rest are already going to do so. But a convention

might evolve not to make such payments, or, more simply, there could be

a democratically authorized taxation system which maintains wealth

differentials within acceptable limits. Whether Wilt would then still play

is a further question on which I shall not comment, except to say that

anyone who thinks it obvious he would not misunderstands human

nature, or basketball, or both.

In defending the justice of the Chamberlain transaction, Nozick

glances at the position of persons not directly party to it: After someone

transfers something to Wilt Chamberlain, third parties s t i l l have their

legitimate shares; t h i r shares are not changed . This is false, in one

relevant sense. For a person's effective share depends on what he can do

with what he has, and that depends not only on how much he has but on

what others have and on how what others have is distributed. If it is

distributed equally among them he will often be better placed than if

some have especially large shares. Third parties, including the as yet

unborn, therefore have an interest against the contract, which is not

catered for. It is roughly the same interest as the fans have in not making

it.

Nozick addresses this issue in a footnote:

M i g h t n o t a t r a n s f e r h a v e i n s t r u m e n t a l e f f e ct s o n a t h i r d p a r t y , c h a n g i n g h is f e as i b l e

o p t i o n s ? B u t w h a t i f t h e t w o p a r t i e s to a t r a n s f e r i n d e p e n d e n t l y h a d u s e d t h e i r h o l d i n g s i n

t h i s f a s h i o n ? ) p . 1 6 2 )

He promises further treatment of the problem later, and though he does

not say where, he presumably means his section on 'Voluntary

Exchange', which we shall examine at the end of this paper. Here I

respond to his parenthet ical rhetorical question.

First, there are some upshots of transfers of holdings, some effects on

the options of the other parties, which will not occur as effects of the

unconcerted use of dispersed holdings by individuals, because they could

not, or because they would not use them in that way. The Chamberlain

fans, acting independently, would probably be unable to buy a set of

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H O W P A T T E R N S P R E S E R V E L I B E R T Y

3

h o u s e s a n d l e a v e t h e m u n o c c u p i e d , w i t h s p e c u l a t i v e i n t e n t , b u t C h a m -

b e r l a i n c a n . S o t o b e g i n w i t h ' t h i s f a s h i o n ' w i l l s o m e t i m e s n o t b e o n e i n

w h i c h p a r ti e s c o u l d o r w o u l d u s e t h e i r h o l d in g s i n d e p e n d e n t l y . A n d w h e n

t h e e f f e c t t o w h i c h o b j e c t i o n is m a d e m i g h t i n d e e d b e r e a l is e d b y s u c h

i n d e p e n d e n t a c t i o n , t h e n t h o s e c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h e e f f e c t w ill n a t u r a l l y

a ls o b e c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h a t a c t i o n - t h e r h e t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n d o e s n o t

t u r n t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h o s e w h o a s k t h e f i rs t o n e t o a p a r a l l e l c a s e w h e r e

t h e y h a v e r e a s o n t o a g r e e w i th N o z i c k .

A s a n a r g u m e n t a b o u t

j u s t i c e 1 ~

t h e C h a m b e r l a i n s t o r y is e i t h e r

q u e s t i o n - b e g g i n g o r u n c o m p e l l in g . N o z i c k as k s:

I f t h e p e o p l e w e r e e n t i t l e d t o d i s p o s e o f t h e r e s o u r c e s t o w h i c h t h e y w e r e e n t i t l e d ( u n d e r

D 1 ) , d i d n t t h i s i n c l u d e t h e i r b e i n g e n t i t l e d t o g i v e i t to , o r e x c h a n g e i t w i t h , W i l t

C h a m b e r l a i n ? ( p . 1 6 1 )

I f t h is i n t e r r o g a t i v e i s i n t e n d e d a s a v i v id w a y o f a s s e r ti n g t h e c o r r e s p o n d -

i n g i n d i c a ti v e , t h e n N o z i c k i s t e l li n g u s t h a t t h e r i g h t s i n s h a re s w i t h w h i c h

t h e y w e r e v e s t e d a r e v i o l a t e d u n l e s s t h e y a r e a l l o w e d t o c o n t r a c t a s

d e s c r i b e d . I f s o , h e b e g s t h e q u e s t i o n . F o r i t w i ll b e c l e a r t h a t t h e i r r ig h t s

a r e v i o l a t e d o n l y i f t h e e n t i t l e m e n t t h e y r e c e i v e d w a s o f th e a b s o l u t e

N o z i c k i a n s o r t, a n d t h is c a n n o t b e a s s u m e d . W h a t e v e r p r i n c ip l e s u n d e r l ie

D 1 w i ll g e n e r a t e r e s t r i c t io n s o n t h e u s e o f w h a t i s d i s t r i b u t e d i n a c c o r -

d a n c e w i t h t h e m . 11

T h e o t h e r w a y o f t a k i n g t h e q u o t e d q u e s t i o n is n o t a s an a s s e r ti o n b u t a s

a n a p p e a l . N o z i c k i s t h e n a s k i n g u s w h e t h e r w e d o n o t a g r e e t h a t a n y

r e s t r i c t i o n s w h i c h w o u l d f o r b i d t h e C h a m b e r l a i n t r a n s a c t i o n m u s t b e

u n j u s t i f ie d . S o c o n s t r u e d t h e a r g u m e n t is n o t q u e s t i o n - b e g g i n g , b u t it is

i n c o n c l u s i v e . F o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s w h i c h m i g h t j u s t i f y r e s t r i c t i o n s a r e n o t

c a n v a s s e d , s u c h a s th e f a c t t h a t t h e c o n t r a c t m a y g e n e r a t e i n o r d i n a t e

p o w e r . I t is e a s y to t h in k t h a t w h a t h a p p e n s a f t e r w a r d s is t h a t C h a m b e r -

l a in e a t s l o ts o f c h o c o l a t e , s e e s l o ts o f m o v i e s a n d b u y s l o t s o f s u b s c ri p -

t i o n s t o e x p e n s i v e s o c ia l is t j o u r n a l s . B u t , a s I h a v e i n s is t ed , w e m u s t

r e m e m b e r t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e p o w e r h e c a n n o w e x e r c i s e o v e r o t h e rs . 12 I n

g e n e r a l h o l d i n g s a r e n o t o n l y s o u r ce s o f e n j o y m e n t b u t in c e rt a i n

d i s t r ib u t i o n s s o u r c e s o f p o w e r . T r a n s f e r s w h i c h l o o k u n e x c e p t i o n a b l e

c o m e t o s e e m o t h e r w i s e w h e n w e b r in g i n t o r e l ie f t h e a s p e c t n e g l e c t e d b y

b o u r g e o i s a p o l o g e t i c .

T u r n i n g f r o m j u s t ic e t o

l i b e r t y

is i t t r u e t h a t a s o c i a l i s t s o c i e t y w o u l d

h a v e t o f o r b i d c a p i ta l i st a c ts b e t w e e n c o n s e n t i n g a d u l t s ( p. 1 6 3 ) ?

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S o c i al is m p e r i s h e s i f t h e r e a r e t o o m a n y s u c h a c t s, b u t i t d o e s n o t f o l l o w

tha t i t mus t fo rb id them. In t r ad i t iona l soc ia l i s t doc t r ine cap i t a l i s t ac t ion

w a n e s n o t p r i m a r i l y b e c a u s e i t i s i ll e ga l , b u t b e c a u s e t h e i m p u l s e b e h i n d i t

a t r o p h i e s , o r , l e ss U t o p i a n l y , b e c a u s e o t h e r i m p u l s e s b e c o m e s t ro n g e r , o r

b e c a u s e p e o p l e b e l i e v e t h a t c a p i ta l is t ic e x c h a n g e i s u n f a ir .

S u c h e x p e c t a -

t ion rests on a concep t ion o f hu m an na ture an d so does i ts den ia l .

N o z i c k

h a s a d i f fe r e n t c o n c e p t i o n , f o r w h i c h h e d o e s n o t a r g u e , o n e t h a t f i ts m a n y

2 0 t h c e n t u r y A m e r i c a n s , w h i c h is n o r e a s o n f o r c o n c l u d i n g i t is u n i v e r -

s a l ly t rue . The peop le in h i s s t a t e o f na tu re a r e in te l l ig ib le on ly as we l l

s o c i a li z e d p r o d u c t s o f a m a r k e t s o c i e ty . In t h e c o n t r a r y s o c i al is t c o n c e p -

t i o n h u m a n b e i n g s h a v e a n d m a y d e v e l o p f u r t h e r a n u n q u a l i f i e d ( t h a t is ,

n o n - ' i n s t r u m e n t a l ' ) d e s i r e fo r c o m m u n i t y , a n u n q u a l i fi e d r e li sh o f c o o p -

e r a t i o n , a n d a n u n q u a l i f i e d a v e r s i o n t o b e i n g o n e i t h e r s i d e o f a

m a s t e r / s e r v a n t r e l a ti o n sh i p . N o o n e s h o u ld a s s u m e w i t h o u t a r g u m e n t , o r

t ak e i t on t rus t f rom the soc ia l i s t t r ad i t ion , tha t th i s conc ep t io n i s soun d .

B u t

i f

i t is soun d , th e re w i ll be no n ee d fo r inces sa n t inv ig i la t ion aga ins t

' cap i t a l i s t ac t s ' , and Noz ick does no t argue t h a t i t i s u n s o u n d . H e n c e h e

h a s n o t s h o w n t h a t s o c i a li s m c o n f li c ts w i t h f r e e d o m , e v e n i f h is u n a r g u e d

premise tha t i t s c i t i zens w i l l wan t to pe r fo rm cap i t a l i s t ac t s a t t r ac t s the

a s s e n t o f t h e m a j o r i t y o f h is r e a d e r s .

H o w m u c h e q u a l i t y w o u l d c o n f li c t w i t h l i b e r t y i n g iv e n c i r c u m s t a n c e s

d e p e n d s o n h o w m u c h p e o p l e w o u l d v a l u e e q u a l i t y i n t h o s e c i r -

c u m s t a n c e s. I f li fe in a c o - o p e r a t i v e c o m m o n w e a l t h a p p e a l s t o t h e m , t h e y

d o n o t h a v e t o s a c ri fi c e l i b e r t y t o b e l o n g t o i t.

T h i s b a n a l p o i n t r e l a t e s t o t h e f i r s t o f N o z i c k ' s t h r e e ' u n r e a l i s t i c '

p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s o f t h e m o r a l a n d p r a c ti c a l f e a s i b i li t y o f s o c ia l is m :

(5 ) t h a t a ll w i ll m o s t w a n t t o m a i n t a i n t h e p a t t e r n

(6)

t h a t e a c h c a n g a t h e r e n o u g h i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t h i s o w n

a c t i o n s a n d t h e o n g o i n g a c t i v it ie s o f o t h e r s t o d i s c o v e r w h i c h

o f h is a c t i o n s w i ll u p s e t t h e p a t t e r n

(7)

t h a t d i v e r s e a n d f a r - f l u n g p e r s o n s c a n c o o r d i n a t e t h e i r

a c t i o n s t o d o v e t a i l i n t o t h e p a t t e r n . (p . 1 6 3 )

Som eth ing l ike the f i r s t p res up pos i t ion is m ad e by soc ia li s t s in the l igh t

o f t h e i d e a o f h u m a n n a t u r e w h i c h i n f o r m s t h e i r t r a d i t i o n . I t is, o f c o u r s e ,

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H O W P A T T E R N S P R E S E R V E L I B E R T Y 5

controversial, but its dismissal as unrealistic contributes nothing to the

controversy.

Only something l i k e (5) is presupposed, because a socialist need think

only that a great majori ty will have socialist sentiments, not all, especially

not in the nascency of socialism. If (5) itself is unrealistic, three pos-

sibilities present themselves: very few would lack enthusiasm for social-

ism; very many would; some intermediate proportion would. What I

mean by these magnitudes will emerge immediately.

Consider then the first possibility: there remain a few capitalistically

minded persons, meaning by a few that their capitalist acts would not

undermine the basic socialist structure. No sane socialist should commit

himself to the suppression of capitalist activity on the stated scale. (It

might even be desirable to allocate to these capitalists a terr itory in which

they can bargain with and hire one another).

Suppose, though, that the disposition to perform capitalist acts is strong

and widespread, so that socialism x3 is possible only with tyranny. What

socialist favours socialism in such circumstances? What socialist denies

that there are such circumstances? Certainly Marx insisted it would be

folly to attempt an institution of socialism except under the propitious

conditions he was confident capitalism would create. 14 A socialist

believes propitious conditions are accessible. He need not proclaim the

superiority of socialism regardless of circumstances.

Could a socialist society contain an amount of inclination to capitalism

of such a size that unless it were coercively checked socialism would be

subverted, yet sufficiently small that in socialist judgment socialism, with

the required coercion, would still be worthwhile? Marxian socialists

believe so, and that does commit them to a prohibition on capitalist acts

between consenting adults in certain circumstances, notably those which

follow a successful revolution. But why should they flinch from imposing

the prohibition? They can defend it by reference to the social good and

widened freedom it promotes. Nozick will object that the prohibition

violates moral side constraints : certain freedoms, for example of con-

tract, ought never to be infringed, whatever the consequences of allowing

their exercise may be. We shall look at side constraints in a moment.

But first we must treat presuppositions (6) and (7). Unlike (5), these are

red herrings. At most, they are preconditions of realising socialist justice

p e r f e c t l y 1 5 But justice is not the only virtue of social orders (and it is not

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16 G . A . C O H E N

e v e n ' t h e f i r st v i r t u e ' o f so c i a l is m , f o r m o s t s o c i a li s ts ) . E v e n i f w e i d e n t i f y

j u s ti c e w i t h e q u a l i t y , a s so c ia l is ts , b r o a d l y s p e a k i n g , d o , w e m a y t o l e r a t e

d e v i a ti o n s f r o m e q u a l i ty c o n s e q u e n t o n d i f fe r e n ti a l c a p a c i ty t o e n j o y t h e

s a m e t h i n g s, o r r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e r a n d o m d i s t r ib u t i o n t h a t a r i s e s o u t o f

g i ft , e t c . C o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f p ri v a c y , a c q u i r e d e x p e c t a t i o n s , t h e m o r a l a n d

e c o n o m i c c o s ts o f su r v e i ll a n c e , e tc . d e c l a r e a g a i n s t a t t e m p t i n g a r e a l iz a -

t i o n o f j u s t i c e i n t h e h i g h d e g r e e t h a t w o u l d b e p o s s i b l e i f ( 6 ) a n d ( 7 )

w e r e s a t i s f i e d . W e l e t j u s t i c e r e m a i n r o u g h , i n d e f e r e n c e t o o t h e r

v a l u e s .

A c c o r d i n g l y , s o c i a li sm t o l e r a t e s g i ft -g i v in g , a n d ' lo v i n g b e h a v i o u r ' is

n o t ' f o r b i d d e n ' ( p . 1 6 7 ) . G i f t is p o s s i b le u n d e r a s y s t e m w h i c h l im i t s

h o w m u c h a n y o n e m a y h a v e a n d w h a t h e m a y d o w i t h i t . R e l a t i v e l y

w e l l e n d o w e d p e r s o n s w i ll s o m e t i m e s n o t b e f it r e c i p i e n t s o f g if ts , b u t

w e a r e a s s u m i n g a s o c ia l is t p s y c h o l o g y w h o s e n a t u r a l t e n d e n c y is n o t

t o g iv e t o h i m t h a t h a t h . A n d t h e n o t i o n t h a t t h e i n s t i tu t i o n s w e a r e

c o n t e m p l a t i n g f e t t e r t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f l o v e i s t o o m u l t i p l y b i z a r r e t o

r e q u ir e c o m m e n t .

A n y b u t t h e m o s t u t o p i a n s o c i a l i s t m u s t b e w i l l i n g u n d e r c e r t a i n

c o n d i t i o n s to r e s t ri c t t h e l ib e r t y o f s o m e f o r t h e s a k e o f o th e r s . H e t h e r e b y

f l o u ts w h a t N o z i c k c a ll s t h e m o r a l s i d e c o n s t r a i n t s o n a ll h u m a n a c t i o n .

N o z i c k t h in k s w e m a y n e v e r l im i t o n e m a n ' s f r e e d o m in o r d e r t o e n h a n c e

t h e w e l f a r e o r f r e e d o m o f v e r y m a n y o t h e r s , o r e v e n o f e v e r y o n e ,

h i m i n c l u d e d , w h e r e w e k n o w h e w i l l b e n e f i t a s a r e s u l t a t a f u t u r e

t im e. 16

I f c h i l d r e n a r e u n d e r n o u r i s h e d i n o u r s o c i e ty , w e a r e n o t a l l o w e d to t a x

m i l l i o n a i r e s i n o r d e r t o f i n a n c e a s u b s i d y o n t h e p r i c e o f m i l k t o p o o r

f a m i l ie s , f o r w e w o u l d b e v i o l a t i n g t h e r i g h t s , a n d t h e ' d i g n i t y ' ( p. 3 3 4 ) o f

t h e m i l l io n a i r e s . 17 W e c a n n o t a p p e a l t h a t t h e e f f e c t i v e l i b e r t y o f th e m e n

t h e c h i l d r e n w i l l b e w o u l d b e g r e a t l y e n h a n c e d a t l i t t l e e x p e n s e t o t h e

m i l l i o n a i r e s ' f r e e d o m , f o r N o z i c k f o r b id s a n y a c t w h i c h r e s t ri c t s f r e e d o m :

h e d o e s n o t c a ll f o r i ts m a x i m i z a t i o n . ( T h i s m e a n s t h a t i f i t w e r e t r u e t h a t

c e r t a i n e x e r c is e s o f f r e e d o m w o u l d l e a d t o t o t a l i ta r i a n i s m , N o z i c k w o u l d

s ti ll p r o t e c t t h e m . M a r k e t f r e e d o m i ts e lf w o u l d b e s a c r i f ic e d b y N o z i c k i f

t h e o n l y w a y t o p r e s e r v e i t w e r e b y l i m i t in g i t ) 8 )

I f N o z i c k a r g u e s f o r t h i s p o s i t io n , h e d o e s s o in t h e s e c t i o n c a l l e d ' W h y

S i d e C o n s t r a i n t s ? ' , w h i c h b e g i n s a s f o l lo w s :

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H O W P A T T E R N S P R E S E R V E L I B E R T Y

7

Isn t it irrational to accept a side constra int C, rather than a view that direc ts minimizing the

violations of C ?. .. If non-violation of C is so important, shouldn t that be the goal? How

can a concern for the nonviolation of C lead to the refusal to violate C even when this would

prevent other more extensive violations of C? What is the rationale for placing the

nonviolation of rights as a side constraint upon action instead of including it solely as a goal

of one s actions? 19

Side constraints upon action reflect the underlying Kantian principle that individuals are

ends and not merely means; they may not be sacrificed or used for the achieving of other

ends without their consent. Individuals are inviolable. (pp. 30-31).

T h e s e c o n d p a r a g r a p h is l a m e a s a re s p o n s e t o t h e q u e s t i o n s o f t h e f ir st ,

f o r t h e y o b v i o u s l y r e a s s e r t t h e m s e l v e s : i f s u c h s a c r if ic e a n d v i o l a t io n i s s o

h o r r e n d o u s , w h y s h o u l d w e n o t b e c o n c e r n e d t o m i n i m i z e i ts o c c u r e n c e ?

T h e r e is m o r e a p p e a r a n c e o f a r g u m e n t 2~ a t t h e e n d o f t h e s e c t io n :

Side constraints express the inviolability of other persons. But why may not one violate

persons for the greater social good? Individually, we each sometimes choose to undergo

some pain or sacrifice for a greater benefit or to avoid a greate r ha rm .. . Why not, s i m i l a r l y

hold that some persons have to bear some costs that benefit other persons more, for the sake

of the overall social good? But there is no s o c i a l e n t i t y with a good that undergoes some

sacrifice for its own good. There are only individual people, different individual people, with

their own individual lives. Using one of these people for the benefit of others, uses him and

benefits the others. Nothing more. What happens is that something is done to him for the

sake of others. Talk of an overall social good covers this up .. . (pp. 32-33)

T h i s p a s s a g e i s h a r d t o c o n s t r u e . I n o n e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w h a t i t s a y s is

c o r r e c t b u t i r r e l e v a n t , i n t h e o t h e r w h a t i t s a y s is r e l e v a n t b u t w r o n g , a n d

a n y o n e w h o is i m p r e s s e d h a s p r o b a b l y f a il e d to s p o t t h e a m b i g u i t y . F o r i t

i s u n c l e a r w h e t h e r N o z i c k i s o n l y a r g u i n g against o n e w h o p u t s r e d i s-

t r i b u t i o n a c r o s s l iv e s o n a m o r a l p a r w i t h a m a n s s a c r if ic i n g s o m e t h i n g f o r

h i s o w n g r e a t e r b e n e f i t , o r a r g u i n g for t h e m o r a l i m p e r m i s s i b i l i t y o f

r e d i s t r i b u t i o n . I n o t h e r w o r d s , is N o z i c k s i m p l y r e j e c t i n g a r g u m e n t

A

o r

is h e ( a ls o) p r o p o u n d i n g a r g u m e n t B ?

A S i n c e P e r s o n s c o m p o s e a s o c ia l e n t i t y r e l e v a n t l y a k i n t o t h e

e n t i t y a s i n g l e p e r s o n i s ( p ) , r e d i s t r i b u t i o n a c r o s s p e r s o n s i s

m o r a l l y p e r m i s s ib l e ( q) .

B S inc e i t is f a l s e t ha t

p

i t i s fa l se that q .

I f N o z i c k i s j u s t r e j e c t i n g A , t h e n I a c c e p t w h a t h e s a y s , b u t t h e s i d e

c o n s t r a i n t s r e m a i n u n j u s t i f i e d . U n l e s s w e t a k e h i m a s p r o p o u n d i n g B ,

t h e r e is n o c a s e t o a n s w e r . A n d t h e n t h e a n s w e r is t h a t t h e t r u t h o f p is n o t

a n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n o f t h e t r u t h o f q. A r e d i s t r i b u t o r d o e s n o t h a v e t o

be l i eve i n a soc i a l en t i t y . 2 I

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18 G.A. COHEN

Side constraints remain unjustified, and a socialist need not apologise

for being willing to restrict freedom in order to expand it.

We now examine Nozick's section on 'Voluntary Exchange', which

presumed (see p. 12) to be his more extended treatment of the problem of

the effect of market transactions on persons not party to them, including

the as yet unborn. He allows that agreed exchanges between A and B

may reduce the options of an absent C, but he implies they do not thereby

reduce C's freedom. He explicitly says that they do not render involun-

tary anything C does. And since what C is forced to do he does

involuntari ly, it follows that, for Nozick, the actions of A and B, though

reducing C's options, do not have the result that C is forced to do

something he might not otherwise have done.

The last claim entails a denial of a thesis central to the socialist critique

of capitalism, which may usefully be expressed in the terms of Nozick's

doctrine of natural rights, without commitment to the t ruth of the latter.

For Nozick, every man has a natural right not to work for any other

man. If one is a slave, then, unless one enslaved oneself (see p. 7 above),

one's rights were violated, as they are in slave states, which do not confer

on every one as a mat ter of civil right the rights he enjoys naturally. And

natural rights would remain violated if the law permitted slaves to choose

for which master they shall labour, as long it forbade them to withhold

their services from all masters whatsoever.

One difference between a capitalist state and a slave state is that the

natural right not to be subordinate in the manner of a slave is a civil right

in liberal capitalism. The law excludes formation of a set of persons

legally obliged to work for other persons. That status being forbidden,

everyone is entitled to work for no one. But the power corresponding to

this right22 is differentially enjoyed. Some

c n

live without subordinating

themselves, but most cannot. The latter face a structure generated by a

history of market transactions in which, it is reasonable to say, they are

f o r c e d to work for some or other person or group. Their natural rights are

not matched by corresponding effective powers.

This division between the powerful and the powerless with respect to

the alienation of labour power is the heart of the socialist objection to

capitalism. The rights Nozick says we have by nature we also have civilly

under capitalism, but the corresponding power is widely lacking. The lack

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H O W P A T T E R N S P R E S E R V E L I B E R T Y 9

is softened in contemporary capitalism because of a hard-won

institutionalization of a measure of working class power. In Nozick's

capitalism that institutionalization, being coercive, would be forbidden,

and the lack would be greater.

But Nozick, in the course of his full reply to the problem of 'third

parties', denies that even the most abject proletarian is forced to work for

some capitalist or other. Addressing himself to market exchanges

between workers and owners of capital , he invites us to reflect on the

situation of a certain Z (so-called because he is at the bottom of the heap

in a twenty-six person economy) who is faced with working [for a

capitalist] or starving :

9 t h e c h o i ce s a n d a c t io n s o f a ll o th e r p e r s o n s d o n o t a d d u p t o p r o v id in g Z w i th so m e o th e r

o p t i o n . ( H e m a y h a v e v a r io u s o p t i o n s a b o u t w h a t j o b t o t a k e ) . D o e s Z c h o o s e t o w o r k

v o lu n t a r i l y ? . . . Z d o e s c h o o s e v o lu n ta r i l y i f t h e o th e r i n d iv id u a l s A th r o u g h Y e a c h ac t e d

v o lu n t a r il y a n d w i th in t h e ir r i g h t s . . . A p e r s o n ' s c h o i c e a m o n g d i f fe r in g d e g r e e s o f

u n p a l a t a b l e a l t e r n a ti v e s i s n o t r e n d e r e d n o n v o lu n t a r y b y t h e f a c t t h a t o th e r s v o lu n t a r il y

chose and ac ted wi th in the i r r igh ts in a way tha t d id n o t p rov ide h im wi th a more pa la tab le

a l t e r n a t i v e . . . [ W h e th e r o th e r p e o p l e ' s o p t i o n - c lo s in g a c t io n ] m a k e s o n e ' s r e su l t in g a c ti o n

non-vo lun ta ry depends on whe ther these o the rs had the r igh t to ac t a s they d id . (pp .

2 6 3 - 2 6 4 , 2 6 2 ) .

One might think people of necessity lack the right so to act that

someone ends up in Z 's position, a view we put forward later. But here we

suppose, with Nozick, that all of A through Y acted as impeccably

upright marketeers and therefore did nothing wrong. If so, says Nozick, z

is not

forced

to work for a capitalist. If he chooses to, the choice is

voluntary.

Nozick is not saying that Z, though forced to work or starve, is withal

not forced to

work

since he may choose toIstarve. Rather he would deny

that Z is forced to work or starve, even though Z has no other alternative,

and would accept that Z is indeed forced to work if, contrary to

what Nozick holds, he is forced to work Or starve. For Nozick believes

that if Z is forced to do A or B, and A is the only thing it would be

reasonable to do, and Z does A for this reas~)n, then Z is forced to do AY

Nozick holds that (8) Z is forced to dhoose between working and

starving only if there is a person (or persor~s) thus restricting his alterna-

tives, and (9) Z is forced so to choose only if the actions which restrict his

alternatives are illegitimate. Both claims are false. As Harry Frankfurt

has observed:

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2 0 G . A . C O H E N

when a person chooses to act in order to acquire a benefit or in order to escape an injury, the

degree .. , to which he acts freely [does] not depend on the origin of the conditions which

lead him to choose and to act as he does 24

F o r h is c h o i c e t o b e f o r c e d , i t is u n n e c e s s a r y t h a t a p e r s o n o r g r o u p b e

a s s i g n e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e c o n d i t i o n s r e s t r i c t i n g i t , a n d

a f o r t i o r i

u n n e c e s s a r y t h a t a p e r s o n o r g r o u p b e i l l eg i t ima t e l y r e s t r i c t i n g h i s

a l t e r n a t i v e s .

W e a r e h e r e c o n c e r n e d w i th c h o i c e re s t r ic t i o n w h i ch N o z i c k h im s e l f

a s s ig n s t o t h e a c t i o n s o f p e r s o n s , v i z . s o m e o r al l o f A t h r o u g h Y , s o w e

n e e d n o t a r g u e a g a i n s t h im , w i t h F r a n k f u r t , t h a t i f s o m e o n e i s f o r c e d t o

d o s o m e t h i n g , it d o e s n o t f o l l o w t h a t s o m e o n e b r o u g h t i t a b o u t t h a t h e

w a s f o r c e d t o d o i t. F r a n k f u r t i s c e r t a i n l y r i g h t , b u t h i s c o u n t e r c l a i m is

s t r o n g e r t h a n w h a t w e n e e d . W e n e e d o n l y r e j e c t N o z i c k s c l ai m t h a t i f

s o m e o n e i s f o r c e d t o d o s o m e t h i n g , t h e n s o m e o n e a c t e d i l le g i ti m a t e ly : w e

n e e d r e f u t e s t a t e m e n t ( 9) o n l y . A g a i n :

Other people s actions may place limits on one s available opportunities. Whether this

makes one s resulting action non-voluntary depends upon whether these others had the

right to act as they did. (p. 262)

B u t t h e r e i s n o s u c h d e p e n d e n c e , a s t h e f o l l o w i n g p a i r o f e x a m p l e s

s h o w .

S u p p o s e f a r m e r F o w n s a t r a c t o f l a n d a c r o s s w h i c h v i l l a g e r V h a s a

r i g h t o f w a y . ( T o s ti ll o b j e c t i o n s N o z i c k m i g h t o t h e r w i s e h a v e t o t h i s

s t a t e m e n t , i m a g i n e t h a t V h a s t h e r ig h t b y v i r t u e o f a c o n t r a c t b e t w e e n F

a n d h i m s e lf ). T h e n i f F e r e c t s a n i n s u r m o u n t a b l e f e n c e a r o u n d t h e l a nd ,

V is f o r c e d t o u s e a n o t h e r r o u t e , a s N o z i c k w i ll a g r e e , s in c e F , in e r e c t i n g

t h e f e n c e , a c t e d i l l e g i t i m a t e l y . N o w c o n s i d e r f a r m e r G , w h o s e s i m i l a r

t r a c t is r e g u l a r l y t r a v e r s e d b y v i l la g e r W , n o t a s o f r i g h t, b u t b y d i n t o f G s

t o l e r a n t n a t u r e . B u t th e n G e r e c t s a n i n s u r m o u n t a b l e f e n c e a r o u n d h i s

l a n d f o r r e a s o n s w h i c h , a ll m e n o f g o o d w i ll w o u l d a g r e e , j u s t i fy h i m i n

d o i n g s o . A c c o r d i n g t o N o z i c k , W m a y n o t t r u l y s a y t h a t , l i k e V h e i s n o w

f o r c e d t o u s e a n o t h e r r o u t e . B u t t h e e x a m p l e s , t h o u g h d i f f er e n t , d o n o t s o

c o n t r a s t a s t o m a k e t h a t s t a t e m e n t f a l s e . W is n o l e s s f o r c e d t o c h a n g e h i s

r o u t e t h a n V is . ( 9) i s f a l s e e v e n i f - w h a t , w i t h F r a n k f u r t , I d e n y - ( 8 ) i s

t r u e , a n d t h e t h e s i s t h a t Z i s f o r c e d t o p l a c e h is l a b o u r p o w e r a t t h e

d i sp o s a l o f s o m e o r o t h e r m e m b e r o f t h e c a p it a li s t cl as s is r e s o u n d i n g l y

s u s t a i n e d .

N o z i c k s c la i m a b o u t Z is s o im p l a u s i b l e t h a t i t m a y s e e m p u z z l i n g ,

8/10/2019 Cohen 1977

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H O W P T T E R N S P R E S E R V E L IB E R T Y 2

c o m i n g a s i t d o e s f r o m a n e x t r e m e l y a c u t e t h i n k e r . 25 C a n i t b e t h a t h e is

d r i v e n t o i t b e c a u s e i t o c c u p i e s a s t r a t e g i c p l a c e i n h i s d e f e n s e o f

l i b e r t a r i a n c a p i t a l i s m ? H o w i s l i b e r t a r i a n c a p i t a l i s m

libertarian

i f i t

e r o d e s t h e l i b e r t y o f a la r g e c l as s o f p e o p l e ?

S ti ll, w e c a n i m a g i n e N o z i c k g r a n t i n g t h a t Z is f o r c e d t o w o r k f o r a

c a p i ta l is t , a n d a t t e m p t i n g t o r e c o u p h i s p o s i t i o n a s f o l lo w s : Z i s i n d e e d s o

f o r c e d , b u t s in c e w h a t b r i n g s i t a b o u t t h a t h e i s is a s e q u e n c e o f le g i t i m a t e

t r a n s a c t i o n s , t h e r e i s n o m o r a l c a s e a g a i n s t h i s b e i n g s o f o r c e d , n o

in jus t i ce i n it . (C f . (1 ) an d (2 ), p . 7 abo ve) .

T h i s w o u l d b e l e s s i m p r e s s i v e t h a n t h e o r i g i n a l c l a i m . N o z i c k i s i n a

s t r o n g e r p o s i t io n - c o u l d h e b u t s u s t a in i t - w h e n h e h o l d s t h a t c a p i t a li s m

d o e s n o t d e p r iv e w o r k e r s o f f r e e d o m t h a n i f h e g r a n ts t h e w o r k e r is f o r c e d

t o s u b o r d i n a t e h i m s e l f y e t i n s is ts t h a t e v e n s o h is s i tu a t i o n , b e i n g j u s t l y

g e n e r a t e d , i s, h o w e v e r r e g r e t t a b l e , u n e x c e p t i o n a b l e . f r o m t h e s t a n d p o i n t

o f j u s ti c e . F o r t h e o r i g i n a l c l a i m , if t r u e , e n t i t l e s N o z i c k t o s a y , g i v e n h is

o t h e r t h e s e s , t h a t c a p i t a li s m i s n o t o n l y a j u s t b u t a l s o a f r e e s o c i e t y ; w h i l e

t h e r e v i s e d c l a i m m a k e s h i m s a y t h a t c a p i t a l is m i s j u s t, b u t n o t e n t i r e l y

f r e e . W h e n Z is a c c u r a t e l y d e s c r i b e d c a p i t a l is m i s l es s a t t r a c ti v e , w h a t -

e v e r w e m a y s a y a b o u t i t f r o m t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f ju s ti c e.

T u r n i n g t o t h a t s t a n d p o i n t , a n d b e a r i n g Z i n m i n d , w h a t s h o u l d w e s a y

a b o u t N o z i c k s i m p o r t a n t t h es is ( 1 )? I t s e e m s r e a s o n a b l e t o a d d t o t h e

c o n s t r a i n t s o n j u s t a c q u i s i t i o n a p r o v i s i o n t h a t n o o n e m a y s o a c q u i r e

g o o d s t h a t o t h e r s s u f f e r s e v e r e l o ss o f l i b e r t y a s a r e s u l t . W e m i g h t , t h a t i s,

accept

t h e s is (1 ) b u t e x t e n d t h e c o n d i t i o n s st e p s m u s t m e e t t o b e j u s t , a n d

t h u s r e j e c t c a p i t a l i s m . 26

A l t e r n a t i v e l y , w e m i g h t g r a n t , i n c o n c e s s i v e s p i r i t , t h a t t h e r e i s n o

t r a n s a c t i o n a l in j u s t i c e ( n o u n j u s t s t ep ) i n th e g e n e r a t i o n o f Z s p o s i t io n ,

b u t

reject

( 1) , a n d c o n t e n d t h a t t h e g e n e r a t i v e p r o c e s s m u s t b e r e g u l a t e d ,

a t t h e c o s t o f s o m e i n j u s ti c e , t o p r e v e n t i t i s su i n g in v e r y u n j u s t r e s u l ts .

N o z i c k w o u l d i n v o k e s id e c o n s t r a i n ts a g a i n s t th a t , b u t t h e y l a c k a u t h o r i t y

( s e e p p . 1 6 - 1 7 a b o v e ) .

W h a t e v e r o p t i o n w e t a k e - a n d t h e r e a r e o t h e r s - i t s h o u l d n o w b e c le a r

t h a t l i b e r t a r i a n c a p i t a l i s m s a c r if i c e s l i b e r t y t o c a p i ta l i s m , a t r u t h i ts

a d v o c a t e s a r e a b l e t o d e n y o n l y b e c a u s e t h e y a re p r e p a r e d t o a b u s e t h e

l a n g u a g e o f f r e e d o m . 27

Univers ity o l lege Lo ndo n

8/10/2019 Cohen 1977

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2 2 G . A C O H E N

N O T E S

1 G e o r g e P l e k h a n o v , T h e

Development o f the Monist View o f History,

M o s c o w , 1 9 5 6 , p p .

9 4 - 9 5 ( m y e m p h a s i s ) . P l e k h a n o v p r o c e e d s t o a s s o c ia t e h im s e l f w i t h a n o t h e r p o i n t o f v i ew ,

o n e w h i c h i s d e f e n d e d i n t h is p a p e r .

2 J e a n - B a p t i s t e S a y ,

A Trea gse on Poli tical Economy,

Phi l ade l ph i a , 1834 , p . l i i i (my

e m p h a s i s ) .

3 F o r a m o r e r o u n d e d t r e a t m e n t o f t h e b o o k , s e e T h o m a s N a g e l ' s e x c e ll e n t r e v ie w ,

' L i b e rt a r ia n i s m W i t h o u t F o u n d a t i o n s ' , Yale La w Journal , N o v e m b e r , 1 9 7 5 .

4 A n d o t h e r s , s u c h a s A m e r i c a n l i b e r al s , b u t o u r c o n c e r n i s w i t h t h e a p p l i c a ti o n o f t h e

a r g u m e n t t o s o c i a l i s m .

5 Anarchy, State and Utopia,

N e w Y o r k , 1 9 7 4 , p p . 1 6 1 - 1 6 2 . A l l f u t u r e r e fe r e n c e s t o

N o z i c k , e x c e p t t h e o n e i n N o t e 2 3 , a r e t o t h i s b o o k .

6 I t i s , a c c o r d i n g l y , u n c l e a r t o m e t h a t , a s N a g e l m a i n t a i n s

(op cit,

p . 147) , Noz i ck i s

u n f a i t h f u l t o h i s o w n i n i t i a l d e s c r i p t i o n o f D I : s e e p . 1 3 o f t h i s p a p e r .

7 S o m e m i g h t s ay t h i s i s o n e o f th e m , b u t I w o u l d d i s a g r e e :

( 4 ) W h a t e v e r a r i s e s f r o m a j u s t s i t u a t i o n a s a r e s u l t o f f u l ly v o l u n t a r y t r a n s a c t i o n s

w h o s e t r a n s a g e n t s k n o w i n a d v a n c e t h e p r o b a b i l i t i e s o f a l l s i g n i fi c a n tl y d i f f e r e n t

p o s s i b l e o u t c o m e s i s it s e lf j u s t.

s I p r e f e r t h e s e c o n d f o r m u l a t io n , b e i n g p e r s u a d e d t h a t ju s t ic e , v e r y r o u g h l y ,

is

equa l i t y .

( S e e C h r i s t o p h e r A k e , ' J u s t i c e a s E q u a l i t y ' , Philosophy and Public Affairs, N o v e m b e r ,

1975) .

9 M y n e a r - e x c l u s iv e e m p h a s i s o n t h i s c o n s i d e r a t i o n in t h e s e q u e l d o e s n o t m e a n I t h i n k

t h e r e a r e n o o t h e r i m p o r t a n t o n e s.

10 R e c a l l t h e t w o w a y s o f ta k i n g N o z i c k , d i s t i n g u i s h e d o n p . 5 a b o v e .

i 1 Nage l (op c ir., p . 1 4 7 ) d i a g n o s e s N o z i c k a s a b o v e , a n d t h i s is h is r e b u t t a l o f N o z i c k , so

d i a g n o s e d .

12 O n c e a g a i n - s e e p . 1 1 a b o v e - t h i s a s s e s s m e n t w il l s e e m h y s t e r i c a l o n l y i f w e f a i l t o t a k e

t h e C h a m b e r l a i n t r a n s a c t i o n a s w e m u s t f o r i t to p o s e a s e r io u s c h a l l en g e , n a m e l y a s a n

e x a m p l e o f s o m e t h i n g w h i c h o c c u r s r e g u l a r l y , o r w il l o c c u r r e g u l a r l y in t h e f u t u r e .

13 I a d d s c a r e - q u o t e s b e c a u s e s o c i a l is m , p r o p e r l y d e f i n e d , i s i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t y r a n n y ;

b u t , c o n t r a r y t o w h a t s o m e s o c ia li st s s e e m t o t h i n k , t h a t i s n o a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t t h o s e w h o

s a y t h a t t h e f o r m o f e c o n o m y s o c i a li st s f a v o u r r e q u i r e s t y r a n n y .

14 A c c o r d i n g to M a r x , n o s o c i a l is t r e v o l u t i o n w i l l s u c c e e d u n l e s s c a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n h a s

a l r e a d y d e v e l o p e d t h e p r o d u c t i v e f o r c e s o f l a b o u r i n g e n e r a l t o a s u f fi c ie n t ly h i g h l e v e l

(Theories o[ Surplus Va lue, V o l u m e I I , M o s c o w , 1 9 6 8 , p . 5 8 0 ) , f a i li n g w h i c h a l l t h e o l d

f il th y b u s i n e s s w o u l d n e c e s s ar i ly b e r e p r o d u c e d (German Ideology, M o s c o w , 1 9 6 4 , p . 4 6 )

i n t h e a f t e r m a t h o f r e v o l u t i o n . S e e f u r t h e r t h e e n d o f C h a p t e r V I I o f m y f o r t h c o m i n g

Philosophical Defense of K arl Mar x s Theory of History, O x f o r d a n d P r i n c e t o n , 1 9 7 8 .

15 I s a y ' a t m o s t ' b e c a u s e e v e n t h i s i s p r o b a b l y f a l s e. G i v e n t h e t r u t h o f ( 5 ), p e o p l e c o u l d

f o r m a P a t t e r n M a i n t e n a n c e A s s o c i a ti o n a n d a p p o i n t e x p e r t s to w a t c h o v e r a n d c o r r e c t t h e

p a t t e r n . W i t h p o p u l a r w i l li n g n es s to d o w h a t t h e e x p e r t s s a id , a n d a p r o p e r l y s o p h i s t i c a te d

t e c h n o l o g y f o r d e t e c t i n g d e v i a t i o n s , ( 6 ) a n d ( 7 ) w o u l d b e u n n e c e s s a r y t o p a t t e r n m a i n -

t e n a n c e w i t h o u t c o e r c i o n ( u n l e ss d o i n g w h a t t h e e x p e r t s s a y c o u n t s a s a w a y o f c o o r d i n a t i n g

ac t i on , i n wh i ch ca se (7) is r equ i r ed i n t he ab ov e fan t a sy , bu t i t is e a s i l y sa t i sf i ed) .

16 Q u a l i f i c a ti o n s i m p o s e d o n t h i s s t a t e m e n t b y t h e ' L o c k e i a n P r o v i s o ' ( p p . 1 7 4 - 1 8 3 ) a r e

n o t r e l e v a n t h e r e .

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3

57 ,, ' B u t i s n ' t j u s t ic e t o b e t e m p e r e d w i t h c o m p a s s i o n ? ' N o t b y t h e g u n s o f th e s t a te . W h e n

p r i v a t e p e r s o n s c h o o s e t o t r a n s f e r r e s o u r c e s t o h e l p o t h e r s , t h is f it s w i t h i n t h e e n t i t l e m e n t

c o n c e p t i o n o f j u s t i c e ( p . 3 4 8 ) . ' F i t s w i t h i n ' is e v a s i v e . T h e c h o i c e ' f it s ' b e c a u s e i t i s a c h o i c e ,

n o t b e c a u s e o f i ts c o n t e n t . F o r N o z i c k t h e r e i s n o m o r e j u s t i c e in a m i l l i o n a i r e ' s g i v i n g a f iv e

d o l l a r b i l l t o a s t a r v i n g c h i l d t h a n i n h i s u s i n g i t t o l i g h t h i s c ig a r .

F o r s u b t l e c o m m e n t s o n N o z i c k ' s f a ls e ly e x c lu s iv e a n d e x h a u s t i v e d i s t in c t i o n b e t w e e n

c o m p u l s o r y a n d v o l u n t a r y d o n a t i o n , s e e N a g e l, op c i t . , p p . 1 4 5 - 1 4 6 .

18 T h e h y p o t h e s i s e d c o n t i n g e n c y h a s b e e n a c t u a l i s e d . M a r k e t f r e e d o m i s l e ss th a n i t w a s ,

p a r t l y b e c a u s e , h a d t h e b o u r g e o i s s ta t e n o t i m p o s e d r e s t r i c t i o n s o n i t, it s s u r v i v a l w o u l d h a v e

b e e n j e o p a r d i z e d .

59 Ter t ium datur , b u t l e t t h a t p a s s .

20 N o t e , t h o u g h , t h a t w h a t N o z i c k i n i ti a l ly c o n t e n d s a g a i n s t i s v io la t ing r igh ts to r educ e the

violation o f r ights ,

w h e r e a s i n w h a t f o l l o w s h i s t a r g e t i s

v io la t ing r igh t s to expand s oc ia l

welfare. H e is u n c o n v i n c i n g o n b o t h c o u n t s , b u t o n e w h o a g r e e s w i t h h im a b o u t ' o v e r a l l

s o c ia l g o o d ' c o u l d s t il l p r e s s t h e o p e n i n g q u e s t i o n s o f t h e s e c t i o n .

2 l F o r e l a b o r a t i o n , s ee N a g e l op cit , p p . 1 4 2 - 1 4 3 ) , w h o t a k e s N o z ic k to b e p r o p o u n d i n g B .

2 2 T h e c o n c e p t o f a pow er wh ich cor res ponds to a r igh t is e x p l ic a t e d b r i e fl y i n m y ' O n S o m e

C r i t i c i s m s o f H i s t o r i c a l M a t e r i a l i s m ' , P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e A r i s t o t e l ia n S o c i e ty , S u p p . V o l . ,

1 9 7 0 , p p . 1 3 3 - 1 3 5 , a n d a t l e n g t h i n C h a p t e r V I I I o f t h e b o o k m e n t i o n e d i n N o t e 1 4 a b o v e .

T h e b a s i c i d e a : p o w e r p c o r r e s p o n d s t o r i g h t r i f a n d o n l y if w h a t X i s d e j u r e a b l e to d o w h e n

h e h a s r i s w h a t h e i s

d e f a c t o

a b l e t o d o w h e n h e h a s p.

23 S e e N o z i c k , 'C o e r c i o n ' , i n P h i lo s o p hy , S c i e n c e a n d M e t h o d : E s s a y s i n H o n o u r o f E r n e s t

N a g e l , N e w Y o r k , 1 9 6 9 , p . 4 4 6 . I d e r iv e t h e c l a im f o r m u l a t e d a b o v e f r o m p r i n c i p l e ( 7 ) o f

t h e ' C o e r c i o n ' e s s a y o n t h e b a s i s o f N o z i c k ' s c o m m i t m e n t t o : Z i s f o r c e d t o d o A i f a n d o n l y

i f t h e r e is a p e r s o n P w h o f o r c e s Z t o d o A . N o z i c k t h i n k s p r i n c i p l e (7 ) i s p e r h a p s o n l y

r o u g h l y t r u e , b u t r o u g h t r u t h w i ll d o f o r p r e s e n t p u r p o s e s .

24 ' C o e r c i o n a n d M o r a l R e s p o n s i b i l it y ' , i n H o n d e r i c h ( ed .) , E s s a y s o n F r e ed o m o f A c t i o n ,

L o n d o n , 1 9 7 3 , p . 8 4 .

25 T h o s e w h o h a v e r e a d N o z i c k w i ll k n o w t h a t t h i s d e s c r i p t io n i s n o t i r o n ic a l, F o r a s h o r t

p r o o f o f N o z i c k ' s ac u i ty , s ee t h e f o o t n o t e o n p p . 2 3 9 - 2 4 0 o f A n a r c h y .

2 6 I t is im m a t e r i a l if t h i s y i e l d s w h a t N o z i c k w o u l d c a ll a ' g i m m i c k y ' r e a d i n g o f ( l ) ( p . 1 5 7 ) .

27 I t h a n k G e r a l d D w o r k i n , T e d H o n d e r i c h a n d M i c h a e l S lo t e f o r u se f u l c o m m e n t s o n a

d r a f t o f t h i s p a p e r .

M a n u s c r i p t re c e i v e d 1 4 J u n e 1 9 7 6