Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 5 Chapter 5: Memory: Models and...

Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5

Chapter 5: Memory: Models and Research Methods


Some Questions of Interest• What are some of the tasks used for studying

memory?• What is the traditional model of memory?

What are some of the alternative models?• What have psychologists learned by studying

both exceptional memory and the physiology of the brain?


But first, a test!

• Let’s generate some words…


Processes in Memory

• Encoding

• Storage

• Retrieval


Which type of test would you rather have?

An essay or a multiple-choice exam?


Demonstration

• The 7 Dwarfs


Methods Used to Study Memory

• Recall– Serial recall– Free recall– Cued recall

• Recognition

• = these are explicit memory tasks


Implicit memory

• Remember priming?

• Procedural memory, too


Implicit Memory Tasks

Participants are exposed to a word list

TigerLion

ZebraPanda

LeopardElephant

After a delay…

Participants then complete word puzzles; they are not aware this is a type of memory testWord fragment completion:C_E_TA_E_E_ _A_ N__ E _ R AWord stem completion:Mon _____Pan_____


Procedural Memory

• Knowing how to do something– Ride a bike

– Skateboard

– Ski


Methods to Assess Procedural Memory

• Rotary-pursuit task– Keep stylus on a dot

on a rotating disk

• Mirror-tracing task– Watch mirror image

to trace a figure


Models of Memory

• Represent ways that memory has been conceptualized– Atkinson & Shiffrin’s three-stage model– Craik & Lockhart’s level of processing model– Baddeley’s working memory model– Tulving’s multiple memory systems model– McClelland & Rumelhart’s connectionist

model


Traditional Model of Memory

• Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) three-stage model

Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5Sperling Sensory Memory

Demonstration: CogLab Partial Report

• A matrix of 12 letters and numbers briefly flash on the next few slides

• As soon as you see the information, write down everything you can remember in its proper location


Sperling’s Results


Averbach & Coriell (1961) Iconic Memory Research

N M L C W D P Q A X I N Y K J U

- Showed matrix for 50 msec - Placed a small mark above a letter at different delays - Found that as many as 12 letters could be stored in sensory memory- Backward visual masking was also discovered with this technique


Second Demonstration

G E U L M F S XW P M B D H J Y

- Showed matrix for 50 msec - Placed a small mark above a letter at different delays - Found that as many as 12 letters could be stored in sensory memory- Backward visual masking was also discovered with this technique


Sensory Stores• Iconic store or visual sensory register

– Holds visual information for 250 msec longer

– Information held is pre-categorical– Capacity: up to 12 items– Information fades quickly

• Econ or auditory sensory register – Holds auditory information for 2-3 seconds

longer to enable processing


Short-Term Memory

• Attention– Attend to information

in the sensory store, it moves to STM

• Rehearsal– Repeat the

information to keep maintained in STM

• Retrieval– Access memory in

LTM and place in STM

Short-Term Memory (STM)

AttentionStorage & Retrieval

Rehearsal


Demonstration: STM span


Research on Short-Term Memory

• Miller (1956)– Examined memory capacity– 7+/- 2 items or “chunks”

• Chunking: organize input into larger units– 1 9 8 0 1 9 9 8 2 0 0 3 - Exceeds

capacity– 1980 1998 2003 - Reorganize by

chunking

Birth year

HS graduation

College graduation


Long-Term Memory

• Capacity– Thus far limitless

• Duration– Potentially

permanent

Long-Term Memory (LTM)


Bahrick’s Research on Very Long-Term Memory

• High school yearbooks containing student names and photos

• 392 high school graduates (17-74) took four different memory tests

• For some of the participants, it was as long as 48 years since they graduated


Bahrick et al. (1975) Results• 90% accuracy in face and name recognition

after 34 years• 80% accuracy for name recognition after 48

years• 40% accuracy for face recognition after 48

years• 60% accuracy for free recall after 15 years• 30% accuracy for free recall after 30 years


Levels of Processing Model of Memory

• Craik & Lockhart (1972)– Deep processing leads to better memory

• Elaborating according to meaning leads to a strong memory

– Shallow processing emphasizes the physical features of the stimulus

• The memory trace is fragile and quickly decays

– Distinguished between maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal


Support for Levels of Processing

• Craik & Tulving (1975) – Participants studied a list in three different

ways • Structural: Is the word in capital letters? • Phonemic: Does the word rhyme with dog? • Semantic: Does the word fit in this sentence?

“The ______ is delicious.”

– A recognition test was given to see which type of processing led to the best memory


Craik & Tulving (1975) Results

0

0.1

0.2

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0.4

0.5

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0.8

0.9

1

Yes No

Sentence Type

Rec

og

niz

ed

Case

Rhyme

Sentence


cogLab: levels of processing


• Rogers, Kuiper, & Kirker (1977)– Encoding with respect to oneself

increases memory

Self-Reference Effect

Capital Rhymes Means the Describes letters? with? same as? you?


Baddeleys’ Working Memory Model


Working Memory Model

• Phonological Loop– Used for acoustic rehearsal

• Visuo-spatial sketch pad– Used for visuo-spatial information

• Episodic buffer • Used for storage of a multimodal code, holding an

integrated episode between systems using different codes

• Central executive• Focuses attention

• Plans sequence of tasks, switches attention between different parts


Working Memory Model Support

• Baddeley (1986) – Participants studied two different list types – 1 syllable: wit, sum, harm, bay, top – 5 syllables: university, opportunity,

aluminum, constitutional, auditorium


Working Memory Model Support

• Visuo-spatial sketch pad– Dual-task paradigm

– Sketchpad can be disrupted by requiring participants to repeatedly tap a specified pattern of keys or locations while using imagery at the same time


Neuroscience and Working Memory


Tulving’s Multiple-Memory Systems Model

• Semantic memory– General knowledge– Facts, definitions, historical dates

• Episodic memory– Event memories (first kiss, 6th birthday)


Multiple-Memory Systems Model Support

• Nyberg, Cabeza, & Tulving (1996)– Asked people to engage in semantic or episodic

memory tasks while being monitored by PET

• Results – Left (hemisphere) frontal lobe differentially

active in encoding (both) and in semantic memory retrieval

– Right (hemisphere) frontal lobe differentially active in retrieval of episodic memory


Connectionist Perspective

• Parallel distributed processing model– Memory uses a network– Meaning comes from

patterns of activation across the entire network

– Spreading activation network model

– Supported by priming effects


Exceptional Memory

• Case studies of mnemonists

• Studies of skilled memory


Memory Movies• Take any character from a movie who has a

memory deficit, and, using terms from the chapters, explain what the memory problem is and why it occurs – Johnny Mnemonic; 50 First Dates; Memento; Total

Recall; Bourne Identity; Dark City; Manchurian Candidate; Overboard; The Changeling; Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind; The Majestic: Mulholland Drive; The Notebook; Paycheck; Sommersby; The Vow


Case Studies

• S. (Luria, 1968)– Long strings of words

– Remembered over 15-18 years

• Rajan Mahadevan– Can recite pi to 31,811 places

– No forgetting on matrices up to 20 x 20 digits


Deficient Memory

• Amnesias – Retrograde amnesia

• Loss of memory for events that occurred before the trauma

– Infantile amnesia• Inability to recall events of young

childhood

– Anterograde amnesia• No memory for events that occur after

the trauma


Amnesia Studies

• Amnesiacs show normal priming (implicit), but poor recognition memory (explicit)– They did not remember having seen the

word list, but completed the word fragments at the same rate as normals


Hippocampus and Memory– Critical for integration and

consolidation– Essential for declarative

memory– Without the

hippocampus, only the learning of skills and habits, simple conditioning, and the phenomenon of priming can occur


Alzheimer’s Disease

• Symptoms (gradual, continuous, and irreversible)– Memory loss– Problems doing familiar tasks– Problems with language– Trouble knowing the time, date, or place– Poor or decreased judgment– Problems with abstract thinking– Misplacing things often, such as keys– Changes in mood, behavior, and personality

• These symptoms could be an early sign of Alzheimer’s when it affects daily life


• Atrophy of the cortical tissue – Alzheimer’s brains shows abnormal fibers that

appear to be tangles of brain tissue and senile plaques (patches of degenerative nerve endings)

– The resulting damage of these conditions may lead to disruption of impulses in neurons

Alzheimer’s Disease and the Brain

Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 5 Chapter 5: Memory: Models and...

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