Cebu Normal UniversityCollege of Teacher Education

Graduate StudiesOsmena Boulevard, Cebu City

Diploma in Professional EducationPrinciples of Teaching

COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIESThe Proponents, their Works and Impact to the Learning Process

Prepared by:

Christine Baroro Louchris Marie PiaEunice Borlasa Matea GoronEthyl Perez Michelle AbanganFely Veraque Reynario Ruiz Jr.Johnry Gac-ang Rowena Parcon

Submitted to:Dr. Ethyl Abao

August 4, 2011

Objectives

After thoroughly reading and understanding the content of this booklet, the readers are expected to do the following with at least 80% accuracy.

1. Define cognitivism.2. Compare the three groups of the theories of learning.3. Enumerate the different cognitive learning theories and their corresponding proponents.4. Explain the assumptions of each theory.5. Give analogical examples of each theoretical assumption.6. Share the implications of the theories to learning and education.

Table of Contents

Learning

Learning and the Three Approaches by Reynario Ruiz Jr.

The Neobehaviorists

Donald Olding Hebb by Ethyl PerezEdward Chace Tolman by Matea Goron

The Gestalists

Max Werheimer by Eunice BorlasaKurt Koffka by Louchris Marie PiaWolfgang Kholer by Fely Veraque

The Cognitive Theorists

David Paul Ausubel by Christine BaroroJean William Fritz Piaget by Johnry GacangJerome Seymour Bruner by Rowena ParconRobert Mills Gagne by Michelle Abangan

Bibliography

Learning

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience (Santaock, 2000). Learning would be extremely inefficient if we had to rely completely on conditioning for all our learning. Human beings can learn efficiently by observation, taking instruction, and imitating the behavior of others.

There are three classifications learning theories widely used and applied in education. Below is a table showing comparison of the three groups.

Behavioral Learning Cognitive Learning Social Learning

*Only observable behaviors are worthy of research since other abstraction such as a person’s mood or thoughts

are too subjective.*Aims to discover predictable relationships between stimuli

and response.*Emphasizes stimuli response

and reinforcement using animals and some humans as

research subjects.*Intended to explain all

significant aspects of behavior.

*The acquisition of knowledge and skill by mental or cognitive processes. The procedures we

have for manipulating information 'in our heads'.

*Cognitive processes include creating mental

representations of physical objects and events, and other

forms of information processing.

*Concerned more on higher mental processes (thinking,

imagining and problem solving)

*To make useful inferences about mental processes that

intervene and determine behavior.

*Learning through modeling, observation, imitation and self

reward in development of social skills, interactions and behavior

*a process must: (1) demonstrate that a change in understanding has taken place in the individuals involved; (2) demonstrate that this change

goes beyond the individual and becomes situated within wider social units or communities of practice; and (3) occur through

social interactions and processes between actors

within a social network

The Neobehaviorists

For this part, neobehaviorist – a behaviorist that retained a commitment to the need to preserve the objective, scientific nature of psychological investigation, but neo in that they sensed the need to include inferences about profoundly important mental processes like thinking and imagining.

Donald Olding Hebb• Born : July 22, 1904

Chester, Nova Scotia Canada• Died : August 20, 1985 (aged 81)

Chester, Nova Scotia Canada• Nationality : Canadian• Fields : Psychologist• Known for : Cell assembly Theory

Also known as the Hebbian Cell assembly Theory - "The general idea is an old one, which any two cells or systems of cells that are repeatedly active at the same time will tend to become 'associated', so that activity in one facilitates activity in the other.

Major assumptions and their examples:1. A cell assembly (or mediating process) is established as the result of the repeated firing of

cells. Ex. It is considerably easier to multiply two numbers if they have been multiplied many times previously. Or it is easier to recognize a simple object if it has been presented frequently than if it has only been seen once.

2. If 2 cell assemblies are repeatedly active at the same time, an association between the two will tend to form. Ex. If you always see George with a cigar in his mouth, then it’s likely that anything that reminds you of George will also bring the cigar to mind.

3. An assembly that is always active at the same time as an efferent pathway will tend to form an association with it. Like with the experiment of the dog- food – buzzer – salivation.

4. Each assembly corresponds to relatively simple sensory input. This property of the cell assembly males it necessary to involve large groups of such assemblies in explaining the perception of even relatively simple physical objects.

The purpose for these 4 assumptions is to permit Hebb to describe what learning and thinking are.

LearningLearning is acquired as a result from the repetition of the same sensory event leading to the

formation of associated assemblies. It consists of the permanent facilitation of conduction among neural units”

Thinking

Thinking is equivalent to mediation. Mediation consists of activity in assemblies of cells and the nature of the mediation (or of the thought) is determined by the specific assemblies involved.

Neurological Changes as a Result of Learning1. More connections occur as learning occurs2. Existing connections change as learning occurs e.g. Chemical changes can lead to less response to new stimuli (resistant to new changes)

3. Repeated transmission between 2 cells leads to permanent facilitation (learning)4. Neural cells may be reactivated by their own activity

What makes it a cognitive learning theory?This theory is definitely a cognitive learning theory in a way that it deals with finding out how the

mind and he brain work to create and store learning.

Implication

This theory allows the teacher to make sets of strategies to make learning more effective. Like when a teacher, knowing that learning is facilitated with stimuli that is introduced and reintroduced repeatedly, might want to follow this scheme of teaching, when appropriate.

Edward Tolman American psychologist who made significant contributions to the studies of learning and motivation. Considered a cognitive behaviorist today, he developed his own behaviorism when the likes of Watson were dominating the field Born: April 14, 1886 Newton, Massachusetts He remained there as he grew up and was educated in the Newton Public Schools. He lived in a family of "upper middle" socioeconomic status and had

a father who was the president of a manufacturing company.

SIGN LEARNING OR PURPOSIVE BEHAVIORISM

Tolman's theorizing has been called purposive behaviorism and is often considered the bridge between behaviorism and cognitive theory.

According to Tolman's theory of sign learning, an organism learns by pursuing signs to a goal and through meaningful behavior.

Aspect of learning: "The stimuli which are allowed in are not connected by just simple one-to-one switches to the outgoing responses. Rather the incoming impulses are usually worked over and elaborated in the central control room into a tentative cognitive-like map of the environment. And it is this tentative map, indicating routes and paths and environmental relationships, which finally determines what responses, if any, the animal will finally make.

Proposed five types of learning: (1) approach learning(2) escape learning(3) avoidance learning (4) choice-point learning (5) latent learning

All forms of learning depend upon means-end readiness, i.e., goal-oriented behavior, mediated by expectations, perceptions, representations, and other internal or environmental variables.

Tolman's version of behaviorism emphasized the relationships between stimuli rather than stimulus-response. According to Tolman, a new stimulus (the sign) becomes associated with already meaningful stimuli (the significate) through a series of pairings; there was no need for reinforcement in order to establish learning. For this reason, Tolman's theory was closer to the connectionist framework ofThorndike than the drive reduction theory of Hull or other behaviorists.

Scope/Application

Although Tolman intended his theory to apply to human learning, almost all of his research was done with rats and mazes. Tolman (1942) examines motivation towards war, but this work is not directly related to his learning theory.

Example:

Much of Tolman's research was done in the context of place learning. In the most famous experiments,

A) one group of rats was placed at random starting locations in a maze but the food was always in the same location.

B) Another group of rats had the food placed in different locations which always required exactly the same pattern of turns from their starting location.

Conclusion

The group that had the food in the same location performed much better than the other group, supposedly demonstrating that they had learned the location rather than a specific sequence of turns.

Principles

1. Learning is always purposive and goal-directed.2. Learning often involves the use of environmental factors to achieve a goal (e.g., means-ends-analysis)3. Organisms will select the shortest or easiest path to achieve a goal.

The Gestalt Psychologists

(Plural „Gestalten”) is German for “pattern”, “figure”, “shape”, or “form” It originates from the work of Max Wertheimer and his students Köhler and Koffka but not precisely translatable, just as „Angst” is not. It is used to refer to wholes, systems and complete structures rather than the reductionist approach of seeking ever smaller components of a phenomenon. In learning, opposed to the reductionism of behaviorism, it concentrates on the way in which the mind insists on finding patterns in things, and how this contributes to learning, especially the development of “insight”.

Max Wertheimer (1880-1943)

was born in Prague, Czechoslovakia on April 15,1880 the originator of Gestalt psychology Worked with Koffka and Kohler on Gestalt psychology. Their work was

interrupted by WWI initial studies were in the field of law in Prague studied philosophy and psychology and obtained Ph.D. in University of

Berlin writing poetry and composing symphonies were some of his interest He quickly conducted experiments, and discovered phi phenomenon – when two lights flash

at a certain speed, we perceive a singular light oscillating back and forth. Interested of problem solving

Wolfgang Kohler (January 12, 1987 – June 11, 1967)~ A German psychologist and phenomonologist~ Contributed to the creation of Gestalt psychology with Max Wertheimer and Kurt Koffka.~ Trained at the University of Berlin~ Worked at the primate research facility maintained by Prussian Academy of Sciences in the Canany Islands.

Major Works The Mentality of Apes Gestalt Psychology

The Place of Values in a World of Facts Dynamics in Psychology Gestalt Psychology Theory The Task of Gestalt Psychology

Kurt Koffka

1886- 1941 Graduate of the University of Berlin Ph.D. in Psychology Emigrated to the United states courtesy of Hitler’s persecution of the Jews The most prolific writer of the Berlin Group

Together the three were known as the Berlin group. Wertheimer as the leader and Kohler and Koffka did much to popularize the work by publishing volumes of papers.

Perception has meaning only when it is seen as a whole. Gestalt effect refers to the form-forming capability of our senses, particularly with respect to the visual recognition of figures and whole forms instead of just a collection of simple lines and curves.

Organizing what is perceived is far more important than the specific properties of what is perceived, because it is only through an understanding of their organization – through an understanding of their structure – that people know things.

The Whole is Greater than the Sum of Its Parts

Take, for example, something as simple as melody. You know that a melody is made up of individual notes. But you cannot understand the melody – you would know nothing of it – were you to here the notes in completely random arrangement. Similarly, the meaning of geometric figure not from each of its elements (number of sides, dimensions of its parts, angles of corners), but from their relationships to each other.

Thus the melody, nor its component pieces, is the whole, the organization, the gestalt – as is the trapezoid, the triangle and the square. The meaning comes not from summing their parts willy-nilly, but from the ability of humans to perceive their organization. And to perceive organization or structure is to achieve insight.

The Laws of Perception

The first concern of the gestalists was to discover the laws governing the perception of wholes.

Pragnanz: Good Form

Insightful solutions often seen to involve an “abrupt reorganization of given materials, a revolution, that suddenly appears ready-made on the mental scene. The brain appears to be directed by a tendency of whatever is perceived to take the best form as possible. The exact nature of that form for all perceptual experience is governed by four additional principles, which are described below.

Principle of Closure

Closure is the act of completing a pattern or gestalt. It is clearly illustrated in the observation that when you look at an incomplete figure, you tend to perceive a completed design. Example: the perception of incomplete words p-ych-l-gy.

Principle of Continuity

Perceptual phenomena tend to be perceived as continuous. For example, a line that starts as a curved line tends to be perceived as having continuity in a curving fashion.

Principle of Similarity

The principle of similarity holds that objects that are similar tend to be perceived as related. Example, a person who hears two melodies at the same time recognizes each as a separate melody rather than hearing both as one.

Principle of Proximity

Objects or perceptual elements tend to be grouped in terms of their proximity

Gestalt Views of Learning and Memory

In general, Gestalist view is that learning results in the formation of memory traces. What is remembered is not always what was learned but is often a better gestalt than the original.

It is a cognitive theory because…It focuses on an individual’s understanding of perception and rejects behaviorism

ImplicationTo generate productive thinking, students should arrange and rearrange the problem in

many ways until the solution emerges based on understanding.

Application

Gestalt heavily applies in the mathematics field. Wertheimer suggests that students, who wish to successfully solve a problem, again, they must be able to see the way the whole problem is composed. One original example of Wertheimer’s Gestalt theory is the process of students finding the area of parallelograms. If a parallelogram has standard parallel lines, the procedure is easier and clearer. But if a parallelogram has an unusual shape, a student will have to observe the make-up of the shape to solve the problem (The Secondary School Student, 2008). To do this the Gestalt way, students should be shown how to pick out the triangles that are at each end of the parallelogram. If the four triangles are combined, the result is two rectangles. After determining the area of each of these rectangles and adding them together, we now area of each of these rectangles and adding gram. Thus, students are taught to look at the "whole" parallelogram and pick out the "parts" that it is comprised of (Davidson, Sternberg, 2003).

The Cognitive/Educational Psychologists

David Paul Ausubel(1918 – 2008) was an American psychologist born in New York. His most significant contribution to the fields of educational psychology, cognitive science, and science education learning, was on the development and research on advance organizers.

Ausubel was born on October 25th, 1918 and grew up in Brooklyn, New York. Ausubel and his wife Pearl had two children, Fred and Laura. At the age of 75 in the year 1994, Ausubel retired from professional life to devote himself full

time to writing, with which four books resulted.What is the theory all about?

Ausubel was influenced by the teachings of Jean Piaget. Similar to Piaget’s ideas of conceptual schemes, Ausubel related this to his explanation of how people acquire knowledge. “David Ausubel theorized that people acquire knowledge primarily by being exposed directly to it rather than through discovery”.

Ausubel believed that understanding concepts, principles, and ideas are achieved through deductive reasoning. Through his belief of meaningful learning, Ausubel developed his theory of advance organizers.

Ausubel’s theory of advance organizers fall into two categories: comparative and expository.

1. Comparative OrganizersThe main goal of comparative organizers is to activate existing schemas. An example of a comparative organizer would be one used for a history lesson on revolutions.

2. Expository Organizers“In contrast, expository organizers provide new knowledge that students will need to understand the upcoming information”. An example which Ausubel and Robinson Floyd G. Robinson provides in their book School Learning: An Introduction To Educational Psychology is the concept of the Darwinian theory of evolution.

Conclusion:Ausubel indicates that his theory applies only to reception (expository) learning in school

settings. He distinguishes reception learning from rote and discovery learning. Rote learning does not involve subsumption and discovery learning requires the learner to discover information through

problem solving.Ausubel believed that children have a natural tendency to organize

information into a meaningful whole. Children should first learn a general concept and then move toward specifics.

Jean William Fritz Piaget (1869 – 1980) Born in Neuchatel, Switzerland

Published his first scholarly work at the age of 10: a one page note on a partly albino sparrow Obtained his Ph.D at the age of 22 Worked at Binet’s laboratory where the famous Stanford intelligence test originated.

Cognitive Development TheoryPiaget’s work can be viewed as attempt to answer two biology-related questions: what are

the characteristics of children that enable them to adapt to their environment? And what is the simplest, most accurate, and most useful way of classifying or ordering child development?

To assimilate is to respond in terms of previous learning; to accommodate is to change behavior in response to environmental demands. Assimilation and accommodation are functions or ways of behaving that don’t change throughout development. These functions are clearly illustrated in two important activities of early childhood: play, which involves assimilation, and imitation, which is mostly accommodation.

Piaget’s Description of Rules as They are Understood by ChildrenStage Approximate Age Degree of Understanding Adherence to RulesStage 1Stage 2

Stage 3

Stage 4

Before 33 to 5

5 to 11 or 12

After 11 to 12

No understanding of RulesBelieve rules come from God (or some other higher authority) and cannot be changedUnderstand that rules are social and that they can be changedComplete understanding

Do not play according to rulesBreak and change rules constantly

Do not change rules; adhere to them rigidly

Change rules by mutual consent

Piaget’s Theory as a theory of Learning1. The Acquisition of knowledge is gradual developmental process made possible through the

interaction of the child to the environment.2. The sophistication of the children’s representation of the world is a function of their stage of

development. That stage is defined by thought structures they then possess.3. Maturation, active experience, equilibration and social interaction are the forces that shape

learning.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive DevelopmentStage Approximate Age Major CharacteristicsSensorimotor 0-2 years Motoric Intelligence

World of the here and nowNo language, no thought in early stagesNo notion of objective reality

Preoperational Preconceptual

Intuitive

Concrete Operations

Formal Operations

2-7 years2-4 years

4-7

7-11 or 12 years

11 or 12-14 or 15 years

Egocentric thoughtReason dominated by perceptionIntuitive rather than logical solutionsInability to conserveAbility to conserveLogic of classes and relationsUnderstanding of numbersThinking bound to concreteDevelopment of reversibility in thoughtComplete generality of thoughtPropositional thinkingAbility to deal with the hypotheticalDevelopment of strong idealism

ImplicationThe theory follows directly that in early stages, interaction with the real objects is crucial to

the growth of knowledge and to the development and the understandings and abilities that underlie thinking. Hence, providing activity is the first of these implications.

A second Piaget-based educational implication relates to providing optimal difficulty. Material presented to learners should not be so difficult that it can’t be understood (assimilated) nor so easy that it leads to no new learning (no accommodation).

A third important implication has to do with the importance for teachers to know the child’s developmental level – knowing how the child thinks and understanding both the limitations and the potential of child’s thought.

Robert Mills Gagne

OUTCOMES OF LEARNINGRobert Mills Gagné was born August 21, 1916, in North Andover,

Massachusetts. He earned an A.B. degree from Yale in 1937 and a Ph.D. from Brown University in 1940. He was a professor of psychology and educational psychology. Gagné's work had a profound influence on American education and on military and industrial training.

He claims that people learn in many way and the various ways of learning are evident in the outcomes of learning. He describes the five major learning outcomes in terms of domains in the learned capabilities:

1. Verbal information- reciting something from memoryExample: recall a definition or tell a poem

2. Cognitive strategies- inventing or selecting a particular mental process to solve a problem.Example: Strategies in learning, remembering, creating, abstracting and so on.

3. Attitudes- an acquired internal state that influences the choice of personal action.Example: A learner chooses to read a science book rather than a romance novel.

4. Motor skills- performing physical task or an activity that involves the use of muscles.Example: writing, talking

5. Intellectual skills- this includes solving problems, discovering rules, acquiring information and learning how to talk.Intellectual skill is the “how” of the learning while the others the “what” of the learning.

Gagne postulated a hierarchy of eight different types of learning:

1. signal learning- Learn how to respond to a signal, like Pavlov’s dog.

2. stimulus-response learning- The formation of a single connection between a stimulus and a response.

3. chaining- motor chains- The connection of a sequence of stimulus-motor behavior. Able to chain two or

more stimulus-response.4. chaining- verbal association

- The connection of a sequence of verbal stimulus-response behavior. Use terminology in verbal chains.

5. discrimination learning- Learning to distinguish between two similar stimulus inputs.

6. concept learning- Concrete concept- classifying things by their physical features alone, e.g. identify

blue paintings, a symbol.- Defined concept- defines new examples by their abstract (and possibly physical)

features, e.g. identify the role of a teacher.7. rule learning

- Learning to apply the rules.8. higher order rule

- Combining simple rules to generate more complex rules to allow the situation to solver.

What makes the theory cognitive?

Gagne explained that “learning is something that takes place inside the head of a person, and that is the brain”.

Implications of the Theory

Outcomes of Learning Conditions that facilitate learning

1. Intellectual skills

Higher order rules

Rules

Concepts

Discriminations

Simple types of learning (signal learning, stimulus-response learning, chaining)

2. Verbal information

3. Cognitive strategies

4. Attitudes

5. Motor skills

Verbal instruction to aid in recall of rules; verbal instructions to direct thinking.

Relevant concepts are reviewed; concrete examples are provided.

Examples are presented; learner engaged in finding examples.

Simultaneous presentation of similar stimulus to be discriminated.

Reinforcements, models, positive experiences in various school contexts.

Information that organizes content; Meaningful context; instructional aids for retention and motivation.

Frequent presentation of challenging problems.

Reinforcements; model; verbal guidance.

Reinforcements; model; verbal direction; practice.

Jerome Seymour Bruner

Jerome Seymour Bruner was born on October 1, 1915, to Polish immigrant parents, Herman and Rose (Gluckmann) Bruner. He was born blind and did not achieve sight until after two cataract operations while he was still an infant. He attended public schools, graduating from high school in 1933, and entered Duke University where he majored in psychology, earning the AB degree in 1937. Bruner then pursued graduate study at Harvard University, receiving the MA in 1939 and the Ph.D. in 1941.

Jerome Bruner is one of the best known and influential psychologists of the twentieth century. He was one of the key figures in the so called 'cognitive revolution' - but it is the field of education that his influence has been especially felt.

Major Works

The Process of Education and Towards a Theory of Instruction have been widely read and become recognized as classics, and his work on the social studies programme - Man: A Course of Study (MACOS) - in the mid-1960s is a landmark in curriculum development. More recently Bruner has come to be critical of the 'cognitive revolution' and has looked to the building of a cultural psychology that takes proper account of the historical and social context of participants. In his 1996 book The Culture of Education these arguments were developed with respect to schooling (and education more generally). 'How one conceives of education', he wrote, 'we have finally come to recognize, is a function of how one conceives of the culture and its aims, professed and otherwise' (Bruner 1996: ix-x).

Jerome S. Bruner also became involved in the design and implementation of the influential MACOS project (which sought to produce a comprehensive curriculum drawing upon the behavioural sciences). The curriculum famously aimed to address three questions:

What is uniquely human about human beings?How did they get that way?How could they be made more so? (Bruner 1976: 74)

Theory of Cognitive Growth

- looked to environmental and experiential factors- intellectual ability developed in stages through step-by-step changes in how the mind is

used

The process of educationThe Process of Education (1960) was a landmark text. It had a direct impact on policy

formation in the United States and influenced the thinking and orientation of a wide group of teachers and scholars, Its view of children as active problem-solvers who are ready to explore 'difficult' subjects while being out of step with the dominant view in education at that time, struck a chord with many.

Four key themes emerge out of the work around The Process of Education

1. The role of structure in learning and how it may be made central in teaching.- The approach taken should be a practical one. The teaching and learning of structure,

rather than simply the mastery of facts and techniques, is at the center of the classic problem of transfer... If earlier learning is to render later learning easier, it must do so by providing a general picture in terms of which the relations between things encountered earlier and later are made as clear as possible.

-2. Readiness for learning.

- Here the argument is that schools have wasted a great deal of people's time by postponing the teaching of important areas because they are deemed 'too difficult'. This notion underpins the

idea of the spiral curriculum - 'A curriculum as it develops should revisit this basic ideas repeatedly, building upon them until the student has grasped the full formal apparatus that goes with them.

3. Intuitive and analytical thinking- Intuition ('the intellectual technique of arriving and plausible but tentative formulations

without going through the analytical steps by which such formulations would be found to be valid or invalid conclusions' ibid.: 13) is a much neglected but essential feature of productive thinking. Here Bruner notes how experts in different fields appear 'to leap intuitively into a decision or to a solution to a problem' (ibid.: 62) - a phenomenon that Donald Schön was to explore some years later - and looked to how teachers and schools might create the conditions for intuition to flourish.

4. Motives for learning- 'Ideally', Jerome Bruner writes, interest in the material to be learned is the best stimulus to

learning, rather than such external goals as grades or later competitive advantage' (ibid.: 14). In an age of increasing spectatorship, 'motives for learning must be kept from going passive... they must be based as much as possible upon the arousal of interest in what there is be learned, and they must be kept broad and diverse in expression

Knowing is a process not a product.To instruct someone... is not a matter of getting him to commit results to mind. Rather, it is

to teach him to participate in the process that makes possible the establishment of knowledge. We teach a subject not to produce little living libraries on that subject, but rather to get a student to think mathematically for himself, to consider matters as an historian does, to take part in the process of knowledge-getting.

The culture of educationCulture shapes the mind... it provides us with the toolkit by which we construct not only our

worlds but our very conception of our selves and our powers' (ibid.: x). This orientation 'presupposes that human mental activity is neither solo nor conducted unassisted, even when it goes on "inside the head

~END~

Bibliography

Book References

Birion, Asturia, de Jose, Salgado, Salise; 2006; General Psychology; Mutya Publishing House Inc.Paulk D; 1991; Psychology Today, 7th edition; Morgan Hill Inc. U.S.A

Evangelista L; 2001; Personality Development; Ken Inc. Quezon City PhilippinesLebiste M; Introduction to Psychology; 2003; University of CebuPlotnik; 2002; Introduction to Psychology; 6th edition; Wadsworth Publishing Inc. SingaporeLimpingco, Tria; 1999; Personality, 2nd edition; Ken Inc. Quezon City PhilippinesTheories of Human Learning

Internet References

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_learning_(social_pedagogy)allpsych.com/psychology101/learning.htmlwww.behaviorbasedlearning.comlibrary.thinkquest.org/.../en-5.5.3=cognitive%20learning.htmhttp://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/gestalt.htm#ixzz1SqYjDWH7 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Ausubelhttp://itls.usu.edu/~mimi/courses/6260/theorists/Ausubel/aususc.htmlhttp://faculty.mdc.edu/jmcnair/arieal/Articles/David%20Ausubel.htmhttp://cognitiveapproaches.pbworks.com/w/page/10506169/Assimilation-Learning-Theoryhttp://www.pigeon.psy.tufts.edu/psych26/kohler.htmhttp://www.nap.edu/readinggroom.php?book=biomens&page=wkohler.htmlhttp://www.lifecircles-inc.com/Learningtheories/gestalt/wertheimer.htmlhttp://tip.psychology.org/wertheim.htmlhttp://learningtheories4101.pbworks.com/w/page/15911560/Wertheimer's-Gestalt-Theoryhttp://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Max_Wertheimer.aspxpeoplelearn.homestead.com/BEduc/Chapter_5.pdffac.hsu.edu/ahmada/3%20Courses/.../10%20Gestalt%20Theory.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_O._Hebb http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Donald_Olding_Hebb http://www.infed.org/thinkers/bruner.htm by Mark K. Smith 2002http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebbian_theory#Hebbian_engrams_and_cell_assembly_theory

Notes Notes