Cognition and Emotionsin the Creative Process N

aboveFigure 1. Giving of Self,Kevin Pfefferle, Grade3, WestervilleOhioCitySchools.

ICOLE M. GNEZDA

Art teachers are most successful when they teach the whole child, with an aware-ness of the student inside as well as the work that is being produced outside.Therefore, when teaching our students about their own creativity and that of artiststhey study, it is helpful to understand complex neurological and enriotional opera-

tions that are active during creative processes. In this article I will explain these operations inorder to help art teachers more fully understand what happens inside their students as theycreate, and I will suggest ways teachers can effectively foster their students' creativity.

The Experience of CreativityCreativity is a cognitive-emotional manipulative experience that is accessible to all people. Creativity is

cognitive because it is about innovating and developing ideas and occurs via specialized mental processes.It is emotional because emotions are integral (Clark, 1992) and "loom large" (Roe, 1963, p. Í72) in thecreative process. Self-reports and empirical research about creativity show a rather predictable sequence ofemotional sensations that tend to occur as the process evolves. Creativity is manipulative because idea

January 2011/ART EDUCATION 47

development happens not only internallybut also through interaction with a mediumas an idea is being implemented.

Why individuals differ in the quantity ofcreative output and the ease with which theyengage in creative processes is unclear. Oneschool of thought is that creativity is anatural human ability but is suppressed inmost people by social mores and educationalpractices. Highly creative people are theexceptions who resist socialization pressures(Epstein, 2009). Other scholars believe thatsome people are gifted with higher levels ofcreative ability (Haier & Jung, 2008;Martindale & Hasenfus, 1978; Mednick,1962; Torrence, 1961). Self-reports of creativeexperiences, brain scans, and comparisonsbetween highly creative and less creativepeople have begun to reveal that specializedcognitive functions and a spectrum ofemotions are associated with creative work.

Creativity and Cognitive FunctionsResearch suggests that creative thinking

involves mental work that is different in styleand brain activity than that used duringother modes of thinking, such as logic oranalysis (Heilman, 2005). While creativeprocesses utilize a variety of neural areas andbrain functions, the aspects of creativethinking that result in innovation may derivefrom work in particular neurological areasand through variations in neurologicalarousal.

There is indication of a connectionbetween novelty of ideas and right hemi-sphere processing (Haier & Jung, 2008;Heilman, 2005; Andersen & Milbrandt,2005). Holistic/global perspectives, under-standing and producing metaphors,identifying relationships between pieces ofinformation, experiencing and expressingemotions, and perhaps even controllingarousal levels are characteristic of bothcreative thinking and the right hemisphere'sspecialized style of cognitive functioning(Heilman, 2005).

Association—making connectionsbetween disparate ideas—is often cited as theprimary mental operation of creativethinking (Andersen & Milbrandt, 2005;Heilman, 2005; Koestler, 1976; Rothenberg &Hausman, 1976; Mednick, 1962). Findingsfrom brain-mapping studies support this,showing high activation in brains' associative

cortices during creative ideation (Andreasen,2009; Haier & Jung, 2008; Heilman, 2005).Instead of focusing on a single subject,creative thinkers seem to unconsciouslycontemplate many pieces of information andtrains of thought at the same time.Researchers believe that thought patternsscatter to search a wide scope of ideas andthen coalesce into relationships betweenwhat might otherwise have remainedunrelated concepts. These cotnbinations ofthoughts form new and unusual ideas.

Effects of right-hemisphere, multi-direc-tional, associative thinking are many andmay manifest as traits common to highlycreative people. Such people tend to see bigpictures or underlying structures. They thinkmetaphorically and transfer knowledge fromone situation to another. They recognizepatterns and are frequently described asintuitive because they often understandsituations in ways not apparent to others(Myers & Myers, 1990; Barron, 1969a;MacKinnon, 1965; C. J. Jung, 1923).

Highly creative thinkers are sometimesstereotyped as daydreamers or absent-minded-professor types who struggle withdeadlines and the completion of projects.Though perceived as negative by a societythat emphasizes productivity and work ethic,these behaviors may be, instead, the outwardexpressions of low levels of neural activitythat are essential to creative processes.Studies suggest that low brain arousal seemsnecessary for the ideation stage of a creativeprocess, especially for those who areconsidered highly creative (Haier & Jung,2008; Martindale & Hasenfus, 1978). Lowlevels of neural arousal during creativeideation (Fink & Neubauer, 2006; Haier &Jung, 2008; Molle et al., 1996) permit thescattered, multi-directionally distributedthinking necessary for innovative ideas. Intheir research, Jausovec (2000) andMartindale and Hasenfus (1978) comparedhighly creative people to more average onesand found highly creative individuals weremore likely than their more typical counter-parts to exhibit low cortical energy levelsduring creative problem solving.

The reverse, high arousal, is associatedwith stereotypical, unoriginal responses(Martindale & Armstrong, 1974). Perhapshigh arousal causes the brain to zero-in tooquickly on a common thought and end the

idea search before an innovative associationoccurs. Longer idea searches are importantto creativity because, according to Guilford(1967), a larger quantity of ideas producesmore opportunity for unusual associations.So, though it tnay .seem to observers that acreative person in the early stages of theprocess is idle or not on task, the person maybe working hard internally, .scanning his orher brain and environment for as many highquality ideas as possible.

Low arousal levels do not persistthroughout an entire creative process. Laterin the process, when the person is settling ona new combination of thoughts (i.e.perceiving the insight of a creative idea) hisor her brain will turn up the activation(Martindale & Hasenfus, 1978). The creatorexperiences an energy surge that mayproduce the excitement of inspiration, alsocalled illumination (Wallas, 1926) or an "ahamoment."

In order to, then, put the new idea intoaction (construct it or communicate it),cortical arousal is needed. At this point, lefthemisphere modes—linguistic, critical,organizational, sequential, and logical—kickin and remain active in order to express andconstruct the new creation. Einstein (1929),for instance, "saw" the inspirations for hiscreative theories as mental images when theyfirst occurred to him, then later had to figureout how to translate them i tito writtenmathematical notations. During thisimplementation stage, creative processes donot progress smoothly. Creators have tomove back and forth between creative andcritical thinking modes and vary theirarousal levels as they manipulate their mediaand solve ideational and constructionproblems.

Highly creative people tend be prolific inthe number of ideas they originate (Guilford,1967) but may have trouble implementingthem (Myers & Myers, 1990). Becausecreative ideation is their forte and becausepleasurable energy peaks occur at the time ofinspiration, highly creative individuals find iteasy and fun to come up with ideas.However, the hard work and left-hemi-sphere-style thinking involved in carryingout their ideas are of̂ en more difficult andless satisfying. In addition, just about thetime a highly creative person is in the middleof implementing an idea, exciting new ideas

New ideas bring with them the need for new skills and the solutions to new problems.

Creators struggle, start over, reconsider, become exasperated, and question their abilities.

48 ART EDUCATION / January 2011

present themselves, tempting the creator toquit working on the first idea in order toiunip into new, more seductive ones.

Deadlines can be particularly challenginglor highly creative people because of thelluctuations in energy levels. Since averagethinkers tend to .start at high arousal levelsand select ideas sooner, they often havelengthy periods of time to spend onimplementation. The brains of more creativepeople, however, function at low arousal for along time, delaying idea selection until aninnovative idea appears. Though the neuralenergy rises to facilitate implementation ofthe idea, time to complete the process hasbecome short. ITiis may underlie thedifficulty many highly creative individualshave tmishing products in time to meetdeadlines.

Contemporary neuro-science is uncov-ering evidence of differences between theneural functioning that is active duringcreative thinking and that which is activetluring linear, analytical thought. Themanifestations of these differences affectmany aspects of individuals' cognition,ideation, and work processes.

Creativity and EmotionsA range of emotions tends to accompany

the varying neural actions involved increativity, making creativity a rich affectiveexperience. As ideation begins, energy levelsdrop, and a creator enters an indolent,dreamlike state of defocused attention (Haier& lung, 2008) that is governed by alphawaves in the brain (R. E. Jung, 2009). Analpha state produces pleasant, wakeful rest.In Gnezda-Smith's 1994 study of internalaspects of creative processes, a participantdescribed periods of defocused attentionduring the early stages of his song-writingprocess. He said there is "a fallow period inwhich, to the outside world, I am not beingvery productive. I'm sleeping a lot, I'mreading a lot, I'm doing a lot of nothing—tothe outside world" (p. 141). Similarly,psychologist Carl lung described a with-drawal of conscious energy that leads to'apathetic inactivity" (1923, p. 123) duringthe ideation phase of a creative process. Atthis time, thinking is turned inward toaccumulate sensory and intellectualinformation and seek associations.

At some point, a significant coalescence ofthought occurs and enters consciousness(Lowell, 1930, p. 109; C. J. lung, 1923). It isrevealed to the creator as an inspiration,•'tla.sh of insight" (Ghiselin, 1952, p. 26),illumination" (Wallas, 1926, p. 70), or an

1 I i t I IFigure 2. Poverty, Anthony Smith, Grade 7, Worthington Ohio City Schools.

"envisioned impulse toward a certain goal"(Sessions, 1941, p. 47). It is the peakemotional experience of the creative processand has been described as "wholly inexpli-cable satisfaction or excitement " (Ghiselin,p. 24-25). Canfield (1920) cited "a strongthrill of intense feeling" (p. 169). Carl Jungcalled it "a divine frenzy" (1923, p. 122).Arieti said, "the artist feels almost as if hehad touched the universal" (1976, p. 186).

Composer Sessions stated that theexhilaration of the inspiration is the "energythat keeps [creation] going" (1941, p. 47).Though this energy pushes the creatorforward, it is short lived. Now, an individualmust contrive ways of constructing orcommunicating a new idea. This is theimplementation stage, characterized byalternating periods of intense, productiveconcentration that seems like "automaticfunctioning" (Ghiselin, 1952, p. 17) andfrustrating encounters with problems thatrequire great perseverance. When implemen-tation of an idea is progressing smoothly, thecreator experiences a heightened emotionalstate, a loss of self-awareness, and a sense ofproductivity that Csikszentmahaiyi labeled"flow" (1996). Ghiselin (1952) and Lowell(1930) compared this deep engagement withone's creative medium to a trance-like state.

Much of the implementation stage of thecreative process, however, is marked not withjoy but with hard work, frustration, andself-doubt. New ideas bring with them theneed for new skills and the solutions to newproblems. Creators struggle, start over,reconsider, become exasperated, andquestion their abilities. For instance, VirginiaWoolf abandoned initial attempts at writingMrs. Dalloway because she felt unable tocreate the hook of her inspiration (Ghiselin,1952). A stereotypical view of writers thatappears frequently in the media shows awriter throwing away page after page becauseof continual failed attempts at an openingsentence. Ihis image and Woolf's experienceillustrate the discouragement creators canfeel as they try to actualize what seemed atthe moment of inspiration to be extraordi-nary ideas.

As individuals eventually complete theirprojects, their emotional fru.strations lessenand their moods may elevate. However, theyusually do not return to the elation of theinspiration. In fact, as creative products arefinished, people often and surprisingly feel asense of disappointment with their work.After repeated touch-ups, rewrites, critiques,and revisions, the excitement of theillumination has long since faded. In

January 2011/ART EDUCATION 49

topFigure 3. Human Coral, Y. Smith, Grade 9, Worthington Ohio City Schools.bottomDetail of Figure 3.

addition, the final product, executed by "animperfect person with imperfect abilities"(Gnezda-Smith, 1994, p. 142), does notmeasure up to the more thrilling image of theoriginal inspiration. Dorothy Canfielddescribed her emotional reaction to readingher completed manuscript for Flint and Fire: "Ifelt fall over me the black shadow of thatintolerable reaction... by the time I hadreached the end, the full misery was there"(1920, p. 175). The execution of a project isdriven by goal-oriented behavior that mightcause one to expect an emotional climax at thefinish of tbe project. However, since the peakemotional experience of creative processes isinspiration, the end of the project may bemuch less gratifying then expected.

Probably glad to be done with the work,creative people also express both self-doubtand longing to be re-immersed in the creativeprocess (Gnezda-Smith, 1994). For instance,installation artist Karen Frey Snouffer(personal communication, October 27, 2009)expressed concern about losing her "creativerhythm" and described an "underlying tensionbetween excitement and anxiety" that ispresent as she is "gearing up to lace" her nextproject. In his 2009 interview on Ihe TavisSmiley Show, writer Nick Hornby describedperiods of absence from creative work as"uncomfortable" and compared his need towrite to "an itch you have to scratch." RayBradbury (1992) commented that after evenone day of not writing he "grows uneasy" andafter four he "senses lunacy" (p. xiii). Duringwhat may seem like a challenging and emptypost-project period, a creator may already bestarting tbe process anew (Arieti, 1976),unconsciously scattering thoughts alongthousands of neural pathways in search of thenext significant idea.

Recommendations for Art EducatorsCreativity involves more than just making

something, even something new. It is a processof knowledge construction that emerges fromwithin a person and provides an experiencerich with thought, emotion, challenge, insight,and hard work. According to Booth, "ratherthan the things you make, it is... the experi-ence [that is] a particularly powerful act"(2001, p. 20). As art educators, we have anopportunity and responsibility to makecreativity an integral part of all our students'learning. We do this by employing teachingmethods that foster our students' creativityand by advocating within the school at largefor creativity and the needs of highly creativestudents.

50 ART EDUCATION/January 2011

TeachingIn our classes, students should experience

all the stages of creative processes, especiallythe low energy idea-search and the subse-quent joy of illumination. Unfortunately,teachers commonly assign already developedproject ideas and tightly structured lessonsthat relegate to students only the muchharder and frustrating task of constructingwhat the teacher has already envisioned."Much of the creative decision making [is]controlled by the teacher" (Szekely, 1988, p.3) and students miss the essence of thecreative process: innovating ideas.

Instead, lessons can be designed to engagestudents in their own ideation processes andexperience their own inspirations. Open-ended assignments based on themes,problems, or personal experience work well.For example, students could study currentevents and social commentary in art thencreate a work of art that expresses theirresponses to a contemporary social issue oftheir choosing (Figures 1 and 2). Anotherexample would be a study of identity andimagery that results in expressionisticportraits of self, a parent, a friend, or apop-culture icon (Figures 3 and 4).

Pedagogy matters, too. Creativity isenhanced when we coach students as theydevelop their own processes. We need toresist the impulse to pre-plan subject matterand procedures for the assignments we make,and we need to let go of preconceivednotions of what the student artwork will turnout to be. We can become comfortablewatching and guiding our students' ideas andartworks as they emerge. Our rewards will bethe pleasure of experiencing with ourstudents their many illuminations andcreative processes. We will also need toindividualize teaching methods becausedifferent students will work through theircreative processes in different ways. Somewill be able to proceed rather independentlywhile others will need us to work moreclosely with them. Coaching students meansstaying in contact with each of them everyday, perceiving what each needs, tailoringinstruction to specific students and theirprojects, and providing encouragement asthey progress through the stages of their fullcreative processes.

Understanding our students' emotionalwaves Is important, too. Students need us tounderstand the scattered and low energyperiods when they ponder and imagine. Theyneed us to labor with them as they lookdeeper within themselves for ideas. They

need us to share their enthusiasm as theystretch toward original ideas. They need us toenjoy the emotional rush of their creativeinsights. Then, our students need us to stayengaged with them as they face the chal-lenges of constructing their art. We canfacilitate their creative work by arrangingquiet places and blocks of time to allow flowexperiences to occur. When our studentsencounter problems that make them feelinadequate or want to quit, we can teachthem that all artists get discouraged as theytackle the hard work of translating ideas intoform.

We also need to be careful about ourcritical response to students' creative work.Rather than heavy-handedly scrutinizingstudent work for faults, we can designevaluation procedures that are growthexperiences and that help students recognizetheir strengths and reflect on their creativeprocesses. Criteria for evaluations may focuson how well the meaning of a student's ideais communicated, the student's perseverancethrough the process, and his or her skilldevelopment. Student self-evaluations can beenlightening for students and teacher alikeand function well as a part of an assessmentprocess.

AdvocacyAdvocating for creativity and creative

students is also an important role for the arteducator. Advocacy occurs when art teachersencourage teachers of other subjects toincorporate creative activities in their classesand help colleagues to better understandtheir creative students. Our peers maybecome more educated about creativity whenwe speak up at staff meetings and team

conferences with parents, involve ourselvesin decisions about disciplinary procedures,conduct in-services, and disseminateinformation about creativity.

Our knowledge can help our colleaguesbecome more aware and accepting of thevariant personality traits that are oftencharacteristic of their highly creative studentsso that, instead of scolding or punishing,teachers can help creative students developstrategies for adapting their natural styles toschool structures. For instance, we can advisecolleagues that creative students may not beprocrastinators, but people with prolongedidea searches whose energy kicks in late; thatthey may not be chronically tardy because ofdisrespect but because of periods of deepconcentration and fluctuating energy thatcause them difficulty in managing time; thatthey may not be scatter-brained andirresponsible but have brains that relishmulti-directional thinking during periods ofdefocused alpha activity; that they may notbe resistant to details, linear processes, andfollowing directions, but excel instead atholistic, self-directed thinking. Because ouradvocacy will help colleagues relate tocreative students in more enriching ways, itwill lessen some of the negative socializingthat Epstein (2009) implicates in thesuppression of many people's creativecapabilities.

ConclusionCreativity is a specialized type of higher-

level thinking, an emotional journey, a workprocess, and a high-quality human experi-ence. Some students already function wellcreatively. They need more opportunities toactualize their creativity and be guidedtoward further development. Other studentsare limited in their creative development,perhaps by inhibiting forces in school, home,and society. These students need freedom toexplore ideas and instruction in how to doso. The art room is where students can thrivecreatively. And it is from the art room thatcreativity can spread into the larger schoolenvironment, broadening the educationalexperience for all students.

Nicole M. Gnezda is a retired public schoolart teacher with 30 years ofPreK-12experience and a PhD in creativity andeducation. The content of this article isbased on doctoral studies, independentresearch, and classroom experience. E-mail:nicolegnezda@gmail.com or see www.compassioncreativityandteaching.com

Figure 4. female Identity, Callie Herman,Grade 12, Worthington Ohio City Schools.

January 2011 / ART EDUCATION 51

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