Coding and Analysis

NEXT SESSION: READ WELLER AND ROMNEY IN READING PACKET

Learning Objectives

–describe progress in group projects

–note steps in developing a semi-structured interview

–describe guidelines for computer coding of interview text

–describe the steps in performing analysis

Lectures

Increasingly less important as you learn from doing the work and I have less to 'teach' you

Learning from other students who are doing their projects becomes an important component

Exercises in class expose you to ideas and concepts

Interviewing

HAND IN Exercise talk about–Open ended questions you used?

–Probes

–What worked well?

–What didn't work so well?

–Non-verbal aspects?

–Field notes ("scrap," expanded, TA comments)

--your group project and what you have learned

Qualitative ResearchQuestion to address or interest in somethingPreliminary steps often to form hypothesis–(formative research)

Further studyCollection of DATA (field work)–Observation, interviews, other work depending on what you discover

DATA analysis–Coding (putting identifiers on what you found)–Looking for themes (main ideas)–Putting it all together (what you learned)

Report

THEMES

AN

AL

YS

IS

Terminology

terminology in qualitative research is not consistent, so describe what you do, and when you use terms, give their meanings

ethnography, field methods, qualitative research, participant observation, case study, naturalistic methods, responsive evaluation, needs assessment are used interchangeably by many

Complexity of qualitative inquiry

can have multi-site, multi-method studies

we look at many methods, separately, letting you try to integrate them in your exercises

Semi-structured interview

from a series of interviews, will know most of the questions that need to be answered, but can’t predict the answer

–Blood donors--spontaneous, privacy, altruism

–University Police--security, emotionless

–Big Time study hall--desire for a noisy environment

Semi-structured interview

prepare a list of short questions as prompts

try and let the interview be conversational, rather than questionnaire format

Semi-structured interview

–questions should address only one aspect of a topic, otherwise you may confuse yourself and the informant

–explore the domain of the topic and list in sensible order, everything you want to know, then construct question stems to cover the domain

•DON'T GET STUCK IN TERM: domain

Semi-structured interview

–pretest with a colleague, record the session and ask the colleague to think out loud so that any confusion is recorded, and the nature of the confusion is clear

–revise, then pretest with a participant

–revise

many questions can be leading,

what is your general opinion of the US health care system

what about the professionals, the doctors and nurses with whom you interacted, tell me about them

many questions can be leading,

asking about what types of topics were on the informational sheet handed out

“you mentioned earlier about the nurses not talking to you unless you asked them a question. Did you ask any specific questions?”

“what kind of accent does he have?”

Homeless youth in SF•Part Obs: June-Sept. 1997, Castro District, San Francisco key informant, Phase I informant interviews (#9) , preliminary analysis

•Phase II Semi-structured interviews (#11)

– wanted more females & <18, newly on street went to Haight-Ashbury

•additional participant observation

Interviews lasted 2-3 hours, with 1 to 1.5 hours tape recorded

Student projects:

–EXAMPLES of semi-structured questions you might consider?

Codes (abbreviation or symbol applied to a segment of words, or paragraph in order to classify it)

Types of codes

numeric, Outline of Cultural Materials (OCM)

memnonic,

Words,

Function of codes:

organization

retrieval

assembly

reduction

usefulness

Cultural theme

Morris Opler (1945) defined it as: "a postulate or position, declared or implied, and usually controlling behavior or stimulating activity, which is tacitly approved or openly promoted in society"

Function of codes:

Choose and flag themes so you can clump relevant strips from different reports–Spradley reading on themes is very good (reading package)

Identify field encounter

Identify informant characteristics

Coding and ANALYSIS

A very good device for analysis

Also could just search text for words–bamboo in Nepal

Codes can relate to:

terminology/definitions

methods/data collection –ways of asking questions

–non-verbal responses

STUDENT EXAMPLES

Observed behaviorStudent examples of codes

what was expected but not observed–Newar nose piercing

Process of coding EITHERCreate a small list of codes prior to fieldwork

•forces you to tie research questions or conceptual interests directly to data•be ready to redefine or discard codes when they look inapplicable, overbuilt, empirically ill-fitting, or overly abstract

OR: wait for field notes to suggest more emic/empiric labels–code expanded field notes as you go, or right after

Keeping Track of Data

–serial number for each note, then date, place, name of informant (use encrypting codes for places & informant names & keep code book of names & locations physically separately from field notes)

–dates: 980126, 020423, 050419

WHERE TO PUT THE CODE?

Penciled in margin for you now, but in large projects, computers handled this in various ways–

Log book of codes is essential–Re-assign

–Others to use who code the data

–May have two people independently code the expanded field notes

COLOR HIGHLIGHTER

Coding Field Notes

–Hard work, do it right after the activity

–CODING IS REALLY ANALYSIS, (Bernard), once you have coded, you will have done much of the analysis

Guidelines for coding for computer

code more abstract concepts than descriptive info (after collect data)limit to <50 codesmake codes stand out (bold, brackets, special symbols, *, #, { [ )Icons signifying relationship, like folder in Mac or Windows, Trash Can, HourglassMacrosHIDDEN TEXT (especially if have two people independently code) or track changes

Glossary to the codes for ease of reading

Alphabetize (eating habits)–TAm morning

–Tev evening

–TNt middle of night

–TPm afternoon

place a thematic glossary as well, helps you organize your codes–Body posture suggesting reaction to 'soap'

–Terminology used to refer to tan types

Data Analysis

search for patterns in data & for the ideas that help to explain the existence of these patterns

a great deal of analysis happens when you think of how to present your data, that will be covered in session 13 (computers), 14 (presenting) and more in session 16 and 17 (latter with Helene Starks)

AnalysisBegins before you start the qualitative research,

continues throughout the effort, unlike many quantitative studies

develop ideas and test them against your observations,

modify ideas as you gather more material and reflect on it

Analysis

outlining program (MORE) for the Macintosh, most valuable software for me

Inspiration Software, Inc.–http://www.inspiration.com/home.cfm

– sales@inspiration.com

– 800-877-4292 or (503)297-3004

Analysis

be very self critical, ask colleagues, informants, to review

balance between seeking emic perspective, documenting folk analyses, but remain skeptical,

don’t be afraid to develop and state preliminary ideas

Analysis

Question whether or not to be too grounded in the literature, and influenced by it, so consider keeping your reading at arms length

Qualitative Data Analysis Process: Generic Style

•Review Notes ---------> Coding IS COMPREHENSION

•Coding ---------> Search and Extraction IS SYNTHESIZING

•Search and Extraction ---------> Pattern Identification IS THEORIZING (Sorting phase of analysis)

•Pattern Identification ---------> Summarization IS GENERALIZING

Summary

Semi-structured interviews can help understand cultural elements once you have done some observation and interview work

Coding is the first step in analysis

Levels of Analysis

defining & describing items,

making empirical statements about objects & phenomena

meaning & meaning interactions,

tracing interconnections with items & patterns

patterns, grouping items & making linkages

Levels of Analysis

Grand vs mid-range theory

(domain analysis)

ask questions of data at different levels

•emic-etic

•macro-micro

CONTACT SUMMARY FORMContact type:Visit ___________________ Site: ________________Phone ___________________ Contact date: ________________ (with whom) Today's date: ________________

Written by: ________________

1. What were the main issues or themes that struck you in this contact?

2. Summarizre the information you got (or failed to get) on each of the target questions youhad for this contact?

Question Information

3. Anthing else that struck you as salient, interesting, illuminating or important in this contact?

4. What new (or remaining) target questions do you have in considering the next contact withthis site?

CONTACT SUMMARY FORM WITH CODED THEMESType of contact: Mtg. _______________ ___________________

place_____________ date

SITE ______________

Coder ______________Phone ______________ with whom, by whom

___________________ place

_____________ date

Date coded __________

Inf. Int. _____________ with whom, by whom

___________________ place

_____________ date

1. Pick out the most salient points in the contact. Number in order on this sheet and note page number on which point appears. Number point in text of write-up. Attach theme or aspect to each point in CAPITALS. Invent themes where no existing onesapply and asterisk those. Comment may also be included in double parentheses.

PAGE SALIENT POINTS THEMES/ASPECTS

DOCUMENT SUMMARY FORM Site: ____________Document: ____________

Date received or picked up: ____________

Name or description of document:

Event or contact, if any, with which document is associated:

Significance or importance of document:

Brief summary of contents:

IF DOCUMENT IS CENTRAL OR CRUCIAL TO A PARTICULAR CONTACT(e.g. a meeting agenda, newspaper clipping discussed in an interview)make a copy and include with write up. Otherwise put in document file.

Cycle of data --->analysis/interpretation---> data

•monitor & report your own thought processes as much as possible (keep info on decision you make about coding & extracting patterns), ie keep a log book

Cycle of data --->analysis/interpretation---> data

•much of what you develop stems from your own basic perspectives, what kind of person you are, and your experience in the research area

Body Ritual Among the Nacirema

• Analytic Foci

• Selecting indigenous (emic) or investigator-generated concepts & typologies (etic)–often use both

Analytic Foci

•- chronological

•- key events,

•- settings,

•- people

•- processes

•- issues

Analytic Foci: Chronological

•Series of events:

Analytic Foci: Key events

Analytic Foci: settings,

•places, sites, locations, then cross-setting analysis

•how does behavior change in different sites, why?

Analytic Foci: People

•people (within or across cases),

Analytic Foci: Processs

•control, recruitment, decision making, socialization, communication, etc.

Analytic Foci: issues

Specialized approaches for analyzing qualitative data

•TAXONOMIC

•CONTENT

Specialized approaches: •COMPONENTIAL analysis to distinguish items within a domain

Specialized Approaches

•EXPLANATORY & ETHNOMEDICAL MODELS

•DECISION-MAKING

•EVENT STRUCTURE

Process of Data Analysis

• Review notes periodically, code, search & extract chunks of material, look for patterns & summarize

• Bernard’s “intra-ocular percussion test”

• Text management programs

Constant Validity Check

•find out why informants disagree about important things

•check informants reports of behavior or of environmental conditions against more objective evidence

•be open to negative evidence, ie that doesn’t support your theory–may be an opportunity

Constant Validity Check

• seek out alternative explanations from informants, colleagues, etc.

• try to fit extreme cases into your theory, & if they don’t fit, don’t be too quick to throw them out

• triangulation of qualitative data

• switch from emic to etic perspectives

INTERPRETATIONS VALIDITY

•Open to negative or contradictory evidence

•Look for a range of interpretations

•Brain storm with others to get their suggestions of interpretations, there can be many

•Extreme cases (whether or not to discard)

Next Class

•FORMAL METHODS EXERCISE

NOTE TAKING / FIELD REPORTS

•Paraphrasing

•Quotes ( Hidden text)

•Non-verbal cues

•Decision on leaving material out: is this detail relevant to the purpose of inquiry?

jottings (can be anywhere)

•what you write down at the time

•dairy

•personal

•log

•day to day activity

NOTE TAKING / FIELD REPORTS•describe what happened & your interpretation of what happened, with descriptions full enough so another person can read it & make their own interpretations•OK to speculate but call it such, or you will later be confused as to what you observed and what was your interpretation•Expanded field notes as distinct from interview description in exercise•Keep a journal of your work (Hugh Swift)

Backup and security

•how many back up their files regularly?

•how do they do it?

BACKUP strategies

Frequency

•daily for important stuff

•weekly for incremental back up

•monthly for global back up

•set programs to save automatically every 5 minutes

BACKUP strategies

•computer floppy disk, tape, external hard drive, CD-RW

•Photocopy, photograph pages even

•off site - my fire experience

Carry valuable data with you, and don’t check in luggage

•if you carry data with you in a new and unaccustomed way, you are more likely to misplace it