Code book for literature review: Codes and their meanings: #C = Culture #L = Limits #M = Motivation #RL = Responsibility by learners #RT = Responsibility by teachers/staff #I = Involvement #LS = Learning Strategies #P = Problems #OL = Online Learning #LN = Learner's needs

Name of article: Quotes: Code:

Learner Autonomy by Ágota Scharle and Anita Szabó (2000)

Personality traits, preferred learning styles, and cultural attitudes set limits to the development of autonomy. (Page 5)

#C #L

Motivation is important. Motivation and responsibility can mutually reinforce each other. Self­confidence of the learners, that they can learn new things. Monitoring and evaluation, the process is more important than the outcome. (Page 7)

#M

Tell learners about the aim of the course, so they feel more responsible for the outcome. Learners need to be involved in choosing learning materials etc. (Page 8)

#RT #I

Learners might need different learning strategies that fits them. (Page 15)

#LS

Autonomy Support for Online Students by Eunbae Lee, Joseph A. Pate and Deanne Cozart (2015)

Among many factors attributable to online course dropout, the lack of self­regulatory skills is one area of focus (Page 54)

#P

Deci and Ryan (2000) suggest that the highest form of motivation is closely linked to satisfaction arising from a sense of autonomy, which in turn influences engagement, performance, and persistence. (Page 55)

#M

Autonomy is an important construct of motivation in selfregulated, online learning environments (Chen & Jang, 2010). (Page 55)

#M #OL

Choosing among several options is designed to increase students’ perceptions of internal control over their actions (Reeve, Nix, & Hamm, 2003). When afforded choices,

#LS

students tend to spend more time and effort on the activity (Flowerday & Schraw, 2000) (Page 56)

Jang (2008) found that students who received the rationale showed more autonomous motivation, used interestenhancing strategies, and increased behavioral engagement, and enhanced conceptual learning while completing a relatively uninteresting activity. (Page 56)

#LS #M

Students feel autonomous when the teacher respects and accepts their individual interests (Reeve & Jang, 2006) and provides flexibility for students to customize course activities so that they are closely connected to the students’ academic, personal, and professional interests. (Page 57)

#LS #I

When students work on personally meaningful projects, they become invested in these assignments and initiatives and motivated by the relevancy to their lives. (Page 57)

#M #I

Research has shown when students feel a personal connection to content and assignments, they are more invested in the outcome and more likely to complete such

#M #LS #RT

assignments (Patall, Cooper, & Wynn, 2010). (Page 57)

Exploring a New Role for Teachers: Promoting Learner Autonomy by Nae­Dong Yang (1998)

Teachers should take learners' interests and maturity levels into consideration when designing strategy assistance and deciding on the length of time spent on explicit strategy instruction. (Page 128)

#L

The teacher must tailor strategy guidance to the level of the class and interweave strategy assistance uniformly into lesson plans. (Page 128)

#LS

As Gardner (1996) has indicated, teachers need to persuade students that they are capable of self­assessment and that assessment is not something that needs to be left to teachers. (Page 133)

#RT #LS

Throughout the eort, the instructor's role was to facilitate the structure, process, beliefs and strategies necessary for learner autonomy to become a reality. (Page 133)

#LS

Exploring Factors that Influence Adoption of E­learning within Higher Education by Emma King and Russell Boyatt (2014)

[...]individuals continue to be tentative and lack confidence in both the tools (Burdett, 2003; Steel & Hudson, 2001) and their own skills (Bluteau & Krumins, 2008). Staff reported a lack of sufficient knowledge about the use of e­learning and appropriate technologies to support their teaching (Birch & Burnett, 2009; Blin & Munro, 2008; Hall, 2010; OECD, 2005). (Page 1273)

#P

Widespread adoption of an innovation, such as e­learning, also relies on a shared vision, clear leadership, a conducive culture and high­quality support (Errington, 2004; McNaught & Lam, 2010). (Page 1274)

#LS #OL

Consequently, leadership and support from senior management are identified as critical factors for successful implementation (Birch & Burnett, 2009; Browne et al, 2010). (Page 1274)

#LS #RT

Strategic direction within universities is often articulated through the means of an institutional strategy. (Page 1274)

#LS

However, rather than a strict hierarchical structure that might be common to some workplaces, a key feature of higher education institutions is the high degree of autonomy across faculties (Schneckenberg, 2009).This autonomy stretches through faculties, departments and to individual academics who McPherson and Nunes (2006, p. 554) report “are unlikely to sign up to a corporate ‘vision’ imposed from the top without real opportunities for debate and negotiation.” (Page 1274)

#RT #LS

In addition, e­learning strategies are rarely tailored to teaching and learning needs, instead offering a visionary profile for the organisation (Stensaker, Maassen, Borgan, Oftebro & Karseth, 2007), where e­learning strategies are found to exist they often focus around technology and are developed without consultation with teaching staff which can result in a tension between an institution and its academics (Maddux & Johnson, 2010). (Page 1274)

#P #OL #L #RT

Participants identified three key factors that impacted on adoption of e­learning:

#P #L

• the infrastructure of the institution; • staff attitudes and attributes including their skills and confidence in using technology; and • perceived student expectations. (Page 1275)

Participants suggested that implementation of e­learning needed to be underpinned with integrated technological and pedagogical support that closely matched staff needs. (Page 1275)

#OL #LS #P

In addition to an interest in teaching and technologies, staff confidence was identified as a key factor in the decision to adopt. (Page 1275)

#OL #LS #L

Participants suggested that while building on existing provision of face­to­face training, additional mechanisms might be introduced including online how­to guides, recipes for implementing new technology and opportunities for sharing practice. (Page 1276)

#LS

Participants in all of the focus groups identified student expectations as a factor that influenced their adoption of e­learning. (Page 1276)

#RL

These findings suggest that for successful implementation of e­learning, students need to be supported to develop realistic expectations, an understanding of the implications of learning with technology and skills for engaging in these new ways of learning and make the most out of the opportunities they present. (Page 1277)

#RT #LN

Participants recognised the need for a combined top­down and bottom­up approach, consistent with the evidence from the literature (Bottomley, Spratt & Rice, 1999; Cook, Holley & Andrew, 2007; O’Neill et al, 2004), and that without institutional direction, the decision to use e­learning often fell by the wayside due to pressures to meet other priorities. (Page 1277)

#LS #P

Exploring Motivational Strategies of Successful Teachers by Sri Puji Astuti (2016)

The result of the analysis also reveals that second language motivation is related to other disciplines outside language learning. (Page 2)

#M

They argued that research on motivation in learning a second language should be not only general, but also consider strategies

#M

that can be applied in a certain context. (Page 2)

A limited amount of research has been conducted to find out the effect of implementing motivational teaching strategies on students’ motivation. (Page 4)

#M #L

The studies of motivational teaching strategies generally found that there is a correlation between teacher motivational teaching strategies and students’ motivation. However, the teachers were not necessarily aware that their motivational teaching strategies impacted on learners’ motivation.(Page 5)

#LN #RT #LS

Cheng and Dornyei’s study in a Taiwan context (2007) reveals that some motivational teaching strategies are transferable across cultural and ethnolinguistic contexts but some strategies are culture­sensitive or even culture­dependent. (Page 5)

#C #M #LS

The data from Moza’s students point out that the key idea in creating a successful environment in the classroom is the development of a warm and a supportive

#RT #LN

relationship between teacher and students. (Page 8)

The classroom atmosphere is relaxed, the students feel free to ask their teachers some questions, and they enjoyed learning with them. The teachers seemed to have a good sense of humor. The students could approach and talk to them inside and outside the classroom. This point emphasizes that social and contextual factors influence students’ motivation (Ushioda & Dornyei, 2012). (Page 10)

#M #LN

The smart student could act as the moderator and lead the discussion in the group. The weak students could learn from their peers. The students’ self­confidence was enhanced when they worked in mixed ability groups so they could practice in their groups before presenting in the class discussion. This also helped them to be autonomous learners. (Page 15)

#RL #LN #LS

Flexible Learning Activities Fostering Autonomy in Teaching Training by Rita Kupetz and Birgit Ziegenmeyer (2006)

In this paper we discuss the concept of autonomy as a course strategy and argue that enabling a student to take responsibility

#LS #RL

and to make informed choices is the main route to an autonomous learner. (Page 63)

[I]n formal educational contexts, learners are autonomous when they set their own learning agenda and take responsibility for planning, monitoring and evaluating particular learning activities and the learning process overall. The practice of learner autonomy thus depends upon, but also develops and expands, the learner’s capacity for detachment, critical reflection, decision making, and independent action. (Little, 1999:77) (Page 66)

#RL #LN

Furthermore, she states that “autonomy as a goal cannot be realized until it is translated into the structure of the programme” (1995:220). (Page 66)

#L #LS

Thus autonomy is a course strategy and concerns the entire curriculum, its materials, tasks and learning arrangements, with dialogue between teacher and students being especially important. We argue though that the empowerment of the learner by enabling him/her to take responsibility by making informed choices is the main route to an autonomous learner (Kupetz, 2001:53). (Page 66)

#LS #RL #I

Porter et al. state that using learner diaries “promote[s] autonomous learning, encouraging students to take responsibility for their own learning and to develop their own ideas” (1990:233). (Page 66)

#LS

Wolff (1994) claims the theoretical foundation for autonomy is found in constructivism. We agree and follow a moderate constructivist approach which is less focused on sequences of instruction and more concerned with the design of a rich learning environment. (Page 67)

#LS

Knapper (1988) views the potential of technology for developing a lifelong learning strategy as key to autonomy. (page 67)

#OL #LS

Fostering Learning Autonomy through the use of Learning Strategies by Claire E. Weinstein (1987)

Examples of learning strategies include summarizing, paraphrasing, imaging, creating analogies, notetaking, and outlining. (Page 590)

#LS

The importance of both becomes clear when one examines student study behaviors, particularly in autonomous learning situations. For example, if students are experiencing difficulty studying a section

#P #LS

from a high school science textbook, they might try to reread the difficult part. Sometimes this is an effective strategy; sometimes it is not. If the comprehension problem still exists, many students will give up or move on rather than try alternative strategies such as those described in the next section of this article. (Page 591)

The 5 categories of learning strategies discussed below include: rehearsal, elaboration, organization, comprehension monitoring, and affective. (Page 592)

#LS

The problem is that many learning and thinking processes are not algorithmic but rather more like heuristics. A heuristic is an approach, or a framework, or a set of guidelines. (Page 594)

#P

Problem solving strategies are another example of heuristics. We cannot teach students the exact way to solve any problem that they encounter, but we can teach them general guidelines that can help to maximize the search for an optimal problem solution. These guidelines can reduce random trial and error and help to create criteria for problem solution components. (Page 594)

#LS

It is important to differentiate between algorithms and heuristics because of the different instructional practices needed to teach them. For teaching an algorithm, it appears that the best method is to present many examples as clearly as possible to help clarify the model and how it is to be implemented. For teaching heuristics, this is not always a successful method. If a teacher tries to teach a heuristic by presenting too many examples too soon, the student does not try to adapt the heuristic but instead tries to model the examples. This is a particular problem when transfer is a desired outcome. For example, when teaching the use of mental imagery as a form of elaboration, it is best to present a few examples and then move on to practice sessions. Allowing students to practice with feedback is a more powerful teaching method than presenting many examples. Heuristics require that the learner reflect upon the method, practice it, receive corrective feedback, and test the limits of transfer. (Page 594)

#LS #LN

For example, when creating analogies to help explain a new or difficult concept, stop a moment and explain what you did. Telling

#LS #RT #LN

students (1) what you just did, (2) why it helps them to learn, (3) how they can do it on their own, and (4) how they can use the method in a variety of contexts helps them to learn the new method and generalize its use. (Page 595)

However, it is important to remember that this instruction needs to be followed by practice with feedback. It is the practice with feedback that helps to develop the skill. (Page 595)

#RT #LN

If transfer is a goal, then it must be directly taught and practiced. Autonomous learners need the strategies required for effective management of learning. (Page 595)

#LN #LS

Strategy­based Instruction: A Learner­focused Approach to Developing Learner Autonomy by Le Thi Cam Nguyen and Yongqi Gu (2013)

Benson (2001) classifies six approaches to developing LA. These approaches are resource­based, technology­based, curriculum­based, teacher­based, classroom­based, and learner­based. (Page 10)

#LS

The most popular forms of these approaches include cooperative learning, portfolios,

#LS

self­assessment, peer­assessment, and out­of­class learning. (Page 11)

[...]learner­based approaches seek to equip learners with specific skills and strategies which enable them to take up the learning opportunities. (Page 12)

#LN

So far, the most convincing evidence that LA promotes learning comes from learner­based approaches of strategy training. Some of these studies focus on improving students’ metacognition and self­regulation skills; some direct students’ attention to task analysis; and others involve comprehensive training packages that attempt to improve both metacognitive management of learning and the analysis of tasks. (Page 12)

#LN #LS #RT

It is interesting to note that monitoring was the least used among the four components of self­regulation even after the training. (Page 21)

#P #LS

Learners engaged in self­regulation considerably more after the SBI training. However, the findings also suggest that monitoring was the least exercised aspect of self­regulation, even after training. In fact,

#L #P #LS

similar findings have been reported elsewhere. (Page 24)

They tended to focus more on monitoring language problems, rather than on other aspects such as monitoring task progress, task concentration, task performance, or their own emotional reactions. (Page 24)

#P #LN #RL

Since monitoring was the least exercised among the three metacognitive skills, it is suggested that more monitoring­focused training could help learners master and execute the monitoring skill in their learning. (Page 24)

#LS #LN #RT

[...]‘for the students, appropriate communication of learning objectives may be an important element in the establishment of motivation and the feedback from completed learning’ (p. 74). This suggests that explicit articulation of objectives is crucial for learner. (Page 25)

#LN #RT #LS

Second, the study also found improvements in the self­regulation aspect of LA. The students who received SBI training appeared to have enhanced their ability to plan, monitor and evaluate a writing task. Planning became the most often exercised skill,

#LS #LN

followed by evaluating and monitoring. (Page 26)

As a learner­based approach to enhancing LA, SBI seemed to be a plausible route both in developing LA and in improving learning results. (Page 26)

#LS

In the bottom­up model, strategy instruction originates from a task that learners are working on rather than from predefined strategies. The teacher helps the learners think through tasks by asking guiding questions on what they think they should do, rather than telling them what to do. This will allow the learners to work out their own solutions to the problems. (Page 26)

#LS

Given the nature of self­regulation and the findings in this study, we believe strategy training should be more extensively integrated into the curriculum. (Page 26)

#LS

The Strategic Development of Learner Autonomy through Enquiry­Based Learning by Mike D. Bramhall, Justin Lewis, Allan Norcliffe, Keith Radley and Jeff Waldock (2010)

This paper reports on strategic developments to enhance student learner autonomy skills through the use of enquiry­based learning (EBL) in the design of higher education programmes. (Page 121)

#LS

The characteristics of an autonomous learner are critical reflection, self­awareness, taking responsibility for one’s own learning and working creatively in complex situations. (Page 121)

#RL

Most recent research agrees that autonomy is a developmental process that cannot be taught or learned (Benson, 2001). However, the Sheffield Hallam model, with its constant interactions between pedagogic learning environments and learner autonomy characteristics achieves ‘pedagogic resonance’ for students (Trigwell and Shale, 2004), creating a space for new learning partnerships. (Page 122)

#L #P #LS

A Study of Autonomy English Learning on the Internet by Yunsheng Zhong (2008)

The self­monitoring level of students is the key factor to success in autonomy English learning in the relatively free­loose Internet environment. (Page 147)

#LS #RL

In order to really realize promoting self­monitoring ability, the followings are additional. First, learners should establish a good learning goal. Second, learners should formulate feasible study plan. Third, learners should optimize the self­evaluation for his

#RL #LN

learning process, confidence and effects. (Page 148)

First all, they need realize that fact that teachers are the most direct and important guide, partners and supervisors for providing a good environment, helping students strengthen their autonomy consciousness and develop independent learning behaviors, so as to enhance the capacity of autonomy learning, specifically to manifest in learning strategies, to ensure the implementation of the plan, to build a learning platform for students and timely to provide students with the necessary knowledge, skills and many other help; to direct students formulate learning goals, to encourage more cooperation between the learner groups and supervise the realization of self­evaluation. (Page 148)

#RL #LN #RT #LS

Facilitating Autonomy and Creativity in Second Language Learning through Cyber­tasks, Hyperlinks and Net­surfing by T. K. Akinwamide (2012)

This paper therefore intents to beam searchlight on possible strategy for achieving autonomy in second language learning through digitalization. (Page 36)

#OL

Researchers in computer science believe that technology is able to provide students

#OL #LN

and researchers with powerful tools that can expand their understanding of the world and our place within it. (Page 37)

Combining a mixture of approaches and teaching methods, students are able to choose the instruction that best fits their individual learning style with the aid of modern technology. (Page 37)

#OL #LN #LS

Creativity triggers learning: Self­pace learning is possible through the use of modern technology; new things are discovered in the process of browsing the net the result of which brings about a new line of thought. (Page 37)

#OL #LS

Creativity Improves Self­esteem: This is what makes learners to develop confidence in their ability for self­procured solutions to challenges. (Page 37)

#LS

Creativity Improves Pupils' Self­esteem, Motivation and Achievement.(Page 37)

#M

Creativity Equips Students' for academic and professional tasks. By promoting creativity, teachers can give all students the opportunity to discover and pursue their particular interests and talents. We are all, or

#I #LS #RT

can be, creative to some degrees. Creative students lead richer lives and in the long term, make a valuable contribution to society. (Page 37)

Alena (2006) says ‘Research shows that computer­asserted learning engages learners, promotes active learning and develops autonomous learning’. (Page 39)

#OL #LS

Technological Advances in the two decades have reduced to the minimum the all­pervading anxiety in the field of teaching and learning. For instance, computers have become crucial components of information processing research management which every effective and diligent scholar requires for an understanding of their fundamental components and processes as well as appreciation and utilization of their capabilities in data analysis. (Page 39)

#OL #L #P

Learning becomes easier when students can see, touch or feel what they are studying about; while the lack of the real object of study leads to frustration and incomprehension. (Page 39)

#LS #LN

Digital divides: Availability and access to new technologies in Africa is still

#P #L

disproportionately low when compared with what exists in the developed world. The little progress made in Africa on access to mobile phones and Internet is suspect. The so­called ‘new’ technologies that are available in Africa are not the ‘latest’ technologies. This again, raises the issue of ‘Multiple Divides’. (Page 40)

#OL

It is quite dishearten that many do not know the benefits inherent in academic web interactions. So many are least aware of the advantages, knowledge and skill acquisition, innovating the curriculum and getting better approaches for teaching and learning as a result of technology collaborations across different borders. (Page 40)

#P #L

Learner Autonomy, Self Regulation and Metacognition by Feryal Cubukcu (2009)

Self regulation refers to the degree individuals are metacognitively, motivationally and behaviorally active participants in their own learning process (Zimmerman, 1986). (Page 54)

#M #LN

Self regulated learning is the control over students’ thinking, affect and behaviour. (Page 54)

#LN #RL

On the other hand, Borkowski and Thorpe (1994:45) deal with underachievers and the relation between self regulation and motivation proposing that an understanding of underachievement can be found in the failure to integrate self regulation and affect and is attributable to insensitivities, unresponsiveness placed by parents on children. (Page 55)

#P

Krouse and Krouse (1981) believe that there are three underlying reasons for underachievement:

• skill deficit • personality dysfunction

(impulsiveness, fear of failure, high need for approval) • deficiencies in self­control. (Page

55)

#L #P

It can be said that low autonomy is closely related to the low self regulation habits. (Page 62)

#P

Self­Regulation in the Learning Process ­ Actions through Self­Assessment Activities with Brazilian Students by Giovana

[...]studies have shown the importance of working with self­regulated processes in the classroom in order to increase students’ ability to regulate their own learning

#LN #M

Chimentão Punhagui and Nadia Aparecida de Souza (2013)

significantly, supported positively and enduringly by their motivational beliefs and self­efficacy. (Page 47)

Therefore, motivation and the execution of self­regulation processes are necessary in school education in order to better develop autonomy and independence. (Page 48)

#LN #M

Self­assessment is considered one of the options for motivating students’ ability of reflection on their own learning, as well as the ability to learn how to learn (Boud, 1995). This evaluative tool is recognized as a pillar for the development of autonomy (Harris, 1997; Mistar, 2011). (Page 48)

#LN #M #LS

According to Zimmerman (2002), self­regulatory interventions follow a cyclical model, which enhances the potential for someone to become autonomous. This cyclical model concerns three phases: the forethought phase, the performance phase, and the self­reflection phase. (Page 48)

#LS

Through self­observation, students have the opportunity to establish a connection between the results of their learning and the strategies they employed, enabling greater insight into the effectiveness of the actions

#LS #LN #RL

undertaken (Stoeger & Ziegler, 2011). (Page 49)

Having specific difficulties in learning and not knowing how to study are factors in academic failure and can lead to passiveness, withdrawal and non­completion of tasks (Sá, 2004). (Page 49)

#P #L

Activities from “motivational factors” can be beneficial for learning because the intention is to cause an increase in the interest to perform a certain task. (Page 49)

#M #LS

Self­rewards can influence self­reactions, validating perceptions of progress and increasing self­efficacy (Ames, 1990; Schunk & Zimmerman, 1997). (Page 54)

#LS

Students Motivation and Learning and Teachers Motivational Strategies in English Classroms in Thailand by Jutarat Vibulphol (2016)

Without motivation, learners may not start the act of learning at all and for those who have started to learn, they may not be able to maintain their learning once experiencing hardship in the process (Dörnyei, 2001; Gardner, 2007; Palmer, 2009). (Page 64)

#M #LN

[...]teachers can play an important role in enhancing or undermining students’ motivation. (Page 64)

#M #RT

Another state of motivation is referred to as ‘amotivation’. This is the situation in which the learner lacks intention to engage in the learning activity—not feeling worthwhile to make any effort in the study—as a result of being externally controlled. (Page 64)

#M #P #L

For learners with amotivation, they are more likely to quit the learning as soon as possible. (Page 65)

#M #P #L

Teachers’ autonomy­support styles can promote students’ intrinsic motivation and lifelong learning since it gives students the sense of control over the task. (Page 65)

#LS #M #RT

In addition, since the use of motivational strategies has been found to be culture specific the findings from Thai classrooms can be discussed in the light of those in other countries. (Page 66)

#C #M

In the light of previous studies, a good relationship between students and their teacher is one of the basic motivational

#LN #M

conditions required in a classroom. (Page 68)

The three strategies uniquely found in the ‘high’ motivated classes are well supported by motivation literature to be effective for autonomous motivation enhancement and learning engagement in classrooms across cultures since they provide a safe environment for the learners to take charge in the tasks that they find relevant. (Page 69)

#M #LS #LN

The relationship between Flexible and Self­Regulated Learning in Open and Distance Universities by Per Bernard Bergamin, Egon Werlen, Eva Siegenthaler and Simon Ziska (2012)

Groups that have high flexibility in learning indicate that they use more learning strategies than groups with low flexibility. (Page 101)

#LN

[...]students should be active and constructive learners, as opposed to passive recipients. (Page 102)

#LN #RL

[...]learning resources should meet the needs of the learner. (Page 102)

#RT #LN

In more recent research, investigators focused less on learners’ decisions (user perspective) and more on offering

#OL

possibilities of choice with the support of information and communication technologies. (Page 103)

Paris and Paris (2001) pointed out that the phrase “self­regulated learning” “emphasizes autonomy and control by the individual who monitors, directs, and regulates actions toward goals of information acquisition, expanding expertise and self­improvement” (p. 89). (Page 105)

#LN #RL

Chang (2007) demonstrated that self­monitoring strategies are helpful for students when adapting approaches to their learning environment and improving learning, motivation, and self­regulation. (Page 107)

#LS #LN #M

Moreover, we believe that the perceived flexibility of the learners’ learning settings is an important factor in the encouragement (or discouragement) of self­regulation; as we have shown in our study, the increases in perceived flexibility lead to increases in reported SRL strategies. (Page 116)

#LS #LN

Developing Student Autonomy in Learning by David Boud (1988)

Whatever our views are on the desirability of pursuing the goal of the individual autonomous learner, it cannot be denied that some of the attributes of the autonomous

#LN

learner are required by anyone if they are to be effective learners in higher education, or indeed anywhere else. (Page 21)

The main characteristic of autonomy learning as an approach to learning is that students take some significant responsibility for their own learning over and above responding to instruction. (Page 23)

#LN #RL

The extent to which teachers and learners will create an environment that emphasizes autonomous learning depends on a number of factors. These include the prior experience of both groups in such situations, the educational value of the teachers, and the external constraints with which they are faced. (Page 24)

#L #LN

The traditions of educational institutions normally mean that teachers are responsible for initiating an autonomous approach. This leads to a paradox expressed by Little: There is no escape from the paradox of leadership ­ the requirement that men should be led to freedom, that students be taught the autonomous style. (Little, 1975, p260) (Page 24)

#L

The criteria which should be used are that students ultimately become more effective learners and are more able to respond to the variety of environments with which they will be faced during their lives. (Page 24)

#LS #LN

Problem­based learning is an approach that is gaining considerable ground in courses which train students for the professions. (Page 27)

#LS

They found that meaning orientation was related to the perceived presence of freedom in learning combined with good teaching in the department in which they were enrolled. Freedom in learning included opportunities for choice in what they worked upon, and the ability to study in the way that best suited the individual student, that is, the amount of discretion possessed by students in choosing and organizing the academic work. (Page 35)

#I #LN #RT

First, I now have a clearer view of the ideal of autonomy as a goal for individual learners: they are to become their own persons in a context of working with others helping all to achieve their learning objectives, singly and collectively. (Page 39)

#LN #LS

Probably the most important feature of autonomous learning is the relationship between the teacher and the learner. (Page 42)

#LN #RL #RT #LS

As a corollary we may assume that learners can learn how to learn independently and that we as teachers can think in terms of learning how to learn as being a developmental process which we can promote. (Page 45)

#LN #RT

Thus the ‘activity’ of autonomous learners, I concluded, is best thought of as the pursuit of whatever learning activities the learner consider would best help them to achieve their learning goals. (Page 48)

#LS #LN

The problem­based learning approach forms the basis of a number of innovative curricula today. One of these is used at the Hawkesbury Agricultural College in Australia. Richard Bawden (1985) states that ‘at the heart of … [the] problem­based educational movement is the maxim that the most effective learning occurs through our individual explorations of the ever­changing environments we experience through our lives’ p44). Problem­based courses are

#LS

designed around specific real­world problems. (Page 53)