Coaching practice and

theory

CMI LEVEL 5 COACHING AND MENTORING

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Contents The tools and techniques used in coaching practice .................................................................................... 2

What is meant by the coaching cycle ....................................................................................................... 2

THE COACHING CYCLE: THE LINK BETWEEN COACHING AND STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT ................... 3

Use of reflection, self – awareness, dialogue, questioning and listening techniques within coaching

activities to achieve behavioral and organisational change ..................................................................... 4

The impact of personalities on the selection of the tools and techniques adopted with individuals ...... 8

Problem – solving techniques are appropriate within coaching activities ............................................. 14

The differing techniques needed when coaching different groups and individuals .............................. 15

The need to develop relationships to support coaching practice .............................................................. 17

What is needed for successful coaching relationships ........................................................................... 17

How to build the commitment of individuals to establish a partnership for effective coaching ........... 18

Goals and agree action plan with individuals ......................................................................................... 20

Individuals engagement with the program through the coaching process ............................................ 25

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The tools and techniques used in coaching practice

What is meant by the coaching cycle In this era of accountability, fiscal challenges, and demands for highly qualified teachers, school

communities need to be creative, innovative, and resourceful. Every child deserves a high-quality

education, and every teacher deserves resources to accomplish that goal—no argument there! But that’s

not the challenge. The challenge is establishing and sustaining an environment that provides opportunities

to improve student learning and build teacher capacity.

One way teachers receive ongoing support is through instructional coaching. With instructional coaches

helping teachers implement effective instructional practices, teachers are more likely to collaborate and

try new things that are not in their repertoire of instructional delivery.

Instructional coaching is intended to reinforce teachers’ and administrators’ practices in ways that

support schools, so instruction is rigorous, delivery is effective, and assessment is appropriate for student

learning to improve. Instructional coaching influences what students learn, increases student

engagement, builds teacher capacity, and helps students and teachers become more successful learners.

One of the ways for coaches to support effective instructional practice and the ongoing collective problem

solving and collaboration that promotes quality instruction is to adopt a three-pronged approach. We call

it the Before, During, and After (BDA) cycle of consultation. This sounds like it takes considerable time to

implement a cycle; however, a coach and a teacher must consider how these conversations help identify

areas of strength and areas of need as an overall teacher professional development model. Where else

could a teacher and a coach work together, plan together, rehearse the content delivery structures, and

then debrief about what worked well in the classroom? That’s a win–win situation for the students,

teachers, and coaches!

So what does that look like?

In the planning, or “before” session, the coach and the teacher co-construct what the goals are and on

which elements the teacher would like the coach to focus. They also schedule a time for debriefing, which

should occur after they both have a chance to reflect on the visit. The “during” is where the coach and the

teacher seethe elements discussed in the first session. It is the content for the debriefing session. In the

“after” session, the coach and the teacher reflect on the goals they co-constructed. Were the goals met?

If not, what practices need to be strengthened to accomplish those goals? What could the teacher have

done differently in order to achieve those goals?

Following the BDA cycle of coaching and consultation on a regular basis provides ample opportunities for

coaches and teachers to work together to unpack a variety of statewide initiatives that require teachers

to redefine what they teach and rethink how they do it. The cycle enhances the opportunity for teachers

to coplan, rehearse, coteach, and then debrief with their coaches so that they can accomplish their goals.

The single most important quality of a coach is the ability to build strong, collaborative relationships. No

one knows everything about content even in one’s own area of certification. No one knows every strategy

or instructional technique that promises to improve student outcomes. No one knows all there is to know

about his or her students or schoolwide community.

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What a coach knows, however, is the power of collaboration and the tremendous influence collective

problem solving has to improve the ongoing teaching and learning that must be present in order for

students, teachers, administrators, and schools to be successful and help prepare our students for society.

Coaches following a pattern for supporting teachers through the BDA cycle of consultation provide a

framework that helps define purpose, practice, and persistence.

THE COACHING CYCLE: THE LINK BETWEEN COACHING AND STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT Instructional coaches are tasked with many responsibilities. Leading and developing workshops,

collaborating with PLCs, facilitating school-wide assessments, organizing learning walks, analyzing student

achievement data, and various other activities all contribute to positive change in schools. However, in

the proceedings and productions of these large-scale activities, oftentimes, the heart of coaching, the

one-on-one coaching cycle, can fall to the wayside.

Why? To some people, the coaching conversation seems so small. Facilitating workshops and school-wide

activities seems important and can make the coach feel important. Activities like these might provide

justification for his or her job to wary teachers and administrators. Let’s face it — big activities look

good. Also, it feels like we are accomplishing more (faster!) when we have lots of people involved. The

coaching cycle just doesn’t seem time efficient, right?

However, much of the available research about coaching suggests that change really happens one

collaboration at a time, through the use of one-on-one coaching.

So, what do I mean by a coaching cycle? Although there are many interpretations of what constitutes a

“cycle”, I categorize a cycle as a professional learning sequence that includes a pre-conference, classroom

instruction, and a post-conference reflection.

The classroom instruction and reflection can play out in three scenarios.

1. The coach observes the teacher teaching a lesson and provides feedback to the teacher.

2. The coach and the teacher plan and teach a lesson together. They then reflect together.

3. The teacher observes the coach teaching a lesson and provides feedback to the coach.

There is still much research to be done, but studies that suggest that coaching has a positive impact on

student achievement describe collaborations that I would characterize as coaching cycles.

Some studies show that teachers implement more literacy strategies in their classrooms when they work

with literacy coaches (Feighan & Heeren, 2009; Kretlow & Bartholomew, 2010). Teachers especially give

high praise to one-on-one coaching when compared to traditional off-site professional development

(Gross, 2010; Kretlow & Bartholomew, 2010). Of all the possible ways coaches work each day, teachers

report that significant coach and teacher collaborations have the most impact upon the learning in their

classrooms (Campbell & Sweiss, 2010; Gross, 2010; Kretlow & Bartholomew, 2010). Most studies show

that teachers report increased student engagement and on-task behavior as results of coaching

collaborations (Kretlow & Bartholomew, 2010). Coaching cycles help teachers make changes in their

instruction because coaches can tailor data collection, planning, and advice to the individual teacher’s

situation and needs.

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A three-year study of elementary schools tracked the amount of time spent coaching and resulting

student achievement. The researcher used alphabet letter recognition and scores on the Peabody Picture

Vocabulary Test-III (PPVT-III) to measure student achievement. A significant correlation between time

spent coaching and student achievement was found in the first year, but weak correlations were found

during the following two years. The first year both coaches and teachers had a strong focus on particular

content and techniques. They also had well-defined consultative and reflective conversation

cycles. Teachers and literacy coaches had little focus and fewer structured coaching cycles in years that

yielded weak correlations. The author suggests that more time is not as important as the “type and quality

of the interaction” (Shidler, 2009). Thus, the use of structured coaching cycles and a school wide focus

likely explains the greater student achievement results in the first year of coaching.

In a study of four middle schools where literacy coaching was implemented for one year, teachers

reported much higher student engagement levels, and student scores made modest gains. Baselines from

the state reading test and the Iowa Test of Basic Skills (ITBS) from the prior school year were compared to

scores on both assessments after the year of literacy coaching. Classrooms with the treatment (individual

literacy coaching collaborations) increased an average of five points on the state test and seven points on

the ITBS (Feighan & Heeren, 2009).

According to available research, structured coaching cycles yield a significant impact on student learning.

Lasting change happens one conversation at a time. Let’s not allow the elaborate productions of meetings,

workshops, and high-stakes data blind us from what we can do that really helps teachers become better

for their students: one-on-one coaching.

Use of reflection, self – awareness, dialogue, questioning and listening techniques within

coaching activities to achieve behavioral and organisational change Reflecting takes many forms in the classroom, and it is an integral and indispensable part of education.

Great teachers reflect on their daily practice and tweak their units, interactions, and attitudes, both at the

end of a class and in the midst of their work. In the same way, students need to reflect on their actions

and their work in order to build their classroom community and increase their own knowledge and skills.

If you want to integrate reflection into your teaching practice, here are seven tips that you can start

implementing in your classroom now.

1. Reflect With Shout-Outs

In an English classroom in my building, they practice TL (Team Love) shout-outs. At the end of class, kids

are asked to shout out one positive thing someone else did. "TL to Carla for lending me a pencil!" or "TL

to Kofi for explaining his quote really well" are surface observations, but they're also kernels of reflection.

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2. Reflect Through Writing

The most common form of reflection is a simple written response. Students can reflect on projects, grades,

actions, and reactions. I use a reflection at the end of every quarter where I ask my students what grade

they think they deserve and why, and then I give them their grade and ask them to respond, set goals,

and offer any comments on the class.

I'm constantly amazed by how honest and accurate my students are. Most of them will predict within five

points of their actual grade and be right on target with what they need to work on. Sometimes this practice

also provides key insights, such as one student writing about having a hard time at home and that

it's affecting her grade, or another student setting a goal to check off every item on his agenda each day

before he leaves school.

3. Model Reflective Learning With Pluses and Deltas

Pluses and deltas take the place of pros and cons. A pro and con chart points out strengths and

weaknesses, giving equal weight to each. For youth, pointing out weaknesses can be devastating,

especially if there are more cons than pros. Pluses and deltas instead phrases the conversation in terms

of things you did well and things that need to change. It's a subtle but pervasive shift that's especially

evident when students are offering feedback to their peers, and it's a great tool for your students to model

reflective learning.

Each week in my science class, a different student presents a Science Friday project. At the end, four peers

offer one plus and one delta each. These comments highlight the positive and then suggest a change,

making the feedback uplifting, direct, and actionable. "You didn't speak well" is not a helpful comment.

"You could speak louder next time because I missed some of your jokes" is better all around.

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4. Reflect on Quizzes

Tip: Be specific, positive, and actionable when giving guidance on reflection.

In math, students might be asked to reflect on the results of a quiz. Simply saying, "Reflect on your work"

isn't enough. Instead, you can say: "Choose three problems you got wrong. For each one, explain the

mistake you made, redo the problem, and explain why your new solution is correct." This focuses the

students to reflect on one specific aspect and then gives them a specific format for the reflection. As the

year goes by, less and less explanation is needed. If students recognize this format and begin to internalize

it, they can use it as a baseline for what reflect means in the future.

5. Reflect on Behaviors

When a class runs particularly well, I will often end by asking for reflection on why everything went so

smoothly. On the other hand, if I ask a student to step out of class, I ask them to write a reflection:

• What did you do that led to your leaving?

• Why did you do it?

• How can we work together to make sure that it doesn't happen again?

6. Model Reflection for Your Students

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Beyond just incorporating it into your classroom as a formative or summative assessment tool, you can

use your personal reflecting to make your class more transparent and your process more accessible to

young people. Every day brings a chance to reflect on your own lessons as a teacher with your students.

The end of a period is a great time to throw out some quick comments. I’ll often say things like:

• We didn't get as far as I hoped we would today. Does anyone have any ideas why?

• Today was great! Can anyone tell me something wonderful that they saw someone else do?

• I made a mistake. Next time, I'm going to do this differently by _______.

• I feel like we had a really great class today! I admired how all of us _______.

If students hear you reflecting honestly about your own lesson and pointing out your own successes and

things to change, they'll be more willing to do the same.

7. Reflect on Your Teaching Practice

Of course, not everything needs to be shared with students. Each day in a classroom brings successes and

failures of various sizes. Being honest with yourself about both is absolutely imperative.

No one will ever be a perfect teacher. From the first day to the last, we will all make mistakes. As we

become more experienced educators, those mistakes will change, but they will never disappear. When I

started teaching, my weakest skill was making my lessons accessible. My students often had difficulty

engaging with the complexity of my classes. Now, I struggle with the opposite, challenging the high-flyers

in my class while still allowing everyone to participate.

I only know this because I can look back over six years of lesson plans, saved assignments, notes to myself,

and journals that I've written. I write to myself at least weekly, and often go back for inspiration. Some of

my colleagues write daily journals. Some use blogs, Twitter, or Facebook, and others just talk a lot about

their classes. Yet we all take note of our own pluses and deltas, using those to better inform our teaching.

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The impact of personalities on the selection of the tools and techniques adopted with

individuals ood help is hard to find – at least when you’re using the wrong tools. Although the science of performance

prediction has advanced over the past 100 years, many organisations continue to use outdated personnel

selection techniques. A large body of research nonetheless indicates that tests of personality and cognitive

ability are among the most effective predictors of workplace performance outcomes. This article outlines

the importance of using valid selection practices to choose the right people

One of the classic goals of psychometric assessment has been to predict performance based on

psychological characteristics. Two major categories of psychometric instruments are tests of intelligence

and personality, both of which have a long history in predicting behavioural outcomes. Intelligence tests,

for example, were originally used to identify learning disabilities among schoolchildren, while personality

tests were geared primarily toward the prediction of dysfunctional behaviour. Following their broader

adoption during the two world wars, these techniques gained prominence as tools for assessing

performance ability and facilitating job placement. Importantly, the goals of psychometric assessment

have expanded over time and now include not only the prediction of dysfunctional behaviour, but also

performance differences across the normal range of psychological characteristics.

While psychometric testing and performance prediction have evolved considerably over the past 100

years, their value is often underappreciated. In the current article, two critical lessons from this broad

field of research are highlighted. Namely, research on performance prediction has taught us the

importance

of (a) choosing the right people, and (b) using the right tools to do so.

Choosing the right people

Most people would agree that in a competitive environment, the most qualified individual should be

chosen for a given position. However, there are many obstacles to the real-world implementation of this

meritocratic ideal. One such obstacle is the fact that people tend to underestimate the massive

performance and productivity differences that exist between individuals.

A powerful illustration of such differences is codified in ‘Price’s law’, which describes the unequal

distribution of productivity in any creative domain (Price, 1963). According to this formula, the square

root of the number of people working within a field produce 50 per cent of the total creative output. For

example, if there were 100 scientists working on a problem, the 10 most productive researchers within

this group would produce the same amount of material as the remaining 90. This concentration of creative

work becomes even more pronounced at the highest ends of the productivity distribution, such that the

most prolific individuals within a domain generate disproportionately larger shares of the total output.

Similar analyses have shown, for instance, that the 10 most prolific composers produced 40 per cent of

the ‘masterworks’ in classical music (Moles, 1958).

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Although Price’s law was originally used to describe the unequal distribution of creative output, the

substantial between-person variability in productivity and performance outcomes extends to non-

creative work domains as well. Meta-analytic studies of performance variability indicate that as the work

domain becomes more complex, the variability in performance across individuals becomes larger. One

way to examine this variability is as a percentage of an average employee’s output levels. Zero variability

would indicate that all employees perform at the same level, whereas higher values indicate greater

differences between individuals.

For unskilled and semi-skilled work, the standard deviation of work output as a percentage of average

output is 19 per cent; for skilled work it is 32 per cent; and for managerial and professional work it is 48

per cent (Schmidt & Hunter, 1998). What this means is that a professional who performs at the 84th

percentile (one standard deviation above the mean) will be 96 per cent more productive than an individual

performing at the 16th percentile (one standard deviation below the mean). In financial terms, this

performance difference would result in a £48,000 yearly productivity bonus, based on a £50,000 yearly

salary. These productivity differences become even more pronounced when they are summed across

multiple people. Organisations that are able to identify and recruit high-performing individuals thus have

a considerable economic and strategic advantage.

While selecting the best people is an important goal in itself, a parallel goal of no less importance is

screening out undesirable candidates. The consequences of choosing the wrong people are substantial,

as they lead to increased turnover rates, recruitment costs, and training expenses, along with lost

productivity and decreases in morale. The high costs associated with replacing poorly performing

individuals make it all the more important to identify and select the best performers in the first place.

Using the right tools

Because there are almost always more applicants than there are open positions, it is inevitable that some

selection process is used. While the previous section highlighted the importance of identifying and

selecting the right people, we turn now to the importance of using the right tools to do so.

Just as people tend to underestimate the productivity and performance differences that exist across

individuals, they also tend to overestimate the effectiveness of common selection methods. A perfect

illustration of this problem is found in the field of graphology, which involves the analysis of an individual’s

handwriting to derive assessments of psychological characteristics and performance potential. Numerous

empirical examinations of graphology suggest that it is completely ineffective at discriminating between

high and low performers, providing little more than chance estimates of an individual’s potential.

Nevertheless, this technique is an extremely popular selection tool in certain regions. In France, for

instance, graphology-based psychological assessments are used by up to 50 per cent of all companies, and

80 per cent of all organisational consultants (Bradley, 2005).

While it may be easier to see the folly of graphology, there are in fact many widespread selection

techniques that provide little more than chance estimates of who will succeed in a given position. Some

examples include education level, training and experience ratings, and academic achievement, which are

all common selection methods that nonetheless provide minimal predictive utility. Other popular

selection methods, such as unstructured interviews, vary considerably in their effectiveness and are far

from optimal.

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Why, then, are ineffective selection techniques so popular, when there is a large scientific literature

detailing best practices for performance prediction? The discrepancy between research and practice in

this domain reflects the nature of organisational decision making, which is influenced by many factors

beyond the results of empirical validation studies. Indeed, one of the most common reasons for not

employing optimal selection methods is that many human resource practitioners and top managers simply

do not believe in the real-world effectiveness of empirically validated selection tools (Terpstra & Rozell,

1997). This may not be surprising in light of the fact that most managers and staffing professionals are not

deeply familiar with the academic literature. Despite the many studies that examine the utility and validity

of different selection procedures, the results of this research have not fully permeated the awareness of

managers and decision makers. Selection practices also vary substantially across nations, suggesting that

the cultural context in which an organisation operates can influence the manner in which selection tools

are evaluated and employed (Ryan et al., 1999).

In order to take advantage of the large individual differences in productivity, it is first necessary to identify

the top candidates. In this respect, it is clear that hiring the best people requires the use of the best

selection procedures. Based on meta-analyses of numerous validation studies across a variety of domains,

the most effective and efficient method for selecting the top performers involves testing for both

cognitive ability and personality (Schmidt & Hunter, 1998).

Cognitive ability, also known as general mental ability, intelligence, or simply IQ, is one of the best

predictors of performance across many different domains. Broadly speaking, it reflects an individual’s

ability to plan, reason, process information, and control his or her behaviour. Some would argue that it is

in fact the best-validated construct in all of psychology, as its ability to predict performance has been

repeatedly demonstrated in thousands of studies carried out across 100 years of research (Schmidt &

Hunter, 2004).

Across all job categories, individual differences in cognitive ability account for approximately 25 per cent

of the variability in performance. The general factor of cognitive ability predicts performance outcomes

even better than aptitude tests claiming to assess the specific skills needed for a given job. If only one

variable could be assessed to predict performance across multiple domains, cognitive ability would

certainly be the most useful. While there has been some concern that such tests are culturally biased,

there are also non-verbal tests of cognitive ability that do not discriminate against respondents from

different cultural and linguistic backgrounds (Higgins et al., 2007).

Following cognitive ability, the second most important variable in performance prediction is personality.

While researchers have long used a variety of trait dimensions to predict real-world outcomes, the field

of performance prediction has benefited greatly from the five-factor model of personality. The five-factor

framework, or ‘Big Five’ model, is a taxonomy that describes personality differences across five broad

dimensions of variation (Goldberg, 1993). The five dimensions are extraversion, agreeableness,

conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness. These dimensions demonstrate good cross-cultural

reliability, are relatively stable across the lifetime, and incorporate the variance captured by most other

personality taxonomies.

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In terms of performance prediction, four of these traits in particular stand out. Conscientiousness, which

describes individuals who are reliable, hard-working, and self-disciplined, is the best personality predictor

of workplace performance and academic success, in addition to health and longevity (Barrick & Mount,

1991). Conscientious individuals have a strong work ethic, and tend to be more effective at pursuing their

goals. An individual who is low in conscientiousness will be more easily distracted, less organised, and less

productive.

Following conscientiousness, the most important personality trait for predicting success across multiple

domains is emotional stability. Individuals who score highly on this trait experience less negative emotion

and generally handle stress better. In contrast, less emotionally stable individuals will have higher levels

of chronic stress and anxiety. This trait is particularly important for predicting performance in highly

demanding positions, and is also associated with increased health, job satisfaction, and lower rates of job

burnout (Judge & Bono, 2001).

While most positions are best served by selecting for cognitive ability, conscientiousness, and emotional

stability, certain positions can benefit from the examination of other traits as well. In particular, the

outgoing, assertive, and talkative nature of extraverts gives them an advantage in domains that require

extensive social interaction. Extraversion therefore appears to be a good predictor of success in sales and

management positions, in addition to the variables already discussed.

Openness, finally, is a good predictor of performance in domains requiring innovation and creativity (King

et al., 1996). This trait is associated with an open-minded, reflective, and exploratory mindset that

facilitates divergent thinking and cognitive flexibility. Other things being equal, creative individuals tend

to score higher on measures of openness than their less creative counterparts.

Faking and response bias

Although personality traits are extremely useful for predicting performance outcomes, assessment of

these traits is limited to some extent by reliance on the method of self-report. In most circumstances,

respondents are honest and accurate enough that scores from personality questionnaires are reliable

indicators of performance potential. However, in competitive circumstances, where there is motivation

to present oneself in a positive light, the predictive validity of these personality questionnaires can be

diminished (Rosse et al., 1998). For example, the personality profiles obtained from job applicants tend

to be considerably inflated when compared to those obtained from non-applicant samples (Birkeland et

al., 2006). This may not be surprising, given that such questionnaires most commonly employ a numeric

rating system, or ‘Likert scale’, on which participants rate their agreement with a variety of personal

descriptions. Unfortunately, the transparency of such questionnaires can make them extremely

vulnerable to response distortion.

One strategy for dealing with this response bias on self-report questionnaires has been to administer

‘validity scales’ or measures of social desirability. These questionnaires are intended to assess the extent

to which an individual is responding honestly and accurately, with high scores indicating the presence of

response bias. Unfortunately, using these scales has failed to improve the actual prediction of

performance outcomes, casting doubt on their utility in combating biased responding (Piedmont et al.,

2000).

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An alternative strategy involves the use of personality questionnaires that are more resistant to biased

responding in the first place. With this goal in mind, we have recently developed a ‘fake-proof” measure

of the Big Five personality traits (Hirsh & Peterson, 2008). This questionnaire involves a number of

comparisons between equally desirable personality descriptions (e.g. ‘Are you a hard worker or a creative

thinker?’). This type of forced choice between two or more desirable options limits the opportunities for

self-enhancement, as a respondent cannot inflate scores in one domain without simultaneously deflating

scores in another domain. While traditional questionnaires lost their predictive validity when participants

were instructed to ‘fake good’, the new questionnaire was able to predict academic performance and

creative achievement outcomes even when participants were actively trying to distort their responses.

Bias-resistant questionnaires such as this may prove very useful for assessing personality in competitive

environments.

Individuals and group performance

An important question for the field of performance prediction is whether an emphasis on individual

attributes and abilities is the best strategy for ensuring organisational fitness. In particular, one might ask

whether the dispositional qualities of high-performing individuals are still relevant in the context of larger

groups of people working towards a common goal. Although predictions of individual and group-level

outcomes have traditionally been kept separate, more recent work has begun to combine them into

multilevel models of group performance (Ployhart & Schneider, 2005).

What this research has shown is that individual-level variables remain important predictors of group-level

outcomes. The success of a work team, for example, can be predicted by the cognitive ability and

personality scores of its members (Barrick et al., 1998). A work team with higher average levels of

Conscientiousness would thus perform better than a comparable team with lower scores on this trait.

Perhaps even more interesting is the finding that even a single team member with lower levels of

Conscientiousness can negatively influence the group’s dynamics, leading to increased conflict and

reduced team effectiveness. Cross-level research thus demonstrates that individual performance ability

is still an important determinant of larger-scale organisational effectiveness.

Another pathway by which individual characteristics can influence group-level performance is through the

personality of the group’s leader. Just as there is a great deal of variability in other performance domains,

so too is there tremendous variability in the quality of leadership. What is unique about leadership

positions, however, is that they can directly influence the performance of a large number of other people.

As a result, the performance of those in leadership positions has important consequences for the broader

success of the organisation. Recent analyses suggest that 15 per cent of the variance in an organisation’s

profitability is directly influenced by the CEO’s actions (Joyce et al., 2003). Thus, while good managers can

inspire a group towards higher levels of motivation and productivity, bad managers can be equally

effective at hindering group performance. Importantly, a leader’s effectiveness is substantially influenced

by his or her personality profile (Judge et al., 2002). Indeed, the personality profile of a company’s CEO

has important implications for the financial performance of the organisation (Peterson et al., 2003).

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Situational moderators

While measures of personality and cognitive ability are good overall predictors of performance, their

predictive validities can vary somewhat depending on the performance context. Although researchers

examining the situational and dispositional determinants of behaviour have traditionally been at odds

with one another, contemporary models acknowledge the importance of adopting an interactionist

framework. These frameworks emphasise that dispositional influences on behaviour are moderated by

situational affordances. The importance of a given personality trait will thus be constrained or enhanced

depending on the social, organisational, and task context (Tett & Burnett, 2003). For instance, the

presence of clearly structured roles, close supervision, and formalised communication systems may help

to reduce the discrepancy between more and less conscientious employees, thereby reducing the

importance of this trait for predicting performance. By contrast, situations involving sudden unexpected

crises or requiring immediate emergency action may enhance the performance differences between more

and less emotionally stable individuals, thereby increasing the extent to which this trait predicts

performance. Thus, while the traits described above are able to predict performance across a large

number of situations, their importance in any given situation is influenced by the behavioural context.

Comparison of effect sizes

Although valid selection techniques only predict a portion of the variance in performance, it is worth

noting that even small gains in predictive validity can lead to substantial improvements in productivity,

and the associated economic benefits. It is also revealing to compare the effect sizes obtained from the

performance prediction literature with those from other research areas. According to reviews of the

psychological literature, the middle third of all obtained effect sizes corresponds to a correlation

coefficient between r = .20 and r = .30 (Hemphill, 2003). Correlations higher than r = .30 correspond to

the top third of all psychological effect sizes. Based on meta-analytic findings, the mean validity of a

combined test of cognitive ability and personality in predicting workplace performance is in the range of

r = .65. Our ability to predict performance outcomes using dispositional measures is thus one of the

strongest relationships obtained in psychological research. In contrast, there are many well-known

medical relationships that actually have lower predictive validities, including the associations between

smoking and lung cancer within 25 years (r = .08), ibuprofen and pain reduction (r = .14), and Viagra and

improved sexual functioning (r = .38) (see Hogan, 2005). When viewed within this larger context, the

effectiveness of performance prediction techniques is striking.

An invaluable tool

Across a broad number of domains, there are large individual differences in performance and productivity

outcomes. In order to capitalise on these differences, however, it is necessary to use the most effective

selection methods. Even small improvements in the predictive validity of selection processes can lead to

substantial economic benefits. A large body of research now indicates that measures of cognitive ability

and personality are powerful and efficient tools for predicting performance. While some form of selection

is inevitable for any competitive position, psychological assessment remains an invaluable tool for

identifying the top performers and making an informed decision.

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Problem – solving techniques are appropriate within coaching activities SBlanchard and Hersey developed a Situational Leadership model that aids the leader in providing the

correct level of training/coaching and motivation. They first developed one together, and later, Blanchard

took off on his own with a slightly modified version. They are actually both correct; they were just looking

at it from different viewpoints.

Good leaders provides the correct amount of training, coaching, and motivation depending upon the

learning level of their students. The process follows a pattern similar to this: The Learning Cycle is based

upon Hersey and Blanchard's Model, which, in turn, is based upon arousal.

We often use arousal as a motivator towards change or to learn. But, too much or too little will distract

the learner. You want some mid-level of arousal to provide the right climate to learn. Each situation calls

for a certain amount of arousal. Too little arousal has an inert affect on the learner. This can be compared

to a coach pumping her players up for a game. There is not a whole lot to learn at this time, so she uses a

lot of motivating techniques.

While on the other hand, too much has a hyper affect. For example, an algebra professor does not use

the same amount of motivating techniques as the coach as it would be too distracting to the learners. The

learning cycle basically follows this pattern:

1. The Avid Beginner - The learners are enthusiastic to learn a new skill and may be somewhat

apprehensive because they are about to enter a change process . They need clear instructions and

lots of feedback because the task is new, and just a little bit of support to calm the stress of change

(learning something new).

2. The Disillusioned Beginner - Next, the level of technical support from the coach becomes

somewhat lesser so that the learners may experiment with the learning style that works best. The

learners have reached failure a few times in the process, which means emotional support must

increase to help keep their confidence high. This period is one of the toughest time for the coach

as a lot of technical support and emotional support has to be provided... technical support is

needed so that the failures do not become learned (bad habits which are hard to break) and

emotional support is required so that the learner does not give up. The emotional feedback needs

to be specific, such as: “You did a excellent job with the ..., now you need to ...”; not: “You are

doing just fine. Keep trying.”

3. The Reluctant Learner - At this point, the learners have become capable in performing their new

skill. The amount of guidance drops to just a few pointers so that they can experiment with the

new skill. But, they are still not confident, thus the amount of emotional support must stay relative

high to build confidence.

4. The Expert - Smaller amounts of direction and support are now required. They begin to take

ownership of their new tasks and responsibilities. They are allowed to perform and encouraged

to take on new responsibilities and new assignments... that causes the learning cycle to repeat

itself.

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The differing techniques needed when coaching different groups and individuals Coaching is a process that can be offered in different situations and different environments based on the

needs of the individual.

The term coaching typically refers to methods of helping others to improve, develop, learn new skills, find

personal success, achieve aims and to manage life change and personal challenges. Coaching commonly

addresses attitudes, behaviors, skills and knowledge, as well as career goals and aspirations, and can also

focus on physical and spiritual development too.

Coaching may refer to different situations, such as:

• Coaching within organizations, alongside training and mentoring, and

• Coaching outside of organizations, as a personal coaching, typically delivered by self-employed

coaches, or vendors.

Coaching may have different degrees of formality and structure, for example:

• Coaching can be very informal and very loosely structured, or formal and heavily structured, or

combinations of both

Here are the different types of coaching offered:

1. Business coaching– Business coaching is always conducted within the constraints placed on the

individual or group to meet organizational goals

2. One on One Coaching for Executives – One to one coaching is increasingly being recognized as the

way for organizations to improve Executives for developing new skills, improving performance,

overcoming de-railers, and preparing for advancement. Offer coaching at the executive level and tied to

organization goals, often results in improved business results. Executive coaching is often delivered by

coaches operating from outside the organization whose services are requested for an agreed duration or

number of coaching sessions.

3. Personal/Life Coaching – The personal/life coach helps individuals gain awareness of and clarify their

personal goals and priorities, better understand their thoughts, feelings, and options, and take

appropriate actions to change their lives, accomplish their goals, and feel more fulfilled.

4. Career Coaching – The career coach helps individuals identify what they want and need from their

career, then make decisions and take the needed actions to accomplish their career objectives in balance

with the other parts of their lives.

5. Group Coaching – Group coaches work with individuals in groups. The focus can range from

leadership development to career development, stress management to team building. Group coaching

combines the benefits of individual coaching with the resources of groups. Individuals learn from each

other and the interactions that take place within the group setting.

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6. Performance Coaching – Performance coaches help employees at all levels better understand the

requirements of their jobs, the competencies needed to fulfill those requirements, any gaps in their

current performance, and opportunities to improve performance. Coaches then work with the employees,

their bosses, and others in their workplace to help the employees fill performance gaps and develop plans

for further professional development.

7. Newly Assigned Leader Coaching – Coaches of individuals assigned or hired into new leadership roles

help these leaders to “onboard.” The goal of the coaching is to clarify with the leader’s key constituents

the most important responsibilities of his/her new role, the deliverables in the first few months of the

new assignment, and ways to integrate the team (s)he will lead with the organization. The major focus of

this type of coaching is on helping the new leader to assimilate and achieve his/her business objectives.

8. Relationship Coaching – The relationship coach helps two or more people to form, change, or

improve their interactions. The context can be work, personal, or other settings.

9. High-Potential or Developmental Coaching –The coach works with organizations to develop the

potential of individuals who have been identified as key to the organization’s future or are part of the

organization’s succession plan. The focus of the coaching may include assessment, competency

development, or assistance planning and implementing strategic projects.

10. Coaching to Provide Feedback Debriefing and Development Planning – Organizations that use

assessment or 360 feedback processes often utilize coaches to help employees interpret the results of

their assessments and feedback. In addition, coaches work with individuals to make career decisions and

establish professional development plans based on feedback, assessment results, and other relevant data.

11. Targeted Behavioral Coaching – Coaches who provide targeted behavioral coaching help individuals

to change specific behaviors or habits or learn new, more effective ways to work and interact with others.

This type of coaching often helps individuals who are otherwise very successful in their current jobs or are

taking on new responsibilities that require a change in specific behaviors.

12. Legacy Coaching – The legacy coach helps leaders who are retiring from a key role to decide on the

legacy they would like to leave behind. The coach also provides counsel on transitioning out of the

leadership role.

13. Succession Coaching – The succession coach helps assess potential candidates for senior

management positions and prepares them for promotion to more senior roles. This type of coaching may

be used in any organization that is experiencing growth or turnover in its leadership ranks. It is especially

helpful in family businesses to maintain the viability of the firm. Since assessment is often part of this

intervention, clear expectations and ground rules for confidentiality are essential. It may be necessary in

some companies to use separate consultants for assessment and coaching.

14. Presentation/Communication Skills Coaching –This type of coaching helps individuals gain self-

awareness about how they are perceived by others and why they are perceived in that way. Clients learn

new ways to interact with others. The use of video recording with feedback allows clients to see

themselves as others do. The coach helps clients change the way they communicate and influence others

by changing their words, how they say those words, and the body language they use to convey their

intended messages.

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15. Team Coaching – One or more team coaches work with the leader and members of a team to establish

their team mission, vision, strategy, and rules of engagement with one another. The team leader and

members may be coached individually to facilitate team meetings and other interactions, build the

effectiveness of the group as a high-performance team, and achieve team goals.

Depending on the need of the Executive or Individual, you will probably provide several types of

coaching. In my experience, I coach Leaders on five levels – business, organization level, leadership level,

team level, interpersonal skills level, and personal level.

The need to develop relationships to support coaching practice

What is needed for successful coaching relationships With 2016 around the corner, it’s time to take a step back to reflect on your executive coaching strategy

and identify ways to ensure you have the very best coaches developing your leaders. With no shortage of

coaches in the market, a great starting point is to re-consider primary criteria for coach selection.

We know from research and our own anecdotal experience that coaching done well can generate

powerful results. We also know from research that the coaching relationships account for the most

variance in successful engagements. That means the coaching relationship is absolutely fundamental for

success. But what does a good coaching relationship look like and what are the ingredients that formulate

this invisible dynamic? Is it likeability, common interests, expert influence, an ICF certification? If the

quality of the coaching relationship is so highly correlated with successful coaching outcomes, the answer

to this question should be the leading criteria for selecting an executive coach.

In reviewing the past 5 years of coaching outcome data at AIIR, we believe there are 6 critical skills, or

competencies, that an executive coach must possess in order to develop and manage a successful

coaching relationship:

1. Trust Building: Demonstration of ethical judgment, clear communication of the boundaries of

confidentiality, conscientiousness, and the creation of a safe environment to speak openly and

take risks.

2. Creating Connection: Consistently exuding warmth, empathy, and a genuine interest in

understanding the other.

3. Candor: Delivering data-driven feedback, reactions, and impressions, no matter how comfortable

or uncomfortable, in order to assist the coachee in excellingbeyond their comfort zone.

4. Curiosity Mindset: Spend significantly more time listening than talking. Asking questions that

elicit deep insight.

5. Professionalism: Achieving respect and credibility through consistent displays of professionalism,

acumen, responsiveness and humility.

6. Authenticity: Walking the walk. If the topic is executive presence, the coach should understand

this not only intellectually, but be able to express it dispositionally, as well.

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Leveraging these 6 skills of coaching relationship management creates a relational atmosphere in which

coaching conversations become charged with meaning and coachees begin to feel comfortable enough to

take risks, try new behaviors, and operate outside of their comfort zone.

Unfortunately, all too often we see HR, talent management, and business leaders misconstrue the concept

of a coaching relationship as the elusive ‘chemistry’ between two people. In these terms, it’s as though

there is some magical connection that can be established between a coach and coachee based on ‘fit’,

like two puzzle pieces coming together. Symptoms of this romanticized version of coach-fit, are:

1. An expectation that the coach needs to have a similar background or life experience as the

coachee in order to understand them.

2. Providing coaching candidates more than 2-3 coach options to interview.

3. A belief that a coach’s work experience, style, and mannerisms need to closely match the culture

of the organization.

Based on our coaching outcomes at AIIR, results are more closely correlated to a coach’s proficiency in

the 6 skills for managing a coaching relationship than any other variable. Wearing jeans when meeting

with a high-growth, millennial driven enterprise may have value, but it is not nearly as important as

leading with the 6 Coaching Relationship Management competencies.

Whether you are seeking a coach for yourself, or selecting a coach for a business leader in your

organization, these 6 Coaching Relationship Management competencies can serve as a useful guide to

ensure your coaching strategy is positioned for outperformance in the new year ahead.

How to build the commitment of individuals to establish a partnership for effective

coaching Coaching is not just about techniques and structure. Coaching is about developing an effective partnership

with your coachee. If the partnership is missing, no amount of technique, however expert will help. The

partnership is there as a formal part of the structure because coaching is successful when you have the

commitment and cooperation of your coachee to help them learn a new task or skills, or to improve a

particular area of their work.

Coaching is about bringing out what the coachee already knows. But there are times when coaching may

require you to give feedback. Feedback is best offered in a non-judgmental way, and offered as an opinion.

A coach may need to provide two types of feedback. The first type is if the coachee’s ideas are off course.

The second type is if their method of approach or behavior is inhibiting their ability to succeed.

However…

Coaching is not about ‘fixing’ people. A lot of people react negatively to advice or suggestions. Often

advice and ideas are rejected because the recipient feels no ownership of them and sees this as

threatening or as imposed solutions. Aim to ensure that your coachee has exhausted his or her own ideas

before you volunteer yours. In this way your suggestions will be seen as additional thoughts. You don’t

always have to have additional ideas. In many cases your coachee may come up with all or more options

than you would have considered; in which case a word of praise is a better tool at your disposal.

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And most of all…

Coaching is about asking powerful open questions and actively listening to the responses.

Asking questions and active listening are the key skills necessary for coaching. There are two main types

of questions, OPEN and CLOSED. Open questions are ones that start with what, where, when, how, and

who. Aim to avoid the ‘why’ question which can be seen as aggressive. There are three specific types of

open questions you may find helpful when coaching. They are:

1. Clarifying questions.

2. Creative questions.

3. Process questions.

Closed questions are less useful in coaching because they only promote a “yes” or “no” response. Open

questions promote discovery and stimulate thinking. They are therefore ideal for coaching.

Powerful questions go a long way to helping individuals unlock their own potential.

The bottom line is…

Coaching is a combination of structure and empathy. In order to meet the coaching objectives, be they

about leadership, career transitions, or building skills, the art of coaching lies in the ability to manage the

human dimensions of the coaching relationship. This takes a foundation of trust, credibility, and authentic

relationship. The coaching partnership realizes lasting impact as a result of this foundation, which is built

over time. The more trust the coach can generate, the more the coachee can accomplish. Success

shouldn’t be measured by how well the coachee performs while the coach is there to help, but rather by

sustainable behavioral change long after the coach is gone.

Independence from the coach is the ultimate goal.

To get started…

1. Establish ground rules for the relationship.

2. Ensure buy-in.

3. Secure commitment.

4. Establish a definition of success for the relationship

5. Agree on frequency and method of communication.

6. Have a plan for progress checks to know when the coaching relationship is over or when it

needs to be re-evaluated.

And a final word…

Coaching is about intentions, understanding, engagement, and lasting impact. The coach must have a

clear understanding of what needs to be worked on by first developing a thorough understanding of the

context, and then focusing on behaviors that produce desired outcomes. Body language and the

emotional intelligence to be able to read it are just as important as the coaching format or structure. The

coach must demonstrate genuine interest through eye contact, posture and attentiveness. The self-

awareness and emotional intelligence of the coach is as important as that of the coachee.

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Therein lies the symbiotic relationship between the two – the ultimate success of which is measured by

the results achieved in partnership.

Goals and agree action plan with individuals Action plans help people know what needs to be done to complete a task, project, initiative or strategy.

An action plan generally includes steps, milestones, and measures of progress, as well as responsibilities,

specific assignments, and a time line.

Action plans are an important part of strategic planning. In simple terms, strategic planning involves

providing responses to four questions:

1. WHERE ARE WE NOW?

2. WHERE DO WE WANT TO BE?

3. HOW DO WE GET THERE?

4. HOW DO WE MEASURE OUR PROGRESS?

Action planning seeks to address the question “How do we get there?” Other management briefs on

Strategic Planning and Strategy Deployment Metrics address the other three questions.

Figure 1, below, depicts where action planning is located within the strategic planning process:

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Carter McNamara, co-founder of Authenticity Consulting in the United States, writes that action planning

is often poorly executed because organisations believe that a job is essentially finished as soon as higher-

order conceptual planning work has been completed. [2] Unfortunately, unless effective action plans are

put into place, valuable strategic planning efforts may be rendered meaningless. An organisation’s

commitment to strategic planning is commensurate to the extent that it completes action plans that have

been specifically designed for the achievement of strategic goals. The actual format of individual action

plans will depend upon the nature—and needs—of the organisation involved. Action plans commonly

specify the following:

• goals that are to be accomplished

• the contribution of each goal towards organisational strategies

• the specific, measurable objectives that need to be accomplished in order to achieve goals

• the assignment of responsibilities required to achieve objectives

• the resources required to achieve objectives (for example, man-hours, finances and equipment)

• the risks involved and how these will be managed

• anticipated timelines for the achievement of each objective.

The following table, see Figure 2 below, depicts a basic format for action planning:

Action plans may be developed directly from goals and objectives (as shown in Figure 1) or stem from

business plans that have been developed to answer the “How do we get there?” question. One can think

of a business plan as a translator of the strategic plan or a short-term management control tool. For many

organisations, business planning is the process that carries the strategic plan to each level and functional

area of the organisation, ensuring alignment with the strategic plan.

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If the business plans of the functional areas are not fully aligned with the strategic plan, then wildcat

objectives can be developed (managers pet projects), which can use up resources but not contribute to

achieving the strategic objectives.

Vicki and John LaPlant, founders of Vital Learning Experiences in the United States, write that “goals

without action plans are day-dreams”. [3] By creating and implementing a business plan, organisations

can generate sales, profits, cash flow, and improved efficiencies. For this reason, an organisation’s goals

need to be specific and measurable, thus enabling success to be effectively monitored. Action plans

describing the processes, procedures, systems, behaviours or required actions should accompany each

desired goal.

Action plans also provide defined steps to hold management and employees accountable for meeting

organisational goals. In practice, adjustments are usually required, as financial performance is reviewed

each month, and progress is measured against business plans and budgets (see Figure 3, below). The

refinement of plans may be accomplished as management and employees report on the progress of the

action plans for which they are individually accountable. Progress towards the achievement of goals —

along with any adjustments to action plans — should be communicated throughout the entire

organisation. This will help all parties remain focused on primary goals.

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Douglas Mader, president of SigmaPro Inc., a consulting firm in the United States, writes that action plans

may be integrated using Hoshin planning (or strategy deployment),

which includes:

setting high-level goals, targets, and timeframes, and delegating ownership for each goal

• setting functional and departmental goals, targets, timeframes, and owners by cascading the

highlevel goals through to lower levels

• integrating lower-level goals into performance plans for individuals and teams

• carrying out regular performance reviews related to the achievement of high-level and local-level

goals

• the integration of performance with goals via the structure of bonus systems for management.

[4]

Action Plans for Project Teams

According to Kul Uppal, a professional engineer, action plans should be as follows:

• specific and clear, without any vague statements that may lead to misinterpretation

• comprehensive—including all necessary actions to reach a desired goal

• accepted as a personal responsibility by specific persons

• definitive in regard to completion dates for tasks and milestones

• visible to all involved for good communications

• regularly reviewed. [5]

The following key steps were recommended for developing action plans at project meetings:

1. Define what needs to be recorded at the meeting (i.e. obligations, decisions or issues). Obligations

are the heart and soul of an action plan, without which actions may be forgotten or carried out in

a haphazard manner. It is also important to have a record of key decisions for future reference.

Unresolved issues should also be recorded for future reference.

2. Agree on the wording of the proposed action steps. It is possible to make false assumptions about

what team members intend, which may result in unintended actions—or perhaps in no action

being taken at all. It is recommended that the whole team be involved in deciding on the

appropriate wording. Keep the action plan easily accessible, so that all team members can see

what has been recorded.

3. Agree on when the activities are to be undertaken. Since actions must be carried out within

defined periods of time (and it is usual for actions to be dependent on other issues), time frames

must be clearly specified.

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4. Agree on who is going to do it. When deciding individual responsibilities, it is important to take

into consideration the availability of the individual, as well as his or her skills and motivation.

Asking for volunteers is desirable. The team may also consider sharing responsibilities in order to

develop the expertise of its members.

5. Periodically review the plan. An action plan is a working document, and as such needs frequent

adjustment during implementation.

Bob Dick, of Southern Cross University in Australia, states that the formation of action plans should be an

integral part of an organisation’s goal-setting and problem-solving procedures. However, surprisingly, this

action-planning component is often neglected. [6] Basically, action plans convert goals into step-by-step

statements that delineate who does what, and when. Dick describes an effective methodology for action

planning, which incorporates the following elements:

• deciding upon goals

• developing an initial sequence of actions (or a rough action plan) to achieve the desired goals

• refining the initial plan by identifying where it might go wrong, how this can be monitored, and

developing remedies for potential issues.

This approach creates a “double action plan” by outlining the proposed activities, while also monitoring

potential deviations from the plan. The steps in this action-planning process are summarised below:

1. Develop a rough action plan by:

• listing possible actions

• choosing key actions

• arranging actions in sequence.

2. Refine the action plan:

• identify other key events, as well as events that must follow these

• check assumptions, while making allowance for these as potential risks that need to be monitored

• plan for potential problems and develop contingency plans, as well as ways of monitoring progress

• add regular goal reviews, while taking into account the length of time over which the action plan

has to operate and the associated rates of change.

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Individuals engagement with the program through the coaching process Executive development is a critical aspect of all organizations. In 1996, training and education efforts

aimed at managers totaled $14.5 billion in the U.S. ( Vicere, 1998). One of the more recent approaches to

executive development has been called coaching. Distinct from other forms of training, coaching focuses

on the method of learning. Under a coaching paradigm, it is believed that “the more an individual is

involved in identifying problems, in working out and applying solutions for them and in reviewing the

results, the more complete and the more long-lasting the learning is. This form of self learning tends to

bring about learning with a deeper understanding than learning that is taught.”(Redshaw, 2000, p. 106).

To give this more perspective, “coaching is very different than teaching or instructing. It is best described

as facilitating. The coach encourages the learner to learn for him/herself...As well as acquiring new job

competencies, the learner gradually develops new and more effective learning skills. He/she becomes a

proactive learner, capable of learning from almost any experience encountered.” (Redshaw, 2000, p. 107).

Coaching is most effectively employed when it is used to do one or more of the following:

• support individual and organizational change performance, possibly by increasing congruence

with the mission;

• provide adequate support to enable personal transformation and career role transition;

• support the development of future leaders for the organization via enhanced ability for strategic

thinking, providing vision and direction, accelerating change, intellectual honesty, integrity

motivating and energizing people, teamwork, and partnering, influencing, delivering results,

valuing all people, and/or developing people;

• provide an adequate container to address a specific problem area or challenge; and

• support and facilitate the creation of an organizational culture that values learning, creativity, and

continuous improvement.

What’s the Difference

Business coaching includes principles from sports coaching such as teamwork, personal excellence, and

"going for the goal." But unlike sports coaching, business coaching is not about competition or based on

win/lose. A business coach focuses on helping an individual "learn what it takes" for him or her to improve

existing capabilities, set meaningful goals, and be accountable for his or her results. A coach helps an

individual understand and eliminate barriers to more effective performance.

Further Clarification

Besides the confusion around coaching as a sports metaphor, coaching is often confused with mentoring,

counseling/therapy, and consulting. The differences are discussed below:

Mentoring – A mentor works closely with an individual to help develop the skills, knowledge, and

relationships needed to perform better in the current position and to advance his or her career. A mentor

is usually at a more senior level in an organization and has the professional and personal competencies to

pass on organizational culture, norms, and traditions through skill and example. The mentor shares

personal experiences through dialog, and often gives advice.

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Counseling or Therapy – Counselors and therapists focus on an individual's psychological well-being and

may spend time analyzing the past. In contrast, coaches concentrate on personal and organizational

success, how well the individual is functioning within the organization, and is future focused.

Consulting – A consultant gives expert advice and is hired for specific technical expertise.

The following table illustrates these distinctions:

Process Supervision Mentoring Consulting Coaching

Driving

Thought

I know how.

Do it my way

My

Experience

is

I am an expert.

That is what

you are paying

me to tell you.

How can I support your

learning?

Public

Statement

“Do it this

way”

“This is how

I would do

it”

“This is how to

do it.”

“This is how you

should do it.”

“What have you tried?

How has it

served/disserved you?

What else is possible?”

Public

Action

Required

Compliance

Guidance &

Advice

Direction,

Method,

Technique, &

Information

Explore, experiment, and

learn new ways of

working, thinking and

being, personally and

professionally.

What Coaches Do!?

Coaches help individuals set and achieve desired goals. Coaches utilize questions and assessment tools to

help individuals become more effective. For example, initial interviews could be used to create a baseline

for why coaching is being requested. Often the coach completes a “take-in” interview and observes the

client in action for a day or two to better grasp the dynamics within the organization. Beyond the initial

interview, assessment tools could use to more specifically pinpoint an application for the client, such as

leadership skills, emotional intelligence, personality types, that may or may not involve a prior completed

360 degree feedback. Through the insight gained from assessment tools and observations by the coach,

individuals become more self-aware of their strengths and barriers, and develop strategies and plans to

reach their goals.

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Types of Coaching

According to the Executive Coaching Forum (2001, 9-12), there are four common forms of coaching, all of

which can be a part of executive coaching while none of which fully encompass executive coaching:

1. Feedback/Debriefing/Development Planning: As the name suggests, this type of coaching occurs

when an individual’s performance needs to be assessed and/or redirected. Typically, a 360-degree

feedback is completed. The results are reviewed and a developmental plan is created. The

coaching tends to be focused and short-term. In the past, this was simply a task completed by

consultants as a management assessment or appraisal with remedial training.

2. Targeted Content Coaching: This type of coaching is designed to expeditiously impart knowledge

and/or skills. Often the individual has been promoted and needs accelerated learning either in

the background that supports the position or skills to support the effectiveness of the individual,

such as computer literacy, financial acumen, time management, presentation and writing skills.

3. Career Coaching: This form of coaching is typically engaged as a competitive edge for an

individual, even though some organizations provide it as a developmental support. The focus is

to support the individual in developing a career plan, make critical work-related decisions, such

as job moves, and planning career transitions, such as retirement planning and job succession.

4. Personal/Life Coaching: In many ways, this is personal growth work, where the individual seeks

to create a more balanced way of living. Similar to career coaches, individuals typically hire these

coaches to provide personal support in exploring personal improvement and self awareness.

Traits of Effective Coaches

The role of a coach is that of a strategic business partner. The coaching relationship is built on trust–that

the coach supports the client without judgment. Furthermore, trust is built on the belief and fact that all

coaching conversations remain confidential between the individual and the coach. When coaching is

provided, the relationship may extend to the individual's supervisor, who helps define the performance

goals and provides feedback on progress, but does not engage in the actual coaching sessions.

Coaches demonstrate knowledge through past experience and application of basic competencies. Some

organizations have adopted the competencies identified by the International Coaching Federation (ICF)

where the coach must meet ethical guidelines of the profession. Other competencies include the ability

to:

• Establish a coaching agreement or letter of engagement.

• Create a safe environment for the client to explore insights and develop new skills.

• Establish a trusting relationship with the client via maintenance of confidentiality, empathy, and

use of self.

• Model effective behaviors by being fully present, attentive, and spontaneous.

• Engage the client through active listening and providing a clear sounding board as well as

pertinent feedback..

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• Ask pertinent and powerful questions that stimulate new ways of thinking as well as new ways of

being.

• Be a direct communicator by saying what is so, when it is so without blame or judgment.

• Create and raise the client's awareness by adding new lens for seeing and new frames for holding

perceptions.

• Design and create action plans and action behaviors.

• Develop plans and establish goals congruent with the client.

• Manage the client's progress and hold him/her responsible for action. In addition to the above,

effective coaches believe in the potential of their client and demonstrate, through their “use of

self”, a personal integrity in “walking the talk.”

How Does a Coaching Partnership Work?

Formal coaching relationships are based on written agreements between the coach and the individual

being coached. This written agreement delineates the goals and mutual expectations for how the coaching

relationship will work. The individual, coach, and supervisor, where applicable, must agree regarding the

desired results of the coaching relationship. These are typically called coaching contracts, letters of

engagement, and learning contracts.

EXAMPLE COACHING AGREEMENT

We are voluntarily entering into a formal coaching relationship partnership, which we expect to benefit

XXXX and us. The following highlights the features of our partnership:

Coaching partnership objectives:

Coaching milestones related to objectives:

Measures of success related to objectives:

Specific role of the coach and key stakeholders:

Coach:

Client:

Other key stakeholders (manager, peers, direct reports, and customers):

The logistics of our meetings will generally include the following:

When:

Where:

How long:

Frequency:

Who is responsible for initiating:

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The client will gain commitment of his/her supervisor by:

We will honor the following confidentiality agreement:

This agreement remains in effect for twelve months. The agreement may be terminated at any time by

either the coach or the individual being coached.

Signature:_________________ Signature:_________________

Individual Being Coached Coach

Coaching relationships can vary in duration and complexity. A coach may use assessment instruments to

help focus the coaching process. Short-term, feedback coaching generally takes from one to six months

and is intended to provide immediate feedback to the individual to help him or her develop a plan to

address specific needs. Longer term, in-depth coaching involves a close, long-term relationship between

the coach and individual to address specific needs, and generally lasts from six to twelve months. This

type of coaching will involve more in-depth data collection and analysis with an intensive feedback

session. Generally, a coach will continue to work with the client until the plan is implemented.

Example of Coaching Options

Developmental Coaching (8-15 hours)

Typically for three months or less, the focus of the engagement is to identify and prioritize developmental

needs. A brief data gathering interview with the executive’s supervisor lays the foundation for the work

to be done. A developmental plan is created with the client. The coach jump-starts the plan with a quick

transition to client independence with supervisory and HR support for continued progress.

Executive Coaching (24 to 30 Hours)

Typically for six months or less, the focus is to identify and prioritize developmental issues. An initial

assessment and data gathering is completed by the coach, including if applicable a 360 degree feedback

process. The coach is retained for the implementation of the plan and follow-up for the client.

Expanded Executive Coaching (40 to 60 hours)

Typically for six to twelve months, the focus can be:

• to identify and prioritize developmental issues. An initial assessment and data gathering is

completed by the coach, including if applicable a 360 degree feedback process. The coach is

retained for the implementation of the plan and follow-up for the client.

• to support the client in addressing and keeping a clear picture of strategic issues of the

organization while addressing personal developmental issues.

Why Would One Choose to Work With a Coach?

A critical aspect of working with a coach is to know what is a good use of a coach. Employees may choose

to work with a coach when they:

• Recognize the need to improve their performance and that it requires more than the acquisition

of new knowledge or the development of new skills;

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• Are willing and wanting to participate in a rigorous and honest self-appraisal;

• Recognize the need and are willing to ask for support to become more effective;

• Are willing to devote the time, energy, and resources to work with the coach to make changs over

a period of months;

• Are willing to trust another person and genuinely talk about their strengths and challenges.

Employees considering coaching generally think about career goals and how coaching could help achieve

them. Employees may also find it helpful to ask questions to clarify their expectations for the coaching

partnership, such as:

• How do I expect coaching to help me reach my personal, career, or professional goals?

• Are there other activities that better fit my developmental needs at this time, such as counseling,

training, or mentoring?

Potential benefits of coaching to the employee include: better decisions, clearer goals and roles, increased

self awareness, more ideas and options, better relationships, better teamwork, reduced conflict, and

renewed organizational commitment. Potential benefits to the organization include: improvements in

productivity, quality, organizational strength, customer service, and shareholder value. Moreover, when

coaching produces better alignment between personal and organizational values and goals, the results

often include increased job satisfaction and organizational commitment and improved performance.

Assessment Stages

Step I: Self-Assessment

The first phase of the coaching assessment process begins with the individual doing a self-assessment

surrounding professional goals, goals for coaching, reasons for desiring coaching, and, if known, what

types of coaching is being sought. It is helpful if this is done in writing after a fair amount of reflection.

Step II: Coach Assessment

As noted in prior pages, at the beginning of the relationship the coach typically conducts an assessment.

Assessments are tools used to gather information about an individual's values, behaviors, competencies,

goals, interests, and potential opportunities for development.

This assessment can range from being very formal to informal depending on where the individual is in the

development process and their past experience. An informal assessment may consist of a brief

questionnaire, face-to-face discussion or simple observation. The coach will determine the appropriate

assessment instrument tool to use in the coaching process.

Assessments are used in a coaching relationship not to label but to provide valuable information to guide

and focus the relationship. Assessments provide new explanations for behaviors, discover new

possibilities, generate a baseline of information about the individual being coached, build the coach/client

relationship, and facilitate identification of the coaching intervention. All assessment data will be kept

confidential between the client and the coach. To ensure confidentiality, it is common and considered

ethical for all assessment documentation be given to the client at the end of the relationship.

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Step III: Coach-Client Relationship

Once assessments are completed, the coach reviews the data with the individual being coached and

provides feedback. The coach and individual then work together to create a development plan and a set

of three to five objectives based on the data results and the individual's goals. The coach and individual

may also identify roles of stakeholders; significant milestones related to their progress; and measures of

success.

Additionally, the coach and individual will work out the terms and logistics of the coaching relationship

and gain appropriate approvals, when necessary.

Mid-point Assessment

The mid-point assessment is conducted half way into the coaching contract. This assessment is designed

to track the progress with the coaching contract, relationship, and coaching process. During this phase

some of the following questions may be asked:

• What is working well?

• What needs improvement?

• How can we do things differently?

• Are we on track in accomplishing our goals?

To ensure that the coach and client are on the same page, it is often the responsibility of the coach to

conduct a mid-point assessment with the individual being coached, either as a check-in for the coach or

as a requirement of the contract.

Final Assessment (close of relationship)

As a matter of professional development for both the coach and the client or as a requirement of the

contract, the final assessment is conducted at the end of the coaching relationship. During this assessment

the coach and individual are assessing the following:

• Goal accomplishment (tangible goals benefitting the individual and the organization)

• Quality of the relationship

• Coaching process

• Coach's abilities

• Individual's commitment and follow through

At this time, the coach and individual determine whether to stop or continue the coaching relationship. If

a form is available as part of the coaches process or as a requirement of the contract, the coach gives the

individual being coached a final assessment form to complete.

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Qualifying the Coach

With the surge of people into the field of executive coaching, it becomes a bit wearisome to find a qualified

coach. For example, there are two views. Berglas (2002, 4) suggests that executive coaches should

1. be schooled in more than sports metaphors,

2. acknowledge that many executive issues are not solved with short and quick behavioral

modifications, and

3. be sufficiently schooled in the dynamics of psychotherapy to be able to know, if deeper seated,

psychological problems are involved. (Kampa-Kokesch & Anderson, 2001, 211)

Combined with those conditions, others add another critical condition—if the coach understands and

cares about business. This latter condition is as broad-brushed as the meaning of the term “business”.

Some suggest that the coach should be steeped in organizational behavior and leadership roles from top

to bottom. Others suggest that a business background, such as an MBA or its experiential equivalent, is

required (Foxhall, 2002, 52-53; Kampa-Kokesch & Anderson, 2001, 212; Hart, Blattner, & Leipsic, 2001,

233,234) The long and short of the situation is that coaches are qualified along different lines. Some are

excellent counselors, some are steeped in executive experience and therefore are excellent support for

CEOs needing a sounding board to unravel strategic issues, and some are superb in motivating employees.

In brief, depending on the contract with the client, “coaching executives requires knowledge about

organizations, management, leadership, economics, and a host of other disciplines.” (Diedrich & Kilburg,

2001, 203) A word to the wise, therefore, is to determine what type of coaching is needed and find a

coach to match those needs. Presently, many organizations have addressed this issue within their Human

Resources function. Coaches are required to complete questionnaires concerning their qualifications,

coaching style, and areas of competency. Client needs are matched with the clients completing the final

selection process. See example below.

Working With Coaches

Coaching is often engaged when the executive is moving to the next level of career and/or personal

development. In most cases, the coach is brought into assist in the development of the individual.

Noteworthy is that “coaching clients are usually valued by the company because of certain skills they

possess and because they are highly motivated individuals. These clients are typically looking for ways to

refine and enhance their current positions or move up into more advanced positions.” (Kampa-Kokesch

& Anderson, 2001, 212) More recently, executives have recognized the value of an independent set of

ears to act as a sounding board to sort through strategic issues. In these instances, the coach provides a

voice or position that is not heard by the executive or spoken in ways that can be heard by the executive.

Coachabillity

As much as there are different types of coaching, there are several requirements of being effectively

coached. The learning executive (Lyons, 2000, 13), as the individual would be called in the work

environment, typically, would have most, if not all, of the following behavioral traits. He or she will:

• be assertive—the learner needs to make it clear about what they want to achieve.

• take initiative—learners tell the coach when they need help.

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• be open and honest—learners need to inform the coach when not doing a task and explain why.

• ask for feedback and suggestions—remind the coach to provide a full review of successes and

mistakes so the big picture can be developed.

• network—coaching creates opportunities to cross functional areas. Build networks.

• clarify objectives—develop a written statement of objectives and monitor the progress toward

completion.

• take responsibility—to learn is a personal process that no one can manage but yourself. (Phillips,

1995).

These traits are consistent with the coaching orientation. “The coach’s orientation is prospective, focusing

on goals, untapped potential, and critical success factors in a whole person who seeks to maximize his or

her fulfillment in life and work” (Hart, et. al., 2001, 230) These traits suggest the core of coaching is to

support the emergence of a more fully embodied individual.

Example of Potential Coach Assessment

Instructions

The following questions are provided to assist in interviewing and identifying potential coaches that align

with our organizations strategy and guidelines for coaching.

Process of Interaction with Clients

Overview Questions

1. How would you define coaching? What does coaching mean to you?

2. Do you have a particular coaching model that you use?

Training and Background

1. What is your educational and professional background?

2. What are some of the key work experiences that led you to be a coach?

3. How long have you been doing coaching work?

4. What kinds of people do you work with and what results did you achieve?

5. With what kinds of people and topics do you do your best work?

6. Who would you turn down and why?

7. Give an example of when you have had to be tough and confrontational in a supportive way. How

did you accomplish this?

8. What do you think are necessary experiences and educational qualities for a good coach?

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Clients

1. Do you have a particular type of coaching you specialize in?

2. Do you have a particular industry you specialize in?

3. How similar are the situations you engage in?

4. What is your strategy with regards to supporting confidentiality?

Assessment

1. What kind of assessment instruments, tools, or techniques do you go through with a new client?

2. Who do you gather information about the client from, and how?

3. How do you determine the client's needs?

4. What information do you gather about the organization and how?

Intervention

1. How long do you work with clients? How much time do you usually spend with the client?

2. How will you help the client learn new ways to do things?

3. What tools or activities do you use to improve client performance (e.g. role-playing)?

4. How do you implement your intervention (phone, e-mail, face-to-face)?

5. How standardized are your interventions?

6. How much time do you spend with others in service of the client's development?

7. At what point do you terminate the coaching relationship with the client?

Evaluation

1. How will you ensure the client will get results?

2. How do you determine the effectiveness of your intervention?

3. How often do you communicate with the client's organization about his or her progress?

4. What level of information do you share with the client's organization?

5. Do you solicit feedback about your performance from your clients?

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Coaching Relationships

Developing a successful coaching relationship appears to “occur in six stages: relationship building,

assessment, feedback, planning, implementation, and evaluation and follow-up.” (Kampa-Kokesch &

Anderson, 2001, 208) Giglio, Diamonte, and Urban (1998) expand the concept and suggest that the coach

must move with the client through three phases with nine steps:

Phase I: building commitment and personal transformation

1. Establishing a learning relationship not a telling relationship.

2. Act as an objective information provider.

3. Engage in joint problem identification.

Phase II: moving the executive forward

1. Build a credible data bank.

2. Let the clients come to their own conclusions.

3. Acceptance of the situation and realization of the need to change.

Phase III: facilitating the personal transformation

1. Set action plans that are realistic, achievable and within the executive’s control.

2. Weave a safety net.

3. Self-generated motivation and continuous improvement.

Regardless of the model, the focus of all coaching relationships should be on the negotiation of the work

to be done, the actual work, and closing the work. Without each of these steps clearly defined, the

potential success is lessened and the possibility dramatically increases of becoming an “evergreen”, a

potted tree that is trying to become a planted, permanent fixture.