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HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The history of the computer properly begins with the first electronic digital computer, built shortly after the end of world war II. But this history is predated by influential and significant work whose highlights are summarized in table shown below. Much of the technical strategy for the modern computer was worked out in the mechanical era.MECHANICAL AND ELECTROMECHANICAL ERA Milestones in the development of mechanical computers

Date Inventor:Machine Capability Technical innovationMEHANICAL ERA1642 Pascal Addition,Subtraction Automatic carry

transfer,Complement number representation

1671 Leibniz Addition,Subtraction,Multiplication,Division

“Stepped reckoner” mechanism

1801 Jacquard:Loom Automatic control of Weaving process

Operation under program control

1822 Babbage:Difference engine

Polynomial evaluation by finite differences

Automatic multistep operation

1834 Babbage:Analytical engine(never completed)

General purpose computation

Automatic sequence control mechanism.Print-out of results

ELECTROMECHANICAL ERA1941 Zuse:Z3 General purpose

computationThe first operational general purpose computers

1944 Aiken Mark-I General purpose computation

The first operational general purpose computers

The computer of the mechanical era suffered from two serious drawbacks:1. The inertia of moving parts limited computing speed.2. The movement of data by mechanical means(gears,levers,etc.)was cumbersome

and unreliable.

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The Five Generations of Computers

The history of computer development is often referred to in reference to the different generations of computing devices. Each generation of computer is characterized by a major technological development that fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, more powerful and more efficient and reliable devices. Read about each generation and the developments that led to the current devices that we use today.

First Generation - 1940-1956: Vacuum Tubes

The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were often enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions. First generation computers relied on machine language to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a time. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts.

The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a business client, the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.

Second Generation - 1956-1963: TransistorsTransistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. The transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late 50s. The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors. Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.

Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.

The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.

Third Generation - 1964-1971: Integrated CircuitsThe development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of

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computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips , called semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.

Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory. Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.

Fourth Generation - 1971-Present: Microprocessors

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the computer - from the central processing unit and memory to input/output controls - on a single chip.

In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors.

As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.

Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality. Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self- organization.

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LECTURE SCHEDULE

S.No Topic No. of Lecture hours

Text Book References

UNIT-I 1 Introduction 1 William Stallings Internet2 Von Neumann

machine 1 William Stallings Goodse

3 Computer components

1 William Stallings Goodse

4 Functions of various components, Bus structure

1 William Stallings Goodse

5 ALU and Computer Arithmetic

1 William Stallings Morris Mano

I. Addition 1/2 William Stallings Morris ManoII. Subtraction 1/2 William Stallings Morris ManoIII. Multiplication 2 William Stallings Morris ManoIV. Division 1 William Stallings Morris Mano

6 Floating point arithmetic operations

2 William Stallings Morris Mano

7 BCD Arithmetic operations

2 Morris Mano NIL

14UNIT-II :

1 Concept of instruction format and instruction set of a computer

2 William Stallings Morris Mano

2 Types of operands and operators

2 William Stallings Morris Mano

3 Addressing modes 1 William Stallings Morris Mano4 Processor organization 1 William Stallings Anjanejulu5 Register organization

and stack organization2 William Stallings Anjanejulu

6 Instruction cycle 1 William Stallings Morris Mano7 Basic details of

Pentium processor and power PC processor

4 William Stallings Goodse

8 RISC and CISC in instruction set

2 William Stallings Goodse

15

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UNIT-III MEMORY DEVICES

1 Semi conductor and ferrite core memory

2 William Stallings Morris Mano

2 Main memory 1 William Stallings Morris Mano3 Cache memory 2 William Stallings Morris Mano4 Associative memory

organization1 William Stallings Morris Mano

5 Concept of virtual memory

2 William Stallings Morris Mano

6 Memory organization and mapping partitioning

1 William Stallings Goodse

7 Demand paging 1 William Stallings Goodse8 Segmentation 1 William Stallings Goodse9 Magnetic disk

organization, introduction to magnetic tape and CD ROM

2 Hamacher Peter Norton’s

13

UNIT-IV AMPLIFIERS1 Introduction to IO

devices1/2 William Stallings Morris Mano

2 IO module 1/2 William Stallings Morris Mano3 Programmed IO 1/2 William Stallings Morris Mano4 Interrupt driven IO 1 William Stallings Morris Mano5 DMA 1 William Stallings Morris Mano6 IO addressing 1/2 William Stallings Morris Mano7 IO channel, IO

processor1 William Stallings Morris Mano

8 Dot matrix printer 1 Hamacher Morris Mano9 Ink jet printer 1/2 Hamacher Morris Mano10 Laser printer 1/2 Hamacher Morris Mano 7

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UNIT-V ADVANCED CONCEPTS1 Horizontal and

vertical instruction format

1 Morris Mano Hayes

2 Micro programming 1 Morris Mano Hayes

3 Micro instructions 1 Morris Mano Hayes

4 Sequencing and control

1 Morris Mano Hayes

5 Instruction pipeline 1 Morris Mano Hayes

6 Parallel processing and problems in it

1 Morris Mano Hayes

7 Data hazard 1/2 Pal Chaudri Hayes

8 Control Hazard 1/2 Pal Chaudri Hayes

7

Total no. of lecture hours --- 56

TEXT BOOK NAME AUTHORComputer Organization and Architecture William StallingsComputer System Architecture Morris ManoComputer Organization HamacherComputer Architecture and Organization Hayes Introduction to computers Peter Norton’s Computer Organization and Architecture Pal Chaudri

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BASIC CONCEPT

Why study computer organization?

relationship of computer components

Successful software development requires knowledge of computer organizationExamples:

o In designing a computer languages that provides function calls, knowledge of hardware elements supporting subprogram calls is required. Are stacks provided? What registers are provided for passing arguments and returning values?

o Successful software must be fast, and obtaining maximum speed requires knowledge of computer organization.

Computers directly understand execute-only machine language instructions o Computer instructions and data are represented as a sequence of bits o Translation of software programs accomplished with interpreters,

compilers, and assemblers. o The same program may be represented at different levels of complexity.

There are hierarchical categories of programs. o The categories include operating systems, utility programs, application

software, 4th generation software. o System software is closely tied to computer organization.

A hierarchical description uses the principle of abstraction. o Abstraction omits unnecessary detail. o Successively higher levels have progressively less detail. o Abstraction permits working at a level appropriate for the task.

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What is computer organization?

The study of computer organization is concerned with

how it is possible to build a machine that executes instructions the relation between the machine language and the machine that executes it what makes a good architecture and how comparisons can be made how to design an architecture and the languages that execute on it how to translate between assembly and machine language

Computers are comprised of five kinds of components

data path control storage (memory) input devices output devices

A computer is characterized by its instruction set architecture.

Its architecture

is a crucial abstraction provides a standardized interface between hardware and low-level software performance differs for various implementations a large software base is required for successful hardware IBM 360 family was the first commercial use of an abstract architecture

VSLI capacity is doubling every 1.5 years, and the challenge is to make the best use of the increased capacity.

UNIT WISE ABSTRACT

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There is a tremendous variety of products, from a single chip microcomputers costing a few dollars to supercomputers costing tens of millions of dollars, that can rightly claim the name computer. Variety is exhibited not only in cost, but in size, performance and application. The rapid pace of change that has always characterized computer technology continues with no letup. These changes cover all aspects of computer technology, from the underlying integrated circuit technology used to construct computer components to the increasing use of parallel organization concepts in combining those components.In spite of variety and pace of change in the computer field, certain fundamental concepts apply consistently throughout. To be sure, the application of these concepts depends on the current state of technology and the price/performance objectives of the designer.

The major components in a computer are Central Processing Unit (CPU), Memory and Input / Output devices. The complete first and second units deal with CPU. Third unit deals with the Memory devices .Fourth unit deals with the Input /output devices. And fifth unit with the advanced topics. UNIT - IThe Von Neumann machine, which is the prototype of all subsequent general-purpose computers, is discussed.At top level, a computer consists of processor, memory and I/O components. The functional behavior of the system consists of the exchange; these components must be interconnected in some fashion. Chapter 1 deals with a brief examination of the computer’s components. The chapter then examines the major structural approaches to interconnection, including considerations of timing and arbitration. Then the bus structure of a computer is discussed.Chapter 1 begins a detailed examination of CPU. One of the essential functions of the CPU is computer arithmetic, performed by the arithmetic and logic unit(ALU).Computer arithmetic is commonly performed on two types of numbers: fixed point and floating point. In both cases, the representation chosen is a crucial design issue and is treated first followed by a discussion of arithmetic operations. Finally, BCD data type operations are discussed as the data in the computer is always converted to BCD form.

UNIT –II Part of this chapter is devoted to a discussion of the internal structure and function of the CPU. The overall CPU organization (ALU, Control unit, register file) is reviewed. Then, the organizations of the register file, Processor, Stack are discussed. Then it describes the

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functioning of the CPU in executing machine instructions. The instruction cycle is examined to show the function and interrelation of fetch, indirect, execute and interrupt cycles.

From a programmer’s perspective, the best way to understand the operation of a processor is to learn the machine instructions that it executes. This chapter examines the key characteristics of machine instruction sets. It covers the various data types and operation types commonly found in a machine instruction set. The various addressing modes possible are discussed. We will study different processors like Pentium, Power PC.

One of the most interesting and potentially, one of the most significant innovations in the computer organization and architecture in recent years is the reduced instruction set computer (RISC). RISC architecture is a dramatic departure from the historical trend in CPU architecture. AN analysis of this new approach brings into focus many of the important issues in computer organization and architecture. This chapter presents the RISC approach and compares it with the complex instruction set computer (CISC) approach.

UNIT –IIIMemory is that portion of a computer system used for the storage, and subsequent retrieval, of data and instructions. Computer memory exhibits a wide variety of type, technology, organization, performance and cost. The typical computer system is equipped

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with a hierarchy of memory subsystems, some internal(directly accessible by the processor) and some external(accessible by the processor via an I/O module).Chapter 3 discusses key characteristics of memory subsystems and surveys the memory hierarchy. Here we can divide the chapter into three parts:

1.Primary memorya. Ferrite core memoryb. Semiconductor memoryc. Associative Memoryd. Cache memorye. Virtual memory

2. Secondary memorya. Magnetic diskb. Magnetic tapec. CD-ROM

3. Memory management schemesa. Partitioningb. Demand Mappingc. Segmentation

UNIT –IVIn addition to processor and memory components, the third key element of a computer system is a set of I/O modules. The data transfer rate of peripherals is often much slower than that of the memory or CPU. Thus it is impractical to use the high-speed system bus to communicate directly with a peripheral. In order to communicate I/O module is used. Each module is interconnected with the processor and memory, and controls one or more external devices. Chapter 4 examines the mechanism by which an I/O module interacts

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with the rest of the computer system, using the techniques of programmed I/O, interrupt driven I/O and direct memory access(DMA).Different I/O addressing schemes are discussed. The interface between an I/O module and external devices is also discussed. An I/O modules that takes on most of the detailed processing burden, presenting a high-level interface to the CPU, is usually referred to as an I/O Processor or I/O Channels. These are also discussed in detail.

The I/O devices can be Secondary memory devices (which are already studied and Printers (which we will study in this chapter).Under printers we will study different type of printer like Inkjet printers, Dot matrix printer, Laser printer.UNIT –VA part of this unit shows how the control unit can be implemented using the technique of microprogramming. First, micro-operations are mapped into microinstructions. Then, the layout of a control memory containing a microprogram for each machine instruction is described. The structure and function of the microprogrammed control unit can then be explained. We will study the advanced topics. The instruction cycle is examined in chapter 2.The use of pipelining of instructions to improve performance is explored in depth.

COMPUTER ORGANISATION- QUIZ PAPERS OF 2004-05

QUIZ-I

1. Represent –36 in 2’s complement using 8-bit register.

2. What is overflow for signed numbers.

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3. Represent the number ( + 46.5 )10 as a floating point binary number with 24 bits. The normalized fraction mantissa has 16bits and the exponent has 8bits.

5. What are the range of numbers to be represented using 2’s complement for n-bit register where k-bits are reserved for magnitude. ( 2 )

6. What is a micro operation?

7. List any two logical micro operations.

8. The micro operation is masking is _________________

9. Define Addition/Subtraction Algorithm?

10. Show the hardware requirement for addition / subtraction algorithm for sign magnitude representation?

11. Show the hardware requirement for multiplication in sign magnitude representation?

12. In booth algorithm the multiplicand is ………………..from the partial product if Qn Qn+1=10

13. In booth algorithm the multiplicand is ………………..from the partial product if Qn Qn+1=01

14. In booth algorithm the multiplicand is ………………..from the partial product if Qn Qn+1=00

15. In which representation, separate representation is not required for negative zero.

16. Register A contains 1010 1011. After arithmetic shift right the contents of register

17. Referring to above question, the contents of Register A after circular shift left.

18. With two bits the total number of logical operations possible are ___________

19. Which micro operation is used for selective set?

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20. Which micro operation is used for selective clear?

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QUIZ-II

1. What is divide overflow?

2. Generally, while alignment of mantissas the mantissa is shifted ___________

3. When mantissa is shifted right once the exponent register is ___________ by one.

4. When mantissa is shifted left once, the exponent register is ___________ by one.

5. Show the resisters for floating point arithmetic operations.

6. What is normalization?

7. What are biased exponents

8. Alignment of mantissa is not required in multiplication algorithm. [True/False]

9. In the multiplication algorithm, for normalization the mantissa is shifted left ____________ times.

10. Underflow does not occur when magnitudes of mantissa are subtracted [True/False]

11. Name the two parts of the instruction

12. For the 4096 x 16 basic computer the size of PC is

13. The size of AC is

14. Name two register reference instructions

15. Name two memory reference instructions

16. Name two I/O reference instruction

17. Define instruction cycle

18. Name sub cycles in the instruction cycle

19. For direct addressing mode, the bit I = _______

20. If D7 = 0, the instruction can not be a ___________

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QUIZ-III

1. Show the micro operation for the instruction CIR.

2. Show the micro operation for the instruction SPA.

3. Show the micro operation for the instruction STA.

4. Show the micro operation for the instruction BSA.

5. The stack works on ___________ principle.

6. The stack pointer is always pointing to __________ of the stack.

7. The instruction used to insert an item in to the stack is __________

8. The instruction used to take out an item from the stack is ___________________

9. The reverse polish notation for the following expression is ____________________ A*B + A* (B*D +C*D)

The following questions (10-13) are based on the following data:

A two-words instruction is stored in memory at an address designated by the symbol W. The address field of the instruction (stored at W + 1) is designated by the symbol Y. The operand used during the execution of the instruction is stored at an address symbolized by Z. An index register contains the value X. State how Z is calculated from the other address if the addressing mode of the instruction is:

10. Direct

11. Indirect

12. Relative

13. Indexed

14. The fastest memory in the memory hierarchy is ____________

15. Auxiliary memory is also called as ________

16. Power consumption is less in static RAM (True/False)

17. In an associative memory of size m/xn, the size of Argument register is ______

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18. The size of key register is _______

19. The size of match register is ____

20. What in as addressing mode?

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QUIZ-IV

1. What is locality of reference2. Define the hit ratio3. Normally the hit ratio is equal to _________________

4. In Associate mapping associative memory is used [True/False]

5. The disadvantage of direct mapping is

6. What is the virtual memory

7. In the virtual memory, address space is used for main memory [True/False]

8. In the virtual memory, memory space is used for auxiliary memory [True/False]

9. The main memory is divided into fixed size, called blocks

10. The auxiliary memory is divided into fixed size, called pages

11. Name one register used in memory mapping table.

12. What is page fault

13. Name page replacement Algorithms

14. Name two I/O devices

15. Why interface is required

A digital computer has a memory unit of 64K X 16 and a cache memory of 1K words. The cache uses direct mapping with a block size of four words.16. How many bits are there in the tag?

17. How many bits are there in the Index?

18. How many bits are there in the block?

19. An address space is specified by 24 bits and the corresponding memory space by 16 bits.20. How many words are there in the address space

21. How many words are there in the memory space?

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QUIZ – V

1. What is disadvantage memory mapped I/O

2. What is the advantage of memory mapped I/O

3. What is the advantage of Isolated I/O

4. Programmed I/O is used for – amount of data

5. What is vectored interrupt

6. What is non vectored interrupt

7. Software method of assigning the priority is called ______________

8. Hardware method of assigning the priority is called ______________

9. The function of word count register is

10. The function of address register is

11. The function of status register is

12. What is burst mode DMA

13. What is cycle stealing DMA

14. In DMA CPU is idle [True/False]

15. The disadvantage of strobe control method is _______________

16. Draw the timing diagram for source initiated strobe control method

17. Draw the timing diagram for destination initiated strobe control method

18. Draw the block diagram of source initiated hand shake method

19. Draw the block diagram of destination initiated hand shake method

20. What is the disadvantage of polling

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UNIT WISE ESSAY QUESTIONS

UNIT-I

1.Draw the block diagram of Von Neumann computer and explain the significance of the various blocks. or Explain the architecture of IAS computer and explain each block.2.What is the concept of a Von Neumann computer ? Explain its working with the help of a neat block diagram. Show the data paths and the control clearly.

3.Perform the following arithmetic operations in 1’s and 2’s compliment.a) 272 – 42b) – 2 - 28c) 72 – 14

4.Write the major functional units in a general purpose digital computer system with the help of block diagram and clearly explain its functional operation starting from power-on.5.Give the general structure of a Von Neumann machine and describe the function of each unit.?

6.Describe how an instruction is executed using flow chart in an IAS computer.

7.Expand and explain the following terms:MAR, MBR, PC, IR.

8.What is a Bus? Discuss Two typical Bus structures 9.Give the functional organization of a digital computer and explain the function of each

element of a computer. 10.Discuss the various schemes for representing fixed and floating numbers stressing the

merits and demerits of each scheme.11.Describe with suitable illustrations the partial program execution on showing the relevant portions of memory and CPU registers, to perform addition of contents of two memory locations.12.Write short notes on Control unit13.What are the various ways of representing negative numbers14.Discuss about general purpose registers and memory formats of IAS computer.15.Express the following number EE in 32-bit floating point format16.Prove that the multiplication of two n-digit numbers in base B gives a product of not more than 2n digits.17.Represent the number (+47.5)10 with a normalized integer mantissa of 13-bit and an exponent of 7-bits as a binary number.18.Describe the providence for subtraction/addition of floating point numbers19.Represent the binary equivalent at (-86) and (-40) in 3 different ways using a register of 10 bits and perform the addition operation.20.What is normalization? How is normalization performed in floating point architecture?21.What is an overflow? Explain with an example22.Discribe the centralized and distributed bus arbitration schemes23.Explain the procedure using a flow chart, the addition of two floating point numbers.

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UNIT-II1.Describe an instruction execution using a state diagram,Flow chart and block diagram.2.Describe a program flow of control with out and with interrupts.3.Compare the addressing modes of Pentium and Power PC processors4.Explain the Pentium instruction formats.5.Define the term addressing mode6.Compare the addressing modes of Pentium and power PC control transfer operation types7.What are the different data transfer instructions.8.Describe general branch and call / return instructions.

9.Explain the Power PC addressing modes and general instruction format used.

10.Compare interrupt-handling mechanism in Pentium and Power PC processors.

11.Explain the arithmetic and data transfer instructions with examples.

12.Define instruction cycle for a CPU. Explain clearly the steps of instruction cycle with a state diagram.13What is RISC ? What are the advantages of RISC?14. a)What is instruction set ?

b)List out different instructions used in a typical computer system.15.Distinguish between processor oriented computer organization and register oriented computer organization.16.Give the instruction format and information format used in this computer.17.Write detailed notes on power PC processor clearly specifying the register set, instruction formats and addressing modes used in this processor.

18.What are the various addressing modes used in computer systems ? Explain each one of them with a suitable example.19.Explain the differences between RISC and CISC processors20. a)Describe Interrupt Cycle. b)What programming steps are required to check when a source interrupts the

computer while it is still being serviced by a previous interrupt request from the same source?

21.Design a parallel priority interrupt hardware for a system with eight interrupt sources.

22.Write short notes on Pentium processor23.How are priority interrupt implemented? Explain24.Describe the different types of operands and operations that are found in a digital machine.25.What is an executive cycle? Give the sequence of operation involved in SKIP and increment instructions. 26.Describe the various addressing techniques with examples.27.List out the characteristics of RISC architectures.Compare Zero-, One-, Two-, and Three-address machines by writing a low-level program to compute (A+B)/(D*C- E*F) for each of the machines.28.What is vectored and non-vectored interrupt? Explain.29.What is priority interrupt? Explain.

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30.Classify the instruction based on the number of addresses. Explain each with an example.31.Explain the Pentium operation types.32.What are the different data transfer operations performed on machine? Describe each one of them.33.Describe different indirect addressing techniques with examples.34.Discuss about multi-bus.

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UNIT-III1.It is required to transfer data between cache memory and main memory whenever there is a ‘ miss’ (that is the required data is not available in cache memory). Explain three different mechanisms that will assist data transfer between main memory and cache memory2.Describe Memory hierarchy.3.What is Virtual memory ? Explain, how demand paging is implemented.

4.Show how to expand the 256 word 1-bit memory to a 2048 word 1-bit memory using chip select and 3 x 8 decoder. Give chip connection diagram.

5.Explain the concept of cache memory with a neat diagram and the three types of memory mapping techniques used to implement cache memory.6. a)What do you mean by virtual memory? b)Explain the demand paging technique in detail.7.a)Describe the organizing an associative memory. b)Give the internal organization of a typical associative memory cell.8..a)What are the advantages of paging? b)Explain how logical address can be converted into physical address in a paging

system? 9.Differentiate among different semiconductor memories.10.Describe set associative mapping technique of cache memory.11.a)What do you mean by page fault? b)Explain how number of page faults can be calculated for the given page trace

using FIFO page replacement strategy. (Assume 3 frames are available in the memory).

12.What are the different mapping techniques of cache memory? Describe each technique with suitable diagram.13.What do you mean by thrashing? 14.Explain how number of page faults can be calculated for the given page trace using LRU page removal technique. (Assume 4 , 3 frames are available in the memory). 15.Explain, how segmentation scheme is implemented.16.Explain the basic cells of SRAM, ROM and DRAM.17.Why are associative memories needed?18.What are the uses of magnetic tapes?19.What are the operations performed to manage memory?20.What are the advantages and disadvantages of keeping page tables in the main memory?21.What are the disadvantages of paging technique?22.Briefly explain about multilevel page tables.23.What are the disadvantages of segmentation technique?24.What do u mean by SWAP area?25.Explain about demand segmentation technique in detail.26.Compare and contrast magnetic tape with magnetic disk.27.Write short notes on the following topics

a) Cache memoryb) Memory hierarchy

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c) CDROM device, reading mechanism used in a CD-ROMd) DRAM organization ande) Associative memory.

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UNIT-IV 1.Why are read and write control lines in a DMA Controller bi-directional? Under what

condition and for what purpose are they used as inputs? Under what condition and for what purpose are they used as outputs? Explain.2.What is the purpose of I/O interface? Explain give the Communication link between the

processors I/O bus and scheal Peripherals.3Describe different comments that an I/O interface receive from CPU. (Or) What type of

commands an I/O interface may receive? Explain4.What is the necessity of I/O modules. Explain 5.Describe the organization of DMA. 6.Describe a programmed I/O mode of data transfer and give its disadvantages.7.What are different types of I/O devices? Discuss the advantages of using I/O processor. 8.What is Polling in hardware and in software? 9.Describe the organization of DMA with the proper initialization of important registers.10.Compare memory mapped I/O and I/O mapped.11.Explain, how interrupt driven I/O is implemented ?

12.Draw the block diagram of a typical DMA controller and explain the significance of each of the elements.13.Explain the direct memory access (DMA) technique of transferring data between main memory and a peripheral device with the help of a suitable block diagram. List out other techniques for doing similar data transfers.14.What is the difference between memory mapped I/O and isolated I/O or I/O mapped I/O? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each?15.Distinguish between programmed I/O and memory mapped I/O.16. Compare interrupt control with DMA I/O control. Why does DMA have priority over CPU when both request a memory transfer?17.Describe an asynchronous data transfer using hand shaking with the help of timing diagram.18.Give the block diagram of an I/O with fare and explain its operation.19.Discuss a sample I/O with face.20.Write short notes on the following topics

a) Interrupt driven I/Ob) I/O processorc) DMA.d) DMA break pointse) I/O channelsf) I/O modulesg) Programmed I/O or Program control I/O.

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UNIT-V

1.Distinguish between hardwired control and micro programmed control. Explain a micro programmed control unit with the help of a block diagram.

2.What are the various micro-operations to be performed during the execution of an instruction ? Describe the micro-operations in each of the following cycles:(a) Fetch cycle (b) Indirect cycle (c) Interrupt cycle (d) Execute cycle.

3.Describe the organization and working of a micro programmed control unit with the help of a neat block diagram showing the flow of signals.4.Explain various applications of micro programming.5.Compare horizontal and vertical micro instructions.6.Describe the functions performed by a control unit with the help of a functional diagram.7.Give the organization of a control memory.8.What is a micro-operation? With the help of a diagram explain the constituent elements of a program execution.9.Micro programmed unit is slower than hardwired unit. Justify this statement.10.Describe the working of a microprogrammed sequence.11.Describe Wolke’s control unit design.12. Describe five different ways determining the address of the next microinstruction.13.Give the taxonomy of micro inctructions.14.Compare hardwired and micro programmed approaches to control unit design.15.Explain the variety of techniques available for sequencing of microinstructions based on the format of the address information in the micro instruction.16.Describe how micro instructions are arranged on control memory and how they are interpreted.17.Explain the various micro instruction encoding techniques.18.List and explain the implicit micro instruction address generation techniques.19.Explain the sequence of micro operations involved in an instruction cycle using a flow chart.20.What are the major design considerations in micro instruction sequencing?21.What are the different micro instruction sequencing techniques? Describe a variable format address micro instruction.22.What are the various approaches used for dealing conditional branches in case of instruction pipeline design? Explain any two of them.23.Give the applications of micro programming24.Draw the diagram of micro architecture control unit and explain25.Give three different microinstruction sequencing techniques with suitable diagrams.10.Clearly explain the following terms

(i) Micro program (ii) Microinstruction

(iii) Microprogramming(iv) Microprogramming language

(v) Control word (vi)Control memory

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(vii)Control address register (viii)Control buffer register

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