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Transcript of Clothing Technology
H. Eberle M. Hornberger R. Kupke A. MollH. Hermeling R. Kilgus D. Menzer W. Ring
VERLAG EUROPA-LEHRMITTEL · Nourney, Vollmer GmbH & Co. KGDüsselberger Straße 23 · 42781 Haan-Gruiten
Europa-Nr. 62218
Clothing Technology........ffrroomm ffiibbrree ttoo ffaasshhiioonn
Fifth Edition
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Authors:
Hannelore Eberle Director of Studies Ravensburg
Hermann Hermeling Dipl.-Ing (FH), Principal Frankfurt
Marianne Hornberger Diplom-Modellistin, Lecturer Munich
Renate Kupke Senior Lecturer Stuttgart
Dieter Menzer Dipl.-Ing (FH) Nussloch
Andrea Moll Instructor Darmstadt
Werner Ring Dipl.-Ing (FH), Director of Studies Metzingen
Editor and Team Leader: Roland Kilgus, Principal, Neckartenzlingen
Fashion Drawings: Studio Salo-Döllel, Aufkirchen bei Erding
Picture Processing: Design Department, Verlag Europa-Lehrmittel, Leinfelden-Echterdingen
This book was produced according to the latest German Industrial Standards (DIN-Blätter). Conformance is strictly limitedto the DIN-Blätter. The DIN-Blätter are published by: Beuth-Verlag GmbH, Burggrafenstrasse 6, 10787 Berlin.
Ninth German Edition 2007
Print 5 4 3 2 1
All prints of the same edition are interchangeable, excepting correction of printing errors.
Fifth English Edition 2008Translation: Cotton Technology International, 27 Winnington Road, Marple, Stockport SK6 6PD, Englandhttp://www.cottontech.co.uk
ISBN 978-3-8085-6225-3
All rights reserved. This work is subject to copyright. Utilisation for any purpose other than those legally permitted must beapproved by the publisher in writing.
© 2008 Verlag Europa-Lehrmittel, Nourney, Vollmer GmbH & Co. KG, D-42781 Haan-Gruitenhttp://www.europa-lehrmittel.deCover design: Grafic & Sound, Klaus Gierden, D-50679 Köln, after an illustration by Barbara Spannagel, D-72768 ReutlingenSetting & layout: Satz+Layout Werkstatt Kluth GmbH, D-50374 ErftstadtPrinting: B.o.s.s. Druck und Medien GmbH, D-47574 Goch
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This is a vocational book, directed primarily at students of the clothing industry: cutting, sewing,and assembly for fashion and mass markets. However, it will also be found useful in courses formanagers and technologists, and as a general reference work.
A key feature of the book is its concise and compact design – a prerequisite for summarising sucha wide range of material in a single volume. Each page is complete in itself. Particular emphasishas been laid on providing a simple layout and straightforward language, which students will findeasy to grasp. Numerous colour diagrams are an effective aid to the comprehension of some ofthe more difficult topics. These coloured illustrations are a particularly useful feature of the chap-ters on Fabric Descriptions and the History of Clothing.
The book is organised largely according to the different technological sectors, but teaching re-quirements have also been kept in mind. There are eleven chapters:
Fibres, Yarns, Fabrics, Textile Finishing, Fabric Descriptions, Leather and Fur, ClothingManufacture, Organisation of Clothing Manufacture, Product Design, Product Groups,History of Clothing.
The arrangement of topics conforms to the educational guidelines and the current curricula forcourses in vocational technology in the German Federal States. An important objective of thispublication was to present the extensive body of knowledge as a coherent whole. At all stages,account is taken of the latest scientific findings and the practical experience of the industry, as wellas any relevant DIN standards.
Improvements for the 9th Edition: The sections on Textile Aftercare, Functional Clothing, Ecology,Seam Types, Health & Safety, and Fusing have been rewritten or extended according to the latesttechnical developments. Many illustrations have been enhanced by the use of colour or changedto reflect current fashion trends.
We would like to give special thanks to the companies and associations listed on page 304 for theirassistance in the clarification of questions and for the provision of pictorial material. We areespecially indebted to Sonja Langer-Korsch and Susanne Kolb-Wachtel (leather and fur), and Han-nes Döllel (fashion drawings) for their helpful suggestions.
Many clothing companies today employ offshore manufacturing. Therefore, it is useful to notethat “Fachwissen Bekleidung” has been translated into English (“Clothing Technology”) and fromthere into several other European languages. Maybe this can provide some stimulus to intra- andextra-European communication via the language of technology. The new generation will needcompetence in both language and technology to succeed in an era of global market competition.
We would welcome any suggestions for improving or supplementing the material in this book.
Metzingen, Summer 2007 Editor and authors
“Fachwissen Bekleidung” is now in its ninth edition and has been a firm favourite in the German-speaking area of Europe since it first appeared in 1989. So far as we are aware, the book is uni-que in its scope and presentation, so it was perhaps natural that a demand should arise for anEnglish-language version.
Although this English edition follows quite faithfully the general content and layout of the Ger-man, it is not always a precise translation. There are several instances in the original where thetreatment of the subject matter naturally has a distinctively central-European bias. In the English,an attempt has been made to present a more international perspective. Wherever possible, ISOor ASTM standards have been referenced rather than DIN. For an international readership, thereis always the problem of whether to use British or North American terminology. For this edition,wherever there is a conflict between the British and American traditions, the British has generallybeen selected, although the American is often acknowledged and occasionally preferred. TheGerman approach to Work Measurement has been retained, as a valid and comprehensive ex-ample of the technique. Sections 9.6 to 9.9 of Product Design have been completely rewritten forthe English edition.
Stockport, Autumn 2008 Allan Heap & Jill StevensCotton Technology International
Preface9th German
Edition
Preface5th English
Edition
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1 Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 Natural Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.1 Cotton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81.2.2 Flax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121.2.3 Other Vegetable Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151.2.4 Wool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161.2.5 Hair Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201.2.6 Silk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.3 Man-made Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.3.1 Composition of Textile Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251.3.2 Fibre-forming Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261.3.3 Spinning Man-made Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271.3.4 Natural Polymer Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281.3.5 Viscose, Modal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291.3.6 Lyocell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311.3.7 Cupro, Acetate, Triacetate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321.3.8 Synthetic Polymer Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331.3.9 Polyamide, Nylon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341.3.10 Polyester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361.3.11 Acrylic, Modacrylic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381.3.12 Elastane, Fluoro, Chloro, Olefin, Vinylal . . . . . . . 391.3.13 Glass, Carbon, Metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
1.4 Fibre Properties, Fibre Identification . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.5 Fibre Blending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1.6 Textile Labelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.7 Textile Aftercare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
1.8 Functions of Clothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
1.8.1 Basic Functions and Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . 481.8.2 Clothing Physiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491.8.3 Functional Textiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1.9 Ecology and the Textile Pipeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2 Yarns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.1 Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.2 Spinning Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602.2.2 Wool Spinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602.2.3 Cotton Spinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622.2.4 Other Spinning Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.3 Folded Yarns, Plied Yarns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.4 Fancy Yarns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.5 Textured Yarns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.6 Review of Yarn Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.7 Yarn Numbering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.8 Yarn Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.9 Sewing Threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3 Textile Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.2 Woven Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.2.1 Woven Fabric Manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713.2.2 Principles of Cloth Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743.2.3 Basic Weaves and Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753.2.4 Colour Woven Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.2.5 Crêpe Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803.2.6 Fabrics with Three Yarn Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 813.2.7 Fabrics with Four or More Yarn Systems . . . . . 833.2.8 Piqué Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.3 Knitted Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853.3.1 Classification of Knitted Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . 853.3.2 Weft Knitted Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863.3.3 Warp Knitted Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.4 Special Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 943.4.1 Open-work Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 943.4.2 Nonwoven Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 953.4.3 Stitch-bonded and Tufted Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.5 Comparison of Textile Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4 Dyeing and Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.1 Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.2 Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4.3 Coloration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014.3.1 Dyeing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014.3.2 Dyestuffs, Colour Fastness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1024.3.3 Printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.4 Intermediate Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.5 Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064.5.1 Mechanical Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064.5.2 Chemical Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.6 Coating and Lamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5 Fabric Descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.1 Fabric Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1105.2 Commercial Names of Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.3 Accessories, Trimmings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1315.3.1 Interlinings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1315.3.2 Linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1325.3.3 Ribbons and Decorations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1335.3.4 Fastenings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
6 Leather and Fur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
6.1 Leather Manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1356.2 Leather Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1376.3 Leather Garment Manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1386.4 Fur Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1396.5 Pelt Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1406.6 Pelt Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1416.7 From Pelt to Fur Clothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
7 Clothing Manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
7.1 Equipment and Methods for Design and Cutting 144
7.1.1 Design, Pattern Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1447.1.2 Pattern Grading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1457.1.3 Making a Lay Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1477.1.4 Types of Lay Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1497.1.5 Spreading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1507.1.6 Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1527.1.7 Preparation for Sewing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1537.1.8 Drawing and Measuring Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1547.1.9 Hand Sewing Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1557.1.10 Cutting Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Contents
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7.2 Equipment and Methods for Design
and Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
7.2.1 Types of Sewing Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1587.2.2 Sewing Machines, Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1597.2.3 Construction of a Sewing Machine . . . . . . . . . . 1607.2.4 Moving Parts of a Sewing Machine . . . . . . . . . . 1617.2.5 Sewing Machine Needles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1627.2.6 Feeding Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1647.2.7 Presser Feet and Fabric Guides . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1667.2.8 Shuttles, Hooks and Loopers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1687.2.9 Stitch Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1697.2.10 Lockstitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1707.2.11 Chain Stitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1727.2.12 Multi-thread Chain Stitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1737.2.13 Overedge Chain Stitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1747.2.14 Flat Seam Stitches, Covering Stitches . . . . . . . 1767.2.15 Blind Stitching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1777.2.16 Seam Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1787.2.17 Sewing Machine Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1837.2.18 Ancillary Mechanisms for High-speed
Sewing Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1847.2.19 Automatic Sewing Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1857.2.20 Automated Sewing Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1867.2.21 Welded Seams, Seam Sealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
7.3 Problems in Sewing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
7.3.1 Seam Puckering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1887.3.2 Fabric Damage, Sewing Faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
7.4 Equipment and Methods for Pressing and Fusing 190
7.4.1 Pressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1907.4.2 Fusing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
7.5 Health and Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
8 Organisation of Clothing Manufacture . . . 202
8.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
8.2 Material Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
8.3 Industry Sectors and Product Groups . . . . . . . 204
8.4 Garment Production Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
8.5 Method Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
8.6 Systems and Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
8.7 Company Structure and Organisation . . . . . . . 210
8.8 Organisational Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
8.9 Production Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
8.10 Work Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
8.11 Quality Assurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
8.12 Use of Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
9 Product Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
9.1 Target Groups and Quality Levels . . . . . . . . . . . 223
9.2 Planning a Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
9.3 Developing a Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
9.4 Elements of Clothing Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
9.5 Design Influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
9.6 Proportion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
9.7 Control Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
9.8 Body Types, Size Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
9.9 Size Charts, Size Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
10 Product Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
10.1 Underwear, Nightwear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
10.2 Foundation Garments, Swimwear . . . . . . . . . . 234
10.3 Babywear, Childrenswear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
10.4 Men’s Shirts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
10.5 Workwear, Career Apparel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
10.6 Skirts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
10.7 Blouses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
10.8 Dresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
10.9 Knitted Outerwear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
10.10 Trousers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
10.11 Jackets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
10.12 Coats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
10.13 Women's Outfits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
10.14 Men's Outfits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
10.15 Formal Dress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
10.16 Sport and Leisure Clothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
10.17 Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
11 History of Clothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
11.1 Chronological Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
11.2 Fashion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
11.3 Ancient Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
11.4 Ancient Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
11.5 Ancient Rome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
11.6 Germanic Prehistory and Early Times . . . . . . . . 262
11.7 Byzantine Middle Ages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
11.8 Romanesque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
11.9 Gothic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
11.10 Renaissance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
11.11 Baroque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
11.12 Rococo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
11.13 Neo-classicism: English Fashion,
Directoire and Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
11.14 Neo-classicism: Biedermeier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
11.15 Romanticism, Neo-rococo,
and the Victorian Era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
11.16 Belle Époque, Reform, Art Nouveau . . . . . . . . . 284
11.17 The Twenties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
11.18 The Thirties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
11.19 The Forties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
11.20 The Fifties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
11.21 The Sixties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
11.22 The Seventies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
11.23 The Eighties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
11.24 The Nineties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
11.25 The New Millennium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
11.26 Glossary of Special Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298Index of Technical Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
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protein macromolecule
fibrillar bundles
bilateral structure
fibrils
scales
spindle cells
17
1 Fibres
1.2 Natural Fibres1.2.4 Animal Fibres: Wool (2)
Classification of Wool
There are hundreds of different types and breeds of sheep. They are classified according to their wool into five basic types: Fine, Medium, Crossbred, Long, and Coarse.
Construction of the Wool Fibre
The wool fibre is made of protein molecules (keratin). It is rather similar tohuman hair. The long-chain protein molecules are formed into fibrils. Thesecombine into fibrillar bundles which form the mass of the spindle cells. Thisconstruction gives the wool fibre an extraordinary elasticity. The bulk of thefibre is made from two separate components. These have different chemicalconstitutions, and they wind in a spiral around each other (bilateral structure).Moisture and temperature have different effects upon the two components,which swell to different extents, causing changes in the overall fibre shape.It is the bilateral structure which causes the fibres to be crimped; finer fibresdevelop more crimp. Heat and moisture can relax bonds between the proteinchains. The bonds are re-formed during cooling and drying, and this is thesource of the good smoothing and shaping properties of wool.
Wool absorbs moisture (is hygroscopic). It can absorb about 1/3 of its mass ofwater vapour without feeling wet. The moisture is released only slowly. In spite of the strong affinity for water of the fibre interior, its surface is waterrepellent (hydrophobic) because it is covered by an extremely thin skin, theepicuticle. This skin causes liquid water to roll up into droplets whilst allowingthe passage of water vapour.
The scales on the fibre surfaces are capable of hooking onto one another tocause felting, under the influence of water, heat, and mechanical action.
1: Model of the wool fibre
1) 1 µm = 1 millionth of a metre = 10¯6 m
Fine
Merino, Rambouillet
finest wools, 15...23 µm1)
50 … 120 mm
highly crimped
Australia, South Africa, ex USSR
fine outerwear, knitted and woven, shawls, socks
Medium, Crossbred
Southdown, Corriedale
medium fine, 24...30 µm
120 … 150 mm
normal crimp
Argentina, Uruguay
heavier, more robust, sporting clothing
Long, Coarse
Lincoln, Romney, Karakul
coarse, over 30 µm
over 150 mm
low crimp, straight
New Zealand, Great Britain
carpets, traditional furniture coverings
Wool Type
Breed (examples)
Fineness,
Diameter
Length
Crimp, Waviness
Sources (examples)
Applications
Apart from its fineness, length, crimp, and breed, wool can also be classified according to:
• Shearing: Lambswool is from the first shearing, after six months, whilst Yearling wool is from the first or second shear after10-12 months. They are fine, soft, not very strong, with fine tips. Six-month, Eight-month, Twelve-month wools are fromsheep shorn at intervals of 6, 8 or 12 months.
• Source: Australian, New Zealand, etc. Cape wool is from South Africa; Shetland is typical coarse wool from Scotland.
• Extraction: Virgin wool is from living, healthy sheep or lambs. Dead wool, Fallen wool is from sheep that have died from natural causes. Skin wool has been taken from the skins of slaughtered sheep.
• Spinning: Worsted wool is usually fine Merino, spun into fine, smooth, uniform, combed yarns. The very finest and most ex-pensive wools are made into extra-fine combed yarns designated as super 100s to super 200s. Woollens are heavier, morevoluminous yarns prepared on the woollen spinning system. Carpet wool is long, coarse wools for carpet yarns.
• Recycling: Recovered Wool is wool that has been recovered mechanically by teasing apart production waste and second-hand clothing. Recovered wool is damaged and is of low quality.
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57
1 Fibres
Label Requirements Label Requirements
1.9 Ecology and the Textile Pipeline (3)
There is a demand from some consumer groups that textile labels should give information about any potentially harmful sub-stances which may be contained in the product. In various countries, governmental or private organisations have developedsets of criteria which can be embodied in a labelling scheme to satisfy these demands. Typically, such labels guarantee that:
• no potentially carcinogenic dyestuffs have been used
• heavy metals are present in such small quantities that their concentration, when dissolved in perspiration, would be lowerthan the permitted levels for drinking water
• pesticides are present in concentrations lower than those permitted for foodstuffs
• formaldehyde shall not exceed a certain concentration
• the pH value is neutral or slightly acid (like human skin)
• textiles intended for babies and small children shall not release any dyestuff on contact with saliva.Manufacturers or distributors of textile products can apply to these organisations for the right to use promotional and marketingmaterials (labels, hang tags etc.) subject to their products being included in a stringent testing regime.
Eco-labelling
Eco-Tex Standard 100 is a labelof the Hohenstein TestInstitute, in Germany. Itguarantees that theconcentrations of potentiallyharmful chemicals shall not begreater than certain publishedvalues. Random samplesare submitted to laboratorytesting in one of a number ofassociated institutes.
The Eco-Tex Standard 1000
guarantees that the wholemanufacturing chain, includingworking conditions, effluentdisposal, environmentalmanagement, storage andtransportation, all meetcertain social and ecologicalstandards.
The Eco-Tex Standard 100
plus label guarantees that allproducts and operations of agiven manufacturer, conformto the requirements of boththe Eco-Tex 100 and 1000standards.
Ecolog is a trademark of aGerman company thatspecialises in weatherproofclothing. They have developedgarments in which everycomponent – fabrics, linings,membranes, zippers, padding,buttons – is made from purepolyester. This means that atthe end of its life, the garmentcan be reduced to polyesterchips for re-use, e.g. inbottles.
GREEN-COTTON is a trademarkof a Danish textile companyspecialising in environmentallyfriendly and socially responsibleproduction. The cotton is eithercertified “organic” or “sustainable”.It is hand-picked and containsno pesticide residues. The latesttechnology is used at all stagesof manufacture to minimiseenvironmental impacts.
NATURTEXTIL is a label of aGerman industry association. Itembodies strict ecological andsocial requirements throughoutthe manufacturing chain. Onlynatural fibres or animal productsthat have been produced understrictly organic regimes areallowed. Organic certification isrequired at all stages.
MEDICALLY TESTED is adesignation devised by a Germanresearch institute, based on aspecific series of laboratory testsbased on challenging humancells with an extract from thetextile to give an assessment of“skin tolerance”.
The EU Flower is a symbolcreated and supported by the European Union. Anymanufacturer may apply to usethe symbol to identify productsthat comply with strict eco-logical and performance criteria.The label is overseen, and the products are tested, byindependent organisations suchas Ecolabelling Denmark.
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66
2 Yarns
2.5 Textured Yarns
Texturing
Important Texturing Processes
Applications for Textured Yarns
Types of Textured Yarns
Flat continuous filament yarns made from thermoplastic (heat-formable) materials can be made permanently bulky by variousprocesses. This is called texturing and it results in:
• increased volume • better thermal insulation due to the enclosed air• increased extensibility and elasticity • higher vapour permeability and moisture transport• lower lustre • softer and more comfortable fabrics
Whatever the texturing process used, textured yarns can be classified into three groups:
Stretch yarns: Highly elastic yarns with a crimp extension of 150 to 300%.
Stabilised yarns: Yarns which have been given an additional setting treatment to reduce their elasticity and crimp extension.
Bulked yarns: Voluminous yarns with crimps and loops having normal extensibility and elasticity. The term bulked yarn is oftenused generally to cover all continuous filament textured yarns and bulked staple fibre yarns.
High-bulk yarns
Man-made staple fibres can also be made into bulky, voluminous yarns. Such high-bulk yarns are usually made by blendingacrylic fibres of high and low potential shrinkage. During a subsequent heat treatment, the high-shrinkage fibres contract causingthe other fibres to buckle. A similar effect can be obtained by using bicomponent fibres.
Stockings and tights (panty hose), swimwear, sportswear, outerwear, underwear, carpets, sewing and overedge stitching threadsfor extensible fabrics.
The yarn is drawn through a heated zone whilst a pre-determined, high level of false twist is inserted followedby cooling and untwisting. The heat softens the filamentsand the deformation imparted by the twist is permanent-ly set during cooling.
This is the most economical, and therefore the mostcommon process.
The yarn is fed through a turbulent air stream, created bya jet. Usually the air is cold but occasionally hot air orsteam may be used. The air jet causes entangled loops tobe formed in the filaments.
The resulting textured yarn is very bulky with permanentcrimps and loops. Can be used for non-thermoplasticfilaments.
The yarn is fed into a heated chamber where it is com-pressed. The zigzag deformations are permanently set bysubsequent cooling. The filaments can no longer lie closetogether so the yarn is bulky.
The yarn is knitted into a tube on a circular knittingmachine. The knitted fabric is heat set and thenunravelled. The shape of the knitted loops is set into theyarn, which develops a bouclé (crinkle yarn) appearance.
False-twist texturing
Air-jet texturing
Stuffer-box texturing
Knit-deknit texturing
filaments
feed rolls
heating zone
twister
delivery rolls
yarn feed
delivery rolls
air jet
entanglement zone
delivery rolls
heated stuffer box
knitting setting unravelling
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93
3 Textile Fabrics
3.3 Knitted Fabrics3.3.3 Warp Knitted Fabrics (2)
Multiple Guide Bar Fabrics
For most warp knitted fabrics, the basic lapping structures are used in combination. This means that more than one warp sheetand guide bar must be used.
Warp knitted fabrics have only a limited range of applications in apparel fabrics. The most important are: leisure and swimwear,foundation and lingerie, extensible linings, laces, ribbons and trimmings.
In household textiles, warp knits are used for curtains, bed clothing and furnishings. The widest use of warp knits is in technicalfabrics.
Locknit
Locknit (charmeuse) is a combinationof tricot and 2××1 plain stitches. On oneside the fabric displays distinct wales ofsmall face loops; the other side showsthe zigzag formation of the underlaps. It is made from filament yarns which givethe characteristic lustre. Applications:linings, interlinings, lingerie (Figures 1,
2, 3).
Warp Knitted Terry
This is made with an extra warp sheetof pile yarns which are caused to formloops, bound into a ground fabric.Applications include furnishings andbed sheets (Figure 4).
Warp Knitted Plush, Velour
In this case, the pile loops are cut to give a fleecy or velvet-like surface.Applications include beach, leisure andsportswear, ladies outerwear (Figure 5).
Raschel Net
Nowadays, net fabric is almost alwaysmade on raschel machines. It is a com-bination of pillar and tricot stitches. Raschel net is most popular in bridalwear (Figure 6).
Raschel Lace
Raschel lace fabrics are often made ona base of net fabric with a patternformed from inlay yarns. They are usedfor foundation and lingerie, bridal andformal wear, and as trimmings (Figure 7).
6: Raschel net 7: Raschel lace
4: Warp knitted terry 5: Warp knitted plush, velour
2: Locknit, face 3: Locknit, back
1: Locknit,schematic
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109
4 Dyeing and Finishing
4.6 Coating and Lamination
Coating
Lamination
Coating is the application of a layer of natural or syntheticpolymer to one side of the fabric, followed by fixation in acuring oven.
The polymer film can be applied directly to the fabric (Figure
1). However, if the fabric is an open one, or the material to beapplied has a low viscosity, the liquid will first be applied to acarrier paper and then transferred from there to the target fabric (Figure 2).
The coating imparts new properties to the fabric, which are acombination of the original material (woven, knitted, non-woven) and the coating (polyurethane, polyvinylchloride).
Coated textiles (Figures 3 and 4) have a wide range of usesfrom clothing to technical fabrics. In clothing uses, it isadvantageous if the coating is permeable to air and moisturevapour.
Applications
• sporting, protective, working clothing;
• highly-visible (fluorescent) clothing;
• shoe uppers, leather cloth;
• handbags and luggage;
• furniture and automobile seat coverings;
• bookbinding, maps, albums;
• window blinds, shower curtains, table covers;
• floor and wall coverings;
• conveyor belts, tarpaulins, awnings, air-supportedstructures, inflatable dinghies, textile roofing, etc.
Lamination is the superimposition and bonding of two or more fabrics, or a fabric with paper, film, or foam.
The bonding can be achieved with an adhesive (Figure 5) orby heat (Figure 6), whereby a polymer film or foam is meltedonto the surface of one fabric and then the other fabric ispressed onto it (Figure 7).
5: Adhesive lamination
polymer
blade
fabric
fabric
1: Principle of direct coating
polymer blade
fabric curing chamber
2: Principle of indirect coating
polymer
paper
curing chamber
paper collection
fabric
3: Coated fabric
4: Protective clothing
6: Foam lamination
foam
fabricflame heating
7: Foam laminated fabric
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133
5 Fabric Descriptions
5.3 Accessories, Trimmings5.3.3 Ribbons and Decorations
A garment is made not only from the apparel fabric but also various accessory items. These have to be chosen in such a waythat they complement the outer fabric both aesthetically, in terms of decoration, and practically, in terms of ensuring that thegarment performs as expected in its intended end use.
The manufacture of ribbons, tapes, and decorations is similar to that of textile fabrics; weaving, knitting, braiding, or nonwoventechniques. In many cases, different patterning elements are combined such as fibre and colour effects, structure and finishing.
The commercial names for ribbons often follow from the application or the structure, for example piping ribbon, velvet ribbon.Decorative ribbons (trimmings) are also used for ornamentation.
Ribbons and Tapes
Decorations
1: Trimming
2: Scalloping, Rick-rack
3: Elastic tape
4: Buttonhole tape
5: Welted tape
6: Galloon
7: Decorations
Name Features, Properties, Applications
Trimmings General name for a patterned, woven or knitted ribbon in cotton, silk, wool,or man-made fibre.
Scalloping, Narrow bowed, zigzag, or scalloped ribbon, plain or multi-coloured in Rick-rack cotton or man-made fibres for edge trimming of traditional costumes and
children's wear.
Elastic tape Highly elastic, flat, braided band containing rubber or elastomeric fibres.
Buttonhole tape Broad elastic tape with buttonholes located in the centre.
Piping Cotton or linen plain woven ribbon about 1 cm wide, used as a tailoring aidfor edges, reveres, and collars.
Moiré ribbon Cotton, silk or man-made fibre ribbon with a moiré pattern for hat bandsand bows.
Seaming tape Cotton or viscose twill woven tape for stabilising seams.
Welted tape Cotton or viscose tape with a narrow welt at the edge.
Ribbed tape Cotton, silk, or viscose tape with pronounced ribs for decoration or forwaistbands.
Velvet ribbon Cotton, silk or viscose narrow-woven velvet; sensitive to handling.
Bias binding Tape cut on the bias (diagonally) in various widths and materials, plain orpatterned, either flat or folded for use as binding.
Stamped tape Interlining tape with pre-stamped marks to show sewing width and seamallowance. Aids more efficient working.
Taffeta ribbon Filament yarn ribbon, plain or check patterned, for ribbon bows.
Galloon A particularly supple, plain or patterned braided ribbon for piping or bindingin outerwear.
Fringes A narrow edging of projecting yarns which are not woven into the fabric,in viscose, wool, or silk.
Cords Circular braided materials of various thickness in viscose, cotton or syn-thetics. Used as decoration for clothing, in household textiles, and insporting goods.
Tassels Expensive, hand-made articles in silk or viscose. A combination of fringes,cords, and braids.
Rosettes Decorative items used either alone or in combination with ornamentaltextiles.
Soutache A mouldable flat braid with two ribs in silk or viscose used for formal clothes.
Pompons Bunches of wool, silk or synthetics used as trimmings, hanging alone or ingroups.
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159
7 Clothing Manufacture
7.2 Equipment and Methods for Sewing
7.2.2 Sewing Machines, Overview
Machine Types Applications
Straight seams, zigzag seams (see pages 170 to 173).
Blind stitch machines for invisible stitching and hemming
Linking machines for attaching collars, cuffs andwaistbands on knitted fabrics(see page 177).
Edge neatening, combinedneatening and seam closing,safety stitching (see pages174, 175).
Binding cut edges, flat seams on knitted fabrics (see page 176).
Specialised sewing operations (see page 185).
Automatic, complex sewingoperations (see page 186).
13: Profile sewer 14: Pocket sewer
1: Lockstitch machine
2: Chain stitch machine
3: Multi-thread chainstitch machine
4: Blind stitch machine 5: Linking machine
6: Overedge machine 7: Safety stitch machine
8: Flat seam machine 9: Flat seamer with cylinder bed
10: Buttonhole machine 11: Button sewing machine 12: Automatic looper
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204
8 Organisation of
Clothing Manufacture 8.3 Industry Sectors and Product Groups
Comparison between Bespoke and Industrial Production
Product Groups with Examples of Product Types (Apparel Fabrics)
The clothing industry ranges from small, hand-made (bespoke) operations up to large industrial garment making enterprises.
Industrial production is divided according to
• Target groups (women's, men's, and children's wear),• Applications (underwear, shirtings, foundation garments, workwear, and sportswear),• Materials (wovens, flat knits, circular knits).
Bespoke operations are divided along technical lines into men's tailoring, women's tailoring, shirtings, and underwear.
Bespoke Clothing Production Industrial Clothing Manufacture
• The clothing is made for individual clients, according to in-dividual size and requirements. Particular characteristics ofthe client, in terms of the body shape, can be taken into account during cutting and sewing.
• The client selects the material and the design, from sampleswatches and fabric collections. The cut and the style isagreed by discussion with the tailor, before cutting begins.
• Bespoke tailoring involves a much higher investment of time for each garment, and is correspondingly more ex-pensive than industrial manufacture. However, the client isusually rewarded by a more individual design and a higherquality of material and workmanship
• Production is geared to an anonymous, statistically and/ordemographically and culturally defined target consumergroup.
• Cutting patterns and sizes are based on standard sizecharts, derived from large numbers of measurements.
• Garments are produced in a limited range of sizes. Stan-dardised cutting and making procedures mean that all gar-ments have the same shape; allowances for uncommonbody shapes can not be made.
• The consumer has the choice between a wide range of dif-ferent garment styles but has no direct influence over theirdesign and cut.
• Large-scale manufacturing techniques allow a wide rangeof garments to be produced in a fraction of the timerequired for bespoke tailoring of individual items.
Menswear, Boyswear Womenswear Children's wear Workwear, Sportswear
jacketstrouserssuitsformal wearuniformswaistcoatscoatstraditional costume
blousesdressesskirtsjacketscoatstrousers & trouser-suitsevening wearwedding dressestraditional costume
babywearjacketstrouserscoatsgirls dresses
workwearsportswearleisure wearski wearjeansprotective clothing
Knitted Outerwear Shirtings, Underwear Foundation wear, Swimwear Accessories
pulloverstwin-setsjackets & cardigansknitted dresses
dress shirtscasual shirtschildren’s shirts
nightwearunderwearlingerie
brassierescorsetrysupport stockingsswim suitsbikinisswimming trunks
socksstockingsleggingsscarvescapstieshandkerchiefs
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205
8 Organisation of
Clothing Manufacture 8.4 Garment Production Systems
Sharing a job of work between several people is called division oflabour. Quantitative division is where the required number of wholeitems is shared (with each person doing the same work). Qualitative
division is where the work required for each item is divided intosmaller operations (each person performs a different operation).
Production Organisation Systems
The synchronised, or straight-line system is suitable for large volumeproduction (mass production or large batches). As the name suggests,the work flows in a straight line through a series of workstations, eachof which is synchronised to the next by ensuring that the time spentat each station is exactly the same. This represents an extreme formof the division of labour.The system requires that each individual step in the assembly of theproduct has to be analysed carefully and the steps distributed in abalanced way over the available work stations. Each operator then per-forms exactly the same operation(s) over and over again on the iden-tical parts of successive garments. Detailed work plans have to be drawn up to facilitate this balancing of the line. Advantages of the syn-chronised line system include short distances between stations, lowvolume of work in process, precise planning of production times, highly visible production progress and predictable production quan-tity. Disadvantages include the need for intensive detailed pre-planning, high cost of style changes, sensitivity to disruption byproduction difficulties or absenteeism, and the dependence ofproductivity on maintaining a strict rhythm of work.The progressive bundle system is a way of avoiding the rigidity andsome of the disadvantages of the synchronised line system. Machinesand operatives are organised into sections, each of which specialiseseither in the production of a major sub-component (collars, cuffs), orthe assembly of two or more sub-components.Within and between sections the work is balanced according to the time required for each sub-function. The combination of small bund-les and a line system provides the best solution to the problems of fre-quent style changes, small lot sizes, and short delivery deadlines.Materials transport systems (Figures 1 and 2) distribute the work inprogress among the different workstations.
Types of Production System
There are different ways to organise the production of garments, according to the type, the quantity and the diversity of pro-ducts to be made. The number of items to be made and the rate of delivery of these items distinguish individual production,batch production and mass production.
Individual Production Batch Production Mass Production
With individual production (makingthrough) each product is made onlyonce. The system requires highlyskilled, experienced operators andversatile machinery.
Example: made-to-measure costume
Batch production is used for larger,though fixed quantities of identicalarticles either for stock or to order.
Examples: blouses, skirts
Mass production means that largequantities of identical products aremade continuously. The high utilisationof machinery and labour allows a highlevel of automation and specialisation.
Examples: T-shirts, work trousers
2: Bundle assembly with wagons
1: Straight line system with hanger transport
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212
8 Organisation of
Clothing Manufacture
Progress planTask Week 11
1 2 3 4 5H & OMaierKühnelGrotzM. SöhneEberleMenzerL & N
8.9 Production Management (1)
Production management provides all of the tools that are required for the smooth and economic operation of manufacturingprocesses. It regulates the interaction in space and time between people, equipment, information and resources to achieve theobjectives of the manufacturing system (page 209). A principle concern is the flow of work in progress and information.
The following tasks are of particular significance.
• Determining the time sequence of the required processes
• Timely provision of materials and equipment
• Timely provision of information
Every manufacturing company has a production program to follow. For a garment maker, the production program is embodiedin the collection plan. The collection is the range of products that will be manufactured for marketing in a particular season (page 224).
The Production department co-ordinates the development of new products, the procurement of materials and their processing,and the control of quality throughout manufacture
The Processing (Making-up) department is responsible for the processes that complete the work to be done. It is responsible forproduction planning and control.
Data Exchange and Data Formulation
Co-ordination between departments, sections and processes is mediated by the exchange of data (information). Data are suppliedin the form of detailed work instructions and process-dependent technical information. Data have to be documented. This can bedone via a company computer network and also by the use of standard company forms. The way that data are transmitted in a par-ticular company will depend on its structure, its level of technology, the type and range of its collections and other factors. A widevariation is possible.
Task Data SourcesProcessing Tools
Development of new
products
• Product concept• Design concept• Market orientation
(Target group)• Fabric concept• Style calculation
Production planning
• Product• Colours• Sizes• Quality targets
Production control
• Process schedule(sequence of sub-processes)
• Progress control(task-dependent)
• Quantities• Deadlines• Quality control
Sketches, Style concepts
Style patterns
Technical drawings
Parts lists
Forms description
Making instructions
Calculations
Style specification
Materials lists
Making plans
Balance plan
Production plan
(task-dependent)
Forms for process-,quantity-, progress
control
Making-up
Quality control plan
Cutting lists
Cutting instructions
Quality specifications
Style components
Block patterns
Material records
Equipment records
Schedulingrecords
Progress plan
Qualityhandbook
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223
9 Product Design 9.1 Target Groups and Quality Levels
Attitude and Lifestyle Fashion Awareness and Expectations
Womenswear Menswear Womenswear Menswear
Anti-fashion, no demands Trendy fashion follower Avant-garde Avant-garde
Prestige oriented Untidy youthful Jeans type Jeans type
Careful, unsophisticated No particular orientation Modern woman Modern man
Smart, conservative Conventional, unsophisticated Youthful Youthful
Young, trendy Cultured Businessman
Smart Formal
Middle of road Middle of road
Bargain hunter Bargain hunter
Not to be tempted Older, demanding, fashion grouch Career woman Career man
Nonconformist Younger, confident, demanding Fashion conscious Young fashions
Target Groups
Quality Level
Quality level is the other factor that determines the market sector towards which a collection will be aimed. The quality level defines the rank of the product in the total range of offers in the market, so far as its design content and workmanship are con-cerned. The following factors, for example, have an influence.
• Fabric quality • Fashion content• Workmanship in the interior parts • Precision of assembly• Style and Fit • Range of sizes and number of pieces
The following quality levels can be distinguished
Designer quality characteristics include unique designerlabels, small numbers per style, the most exclusive fabrics – often with in-house designs – extreme fashionleaders, avant-garde designs.
High quality or Model fashions are characterised by veryhigh levels of workmanship, exclusive designs and detailing, small series production, limited size range, fashionable.
The Upper middle level uses good quality fabrics, pro-vides optimum fit, and follows the latest fashions in styleand colour.
The Middle level has strict price constraints, a com-prehensive size range, but a limited range of styles.
The Bottom or Discount level has large quantities of limited styles. Fabric quality and workmanship are geared to low price levels. The style and fit are of com-paratively lower importance.
A target group is an identifiable sector of consumers with broadly similar characteristics, such as fashion consciousness, buying habits, types of shops used, brand awareness, brand loyalty and quality requirements. A target group can be defined according to the following criteria.
Marketing is a collection of activities that include market research, consumer surveys, and customer service. The objective is toarrive at a collection of products for sale in the future and then to promote this collection in the market. The ultimate goal is acollection that can be produced for minimum risk and maximum return.
1: Clothing quality levels
Quantity
Designer
High quality
Upper middle
Middle
Bottom, discount store
high
low
Exclu
siv
ity
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