PowerPoint Presentation

Proliferation ZoneIdentify characteristicsChondros proliferating and dividingSupplying new chondros to replace those lost to lengthening of boneProliferating cells stick up into narrow cellsCells resemble stack of coins

4Hypertrophy (Maturing) Zone

Identify characteristicsCellular breakdownChondros begin to break down and produce alkaline phosphataseEnzyme facilitates calcification of extra cellular matrixLarge chondros arranged in columns5Erosion Zone (calcification)

IdentifyCalcium salts deposited in cartilage matrix by osteoidsOsteogenesis, osteoblasts laying down the matrixOnly a few cells thickDead cells because the matrix around them became calcifiedCalcified matrix destroyed by osteoclasts (acids and enzymes), then invaded by osteoblasts and capillaries from diaphysisDiaphyseal border of the plate firmly cemented to the bone of the diaphysis 6Diaphysis Zone (ossification)IdentifyLong spiracles (tuberculae) that form spongy bone produced

7Articulations - AppendicularClavicle:Medially with sternum manubriumLaterally acromium of scapulaScapula:Lateral with head of humerus at glenoid cavity

HumerusProximal with scapulaDistal with radius and ulnaRadius: (lateral thumb side)Proximal with capitulum of humerusMedial with radial notch of ulna

Distally, medial ulnar notch of radius to ulna and carpalsUlna: (little finger side)Proximal trochlea of humerusDistal medial with radius at radioulnar joint

8Osteological Terms - ProcessesA rounded articulating processCondyleAny bony projectionProcessA projection located above a condyleEpicondyleA large rounded or irregular processTuberosityA small rounded processTubercleA very large, often blunt processtrochanterA sharp, slender processSpineA hook-shaped processHamulusA very slight ridge of boneLineA prominent ridge of boneCrestA smooth flattened articulating surfaceFacet

9Osteological terms - FosaeA hole in a bone through which nerves and blood passForamenA tunnel-like passage through a boneMeatus or canalA cavity within a boneSinusA furrow on a bones surfaceSulcus or GrooveA slit-like opening in a boneFissureA shallow depressionFovea

10Identify parts of the boneTubular shaft of the long boneDiaphysisPart of long bone where growth occursEpiphysisIrregularly arranged lamellae and osteocytes interconnected by canaliculiSpongy bone (Cancellous, Trabeculae bone)Marrow cavity in the shaft of long boneMedullary cavityHematopoietic tissue found within trabecular cavities of spongy boneRed marrowFat that fills cavities of bonesYellow marrowMembrane covering internal bone surfacesEndosteumHighly vascularized membrane covering the exterior of the diaphysisPeriosteumDisc of hyaline cartilage that grows during childhood to lengthen the boneEpiphyseal plate

11Name functions of Skeleton SystemSupportBones support the body and organsProtectionProtect vital organs: skull, sternum, vertebrae, ribsMovementSkeletal muscle contraction causes movementMineral storageCalcium and other minerals stored in bone can be released into the bloodstream when needed (hormonal control)Formation of blood cellsHematopoiesis occurs in blood marrow resulting in the production of red and white blood cells and platelets12Chemical Composition of boneWhat are the organic components of bone?Osteocytes, osteoblasts, osteoclasts osteoidWhat is the Osteoid comprised of?Collagen fibers, proteoglycans, and glycoproteinsWhat is its function?Flexibility and tensile strength on boneWhat are the inorganic components?Hydroxyapatites (mineral salts) which are mostly calcium phosphates (tiny crystals from the blood stream deposited among collagen fibers)What are they responsible for?Hardness of the boneWhat are bone markings?Bulges, depressions, rough spots, holes on the exterior surface of the boneMost are muscle or ligament attachment sights

17Name the 2 types of bone formationIntramembranous ossification

Endochondrial Ossification

18Intramembranous Ossification?What is it?The process of bone developing from a fibrous tissueWhat bones are formed this way?Flat bones such as the skull and claviclesExplain the process:Fibrous connective tissue in developing fetus become? scattered with osteoblasts that begin secreting organic matrix. Osteoid is? then mineralized and osteoblasts become osteocytesOsteoid accumulates in? small networks of collagen fibers called trabeculae. This early bone formation is called? woven bone. The periosteum forms around the? woven bone.Trabeculae thickens until they become? plates of bone. Eventually these plates of woven bone are replaced by? compact bone. Spongy bone remains in the center of the bone and the vascular tissue within it? differentiates into red marrow (formation of diploe)19Endochondrial Ossification?What is it?The process of bone formation where hyaline cartilage is used as the model for constructing bone. Most bones are formed this wayExplain the process:The perichondrium surrounding the hyaline cartilage bone model becomes infiltrated with? blood vessels, converting it into periosteum. Osteoblasts in the periosteum secrete? osteoid externally onto the shaft of the hyaline boneThe matrix deep within the shaft of the cartilage begins to? deteriorateA periosteal bud containing arteries, veins, nerves and lymph vessels invades? the internal cavity of the forming bone. Osteoblasts from the periosteal bud begin to? deposit osteoid, forming trabeculae of bone (early spongy bone)Osteoclasts break down new spongy bone and open a? medullary cavity in the center of the shaftSecondary ossification centers form shortly before or after? birth in the epiphyses of the bone. Spongy bone is eventually formed with hyaline cartilage remaining only at the? epiphyseal plate and the articular cartilages

24Bone growth in long bonesHow do long bones grow in children?Entirely by interstitial growth of the epiphyseal plates

How do bones grow in thickness?By appositional growthThe widening of bones26Epiphyseal bone growthThe top layer (epi side) of hyaline cartilage plate contains actively dividing chondrocytes that are pushed towards the ________________?DiaphysisWhat does this do?Causes the entire bone to lengthenWhat happens to the chondrocytes as they get closer to the shaft?They enlarge and eventually dieWhat occurs at the junction of the epiphysis and the diaphysis?Osteoblasts begin to secrete bone matrix and form small spicules of boneWhat promotes the adolescent growth spurt and eventually leads to the closure of epiphyseal plate?Sex hormonesWhat happens as adolescence ends?The epiphyseal plate becomes smaller and is entirely replaced by bone tissueWhat is the result of this occurring?Bone growth ends

27What is appositional growthThe process used to?Widen bones

_____________ beneath the _____________ form new ______________ systems on the outer surface of the boneOsteoblasts, periosteum, Haversian

________________ on the ________________ break down bone to enlarge the ______________ cavity.Osteoclasts, endosteum, medullary30Bone RemodelingWhat is bone remodeling?Process where bone is resorbed and deposited at periosteal or endosteal surfacesWhat should the rate of bone resorption be in healthy adults?The same rate as deposition so the total mass remains constantWhat is bone deposit?Osteoblasts laying down new osteoid which is later mineralized into boneHow is bone resorption carried out? by osteoclasts secreting enzymes onto the bone that digest organic matrix. The osteoclasts also secrete acids that help to make the calcium salts more solubleWhat is PTH?Parathyroid hormoneHormone produced by the parathyroid gland in response to low blood calcium levels. It stimulates bone resorption so that calcium is released and put back into the bloodWhat is Calcitonin?A protein produced by specialized C cells in the thyroid and secreted when blood calcium levels riseInhibits bone resorption and enhances calcium deposit in the bone matrix32Bone remodelingHow much of our bone mass is recycled every week?5 to 7%How often is spongy bone replaced? Compact boneEvery 3 to 4 yearsEvery 10 yearsWhat are remodeling units?Packets of adjacent osteoblasts and osteoclasts that coordinate bone remodelingWhat is bone deposit?Added bone for injured or strength of boneWhat is an osteoid seam?The marking of new matrix deposits by osteocytes (band of gauzy looking bone matrix)What helps trigger calcification?Calcium and phosphate ions33Bone remodeling (cont)What happens when calcium and phosphate mix reach a certain level?Tiny crystals of hydroxyapatite form and catalyze further crystallization of calcium salts in the areaWhat are other factors involved?Matrix proteins binding and concentrating calciumAlkaline phosphatase mineralizingWhen the conditions are met, what happens?Calcium salts are deposited all at once and with great precision throughout the mature matrix34Bone resorptionWhat accomplishes this?OsteoclastsAs they move along the bone surface what do they do?Dig grooves called resorption bays and break down bony matrixHow does the area of bone destruction seal off?By osteoclasts that touch the bone forming a ruffled membrane that clings to the bone, sealing it offWhat does the ruffled border secrete and what does this do?Lysosomal enzymes digest organic matrixHydrocholoric acid converts calcium salts into soluble forms in order to make them pass easily into solutionWhat happens to these products?They are endocytosed and then released into the bloodWhat cells are important in this process?T cells35Remodeling controlWhat regulates remodeling?2 control loops:Negative feedback that maintains Ca2 Homeostasis in the bloodGravitational forces acting on skeletonWhy is calcium so important for the body?Nerve impulsesMuscle contractionsBlood coagulationGland and nerve cell secretionsCell divisionWhere is 99% of calcium in the body?Bone mineralsWhat range does the hormonal loop keep calcium?9-11 mg per 100 ml of bloodWhere is calcium absorbed from?Intestine

36Hormonal MechanismWhat does the hormonal mechanism involve?PTH parathyroid hormone parathyroid glandCalcitonin produced by parafollicular cells (C-cells) of thyroid glandWhen is PTH released?When calcium levels declineWhat does it do?Stimulates osteoclasts to resorb bone, release calcium into bloodWhat happens?Osteoclasts break down old and new matrixWhat escaped digestion and why?OsteoidBecause it lacks calcium saltsWhen does the stimulus for PTH end?When blood concentrations of calcium rise37Hormonal mechanisms (cont)What is secreted when calcium levels rise?CalcitoninWhat is its function?Inhibit resorption, encourage depositionReduce blood calciumWhat happens when blood calcium levels fall?Calcitonin release wanesAre these responses to preserve bone strength?No. They are for maintaining blood calcium homeostasisWhat happens if levels are low for a long time?Bones demineralize and develop large, punched out holes38Bone Remodeling

39Mechanical StressWhat is Wolffs law?Bones grow and remodel in response to the demands placed on it?What are other observations of Wolffs law?Long bones thickest midway along diaphysis (where stress is greatest)Curved bones thickest where most likely to buckleTrabeculae form trusses along lines of compressionLarge bony projections occur where active heavy muscles attachHow do forces communicate with remodeling cells?Electrical signalingWhat are hormonal loops function in remodeling?Whether and when remodeling occurWhat are mechanical stresses functions?Where remodeling will occur40Fracture ClassificationLocation of bone after fracture:Non-displaced normal end positionsDisplaced out of normal alignmentCompleteness of break:Complete all the way throughIncomplete not all the wayOrientation:Linear parallel of long axisTransverse perpendicular to axisSkin penetration:Open penetrates the skinClosed skin not penetrated

41Bone RepairHematoma formation:Clotted blood forms at siteBone cells die, tissue becomes inflamedFibrocartilaginous callus formation:Capillaries grow into hematomaPhagocytes begin cleaning debrisFibros and osteos begin reconstructing boneFibros repair collagen, chondros repair cartilageOsteos form spongy bone secrete bulging cartilage matrix that later calcifiesFibrocartilaginous callus splints broken boneBony Callus formed:Trabeculae appear in callus, convert it to bony callusBone remodeling:Bony callus remodeled42Common FracturesComminuted:Fragments into 3 or more pieces (aged, brittle boned)Compression:CrushedSpiral:Ragged break, excessive twisting (sports)Epiphyseal:Epiphysis separated from diaphysisDepressed:Broken inwardGreenstick:Incomplete break on one side, other side bends43Clinical advances in bone repairWhat does electrical stimulation do to a fracture?Dramatically increases healing timeWhat is the piezo electric effect?Minute electrical currents are produced when minerals are stressedWhat happens in regions of negative electrical charge? Positive?Negative bone depositedPositive bone resorbedWhat effect does ultrasound treatment produce on fractures?Reduce healing times 35 to 45%What is VEGF? Function?Vascular endothelial growth factorStimulates blood vessel growth

44Bone Imbalances - OsteoporosisWhat is osteoporosis?Group of diseases in which bone resorption occurs more than bone depositWhat are the results of the disease?Reduced bone massWhich bones are most susceptible?Vertebrae, neck of the femurWho is most likely to have this disease?Postmenopausal womenWhy?Estrogen lossWhat are some contributors?Insufficient exercisePoor calcium intakeVitamin D or Calcitonin metabolism problemsSmoking, drinkingImmobility

45Bone Imbalances - OsteomalaciaWhat is it?Inadequate bone mineralizationOsteoid deposited but calcium salts are notWeight bearing bones?Fracture, bend, deformWhat are Rickets?Bowing of the legs and deformed pelvisWhat causes this?Insufficient calcium or vitamin D intake46Bone Imbalances Pagets DiseaseWhat is Pagets Disease?Excessive, abnormal bone formation and resorptionWhat causes this?High ratio of woven bone to compact bone and bone mineralization reductionWhat is the result?Soft, weak bones47SkeletonWhat % of body mass is the skeleton?20%How many bones?206What are ligaments?Fibrous tissue that connect bones at joints48What are the 2 groups of skeleton?Axial: How many bones?80Which bones make up axial?Skull, vertebrae, rib cage

Appendicular:How many bones?126Which make up appendicular?Upper, lower limbs, shoulders, hips49SkullHow many bones?22 including cranial and facialWhat kind, how do they articulate?Flat, suturesWhat is the top, lateral and posterior of skull called?The CalvariaWhat are the 3 base regions?Anterior, middle, posterior cranial fossaeWhat are the 4 pair of cavities called and what are they?Paranasal sinuses - Sphenoid, Ethmoid, Maxillary, FrontalLighten the skull and give resonance to the voiceWhat is each cavity lined with?Mucous membranes that form the mucus that drains into the nasal cavityWhat are Orbits?Eye cavitiesSurrounded by fatty tissueFormed by 7 bones

50Skull (cont)What is the Nasal cavity composed of?Bone and hyaline cartilageWhat is the roof, superior/lateral walls and superior nasal septum formed by?Ethmoid boneWhat is the floor formed by?Anteriorly maxillaPosteriorly palatine bonesWhat is the cavity divided by?Nasal septumWhat is the Nasal septum formed by?Perpendicular plate of ethmoid, vomer, and septal cartilageWhere is the nasal concha and what does it do?Lateral wallsIncrease turbulence of air to help trap particles in mucus51Skull (cont)What are the conchae and septum lined with and what does it do?MucosaHelps lighten air and secrete mucusWhat is the Cribriform plate and what does it do?Part of ethmoid bone in roof of nasal cavityHas small openings for olefactor (smell) nerves to pass through on their way to the brain52Vertebral columnHow many vertebrae?33 , some fused in adultsWhat separates them?Fibrocartilage called intervertebral discInner portion of disc contain jelly-like sub for elasticityWhat is a herniated disc?Jelly-like sub is pushed out by pressure putting pressure on spinal nerveWhat are the curvatures of the vertebrae?Thoracic bow outLumbar curve in

53Appendicular SkeletonWhat makes up the appendicular skeleton?Pectoral and pelvic girdleUpper and lower limbsWhat is the only attachment of arms to body?ScapulaDoes the fibula articulate with the femur?No. Only with the TibiaWhat do both the fibula and tibia articulate with distally?Talus bone to form the ankle54Axial SkeletonSkull, Vertebral Column, Bony Thorax55SkullWhat is bodys most complex structure?SkullWhat bones form it? How many?Cranial and facial bones22What are the functions of the facial bones?Form framework for faceContain cavities for sense organs for sight, taste, smellAir and food passagewaysSecure teethAnchor expression musclesWhat kind of bones are found in the skull?Flat (except mandible)What unites these bones?Interlocking suturesWhat are the major sutures?CoronalSagittalSquamousLambdoid56Skull (cont)What is the cranial vault?The CalvariaThe superior, lateral and posterior aspects of the head including the foreheadWhat is the cranial base or floor?Inferior aspects of skullWhat are the 3 internal fossae of the base of the skull?Anterior, middle and posterior cranial fossaeWhat sits in these fossae?The brainWhat are the smaller cavities of the skull?Middle, inner earNasalOrbitsHow many openings are in the skull?85What are their functions?Spinal cord passageBlood vesselsnerves

57CraniumHow many bones?8Name them:Parietal (pair)FrontalOccipitalSphenoidEthmoidTemporal (pair)What do these bones form?The helmet around brain58Frontal boneWhat is medical term for forehead?Frontal squamaWhat are the supraorbital margins?Thick, margin under eyebrowsWhat does the anterior cranial fossa support?Lobes of the brainWhat allows the supraorbital artery and nerve to pass to the forehead?Supraorbital foramenWhat is the smooth portion between the eyes called?GlabellaWhat are the nasal sutures called?Frontonasal suturesWhat is riddled around the glabella?Frontal sinuses59Parietal bonesWhere are these bones?Superior and lateral skullThey form the bulk of the cranial ________?VaultWhat occurs where the parietal bones articulate with other cranial bones?The four largest sutures

60Main SuturesWhere parietal meets frontal anteriorly?CoronalWhere parietal meets superiorly at cranial midline?SagittalWhere parietal meets occipital?LambdoidWhere parietal meets temporal?squamous61MandibleWhat is it?Lower jawWhat does it consist of?Body, ramus, mandibular notch, condyles, coronoid processWhat does the mandibular body do?Anchors the lower teethWhat is the alveolar margin for?Contains the sockets where teeth are embeddedWhat does the mandibular symphysis indicate?Where the 2 mandible bones fused during infancyWhat are the nerve entrances called?Mandibular foramina

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Mandible functionsCoronoidInsertion for temporalis muscle CondylesArticulate with temporal bones for movement of jawSymphysisFusion point of mandibleAlveoliTeeth socketsForaminaAdmit inferior alveolar nerveMental foramenBlood vessel and nerves to chin and lower lip63Maxillary bonesWhat area of face?Upper jaw, central portionWhat articulates with it?All facial bones except mandibleWhy is it keystone of face?All bones articulate with it. (- mandible)What part of maxilla carry upper teeth?Alveolar marginWhat is the function of incisive fossa?Passage for blood vessels, nervesWhat articulates with the maxilla laterally?Zygomatic processWhat forms the bony roof of the mouth?Palatine processesWhat is at the junction of maxilla and greater wing of the sphenoid?Inferior orbital fissure

64Maxilla functionsAlveoliTooth socketZygomatic processesForm zygo archPalatineForm anterior hard palateFrontalForm lateral part of nose bridgeIncisive fossaAdmit blood vessels, nerves through hard palateInferior orbital fissureAdmit maxillary branch of cranial nerve V, zygo nerve, blood vesselsInfraorbital foramenNerve to skin of face65Articulation of other face bonesZygomatic:Articulation:Zygomatic processes of temporal posteriorlyZygomatic processes of frontal superiorlyZygomatic processes of maxilla anteriorlyNasal bones:Articulation:Frontal bone superiorlyMaxilla laterallyPerpendicular plate posteriorlyInferiorly to cartilage that form external noseLacrimal bones:Articulation:Frontal superiorlyEthmoid posteriorlyMaxilla anteriorly

66Articulation of other face bonesPalatine bonesArticulation:What are the important plates?Horizontal, perpendicularWhat are the 3 processes?PyramidalSphenoidalOrbital

67Nasal CavityWhat is it constructed of?Bone and hyaline cartilageWhat is the roof formed by?Cribriform plate of ethmoidWhat shapes the lateral walls?Superior, middle conchae of ethmoid, perpendicular of palatine What are the depressions under the conchae?Superior, middle, inferior meatusWhat is the floor formed by?Palatine processes of maxillae and palatine bonesWhat divides the nasal cavity?SeptumWhat is the bony part of septum?VomerWhat cartilage completes the septum anteriorly?Septal cartilage

69Hyoid bone

Where?Just inferior to mandible in the neckWhat is unique about this bone?Does not articulate directly with any other boneWhat is anchored by?Stylohyoid ligaments To What?Styloid processes of temporalWhat is its function?Move tongueAttach muscles that raise/lower larynx for speech, swallowing72Anterior Skull

Frontal BoneSupra-Orbital ForamenOrbit (Orbital Cavity)Superior Orbital FissureInferior Orbital FissureZygomatic BoneInfra-Orbital ForamenMaxillaMandibleMental ForamenIncisive FossaSymphysisVomerInferior Nasal ConchaMiddle Nasal ConchaPerpendicular Plate of EthmoidNasal BoneLacrimal Bone

73Skull - Lateral

Parietal BoneCoronal SutureFrontal BoneNasal BoneVomerLacrimal BoneOrbital Part of EthmoidZygomatic BoneMaxillaBody of MandibleRamus of MandibleCoronoid ProcessMandibular CondyleMental ForamenStyloid ProcessExternal Acoustic MeatusMastoid ProcessZygomatic ProcessTemporal BoneGreater Wing of SphenoidInferior Temporal LineSuperior Temporal LineSquamosal SutureLambdoidal SutureOccipital Bone

74Skull PosteriorParietal BoneSagittal SutureLambdoid SutureOccipital BoneExternal Occipital ProtruberanceSuperior Nuchal LineInferior Nuchal Line

75Occipital boneWhere is this bone?Posterior wall and base of skullWhat sutures connect it to the temporal and parietal bones?LambdoidOccipitomastoidWhat does the internal walls of occipital form?Posterior cranial fossaWhat foramen is at the base of occipital?Foramen magnumWhat are the occipital condyles?Rocker like condyles that articulate with c1 and allow nodding of headWhat does the external occipital crest secure?Ligamente nuchaeWhat do nuchal lines and bony regions do?Anchor many back muscles76Occipital Parts functionsForamen magnum Spinal cord passage from brain stem to vertebral canalHypoglossal canalPassage of hypoglossal nerve (cranial nerve XII)Occipital condylesAtlas articulationExternal protuberence/nuchal linesMuscle attachmentsExternal CrestLigamente nuchae

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Skull - superiorOccipital BoneLambdoidal SutureParietal BoneSagittal SutureCoronal SutureFrontal Bone

78Superior SkullFrontal SinusForamen CecumCrista GalliCribriform PlateAnterior Cranial FossaLesser Wing of SphenoidChiasmatic GrooveHypophyseal FossaDorsum SellaOptic CanalAnterior Clinoid ProcessForamen RotundumForamen OvaleForamen SpinosumSquamous Part of TemporalPetrous Part of TemporalGroove for Transverse SinusPosterior Cranial FossaForamen MagnumHypoglossal CanalJugular ForamenInternal Acoustic MeatusPosterior Clinoid ProcessForamen LacerumSuperior Orbital Fissure

79Mandible

Mandibular CondyleMandibular NotchCoronoid ProcessRamusAngleOblique LineBodyAlveolar ProcessMental ForamenMylohyoid LineMandibular Foramen

80Temporal bonesHow many? Where are they on skull?2 (One on each side - inferior to parietal bones)What are the temporals four major regions?Squamous,Tympanic, Mastoid, PetrousFunctions of parts?Zygomatic process helps form prominence of cheekExternal acoustic meatus for hearingStyloid process attach hyoid and neck musclesMastoid process attach neck and tongue musclesCarotid canal passage of internal carotid arteryJugular foramen passage of internal jugular vein and cranial nerves IX, X, XI

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SphenoidWhere?Spans the middle cranial fossaWhy is it considered the keystone of cranium?Because it forms a central wedge that articulates with all other cranial bonesWhat does it consist of?Central body, 3 pairs of wingsGreater, lesser, pterygoid processesWhat is the sella turcica?Area where pituitary gland is locatedWhat is the function of the anterior clinoid processes?Anchor the brain to the skullWhat are the pterygoid processes functions?Anchor pyterygoid muscles used for chewingWhat are the optic canals for?They allow optic nerves to pass to the eyesWhat is the superior orbital fissures function?It allows cranial nerves that control eye movements to enter the orbit

90Sphenoid parts functionsSella turcicaSeat of pituitary glandOptic canalPassage of cranial nerve II, opthamolic arteriesSuperior Orbital fissuresCranial nerves III, IV, part of V, opthamolic veinForamen rotundumPassage of maxillary division of cranial nerve VOvalePass mandibular division of nerve VSpinosumPass middle meningeal artery91

EthmoidWhere?Between sphenoid and nasal bones (between nasal and orbits)What forms roof of nasal cavity and floor of anterior cranial fossa?Cribriform plateWhat are the tiny holes in cribriform that allow smell nerves to pass to the brain?Olfactory foraminaWhat is the crista gallis function?Attach falx cerbriWhat are some other parts of the ethmoid?Inferior, middle nasal conchaPerpendicular plateOrbital plates

92VertebraeHow many bones? What kind of bones?26, irregularName some functions of vertebrae?Transmits weight of trunk to lower limbsSurround, protect spinal cordAttachment site for ribs and muscles of back and neckHow many in fetus?33 separate bonesHow many eventually fuse and what do they become?9Sacrum, coccyxWhat are the divisions? How many bones in each?Cervical 7Thoracic 12Lumbar 5SacrumCoccyx

95Vertebrae (cont)What are the four curvatures?Cervical, lumbar concave posteriorlyThoracic, sacrum convex posteriorlyWhat are some abnormal curvature disorders?Scoliosis Thoracic twistedKyphosis hunchbackWhat are ligaments?Bands of fibrous tissue that connect and support bonesWhat are the ligs of the vertebrae?Anterior, posterior longitudinal ligamentsWhat are the intervertebral discs functions?Shock absorbers during walking, jumping and running

96Anterior skull81

Frontal squamaOf frontal boneNasal boneSphenoidParietal boneTemporal EthmoidLacrimalZygomaticInfraorbital foramenMaxillaMandibleMentalForamenMandibular SymphysisFrontalGlabellaFrontonasal sutureSupraorbital foramenSupraorbital marginSuperior Orbital fissureOptic CanalInferior orbital fissureMiddle nasal conchaPerpendicular plateInferior nasal conchaVomerLateral Skull82

Frontal boneSphenoid boneEthmoid boneLacrimal boneLacrimal fossaNasal boneZygomatic boneMaxillaAlveolar marginsMandibleMental foramenCoronoid ProcessMandibular angleMandibular ramusMandibular notchMandibular condyleStyloid processMastoid processExternal auditory meatusOccipitomastoid sutureZygomatic processOccipital boneSquamous sutureLambdoid sutureTemporal boneParietal boneCoronal suturePosterior Skull83

Sagittal sutureParietal boneMastoid processInferiorNuchal lineOccipitalcondyleExternal OccipitalcrestOccipitomastoidsutureExternal OccipitalprotuberanceSuperior nuchallineOccipital boneLambdoidsutureWormian boneMidsagittal Internal left side of skull84

Coronal sutureFrontal boneSphenoid boneFrontal sinusCrista galliNasal boneSphenoid sinusEthmoid boneVomer boneIncisive fossaMaxillaAlveolar marginsMandiblePalatine processPalatine boneMandibular foramenPterygoidProcess of SphenoidSella Turcica of sphenoidInternal acoustic meatusExternal occipital Pro-tuberenceOccipitomastoid sutureOccipital boneLambdoid sutureTemporal boneSquamous sutureParietal boneInferior skull85

Incisive fossaMedial palantine sutureInfraorbital foramenMaxillaSphenoid boneForamen ovaleForamen lacerumCarotid canalExternal acoustic meatusStylomastoid foramenJugular foramenOccipital condyleInferior nuchal lineSuperior nuchal lineForamen magnumExternal OccipitalprotuberenceExternal OccipitalCrestParietal bonePharyngeal Tubercle of basoccipitalTemporal boneMastoid processStyloid processMandibular fossaVomerTemporal boneZygomatic bonePalatine boneMaxillaTemporal bone86

Squamous regionZygomatic processMandibular fossaTympanic regionStyloid processMastoid processMastoid regionExternal AcousticmeatusSuperior sphenoid88

Optic canalChiasmatic grooveLesser wingGreater wingAnterior clinoid processForamen rotundumForamen ovaleForamen spinosumDorsum SellaeBody of sphenoidPosterior clinoidprocessHypophysealFossa of sella turcicaGreater wingPosterior sphenoid89

Body of sphenoidPosterior clinoid processSuperior orbital fissureForamen rotundumPterygoid processPterygoidplatesGreater wingEthmoid 93

Crista galliCribriform plateLeft lateral massMiddle nasal conchaPerpendicular plateEthmoid sinusesOrbital plateOlfactory foraminaSuperior cranial cavity94

Frontal boneCribform plateCrista galliEthmoidOptic canalAnterior clinoid processForamen rotundumForamen ovaleForamen spinosumForamen lacerumJugular foramenHypoglossal canalForamen magnumOccipital boneParietal bonePosterior Cranial fossaInternal acoustic meatusTemporal boneMiddle cranial fossaPosterior clinoid processDorsum sellaeHypophyseal fossaTuberculum sellaeGreater wingLesser wingAnterior cranial fossaOlfactory foraminaGeneral structure of VertebraeWhat is the common structure of all vertebrae?Body anteriorlyVertebral arch posteriorlyVertebral foramen for vertebral canal (spinal cord)What forms vertebral arch?Pedicles, laminaeWhat are pedicles?Short, bony pillars that form side of arch (project posteriorly)What are laminae?Flat plates that fuse in median plane (posterior)How many processes project from vertebral arch?7What are they?Spinous median, at junction of 2 laminaeTransverse lateral from each side of archSuperior, inferior articular processes smooth joints called facets (covered with hyaline cartilage) form movable joints with processes of vertebrae below and above them

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Facet(ThoracicOnly)Demifacet(ThoracicOnlyVertebrae structure98

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CervicalThoracicLumbar100

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Cervical VertebraeCharacteristics:Smallest, lightestFirst 2 unusualOval bodyWideSpinous short (except for C7)Large foramenTransverse foramenC7 is the vertebrae prominensC1 and C2 have no disc betweenAtlas no body, spinousSuperior articular receive occipital condyle of skullInferior joins axisAxis Has dens (odontoid) process superiorly from bodyDens allow side to side movement

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Thoracic VertebraeCharacteristics:All articulate with ribsFirst looks like C7, last four look like LumbarIncrease in size from 1st to lastHeart shape bodyDemifacets on each side (superior and inferior) (T10 to T12 have single facet)Demifacets receive ribsForamen circularLong, pointed spinousSuperior and inferior facets lie mainly in frontal plane

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Lumbar vertebraeCharacteristics:Most stressMassive, kidney shaped bodyPedicles and laminae shorter and thicker than other vertsShort, flat, hatchet shaped spinous (project backward)Triangle foramenFacets orientated different than other vertebrae104

Differences in VertebraeBody:C small wideT Larger than C, heart shapedL Massive bodySpinous process:C short, has V notchT Long sharp, projects inferiorlyL Short blunt, projects posteriorlyForamen:C large triangle shapedT- small ovalL small triangular shapeTransverse processes:C- contain foramenT- Have facets for ribsL thin,tapered

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CervicalLumbarThoracicC1 Atlas Superior viewAnterior tubercle Anterior arch Facet for dens Transverse process Foramen transversarium or transverse foramen Superior articular facet on lateral mass Posterior arch Posterior tubercle Vertebral foramen

106Cervical, Thoracic, Lumbar, Sacrum

Body Vertebral foramen Anterior tubercle Posterior tubercle Foramen transversarium or transverse foramen Demifacet for head of rib Superior articular process Pedicle Lamina Transverse process Spinous process or spine Lateral mass Posterior sacral foramina Coccyx Sacral hiatus

107Cervical, Thoracic, Lumbar, sacrumBody Facet for head of rib Superior articular process Superior vertebral notch Pedicle Transverse process Inferior vertebral notch Inferior articular process Spinous process or spine

108Cervical Vertebrae

C1 or atlas C2 or axis C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 Body Vertebral foramen Bifid spinous process or spine Transverse process Foramen transversarium or transverse foramen Superior articular facet

109Vertebrae - AtlasSuperior Articular SurfaceTransverse ForamenTransverse ProcessOdontoid (Dens) FacetVertebral ForamenInferior Articular Surface

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Axis

Spinous ProcessLaminaTransverse ProcessPedicleSuperior Articular SurfaceOdontoid Process (Dens)BodyVertebral ForamenInferior Articular Surface

111Cervical VertebraeSpinous ProcessLaminaSuperior Articular SurfaceTransverse ForamenTransverse ProcessBodyPedicleVertebral Foramen

112Thoracic

Spinous ProcessLaminaSuperior Articular SurfaceTransverse ProcessPedicleBodyVertebral ForamenArticular Facet for RibInferior Articular Surface

113Lumbar

Spinous ProcessLaminaSuperior Articular SurfaceTransverse ProcessPedicleBodyVertebral ForamenInferior Articular Surface

114SacrumCharacteristics:Formed by 5 fused vertsArticulates superiorly with L5 inferiorly with coccyx, laterally with hip bone (sacroiliac joint)Sacral promontory anterosuperiorFour ridges: The transverse lines cross concave anterior aspect, marking lines of fusion of sacral vertebraeVentral sacral foramina penetrate sacrum at lateral ends of transverse lines to transmit blood vessels and nervesLateral to these and expanding superior are the alaeDorsal midline median sacral crestDorsal sacral foraminaLateral sacral crestsVertebral canal sacral canalSacral hiatus opening where vert failed to fuse

115SacrumPromontoryTransverse Ridges (lines)CoccyxBody of SacrumSacral CanalSuperior Articular SurfaceMedian Sacral CrestSacrum to Ilium Articular SurfaceDorsal Sacral ForaminaSacral Hiatus

116alaeLateral sacralcrestVentral Sacral foraminaRib and VertebraeArticular Facet of RibInterarticular CrestNeckArticular Portion of TubercleNonarticular Portion of TubercleAngle of RibCostal GrooveBody (shaft) of RibArticular Facet of Transverse ProcessTransverse ProcessSpinous ProcessLaminaVertebral Foramen

117

Sternal edgeSternumJugular NotchManubriumSternal AngleBody (Gladiolus)Xiphoid Process

118Clavicular NotchCostal facetBony Thorax119

Bony ThoraxWhat is included in bony thorax?Thoracic vertebrae dorsally, ribs laterally, sternum and costal cartilage anteriorlyHow many ribs?12 pairsWhat do they articulate with?Posteriorly thoracic vertebraeAnteriorly superior 7 rib pairs directly to sternum (true)5 (false) indirectly to sternum or no sternalRibs 8-10 connect to cartilage joining to rib aboveRibs 11-12 floating no anterior attachment Characteristics of ribs:Bowed flat boneSuperior smooth, inferior sharp and thinCostal groove lodges nerves and blood vesselsHead and tubercle join to the body and transverse process of vertTubercle is posterior and superior

120Appendicular SkeletonPectoral & Pelvic Girdle, Upper & Lower Limbs 121ClavicleWhere?Across superior thoraxArticulation:Medial sternal end to sternal manubriumLateral acromial end scapulaMedial 2/3s convex anteriorlyLateral 3rd concave anteriorly Superior surface is?SmoothInferior surface is?Ridged and groovedFunctionAnchor many musclesAct as bracesHold scapula and arms out laterally away from superior part of thoraxNot very strong, easy to fracture

122Clavicle

sternal head superior surface sternal head inferior surface groove for subclavious muscleconoid tubercletrapezoid lineacromial head

Identification aspects:Conoid tubercle always posterior/inferiorMedial surface always convex, lateral concaveAcromial - lateral

123Scapula Posterior

Coracoid ProcessScapular NotchSuperior BorderSupraspinous FossaSuperior AngleScapular SpineVertebral MarginInfraspinous FossaInferior AngleLateral BorderGlenoid Cavity Margin (lateral angle)Acromion ProcessIdentification:Spine-posteriorGlenoid - lateral124Scapula (Ventral)

superior anglevertebral (medial) borderinferior anglesubscapular fossainfraglenoid tubercleglenoid fossacoracoid processAcromionsuprascapular notch125Scapula lateral

Coracoid processGlenoid cavityScapular spineAcromion processInfraspinous FossaInferior AngleAxillary Margin126Scapula Where?Dorsal surface of rib cage, between ribs 2 and 7What are the 3 borders?Superior shortest, sharpestMedial (vertebral) parallels vertebral columnLateral (axillary) abuts the armpit and ends superiorly in a small shallow fossa, the glenoid cavity ArticulationGlenoid cavity articulates with humerus of the armWhat are the 3 angles? Where do they meet?Superior scapular border meets medial border at superior angle and lateral border at the lateral angleMedial and lateral borders join at the inferior angle

127Scapula (cont)Features:Anterior surface is?Concave and relatively featurelessPosterior surface?Prominent spine easily felt through skinEnds laterally in enlarged, roughened triangular projection called?AcromionAcromion articulates with?Acromial end of clavicleWhich forms the?Acromioclavicle jointProjecting anteriorly from superior scapular border is what?Coracoid processWhat is the coracoid process function?Helps anchor the biceps of the armBounded by?Suprascapular notch medially and glenoid cavity laterallySeveral large fossae appear on both sides of scapula. They are?Infraspinous and supraspinous fossaeNamed for their locationInferior and superior to the spineWhat is the subscapular fossa?Shallow concavity formed by the entire anterior scapula surface

128Proximal HumerusHeadAnatomical neckLesser TubercleIntertubercular GrooveGreater TubercleSurgical NeckDeltoid Neck (tuberosity)Identify:Head medialShallow, distal coronoid fossa anteriorCapitulum anterior lateral129

Humerus DistalRadial FossaLateral EpicondyleCapitulumTrochlea Medial EpicondyleCoronoid FossaOlecranon Fossa

130

Humerus proximal to middle of the boneLocationUpper armArticulation?proximal to the scapula (glenoid cavity)distal to the radius and ulnaWhat is at the proximal end?Smooth hemispherical headWhat does it fit into to?Glenoid cavityWhat is immediately inferior to the head?Anatomical neckWhat tubercles are just inferior to the neck?Lateral greater tubercleMedial lesser tubercle

What separates these tubercles?Intertubercular (bicipital) grooveWhat are tubercles function?Sites where muscles attachWhat is distal to tubercles?Surgical neckWhat is midway down shaft laterally?Deltoid tuberosity (roughened deltoid muscle attachment site)What runs obliquely down the posterior aspect of shaft marking the course of radial nerve?Radial groove

131Humerus - DistalWhat are the 2 condyles at distal end?Medial trochlea looks like hour glass tipped on sideLateral capitulum ball-likeWhat do these articulate with?Ulna and radius What flanks these condyles?Medial, lateral epicondyles (muscle attachment sites)What is directly above these condyles?Supracondyle ridgesWhat is responsible for the tingling feeling when funny bone is hit?Ulnar nerves that run behind the medial epicondyleWhere is the coronoid fossa?Superior to the trochlea on the anterior surfaceWhere is the Olecranon fossa?Posterior to the coronoid fossa

132Humerus distal

What is the function of the coronoid and olecranon fossae?They allow the corresponding processes of the ulna to move freely when the elbow is flexed and extendedWhat receives the head of the radius when the elbow is flexed?Radial fossa133Radius Right/anteriorHead of radiusNeck of radiusRadial TuberosityRadius (Shaft)Styloid ProcessUlnar NotchRecognition aspects:Tuberosity anterior/medialStyloid lateralConcave surface above styloid - anterior

134

Radial TuberosityAnterior medialAlways anterior in Anatomical positionForearm- antebrachiumLocation:Lower armBones:Radius, ulnaArticulationProximal end with humerusDistal end forms joints with the wristRadius and ulna articulate with each other both proximally and distally at small radioulnar jointsWhat connects the radius and ulnar across their entire length?Flexible, interosseous membraneWhat is the position of radius and ulna in anatomical postion?Radius lateral on thumb sideUlna medial on little finger sideWhat happens in the prone position?Distal end of the radius crosses over the ulna and form an X

135Ulna-right/ proximal/distal

Olecranon processTrochlear notchCoronoid processTuberosityRadial notchUlna shaftHead of ulnaStyloid process

Identification aspects:Radial notch always lateralStyloid process-medial

136

UlnaMain responsibility?Forming elbow joint with humerusWhat are the 2 main processes at proximal end?Olecranon, coronoid processesWhat separates these?Trochlear notchWhat does the locking of the olecranon process and olecranon fossa do?Keeps the forearm from moving posteriorly beyond the elbow jointWhere does the ulna articulate with the head of the radius?

Radial notchWhere is the ulnar head?At the distal end of the bone by wristWhat is medial to the ulnar head?Styloid processWhat separates the ulnar from the carpals?A disc of fibrocartilageDoes it have any role in hand movement?Little to none at all

137RadiusWhat is the superior surface of the head convex or concave?ConcaveArticulationHead proximal with the capitulum of the humerusMedially with the radial notch of the ulnaDistal where the radius expands, medial ulnar notch with the ulnaCarpal bonesThe ulna contributes heavily to?The elbowThe radius contributes to?WristWhat happens when the radius moves?The hand moves with it138Hand Right DorsalStyloid process of radiusNavicular (Scaphoid)LunateTriquetralPisiformTrapeziumTrapezoidCapitateHamateMetacarpalProximal PhalangeMiddle PhalangeDistal PhalangeStyloid Process of Ulna

139Hand Right palmar

Navicular (Scaphoid)LunateTriquetralPisiformTrapeziumTrapezoidCapitateHamateMetacarpalProximal PhalangeMiddle PhalangeDistal Phalange140Carpus-WristWhat is the true wrist?The carpus. The proximal part of the handHow many bones are in the carpus? What are they called?8 marble sized short bonesCarpalsHow are they arranged?In 2 irregular rows of 4 bones eachWhich bones are in the proximal row? (lateral to medial)ScaphoidLunateTriquetralpisiform

Which bones articulate with radius?Scaphoid, lunateWhat bones make up the distal row? (lat to med)TrapeziumTrapezoidCapitateHamateSally scaphoidLeft lunateThe triquetralParty pisiformTo- trapeziumTake trapezoidCathy capitateHome - hamate

141Metacarpus - palmHow many? What are they named?5, No name. They are numbered from 1 to 5 from thumb to little fingerArticulationBases with carpals proximallyEach other medially and laterallyHeads with proximal phalanges distallyWhat is meta #1 and why is it different from the rest?The thumbDoes not have a middle phalanx142Phalanges - FingersWhat are other names for the phalanges?Fingers, digitsHow are they numbered?From 1 to 5 beginning with pollex (thumb)How many phalanges on each hand?14What are the parts named?ProximalMiddleDistalThumb no middle143Os Coxa Left lateral

Anterior Superior SpineIliac CrestPosterior Superior SpinePosterior Inferior SpineGreater Sciatic NotchBody of IliumIschial SpineLesser Sciatic NotchBody of IschiumIschial TuberosityObturator ForamenInferior Ramus of IschiumInferior Ramus of PubisBody of PubisAcetabulumAnterior Inferior Spine

144Os Coxa Left,medial

Iliac FossaAnterior Superior SpineAnterior Inferior SpineArcuate LineObturator ForamenSymphysis Pubis Articulating SurfaceIschial TuberosityLesser Sciatic NotchIschial SpineGreater Sciatic NotchSacrum Articulating SurfacePosterior Inferior SpinePosterior Superior SpineIliac Crest

145Identification:Acetabulum lateralPubis anteriorIschial- posteriorPelvic girdle - HipWhat are its functions?Attach lower limbs to axial skeletonTransmit upper body weight to lower limbsSupport visceral organs of the pelvisWhat are the hip bones named?Os coxaeArticulationEach other anteriorlySacrum posteriorlyWhat is the hip, sacrum and coccyx called?Bony pelvis

What are the 3 bones of the pelvis?IliumIschiumPubisAre they separate?In childhood. Fuse in adultsWhat is the name of the deep lateral socket on the pelvis?AcetabulumWhat is its function? What is the joint called?Receives head of femurHip joint146IliumWhere on the coxal?Superior regionWhat does it consist of?BodyAla wingWhere is it thickest at?Tubercle of iliac crestWhere does each iliac crest end?Anteriorly anterior superior iliac spinePosteriorly posterior superior iliac spineWhat is below these?Anterior, posterior inferior iliac spinesWhat are these spines for?Attachment points for muscles of trunk, hip, thigh

Where is the greater sciatic notch? What is it for?Inferior to posterior inferior iliac spineWhere sciatic nerve passes to enter thighWhat makes up the posterolateral surface of the ilium?Gluteal surfaceWhat 3 ridges cross it?Posterior, Anterior, inferior gluteal linesWhat is the interior, concave area?Iliac fossaWhat is posterior to this?Auricular surfaceWhat does ilium join anteriorly?Ischium, pubis

147IschiumWhat part of hip bone?PosteroinferiorArticulationBody iliumRamus pubis anteriorlyWhat are the 3 major markings?Ischial spine medially into pelvic cavityLesser sciatic notch just inferior to ischial spineIschial tuberosity strongest part of hip bone. Inferior surface of ischial bodyWhat helps hold the pelvis together?Sacrotuberous ligament massive ligament from sacrum to ischial tuberosity

148PubisWhere?Anterior of hip boneV shaped consisting of?Superior, inferior ramiMedial bodyArticulationMedial to ischiumInferior to iliumWhat does the anterior border form?Pubic crestWhat is at the lateral end of pubic crest?Pubic tubercleWhat is the large opening of the hip bone?Obturator foramenWhat is the name of the fibrocartilage joining the 2 pubic bones?Pubic symphysisWhat is the arch that differentiates male and female pelve?Pubic arch149Pelvis - anterior

anterior superior iliac spinesuperior pubic ramusischial tuberosityinferior pubic ramuspubic symphysispubic tubercleAcetabulumanterior inferior iliac spineiliac fossa150Pelvis - posterioriliac crestgreater sciatic foramenischial spineischial tuberosityCoccyxsacrum (dorsum)posterior superior iliac spine

151Pelvic structure/childbearingWhat is the difference between female and male pelvis?Female wider, shallower, lighter and rounderTilted forwardWhat are the false and true pelvis?False superior to the pelvic brimBounded by alae laterally; lumbar vertebrae posteriorlyPart of abdomenDoes not restrict childbirthTrueInferior to pelvis brim

Forms deep bowl containing pelvic organsDimensions critical for childbirthWhat are the pelvic inlet and outlet?Inlet pelvic brimOutlet inferior margin of true pelvis

152Femur-proximal end/leftHeadNeckGreater TrochanterIntertrochanteric LineLesser TrochanterShaft of FemurGluteal TuberosityIntertrochanteric CrestLinea AsperaIdentification:Distal Patellar Surface anteriorIntercondyle notch - posterior

153

FoveaCapitisLeft femur-distal

Medial CondyleLateral CondyleIntercondylar Fossa

154

IntercondylenotchLateral EpicondyleMedial EpicondyleAdductor tubercleFemurLocationUpper legArticulationProximal hip bone/ acetabulumDistal tibiaWhat is the name of the small central pit at the head?Fovea capitisWhat is at the junction of the shaft and neck?Greater and lesser trochantersWhat connects these trochanters?Intertrochanteric line anteriorlyIntertrochanteric crest posteriorlyWhat does the gluteal tuberosity blend into?Linea aspera inferiorlyWhat does the linea aspera diverge into?Medial and lateral suprachondyle linesWhat are all of these markings?Muscle attachment sitesDistally, the femur widens into?Lateral and medial condylesWhat flanks the condyles superiorly?Medial and lateral epicondyles

155Femur (cont)What is the patellar surface?Articulation site for the patellaWhat is the deep U-shape on the distal posterior aspect of femur?Intercondyle notchWhat is superior to this?Smooth popliteal surfaceWhat is the patella?Triangular, sesamoid bone enclosed in quadriceps that secures anterior thigh muscles to the tibia

156

Left Tibia-proximal/distal/anterior

Intercondylar EminenceLateral CondyleTibial TuberosityAnterior CrestMedial CondyleAnterior SurfaceMedial MalleolusIdentify aspects:Tibial tuberosity always anteriorFlattened side always lateralMedial malleolus always medial

157

ProximalTibiofibularjointDistalTibiofibularjointTibiaLocationAnterior shin boneArticulationProximal femur tibia condyles to the femur condylesDistally talus of the footLateral to the fibula (tibiofibular joint)PartsBroad proximal endMedial and lateral condylesIntercondyle imminenceInferior to thisTibial tuberosity anteriorLateral tibial condyle proximal tibiofibular jointMiddle of boneAnterior crestDistal endMedial malleolusDistal tibiofibular jointArticular surface

158Left Fibula-proximal/distal/anteriorHead of FibulaNeck of FibulaAnterior CrestLateral MalleolusIdentifying aspects:Lateral malleolus always lateral

159

FibulaLocationPosterior, lateral shinArticulationProximal with the tibiaDistal with the tibia medially and the talus distallyName of proximal and distal ends?Proximal headDistal lateral malleolus (ankle bulge)Does the fibula bear weight?No

160Left foot superior

CalcaneusTalusNavicularCuboidCuneiform, MiddleCuneiform, IntermediateCuneiform, LateralMetatarsalProximal PhalangeMiddle PhalangeDistal Phalange

161TarsusHow many bones? Name them?7Calcaneus Talus Navicular Cuboid 1st Cuneiform (Hallux), 2nd Cuneiform, 3rd CuneiformWhat 2 tarsals carry most body weight?Talus, calcaneusWhat does the Achilles tendon attach to?Posterior surface of calcaneusWhat part of calcaneus touches the ground?Tuber calcanei, calcaneal tuberosity, sustentaculum taliName the remaining tarsals:Lateral cuboidMedial navicularIntermediate, lateral cuneiformWhat do the cuboid and cuneiform bones articulate with?Metatarsal bones anteriorly

162Left footlateral

CalcaneusTalusNavicularCuboidCuneiform, FirstCuneiform, SecondCuneiform, ThirdMetatarsal

163MetatarsusHow many?5 small bonesArticulationDistal proximal phalanges of the toesProximal tarsalsWhat is the first metatarsal?Great toe (Hallux)How are they identified?By number laterally from big toe

164Phalanges-ToesHow many?143 in each digit except the?Hallux (big toe)

165Arches of footA segmented structure can only hold weight if it is?ArchedWhat are the 3 arches of the foot?Longitudinal medial and lateralTransverse archWhat are the functions of these arches?StrengthWhat maintains arches?Interlocking shape of foot bonesStrong ligamentsTendon pull during muscle activitiesWhich arch curves above the ground?Medial longitudinalWhich is very low?Lateral longitudinalWhere is the weight of the body distributed by these arches? to heel bones, to heads of metatarsals166Knee-anterior/posterior

Tibial Collateral LigamentMedial Condyle of FemurPosterior Cruciate LigamentAnterior Cruciate LigamentLateral Condyle of FemurFibular Collateral LigamentLateral Condyle of TibiaLateral MeniscusMedial MeniscusMedial Condyle of TibiaTibiaFibulaTransverse Ligament

167

168

Basic structure, types, locationWhat types of cartilage does skeletal cartilage contain?Hyaline, elastic, fibroWhat type of hyaline cartilage is in skeletal?Articular covers ends at movable jointsCostal connect ribs to sternumRespiratory skeleton of the larynxNasal support noseWhat type is elastic?External earEpiglottisWhat type is fibro?Discs between vertebraeknee

169What are the 2 ways cartilage grows?AppositionalCartilage-forming cells secrete new matrix against external face of existing cartilageInterstitialChondrocytes divide and secrete new matrixExpand from withinWhen does growth end?During adolescenceIs calcified cartilage bone? No. Cartilage and bone are always distinct tissues170Classification of BoneWhat are the 2 groups?AxialAppendicularWhat is the axial?Skull, vertebrae, ribsAppendicular?Upper/lower limbs, girdles (hips,shoulders)

171Structure of long boneDiaphysisShaftSurrounds medullary cavity. Adults yellow bone marrowEpiphysisBone endsInterior spongy boneJoint surface articular cartilageEpiphyseal line between the diaphysis and epiphysis of adult bone; remnant of epiphyseal plate (hyaline that grows during childhood) Also called metaphysisMembranesGlistening white outer cover?periosteumWhere do nerve, blood, lymph enter diaphysis?Nutrient foramenPeriosteum secured to bone by?Sharpeys fibersWhat covers internal bone surfaces?endosteum

172Structure of short boneWhat design do all short, irregular and flat bones share?Thin plates of periosteum-covered compact bone sandwiching spongy bone in the middleShort bones have no what?Shaft or epiphysisWhat is the spongy bone called?Diploe173Hemopoietic tissue-red marrowWhere is it found?Within trabecular cavities in long boneDiploe of flat boneWhat are those cavities called?Red marrow cavitiesWhere does blood production occur in adult long bone?Only in head of femur and humerusWhat sites are usually more active and used for obtaining red marrow samples?Diploe, irregular sites of flat bones (sternum, hip bone)

174Compact boneWhat do canaliculi do?Tie all the osteocytes in osteon togetherPermit nutrients and wastes to enter and exitMaintain bone matrixWhat is interstitial lamellae?Incomplete lamellae that fill the gaps between forming osteonsWhat are circumferential lamellae?Lamellae just deep to the periosteum and superficial to the endosteum, that extend around the entire circumference of the diaphysis and resist twisting of the bone

175Formation of skeletonWhat is the skeleton of human embryo made of before week 8?Entirely fibrous membranes and hyaline cartilageWhat is it called when a bone develops from fibrous membrane?Intramembranous ossificationWhat is the bone of this type of formation called?Membrane boneWhat is it called when bone is formed by replacing hyaline cartilage?Endochondral OssificationWhat is this bone called?Cartilage or endochondral bone

176Intramembranous OssificationWhat bones are formed this way?SkullClavicleWhat type of bones formed this way?Flat bonesWhat are the 4 major steps?Step One:What appears in the fibrous tissue?Ossification centerWhat do mesenchymal cells do at this stage?ClusterDifferentiate into osteoblastsForm the ossification centerStep Two:What do the osteoblasts do at this stage?Secrete the osteoidWhat do trapped osteoblasts become?osteocytes

177Intramembranous Ossification (cont)Step 3:What is formed in step 3?Woven bonePeriosteumWhat is a random network?Accumulated osteoid laid down between blood vesselsWhat does this form?Trabeculae (spongy bone)What does vascularized mesenchyme condensing on the external face of woven bone become?The periosteumStep 4:What does thickened trabeculae just deep to the periosteum form?Woven bone collarWhat is this replaced by?Mature lamellar boneWhat is a diploe?Compact bone sandwiching spongy bone

178Endochondral OssificationWhat bones are formed this way?All bones of the skeleton below the base of the skullWhat is the model this process uses?Hyaline cartilage modelWhen does the process begin?2nd month of fetal developmentWhat is the primary ossification center?The region where long bone formation usually beginsWhat sets the stage for this process to begin?Perichondrium infiltrated by blood vessels converting it to periosteumMesenchymal cells specialize into osteoblasts

179Endochondral Ossification (cont)Step 1:What do the osteoblasts secretions against hyaline cartilage do?Encase it in a bone collarStep 2:What does cartilage in the center of diaphysis do?Calcifies, cavitates (creates cavities)What do chondrocytes do at this stage?Hypertrophy (enlarge)Signal matrix to calcifyWhat happens to the chondrocytes and the matrix at this stage?They dieMatrix deterioratesWhat happens to cartilage elsewhere?Remains healthyGrows brisklyWhat does this cause the cartilage model to do?Elongate

180Endochondral Ossification (cont)Step 3:What is the periosteal bud?Collection of elementsNutrient arteryVeinLymphaticsNerve fibersRed marrow elementsOsteoblasts, osteoclastsWhen does it appear?The 3rd month of developmentWhat are the osteoclasts and osteoblasts doing at this stage?Clasts eroding calcified matrixBlasts secreting osteoid around remaining cartilageWhat is this forming?Trabeculae (earliest version of spongy bone)

181Endochondral Ossification (cont)Step 4:What forms in stage 4?Medullary cavity182Joints183Classification of jointsWhat are the 2 ways to classify joints?FunctionalStructuralFunctional:SynarthrosesImmovable (skull)AmphiarthrosesSlightly movable (intervertebral, pubic symph)DiarthrosesFreely movable (limbs, joints of limbs)Structural:FibrousBones joined by fibrous tissue no joint cavityMost immovable or slightly movable

184Fibrous joints (cont)3 types of fibrous joints:Sutures:Rigid splices of interlocking bone Wheres the only place they occur?SkullSyndesmoses:Joints where bones connect by cord or sheet of fibrous tissue called a ligament Gomphoses:Resembles peg or socket (teeth)185Cartilaginous JointsBones connected by cartilage with no joint cavity2 types:Synchondroses-Plate of hyaline cartilage connects the bonesEpiphyseal plates of long bones, joint of 1st rib and manubriumSymphyses-Bones covered with articular hyaline cartilage fused to fibrocartilage plate.All amphiarthritic (intervertebral, pubic symphysis)

186Synovial JointsArticulating bones separated by fluid filled jointAll have:Hyaline both bony surfacesJoint cavity2 layer joint capsule with outer fibrous layerSynovial membrane lining fibrous capsuleAll internal joint surfaces not covered with cartilageSynovial fluid fills joint capsuleMay have:Wedges of fibro separatingSacs lined with synovial membrane

1876 types of synovialPlaneFlat articular surfaceHingeSimilar to door hinge188Pivot joints

Rotation of bone on axisUlnaatlantoaxial189Condyloid jointsOval surface of one fits into concave of other

190Saddle joints

Each bone has concave and convex surfaceCarpometacarpal of thumb191Ball and SocketRound head of one fits into concave of other Humerusfemur

192Joint InjuriesSprainOverstretched, torn ligamentsCartilageTorn or overused. Does not heal. Must removeDislocationBones forced out of positionBursitisInflamed bursae, tendon sheath. Overuse, stress, bacterial, frictionArthritisDiseases that damage joints. Wear, bacteria, immune193