Clinical Aspects of Pleural Disease
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Clinical Aspects of Pleural Disease
Dr William AndersonSpecialist Registrar
Respiratory Medicine
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Outline
• Pleural effusion
• Chest drainage
• Asbestos-related pleural disease
• Pneumothorax
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Pleural AnatomyPleura:Serous membrane covering the LungDouble layer:
Inner visceral - covers lung itselfOuter parietal -covers inner surface of thoracic wall
Pleural cavity4 ml of serous fluid
Function: • Lubricates the 2 pleural surfaces• Allows layers of pleura to slide smoothly over each over during respiration• Surface tension allows lung surface to stay touching thoracic wall• Creates a seal between 2 pleural surfaces
The two layers combine around the root of the lung – so the root of lung has no pleural coverage, the layers combine to form the pulmonary ligament, which runs inferiorly and attaches the root of the lung to the diaphragm.
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Pleural Anatomy
• Parietal Pleura– senses PAIN, lines inner surface of thoracic wall– Nerve supply: Intercostal nerve, Phrenic nerve
• Visceral Pleura– sensitive to STRETCH, lines lung ext and dips into all
fissures– Nerve supply : contains vasomotor fibres and sensory
ending of Cranial Nerve X for respiratory reflexes
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PLEURAL EFFUSIONS
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Pleural Effusion
• Common presentation of numerous diseases• Abnormal collection of fluid in pleural space• Generally divided into Transudates and Exudates for diagnostic purposes
• Does not always require drainage (e.g. cardiac failure)
• Unilateral effusions are worrying in a smoker or a patient who has had significant asbestos exposure (mesothelioma)
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Diagnosing cause of effusion
• History and examination paramount• CXR (PA and Lateral)• Pleural aspirate (if not cardiac failure)• Is it a transudate or an exudate?• Other tests– CT chest, repeat cytology, pleural biopsy (or
thoracoscopy)– Bronchoscopy has no role for sole pleural effusion
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Analysing pleural fluid
• Appearance– Bloody
• (e.g. trauma, malignancy, infection, infarction)
– Straw-coloured • (e.g. cardiac failure, hypoalbuminaemia)
– Turbid/Milky • (e.g. empyema, chylothorax)
– Foul smelling • (Anaerobic empyema)
– Viscous • (e.g. mesothelioma)
– Food particles • (oesophageal rupture)
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Pleural Fluid Biochemistry
Transudates• Protein < 30 g/L
Exudates• Protein > 30 g/L
• Light’s Criteria– Pleural fluid protein: Serum
protein ratio > 0.5– Pleural fluid LDH: Serum LDH
level > 0.6– Pleural fluid LDH > two thirds
upper limit of normal serum LDH
Any of above = Exudate
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Analysing pleural fluid• Cytology– Malignant cells– Differential cell count
Cell Type Diagnoses
Neutrophils Parapneumonic, PE
Mononuclear cells Chronic effusions
Eosinophils Not very helpful
Mesothelial cells Mostly transudates, reduced in inflammatory processes (e.g. TB)
Lymphocytes TB (>80%), sarcoid, lymphoma, rheumatoid
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Transudate Causes
Common• Heart failure• Liver cirrhosis• Nephrotic syndrome• Atelectasis (ITU)
Not so common• Hypothyroidism• Constrictive pericarditis• Meig’s syndrome (ovarian
or pelvic malignancy)• Urinothorax
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Exudate causes
Common• Parapneumonic• Pulmonary emboli• Malignant effusions• Rheumatoid• Mesothelioma
Not so common• TB• Oesophageal rupture• Pancreatitis (fluid amylase)• SLE• Post cardiac injury / CABG• Radiotherapy• Uraemia• Chylothorax• Benign asbestos related
effusion• Drugs
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Analysing pleural fluid
• Microbiology– Gram stain and microscopy– Culture– AFB stain and culture– Put in blood culture bottles for higher yield
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Analysing pleural fluid
• pH of fluid– Normal 7.6– < 7.3 suggests pleural inflammation– < 7.2 requires drainage (parapneumonic /
empyema)– Do not check if frank pus!
• Glucose– LOW in infection, TB, rheumatoid, malignancy,
oesophageal rupture, Lupus
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Treatment of effusions
• Treat underlying cause e.g. heart failure with diuretics
• Thoracentesis (Chest drainage)• Pleurodesis (malignant effusions)– Talc– Surgical
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CHEST DRAINS
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General points
• Associated with significant morbidity, can cause death
• Use ultrasound guidance when available• Must be experienced operator• Should be managed on specialist ward• Never clamp a bubbling chest drain– Significant risk of tension pneumothorax
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Types of Drain
• Seldinger– Guide wire technique
• Large bore– Intercostal blunt dissection
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Seldinger (small bore)
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Large bore
Remember suture!
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Don’t forget underwater seal
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Indications for chest drain
• Tension pneumothorax (after initial needle decompression)
• Symptomatic pneumothorax• Complicated parapneumonic effusion and empyema• Malignant pleural effusion– Symptomatic relief– Pleurodesis
• Traumatic haemopneumothorax– Large drain
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Complications of chest drains
• Pain (most common)• Inadequate placement• Surgical emphysema• Infection• Haemorrhage• Organ damage• Re-expansion pulmonary oedema
– Large effusions that drain quickly• Vasovagal• Rarely sudden death
– Vagus nerve irritation
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Ultrasound
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ASBESTOS-RELATED PLEURAL DISEASE
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Spectrum of disease
• Benign pleural plaques• Benign pleural effusions• Diffuse pleural thickening• Rounded atelectasis (folded lung)• (Asbestosis – not pleural disease)• Mesothelioma• (Lung cancer – not specifically pleural)
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Asbestos
• Naturally occurring silicate fibres
• Serpentine or amphiboles• Some more carcinogenic• Exposure– Commercial– Domestic
• Long latency period– Up to 40 years
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Benign pleural plaques
• Common• Discrete areas of thickening on parietal pleura
that may calcify• Usually symmetrical• Asymptomatic• No evidence they are premalignant• No need to follow up
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Benign asbestos pleural effusions
• Early manifestation of pleural disease• Usually small and unilateral• Usually resolve spontaneously• Bloodstained exudate• Must exclude mesothelioma• Symptomatic treatment
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Diffuse pleural thickening
• Extensive fibrosis of visceral pleura with adhesion to parietal pleura
• SOB and chest pain common• Restrictive spirometry• Need to differentiate from mesothelioma• Difficult to treat• Compensation
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Mesothelioma
• Malignant tumour of pleura (or peritoneum) from asbestos
• Not dose related• Not associated with smoking• Chest pain / SOB / sweating• Chest wall invasion (thoracentesis
sites)• Generally poor prognosis – 12
months
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Mesothelioma
Investigations• Pleural fluid aspiration
– Low cytological yield– Avoid repeated aspiration
• CXR and CT– Moderate to large effusion– Pleural nodularity– Pleural mass or thickening– Local invasion– Lung entrapment
• Biopsy– Under CT/USS/Direct vision
Treatment• Pleurodese effusions• Radiotherapy
– Palliative– Prophylactic
• Surgery– Need to be very fit
• Chemotherapy– Trials mainly
• Palliative care• Report deaths to fiscal• Compensation
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PNEUMOTHORAX
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Pneumothorax – Air in pleural space
• 9 per 100,000 annually• More common in:– Tall thin men– Smokers– Cannabis– Underlying lung disease
• Primary– Normal lungs– Apical bullae rupture
• Secondary– Underlying lung disease
(e.g. COPD)
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Presentation
• SOB, hypoxia• Acute onset pleuritic chest pain• Signs– Tachycardia– Hyper-resonant percussion note– Reduced expansion– Quiet breath sounds on auscultation– Hamman’s sign (‘Click’ on auscultation left side)
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Investigations
• Chest X-ray usually sufficient– Small = <2cm rim of air– Large = >2cm rim of air– 2cm rim is approx = 50% pneumothorax by volume
• Arterial Blood gases– Hypoxia
• CT chest– Useful to differentiate bullous lung disease
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Management
• Oxygen• No treatment if asymptomatic and small• Aspiration– Avoids chest drain– Time consuming– May fail
• Formal chest drain• May need suction• Surgical intervention
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Surgical intervention
• Indications– Second ipsilateral ptx– First contralateral ptx– Bilateral spontaneous ptx– Persistent air leak (>5 days
of drainage)– Spontaneous haemothorax– Risk professions (pilots,
divers) after first ptx
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Follow-up
• CXR• Discuss flying and diving after pneumothorax• Risk of recurrence• Smoking cessation
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Tension Pneumothorax
• Emergency – can lead to cardiac arrest• One-way valve, progressively increasing pressure in
pleural space• Pushes other chest organs to opposite side to
affected side• Acute respiratory distress• Signs– Trachea deviated to opposite side– Hypotension– Raised JVP– Reduced air entry on affected side
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Treatment of Tension Ptx
• High flow oxygen• Needle decompression– Usually with large bore venflon– Second intercostal space anteriorly, mid-clavicular
line– Hisssssssssssss........
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