Climate change and socio-ecological transformation

513

Transcript of Climate change and socio-ecological transformation

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Climate Change and Socio-Ecological Transformation

Editor-in-ChiefVishwambhar Prasad Sati

EditorsG. Kumar

P. RinawmaRintluanga Pachuau

Ch. Udaya Bhaskara RaoK.C. LalmalsawmzauvaBenjamin L. SaitluangaNaorem Bobby Singh

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Preface

Concern about climate change in the 21st century is believed to havenecessitated and intensive study responses in terms of resilience andadaptability of mankind to his ecological settings. In spite of the fact thatawareness about climate change and associated impacts on ecological nichesof the biotic world has been steadily growing for some times amongst thescientific and the global community, policy attention and accordant strategieson the parts of governments are found not to have addressed the issue withcompatible seriousness. The more recent rise in scientific attention totransformations in ‘life support systems of the various ecosystems’ vis-à-vis climate change has put enormous challenges to management andconservation of resources as well as to multilateral global socio-economicrelations particularly in the light of attempts at maximization of humanwelfare at national and sub-national levels. World conservation strategiesas well Agenda 21 at the Rio Conference in 1992 identified three objectivesin the interest of the wellbeing of mankind: (1) maintenance of basic lifesupport systems (food production, health and other aspects of humansurvival) derived from essential ecological processes ‘governed, supportedor strongly moderated by ever evolving ecosystems, (2) preservation ofgenetic diversity to protect agrarian production system and secure investmentfor the future, and (3) to ensure ‘sustainable development of species andecosystems’ – all susceptible to smallest variations in, may be the causes ofvagaries in climatic conditions. Addressing the issue (s) essentially appearsto be a long term policy problem. It must be realized that though riddledwith uncertainties resilience and ‘governance of adaptation to climate changerelies on knowledge about long term policy problem’. This necessarily implies‘multiple policy cycles’ taking into account the effects of the impacts ofclimate change as well as the effects of the adaptation measures in vogue.As a common responsibility, it calls for positive intervention by thegovernments and active participation not only of civil society and businesscommunity but also of the common man – the biggest stakeholder in anysystem of governance and policy formulation. It is also felt that the growingbody of scientific knowledge does not by itself bring about ‘consistency insocietal attention, political commitment and state intervention’. Scholarsaddressing the issue since early 1970s have found it to be a ‘wicked problempar excellence’ because vested interests have been leading to differentproblems formulations and strategies to tackle them. Paradox of approachesappears to have been instigating profound and conflicting transformations

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both socially and environmentally. However, our information of suchtransformations is limited. Still much less is our knowledge about how positivetransformations may be achieved in an equitable and sustainable manner.

The book therefore, is aimed at reviewing the existing knowledgeorganization, analysis of the obtained economic conditions as well as socio-political power structure at different scalar levels. It is also expected toobjectively devise methods for consensual policy and strategy formulationsin the larger interest of the people at various spatial levels with particularemphasis on India and its North-Eastern states.

This topic ‘Climate Change and Socio-Ecological Transformation’is a very burning and comprehensive as the term ‘climate change’ hasbecome very popular worldwide. Climate change theories and anthropogenicglobal warming have manifested a thoughtful discussion among theintellectual community that whether climate change is a reality or myth.The main objective of composing this book is to discuss the phenomenon ofclimate change and its implications on the biotic and aboitic means.

This book is classified into various sub-themes such as climatechange theory, anthropogenic global warming, social transformation includespopulation, migration, education and occupation; ecological transformation– changes in land-use pattern, changes in cropping pattern, changes indistribution pattern of floral and faunal species; major water sources andavailability of water; climate variability and climate resilience and adaptation.The book contains 37 chapters. The major contributions in this book areclassified into four major subsections – climate change: resilience andadaptation (9 chapters), climate change and social transformation (7chapters), climate change and ecological transformation (11 chapters) andother multidisciplinary chapters (10).

Section I

Climate Change: Resilience and Adaptation

Climate change phenomenon has become a prominent issue among all thestakeholders – climate scientists, governments, academicians and the generalpublic. Climate scientists have been divided into two schools in terms ofwhether climate change is reality or myth. Whatever, the concepts aredeveloped on climate change, one thing is confirmed that the world climateis changing rapidly and it has several adverse repercussions already observed,as many researches on climate change have revealed it. The Chapters onclimate change, included in this section, support to climate change theoriesmainly to the phenomenon of global warming.

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Resilience and adaptation to climate change through governmentalsupport and community participation is another issue that has been adaptedby the stakeholders those are involved in the developing activities. At themeantime, the marginal communities are unable to adapt and therefore,they are facing the menace of climate change and coping with food insecurity.There are the geographical locations, which are much vulnerable to climatechange. These locations include fragile mountains and coastal regions.

This section includes the chapters that have climate changeresilience and adaptation as the main theme. It contents total nine chaptersthat include, People’s Perception on Climate Change: A Case Study amongthe Rabha Tribe Living in Fringe Forest Areas of North Bengal, India bySuman Chakrabarty; Global Warming, Climate Change and EnvironmentalIssue for Sustainable Development by B.L. Teli; Current State of ClimateChange Law with special reference to India by Yumnan Premananda Singh;Climatic vulnerability and Adaptation techniques in Western Rajasthan byAbhilasha Jain and Bhavna Sharma; Energy Resource Development in theSundarban Region of West Bengal: Perspective of Climate Hazards andVulnerability by Anwesha Haldar; Impact of Climatic Policy Adopted inIndia on Manufacturing Exports by Dipankar Roy; Contemporary ClimateChange: A Brief Review of the Science in the Context of the CurrentWorld Economy and Polity by L. N. Satpati; Distribution and Properties ofRainfall Occurrences in Drought Prone Areas of Jalgaon District(Maharashtra) by Suryawanshi D.S., Patil N.A. and Suryawanshi A. L.and Climate Change and Community Based Forest Management by C.Hmingsangzuala and P. Rinawma.

Section II

Climate Change and Social Transformation

Social transformation denotes the radical changes in social aspects: migration,economy and culture and it has been influenced largely by the climatechange phenomenon. The areas, vulnerable to climate change experiencedhuge out-migration. The economic conditions of these regions have beendeteriorated along with severe decline in income and employment. Migrationfrom these areas led to sever impediments both in sending and receivingareas. Changes in occupational structure, food habits, living standard andlife style are the major social changes can be seen everywhere and in allwalks of life. Though, there are many other drivers influencing socialtransformation such as education and modernization yet, climate is in thecentre of these changes in both rural and urban areas.

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Section II includes the paper devoted to social changes and thereconsequences and it contents seven chapters. They include Rainfall,Agriculture and Socio-economic Transformation: A Study from KalchiniBlock of Alipurduar District in North Bengal, India by Mahua Senguptaand Suman Chakrabarty; Occupational Structure of Scheduled TribePopulation in Indian Himalayan Region by B. R. Pant; Traditional EcologicalKnowledge for Ecotourism Initiative of Forest Community: A case in NameriNational Park of Assam, India by Niranjan Das; Growth and Characteristicsof Population of Urban Centres of Sikkim by Rashmi Prakash; Condition ofUrban Slums: a Case Study of Rajendra Nagar in Indore City by RekhaVerma; Influences of Changing Human Societies and the Climate Change:A Ground Reflection from Sikkim by Dawa Sherpa and Suman Ghimerayand Mainstreaming Adaptation in India – The Mahatma Gandhi NationalRural Employment Guarantee Act and Climate change by Prakash ChandMeena.

Section III

Climate Change and Ecological Transformation

Climate change has severe repercussions on ecology in the forms of changingdistribution pattern, degeneration and extinction of floral and faunalresources. This section includes 11 chapters viz. Impact of AgroclimaticFactors on Plant Secondary Metabolites and their Accumulation in MedicinalPlants: A Commercial Approach by Awadhesh Kumar; Vulnerability ofRiver Gradient, Longitudinal Profile and Embankments Role in Extent andMagnitude of Flood: A Case Study of Lower Brahmaputra River Basin,Assam, India by B. W. Pandey and Abhay Shankar Prasad; Assessing theImpact of Mizoram’s New Land Use Policy on Biodiversity Conservationand Livelihoods Security by Vanlalchhawna; A Study of Yak Population ofArunachal Pradesh with Special Reference to Agro-Climatic Changes byN. Kar and Pema Thungon; Impact of Flood on Settlement Displacementand Agricultural Productivity in Lower Dikrong Basin of Assam by GajenBhuyan; Climate Change and Indian Horticulture: Opportunities forAdaptation and Mitigation Strategies by T. K. Hazarika; Climate Changeand Land Use by Prabhat Kumar Rai, S. Priyokumar Singh and M. MuniSingh; Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Biodiversity by PrabhatKumar Rai, S. Priyokumar Singh and M. Muni Singh; Climate Change:Cause and Impact to the Water Borne Disease and Health by PrabhatKumar Rai, S. Priyokumar Singh and M. Muni Singh, Temporal and SpatialDistribution of As, Fe, and Mn in the Groundwater Aquifer at Silchar Town,South Assam and their Variation with Depth and pH by Tushar Deb Kanungo

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and Abhik Gupta and Impact of Climate Change on Cropping Pattern: aCase Study of Tualcheng Village, Champhai District, Mizoram by LalrinpuiaVangchhia and Vishwambhar Prasad Sati

Section IV

Multidisciplinary Chapters

The last section presents 10 chapters. The chapter in this section are relatedto various aspects of environment, resources and society and includeCommunity Based Water Projects, Withering Justice and EnvironmentProtection: a Case Study from Kerala by Lekha D Bhat; Corporate SocialResponsibility and Sustainability: A Case Study of Naugura Watershed inGarhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India by S. K. Bandooni, Arun KumarTripati and L.Mirana Devi; Energy Needs and Environment Mitigation:Nuclear Energy for India by Pankaj Roy; Current Trends of TropicalCyclone Energy: The North Indian Ocean (NIO) Perspective by PradipPatra; Identification of Potential Sites for Water Recharge and Conservationin Lower Tlawng Sub-watershed, Aizawl District using Geo-informatics byCh. Udaya Bhaskara Rao; Watershed Management and SustainableDevelopment in Upper Tuivai by L.Lhingneilam and Kh. ParadipkumarSingh; Effect of Physico-Chemical Parameters of Water on Abundance ofTrematode Parasites of Channa Punctata in Pumlen Lake, Manipur, Indiaby Romen Singh Ngasepam, Maibam Shomorendra and Devashish Kar;Identification of Urban Hot Spots in Relation to Built-Up Surface and Natureof Buildings in the Kolkata Municipal Corporation (KMC) Area by SujoySadhu; The Use of Remote Sensing and GIS for Managing Forest Plantation,Watershed Conservation in Pasolgad Watershed in Pauri Garhwal,Uttarakhand by L. Mirana Devi, S. K. Bandooni, and Abhay Shankar Prasadand Empowering Mountain Women through Livelihood Promotion andNatural Resource Management by Mohan Singh Panwar.

This book is an outcome of the national seminar, held on 5th and 6th

November, 2015, organized by the Department of Geography and ResourceManagement, Mizoram University, Aizawl. Many funding agencies,organizations and individuals have supported this work. The editorsacknowledge their gratitude to all the agencies, organizations and authors.Notably, ICSSR, ICMR, MZU, NATMO, INSA, GAM and ICAR are highlyacknowledged.

Editors

Place: MZU, Aizawl

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Contents

Preface

Section 1: Climate Change Adaptation and Resilience

Chapter 1People’s Perception on Climate Change: A CaseStudy among the Rabha Tribe Living in FringeForest Areas of North Bengal, India

Suman Chakrabarty 1-11

Chapter 2Global Warming, Climate Change and EnvironmentalIssue for Sustainable Development

B.L. Teli 13-34

Chapter 3Current State of Climate Change Law with specialreference to India

Yumnan Premananda Singh 35-60

Chapter 4Climatic vulnerability & Adaptation techniquesin Western Rajasthan

Abhilasha Jain and Bhavna Sharma 61-70

Chapter 5Energy Resource Development in the SundarbanRegion of Wes Bengal: Perspective of ClimateHazards and Vulnerability

Anwesha Haldar 71-83

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Chapter 6Impact of Climatic Policy Adopted in India onManufacturing Exports

Dipankar Roy 85-99

Chapter 7Contemporary Climate Change: A Brief Review ofthe Science in the Context of the Current WorldEconomy and Polity

L. N. Satpati 101-105

Chapter 8Distribution & Properties of Rainfall Occurrencesin Drought – Prone Areas of Jalgaon District(Maharashtra)

Suryawanshi D.S., Patil N.A. and Suryawanshi A. L. 107-120

Chapter 9Climate Change and Community Based ForestManagement

C. Hmingsangzuala and P. Rinawma 121-132

Section 2: Climate Change and Social Transformation

Chapter 10Rainfall, Agriculture and Socio-economicTransformation: A Study from Kalchini Block ofAlipurduar District in North Bengal, India

Mahua Sengupta and Suman Chakrabarty 133-147

Chapter 11Occupational Structure of Scheduled TribePopulation in Indian Himalayan Region

B. R. Pant 149-170

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Chapter 12Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) forEcotourism Initiative of Forest Community–A case in Nameri National Park of Assam: India

Niranjan Das 171-183

Chapter 13Growth and Characteristics of Population ofUrban Centres of Sikkim

Rashmi Prakash 185-200

Chapter 14Condition of Urban Slums: a Case Study of Rajendranagar in Indore city

Rekha Verma 201-207

Chapter 15Influences of Changing Human Societies and theClimate Change: A Ground Reflection from Sikkim

Dawa Sherpa and Suman Ghimeray 209-226

Chapter 16Mainstreaming adaptation in India – The MahatmaGandhi National Rural Employment GuaranteeAct and Climate change

Prakash Chand Meena 227-232

Section 3: Climate Change and EcologicalTransformation

Chapter 17Impact of Agroclimatic factors on Plant SecondaryMetabolites and their Accumulation in MedicinalPlants - A commercial approach

Awadhesh Kumar 233-252

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Chapter 18Vulnerability of River Gradient, LongitudinalProfile and Embankments Role in Extent andMagnitude of Flood: A Case Study of LowerBrahmaputra River Basin, Assam, India

B. W. Pandey and Abhay Shankar Prasad 253-263

Chapter 19Assessing the Impact of Mizoram’s New LandUse Policy on Biodiversity Conservation andLivelihoods Security

Vanlalchhawna 265-277

Chapter 20A Study of Yak Population of Arunachal Pradeshwith Special Reference to Agro-Climatic Changes

N. Kar and Pema Thungon 279-292

Chapter 21Impact of Flood on Settlement Displacementand Agricultural Productivity in Lower DikrongBasin of Assam

Gajen Bhuyan 293-311

Chapter 22Climate Change and Indian Horticulture:Opportunities for Adaptation and MitigationStrategies

T. K. Hazarika 313-325

Chapter 23Climate Change and Land Use

Prabhat Kumar Rai S. Priyokumar Singh andM. Muni Singh 327-334

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Chapter 24Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Biodiversity

Prabhat Kumar Rai, S. Priyokumar Singh andM. Muni Singh 335-346

Chapter 25Climate Change: Cause and Impact to the WaterBorne Disease and Health

Prabhat Kumar Rai, S. Priyokumar Singh andM. Muni Singh 347-353

Chapter 26Temporal and spatial distribution of As, Fe, andMn in the groundwater aquifer at Silchar Town,South Assam and their variation with depth and pH

Tushar Deb Kanungo and Abhik Gupta 355-364

Chapter 27Impact of Climate Change on Cropping Pattern:a Case Study of Tualcheng Village, ChamphaiDistrict, Mizoram

Lalrinpuia Vangchhia and Vishwambhar Prasad Sati 365-371

Section 4: Multidisciplinary Chapters

Chapter 28Community Based Water Projects, WitheringJustice and Environment Protection: a CaseStudy from Kerala

Lekha D Bhat 373-379

Chapter 29Corporate Social Responsibility and Sustainability:A Case Study of Naugura Watershed in GarhwalHimalaya, Uttarakhand, India

S. K. Bandooni, Arun Kumar Tripati andL.Mirana Devi 381-400

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Chapter 30Energy Needs and Environment Mitigation:Nuclear Energy for India

Pankaj Roy 401-406

Chapter 31Current Trends of Tropical Cyclone Energy:The North Indian Ocean (NIO) Perspective

Pradip Patra 407-419

Chapter 32Identification of Potential Sites for Water Rechargeand Conservation in Lower Tlawng Sub-watershed,Aizawl District using Geo-informatics

Ch. Udaya Bhaskara Rao 421-426

Chapter 33Watershed Management and SustainableDevelopment in Upper Tuivai

L.Lhingneilam and Kh. Paradipkumar Singh 427-441

Chapter 34Effect of physico-chemical parameters of water onabundance of trematode parasites of Channapunctata (Bloch) in Pumlen Lake, Manipur, India

Romen Singh Ngasepam, Maibam Shomorendra andDevashish Kar 443-449

Chapter 35Identification of Urban Hot Spots in Relation toBuilt-Up Surface and Nature of Buildings in theKolkata Municipal Corporation (KMC) Area

Sujoy Sadhu 451-464

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Chapter 36The Use of Remote Sensing and GIS forManaging Forest Plantation and WatershedConservation in Pasolgad Watershed inPauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand

L. Mirana Devi, S. K. Bandooni, andAbhay Shankar Prasad 465-474

Chapter 37Empowering Mountain Women through LivelihoodPromotion and Natural Resource Management

Mohan Singh Panwar 475-495

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CHAPTER - 1

People’s Perception on Climate Change: ACase Study among the Rabha Tribe Living inFringe Forest Areas of North Bengal, IndiaSuman Chakrabarty*

Introduction

In the 21st Century, climate change is considered as one of the most seriousand critical issues world-wide, which has multidimensional understanding(Mendelsohn et al., 2006). However, humans are experienced in thisphenomenon of climate change from its origin in this earth and theysuccessfully adapted and survived in course of evolution over the last millionof years (Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, 2013). Inmicro level environment, the impact of climate change is not equal in everygeographical location. It has, therefore, some association with specificenvironmental, economic, political and cultural characteristics (Williamsonet al., 2007) The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC) defines climate change as: “a change of climate which isattributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the compositionof the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variabilityobserved over comparable time periods” (UNFCCC, 1992). In recent yearsthe rate of climate change is alarming, and poor people in the developingworld are the most affected one who has small landholding and livelihoodbased on natural resources for their survival (Mbilinyi et al., 2013; FAO,2013).

Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation (2015) : 1-11 Sati,V. P. et al. (Ed),Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002

ISBN: 81-8019-518-3 (India) ISBN: 1-55528-374-8 (USA)

*Assistant Professor, Department of Anthropology, Mrinalini Datta Mahavidyapith, Birati,Kolkata – 700 051, West Bengal, India, Email: [email protected]

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The State Level Climate Change Trends in India (Rathore et al., 2013)reported that the nation is getting warmer and decreasing rainfall duringrainy seasons for the last six decades. However, there is a strong spatialand temporal variation. The West Bengal Action Plan on Climate Change(2010) also addressed these critical issues district-wise. Conversely, microlevel understanding of climate change may have added importance to combatthe nation-wise problem of impact of climate change. Surprisingly, both ofthe abovementioned reports had minimally addressed the importance forbridging the gap between scientific and traditional perception of local peopleand their adaptive strategies and also hindrances, which may have the mostimportant understanding in policies formulation and to tackle the aforesaidproblem (FAO, 2009). Presently, national level approach of climate changeis gaining the momentum and addressing the issues of local and traditionalknowledge (IEP, 2015)

In these contexts and as per Anthropological, Sociological andGeographical literatures, the local people perception on climate change andthe traditional ecological knowledge or local ecological knowledge haveimmense importance (Ishaya and Abaje, 2008; Egeru, 2012). The localpeople gather this cumulative body of knowledge through long-termobservation, interaction with the environment and successful transfer oforal traditions from generation after generation. Currently, it has no doubtregarding the importance of climatic perceptions of local people and adaptivemeasures by using the local knowledge which may have added importancefor the decision and policy makers (Ogalleh et al, 2012).

The ruler of this local and traditional knowledge is indigenous people.They often inhabit economically and politically marginal areas in diverse,but fragile ecosystems. In addition, they interpret and react to climate changeimpacts in creative ways, drawing on traditional knowledge as well as newtechnologies to find solutions, which may help society at large to cope withthe impending changes (Jan and Anja, 2007). In India, the indigenous peopleknown as “tribes”, presently they are the most “disadvantaged groups”,which constitute 8.60 percent of total population of India (Census of India,2011). There are number of studies have been done on indigenous peopleperception on climate change world-wide specifically African communities(USAID, 2008; Egeru, 2012) but studies among Indian tribes have rarelybeen done (Jan and Anja, 2007). Therefore, the present study aims toinvestigate the perception of climate change, adaptive strategies andassociate hindrances among the Rabha tribe living in fringe forest areas ofNorth Bengal.

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Materials and Methods

People and the Study Area

For the present study, the Rabha tribe was selected. They perhapsconsidered to be the most backward tribal group in North Bengal. Themajorities of the Rabha villages are mainly concentrated in forest and itsfringe areas. They belong to the Indo-Mongoloid group of people and mainlyconcentrated the state of Assam, Meghalaya, West Bengal and even fewareas of Bangladesh. In North Bengal, the Rabhas are the inhabitants ofDooars region between the river Teesta and Sarnakosh (Sankosh),specifically in the Jalpaiguri and Cooch Behar districts. They have theirown dialect but now a days, their culture has been influenced by Christianityto a great extend (Mandal and Ray, 2013). In Jalpaiguri district 70% Rabhasinhabited in Kalchini Block of Alipurduar sub-division (Sarkar, 2011). In2014, Kalchini Block entered into newly formed Alipurduar district (Districtwebsite accessed on July, 2015). The total Rabha population is around15,000 (Census of India, 2001). Two mono-ethnic villages were selectedfor the present study namely Uttar Mendabari and Dakshin Mendabariand located in Chilapata range of Jaldapara wildlife division. The geographicallocation of the studied villages is 26° 37' 13.0908'’ N, 89° 24' 13.9932'’ E(Google Map accessed on July, 2015).

Data Collection

A total of 200 individuals (104 males and 98 females aged between 30-65years) were used for the analysis. The data was collected by using randomsampling. A pre-tested and semi-structured questionnaire was used to getpeople perception on climate change including its different parameters likeheat, cold, rain etc., adaptive strategies and hindrances related to adaptivestrategies in individual levels. Four focused group discussion were performedto gather information regarding community perception and their involvementrelated to climate change measures in community or village level and finallyfive key informants (primarily engaged in cultivation) were interviewed tocollect data of climate change and its mitigating measures in their agriculturefield and major problem faced by them over the last 10 years. The studyintegrated both qualitative and quantitative methods to build on theircomplementarities for cross-checking information received from therespondents.

Data Analysis

Systematic coding was done to analyse the data on perceptions of climatechange and its variability as well as adaptive measures by using SPSS

People’s Perception on Climate Change

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software.

Results and Discussion

It is well documented that sample selection in people’s perception on climatechange study is vital for getting appropriate information over the years.Therefore, a total of 200 individuals (104 males and 96 females) aged 30 to65 years were considered for the present analysis. The mean age of thesample was 43.2±9.4 years. All the sampled individuals have been living inthe studied villages for at least last 20 years.Table 1: Age group and Sex –wise distribution of Sample size

Age group Male Female Total

(Years) no. % no. % no. %

30- 44 78 39.0 56 28.0 134 67.0

45-65 26 13.0 40 20.0 66 33.0

Total 104 52.0 96 48.0 200 100.0

Source: Mean age (years) 43.4±9.1 43.0±9.7 43.2±9.4

Figure 1 demonstrates the people’s perception of climate changeand it was observed that 66.0 % of the individuals were aware that theenvironment is changing over time. However the percentage of awarenessmay be varied from population to population (Amir and Ahmed, 2013). Theperception of the climate change among the Indian tribes may comparativelylow than other neighbouring population due to their high illiteracy and smallexposure to mass communication. The present studied Rabha tribal peoplewere reported lower awareness level compared to other adjacent grouplike Mech, Boro tribes in the studied areas.

Figure 1: Concept about climate change of the people

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Though the Rabha people have lower awareness level about theperception of climate change but they have perceived quite well regardingthe adverse impact of heat, cold and rainfall over the last five to ten yearsago. It was found that 72.0% respondents (37.5% males and 34.5 %females) agreed that the heat during summer was increased in comparisonto the last five to ten years. In contrary, 83.0% of the people (43.0% malesand 37.0% females) perceived that the present bitterness of cold duringwinter was decreased in comparison to the last five to ten years. However,majority of the individuals perceived that the present intensity of rainfallduring rainy session was decreased in comparison to the last five to tenyears (97.0%).Table 2: Perceptions of heat, cold and rainfall changes compared to five to ten years ago (n= 200, male = 104, female = 96)

Climatic perceptions Sex Total

Male female

n % N % n %

Have you perceived that heat No 28 14.0 23 11.5 51 25.5duringsummer is increased in Yes 75 37.5 69 34.5 144 72.0comparison to the last five to Don’t know 01 0.5 04 2.0 05 2.5ten years? Total 104 52.0 96 48.0 200 100.0

Have you perceived that the No 92 46.0 74 37.0 166 83.0present bitterness of cold during Yes 11 5.5 17 8.5 28 14.0winter is increased in comparison Don’t know 01 0.5 05 2.5 06 3.0to the last five to ten years? Total 104 52.0 96 48.0 200 100.0

Have you perceived that the No 01 0.5 03 1.5 04 2.0present intensity of rainfall during Yes 103 51.5 91 45.5 194 97.0rainy session is decreased in Don’t know 00 0.0 02 1.0 02 1.0comparison to the last five Total 104 52.0 96 48.0 200 100.0to ten years?

The perception about shifting of seasons is a relevant indicator ofclimatic change. In the present study, the perceived view of shift of climaticseasons was taken into consideration (Figure 2) and it was observed that85.5 % of the individuals perceived that climatic seasons have been shiftedfrom last five to ten years. A similar study has been done among the peopleof the Kalapara Upazila of Patuakhali district in Bangladesh, where 66%reported positive response of shifting climate change (Amir and Ahmed,2013).

People’s Perception on Climate Change

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6 Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation

Figure 2: Perception about shifting of climatic season

Table 3 demonstrates the People’s perception regarding the threatof climate change on livelihood option and where 41.5% of the individualsreplied that the major impact was noted on food supply followed by fuelwood availability (37.0%) and health condition (12.5%). Similar findingshave been reported among the indigenous people located in Jema’s localgovernment areas of Kaduna state of Nigeria (Ishaya and Abaje, 2008).Table 3: People’s perception regarding the threat of climate change more on

Parameter no %

Health 25 12.5

Food supply 83 41.5

Fuel wood availability 74 37.0

Businesses 4 2.0

Instigating disaster 4 2.0

Biodiversity quality and sustainability 10 5.0

Total 200 100.0

The degree of uncertainty in food insecurity is mainly depended onless agriculture production and inadequate natural resources among theforest fringe group like the studied Rabha tribe in north Bengal. Similarly, itis well known fact that adverse impacts of climate change have been foundin agricultural production as well as in natural resources. In the presentstudy, 97.5% of males and females perceived that the yearly rains were notsupporting crop production as before (Table 4). However, comparatively

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lower percentage of people (77.0%) perceived that climate change haslead to crop infestation and diseases, interestingly 22.5% of the people didnot respond. It may be due to their ignorance or lower knowledge regardingagricultural activities in the studied areas. Besides, 75.0 % of the peopledid not response regarding the perception of increasing costs of food cropsdue to climate change. This may because of their poverty and/or lessdependency on market economy for their survival.

Table 4: Perceptions of impact of climate change on food production

Climatic perceptions N %

Have you perceived that the yearly rains are No 01 0.5not supporting crop production as before? Yes 195 97.5

Don’t know 04 2.5Total 200 100.0

Do you perceive that climate change has lead No 01 0.5to crop infestation and diseases? Yes 154 77.0

Don’t know 45 22.5Total 200 100.0

Do you perceive that the costs of food crops No 01 0.5are increasing because of climate change? Yes 59 24.5

Don’t know 150 75.0Total 200 100.0

As the studied Rabha tribes are living in the forest and forest fringeareas of north Bengal, it is important to know the perception of their livelihoodin the light of climate change. Table 5 shows that perceptions of impact ofclimate change on forest livelihood resources and where 22.0% of thepeople perceived that the environment suffers from excessive de-vegetationdue to climate change in compared to 26.5%, who are not agreed thatpoint. It may due to the fact that majorities of the studied people engaged inwood cutting and selling it in the nearby market for their subsistence and,therefore, they disagreed in order to protect their regular earning sources.As a result, they perceived the fuel wood scarcity in the neighbouring forest(About 97%). Apart from that they perceived (99.5%) the elephant attackwas increased over the last 10 years and it is mainly due to cumulativeeffects of human induced de-vegetation, climate change and other relatedfactors. These associated factors have lead to decline of forest resourcesfor elephant feeding and forced them to come in the food resources in thestudied villages. Finally, 38% people perceived that village youth have beenmigrating due to low and uncertain production and searching for stable

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earning at different places outside the villages.

Table 5: Perceptions of impact of climate change on other forest livelihood factors

Climatic perceptions N %

Do you feel that the Environment suffers No 53 26.5from excessive de-vegetation due to Yes 44 22.0climate change? Don’t know 103 51.5

Total 200 100.0

Do you perceive that there is now fuel wood No 01 0.5scarcity in your neighbouring forest? Yes 198 99.0

Don’t know 01 0.5Total 200 100.0

Do you perceive that climate change has lead No 00 0.0to the decline of forest resources? Yes 199 99.5

Don’t know 01 0.5Total 200 100.0

Whether people are migrating due to low No 00 0.0production? Yes 76 38.0

Don’t know 124 62.0Total 200 100.0

Do you feel that elephant attack is increasing No 04 2.0compared to last 10 years? Yes 196 98.0

Don’t know 00 0.0Total 200 100.0

In order to overcome the adverse effect of climate change, thestudied Rabha people have taken multiple measures or adaptive strategiesto mitigate the problem of climate change and faced several hindrances. Itwas observed that 58.5% of the people have taken at least one adaptivemeasure from last 5 years, whereas most of the people tried to get thepaddy as an earliest i.e. Shortening growing season followed by PlantingDifferent Hybrid Varieties of crops (24.8%). However, very less numberof people used chemical fertilizer in their field (8.6%). In contrast, 96.6faced challenges to take adaptive measurers because of lack of irrigation(23.0%), elephant invents (59.3%) and also their habitation constraints asforest village (8.6%) (Tables 6 & 7).

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Table 6: Adaptive strategies related to climate change

Adaptive strategies N %

Do you take any adaptive No 83 41.5measures for climate change? Yes 117 58.5

Total 200 100.0

Adapted strategies Planting Different 29 24.8Hybrid Varieties of cropsShortening growing season 78 66.6The use of chemical fertilizer 10 8.6Total 117 100.0

Table 7: Hindering factors related to climate change

Adaptive strategies N %

Have you faced any challenges No 04 3.4to take adaptive measures? Yes 113 96.6

Total 200 100.0

Adaptive strategies taken Lack of irrigation 26 23.0Elephant attack 67 59.3Due to forest village 20 8.6Total 113 100.0

All the aforesaid discussion was equally supported by the membersof four Focus group discussion and five key informants related to theirperception of climate change in present time.

Conclusions

Therefore, on the basis of the above discussion, it may be concluded thatthe forest living Rabha tribe of North Bengal perceived little that the climateis changing, but they feel changing nature of the different parameters likeincreased heat, decreased cold and decreased rain during rainy seasonsover the years. They used to take different adaptive strategies by usingtheir local knowledge but failed to overcome it due to several hindrancesrelated to their habitat constraints. Eventually, in depth study is required tounderstand this complex nature of climate change at micro level and itsimpact. The probable solution should be made by the help of their indigenousknowledge intertwine with modern technological understanding.

Acknowledgement

My special thanks goes to the study participants and also UGC for giving

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me grants under UGC-Minor Research Project (PHW-266/13-14 dated18th March, 2014).

References:Amir, K.I. & Ahmed, T. (2013) Climate Change and Its Impact on Food Security in

Bangladesh: A Case Study on Kalapara, Patuakhali, Bangladesh. Journal of EarthScience and Climate Change, [Online] 4 (5): 155. Available from doi:10.4172/2157-7617.1000155 [Accessed on 15th July, 2015]

Census of India (2001) Census of India. Registrar General of India, Government of India,New Delhi.

Census of India (2011) Census of India 2011. Registrar General and Census Commissionerof India, Government of India, New Delhi.

Egeru,A. (2012) Role of indigenious knowledge in climate change adaptation: A case studyof the Teso sub region, Eastern Uganda. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge,11 (2), 217-224.

FAO (2009) FAO and Traditional Knowledge: the Linkages with Sustainability, FoodSecurity and Climate Change Impacts. FAO, Rome, Italy. Available from: http://www.fao.org/3/a-i0841e.pdf [Accessed on July 18, 2015]

FAO (2013) Climate Change and Agriculture in Jamaica Agricultural Sector SupportAnalysis. Rome, Italy. Available from: http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3417e.pdf [Accessedon July 14, 2015]

IEP (2015) India Environmental Portal, Knowledge for Change. Available from: http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/category/1937/thesaurus/climate-change/[Accessed on July 22, 2015]

Ishaya, S.& Abaje, I. B. (2008) Indigenous people’s perception on climate change andadaptation strategies in Jema’a local government area of Kaduna State, Nigeria.Journal of Geography and Regional Planning, 1(8), 138-143.

Jan, S., Anja, B. (2007) Indigenous Peoples and Climate Change. University of Oxford andMissouri Botanical Garden.

Mandal, B. & Roy, M. (2013) The Rabha and Their Social Movement (1925-1950): A CaseStudy of North Bengal. IOSR Journal of Humanities And Social Science (IOSR-JHSS), 10 (3), 5- 8.

Mbilinyi, A., Saibul, G. O., Kazi, V. (2013) Impact of climate change to small scale farmer:Vice of farmers in village communities in Tanzania. ESRF Discussion Paper No.47. Economic and Social Research Foundation, Ursino Estate.

Mendelsohn, R., Dinar, A., Williams, L. (2006). The distributional impact of climateChange on rich and poor countries. Environment and Development Economics, 11,159-178.

Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (2013) Statistics related to climatechange – India. Government of India, Central Statistical Office, Social StatisticsDivision, New Delhi.

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Ogalleh, S. A., Christian, R. V., Eitzinger, J. & Hauser M. (2012) Local Perceptions andResponses to Climate Change and Variability: The Case of Laikipia District, Kenya.Sustainability,[Online] 4, 3302-3325; Available from: doi:10.3390/su4123302,[Accessed on 15th July, 2015]

Rathore, L.S., Attri, S.D., Jaswal, A.K. (2013) State Level Climate Change Trends in India.Meteorological Monograph No. ESSO/IMD/EMRC/02/2013, India Metrologicaldepartment, Ministry of earth Sciences, New Delhi.

Sarkar, B. C. (2011) Geography of Tribal People in Jalpaiguri District of West Bengal.International Referred Research Journal, 2 (21).

UNFCCC, (1992) Report of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.United Nation. Available from: https://unfccc.int/files/essential_background/...htmlpdf/.../conveng.pdf. [Accessed on July 15, 2015]

USAID (2008) Impact of climate change in rural livelihood Madagascar and potential foradaptation. Quarterly Report. EPIQ II TAS Contract no. EPP-I-00-03-00013-00.International Resources Group, Washington DC, USA.

Williamson, T. B., Price, D. T., Beverly, J. L., Bothwell, P. M., Parkins, J. R., Patriquin, M.N., Pearce, C.V., Stedman, R.C., & Volney, W.J.A. (2007) “A framework forassessing vulnerability of forest-based communities to climate change” Informationreport nor-X-414. Northern Forestry Centre, Canadian Forest Service, Edmonton,Alberta.

West Bengal Action Plan on Climate Change (2010) Report on West Bengal Action Plan onClimate Change, Government of West Bengal, West Bengal.

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CHAPTER - 2

Global Warming, Climate Change andEnvironmental Issues for SustainableDevelopmentB.L. Teli*

Introduction

At the end of nineteenth century the world faced two main problems-industrial revolution and population explosion which resulted inoverexploitation of natural resources and growth of urbanization. It lead toindustrial smoke, deforestation, pollution of natural resources, soil erosion,greenhouse gases, ultimately global warming and climatic change. A partfrom these, the social repercussions and the underlying violence are otheraspects that need to be recognized and considered. The problem of- foodsecurity, habitat destruction, mal-nutrition, poverty, slums, soil, water andair pollution further to be solved harmoniously. A number of attempts havebeen made to overcome the above problems since 1972, StockholmConference

The Earth’s climate has always been, and still is, constantly changing.The causes of climate change mainly by natural and human being. Theseare volcanic eruptions, ocean current and Earth orbital changes, solarvariations, Agriculture, deforestation and greenhouse effect. Global warmingis neither temporarily nor spatially uniform, the main cause of the presentglobal warming trend is human expansion of the greenhouse effect. Globalwarming is the increase in the average temperature of earth’s near surface

*Professor, Dept. of Geography, H.N.B. Garhwal University, Campus Pauri, Uttarakhand,[email protected]

Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation (2015) : 13-34 Sati,V. P. et al. (Ed),Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002

ISBN: 81-8019-518-3 (India) ISBN: 1-55528-374-8 (USA)

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air and oceans which affects the life forms on the earth surface, of sincethe mid of 20th century and its projected continuation. According to the 4thassessment report by Inter governmental Panel on ClimateChange,2007,global surface temperature has increased o.74-+ 0.18*C duringthe 20th century while it increased 0.6*C during 1860-1950 only. So, it wasexpected to increase @0.005*C per year but it was 0.17 *C in1958.

It is observed that most of the temperature increased since themiddle of 20th century has been caused by increasing concentration ofgreenhouse gases which resulted from human activity such as the burningfossil fuel and deforestation. Global dimming are result of increasingconcentration of atmospheric aerosols that block sun light from reachingthe surface has partially countered the effects of warming induced bygreenhouse gases. Climate model projections summarized in latest IPCCreport indicate that the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further1.1 to6.4*C during the 21st Century. Warming of globe due to naturalfactors (CO2, CH4, N2O, water vapor present in the atmosphere, trap theout going terrestrial radiations and thus warm up the earth surface) is notan unusual phenomenon. The earth is kept warm due to this, what is knownas the ‘‘green house effect”, without it, the earth would be a frozenwasteland because the average temperature would have been 33*C lowerthan it is now. The GHG contribution in global warming is 15*C.

According to world Meteorological Organization (WMO) the year2003 has gone down in the history as the third warmest on record. A recordheat wave scorched Europe in august 2003, claiming an estimated 35000Lives. In France alone 14802 people died from the scorching temperature–more than 19 times the death toll from the SARS epidemic world wide.The warmest year ever was1998,and the second warmest was 2002.Therefore, to arrest the global warming process, Kyoto Protocol was ratifiedin 2005 by both developing and developed nations for its implementation. Inthis agreement, while there is no cap on the emission of GHG for developingnations, but the developed 40 nations have to cut drastically their emissionto bring down 6% than 1990 level during 2008-2012. If this protocol isscrupulously followed by the nations, the global warming will be halted tosave the mankind from miseries.

The almost apocalyptic list of global warming and climate changeincludes-

Accelerated glacial melt around snow covered areas which willeventually lead to a significant scarcity of water resources across theworld and India too.

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Increased water precipitation might mean that certain areas will beflooded and face drought in the same year and long term patterns.

Rising sea levels would mean disastrous consequences for coastal areas,inundating low lying habitation structures.

Extreme weather events like tornados and cyclones will occur withincreasing frequency and greater severity.

An increased spread of water-born diseases such as malaria, dengue,etc.

The climate change is a real problem and that it is here today. Indiais highly vulnerable to the impacts of a human- induced climate change inthe coming years. And in the event of such catastrophes occurring, thereis a strong belief in the Indian fraternity that we will be paying forsins committed by others. The industrialized countries are squarely,categorically, and exclusively responsible for climate change, ProdiptoGhosh, 2005. Developing countries are not and will not be significantcontributors to the problem for a long time. India is doing enough to combatthis problem. In terms of per capita emission of the green house gases thatmay cause climate change, India is less than one quarter of the globalaverage and is less than one-twentieth of the US per capita emission. Policiesthat encourages sifts in energy use from coal to natural gas, promotion ofrenewable energies and the adoption of more efficient technologies in theindustrial sector have been put in place to curtail growth in the rate ofgreen house gas emissions. Pachori states that awareness needs to pervadethrough all means down to the common man. However, we can help deferimpacts of climate change by not wasting electricity, using efficient electricaldevices and opting for public transport, thereby reducing the level ofunnecessary greenhouse gas emissions and proper use of natural resourcesby R3- recycle, reuse, reduce, don’t waste energy, reduce your carbonfootprints and use eco friendly products, prevent fire, save habitats and bio-diversity.

Progress Against Global Warming - It was really the Rio Summit in1992 and to some extent the earlier Stockholm conference in 1972, advocatedas new paradigm of Eco-development under the chairmanship of MauriceStrong, that highlighted the price that societies, locally and globally werepaying for the kind of economic growth and development being pursued,and brought the concern for environment in focus of the global agenda.The Ozone hole, acid rain, nuclear other toxic wastes, chemical and pesticideindustries, the fear of global warming, pollution of rivers and oceans,

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deforestation and the accompanying soil erosion, and the loss of bio-diversity,are just a few highlights of the development model sweeping across theglobe. However, last two decades has witnessed a number of global, national,regional and local conferences to ponder over the issue of environment andclimate change which have resulted in some important international protocolsin order to find out some decisive solutions. The mega earth Summit-1992&2002, Montreal protocol-1987, Kyoto protocol-1997, Copenhagen Accord-2009, Cancun conference -2010 etc., are a few glaring examples whichshows serious concern of the global community. Among these only KyotoProtocol on Ozone depletion was result oriented with legal internationalbinding. The West does not want to shoulder its responsibility as it wouldhamper its prosperity. Clean/green technology is costly and is monopoly ofdeveloped West which not willing to transfer/help to developing world.

Cancun conference- 2010 - could conclude that developed nations willreduce their GHG emission 25% to 40% by 2020. But USA agreed toreduce only 17% less of 2005 by 2020. Now, European countries arguingthat India, china, Brazil should also control 20% by 2020 and 30%by 2030.though, per capita emission in India is only 0.87 ton ,which is 4% of percapita emission in America ,8% of Germany, 9% of England and 10 % ofJapan. Per capita emission of an American is as high as more than anAfrican village. Though, India disagreed that, since, India is a developingcountry and industrial development is its requirement .hence, India disagreedto reduce its emission or slow down industrial and agricultural development.During 1995-2005 developed countries emission increased by 11%, whileindustrial emission increased 24% and transport emission 28%. Carbonemission of Australia alone increased 37 %and America 20% during theabove period’.

Lima Conference 2014- To overcome the problem of global warmingand control the emission of GHG, the 190 countries 9000 representativesassembled at the capital city of Peru in Lima from 01, December, 2014 to12 December, 2014 in U.N. conference to prepare a charter for ParisConference 2015, so that the treaty may be implemented from 2020 tocontrol the increase of 3.6* F temperature of the earth but they have alreadyemitted 29000ton Carbon-dioxide in air travel and hotel ling etc which isequivalent to six months emission of Kiribati island of Pacific Ocean. Whatthe real aim of such conferences is that bring the pollution at its minimumlevel and stop the global warming by reducing temperature growth rate at0.0 degree centigrade e.g. 5% below the level of 1990.

The environmental degradation will increase the problem of droughts,

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food and water Scarcity, decreasing the snow covered areas and shrinkingof glaciers, increasing sea level and flood events are likely to be severewhich will affect not only human being but economy too. IPCC memberand Professor of Prinston University, Mycal Openhimer is confident that itis very difficult to control the growth of temperature. Its effects are alreadyseen in the form of submerging Coral Reef System, decrease of ice sheets,change in cropping pattern will decrease crop yields, increase in salinity,scarcity of drinking water etc. It is the common repot of Thirteen FederalAgencies of America in 2014 which stated that the affects of climate changemay increase rates of food grains, insurance, and financial instability whichwill be harmful to the economy of America. With reference to this, thepresident Obama declared deduction of coal use in power production andtalked to the Chinese president Shi- Zinping, should also do the same becauseChina is the second largest producer/ emissier of GHG. The results werepositive and declared that by 2025 USA will reduce 28 % emission andChina will reduce by 2030 while India has already agreed over the issue.Actually, 1997 Kyoto Protocol does not bind the developing countries China,India to curtail their emission which may harm their economic growth. Theenvironmentalists feel that implications required to be forced by 2020 butthe best efforts will be started in China by 2030 and India by 2040 and by2025 America control the GHG emission or not but Europe is already agreedto deduct emission 40% by 2030 to follow the Quoto Protocol 1997, at therate of 1990.

Climate Change and Environment

Modern man is facing serious challenges in the front of environment. Theseare mostly of anthropogenic origin baring a few, which are natural. Climatechange and loss of biodiversity are the two such issues, which have attractedattention of our researchers in the recent past. Similarly, environmentalpollution in another important challenge being faced by living componentson this planet earth. India is a developing country like other countries isstruck with many environmental issues. It has been ranked as seventhmost environmentally hazardous country in the world by new ranking releasedrecently. The increasing economic development and a rapidly growingpopulation that has taken the country from 300 million people in 1947 tomore than one billion people today is putting a strain on the environment,infrastructure, and the country’s natural resources. Ever since its originand later man has enjoyed the natural resources and has adversely affectedthe environment in due course of civilization and economic growth. Variousanthropogenic activities like urbanization, industrialization, mining andchemical based intensive agriculture, deforestation, soil erosion, land

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degradation, are all worsening problems. All these activities have adverselyaffected the natural environment of our earth. There are many issues, whichneed to be given immediate attention and need to be monitored regularly.

The growth of population coupled with uneven economicdevelopment is imposing environmental degradation and exploitation ofnatural resources. Many of our indigenous valuable floral, faunal and physicalresources are on the verge of extinction. Vehicular emission andindustrialization have added toxic gases to the atmosphere resulting healthhazards, global warming and climate changes. The earth in terms of resourcesand expending number of users of these diminishing resources today emergesas the most serious question for the generations to come.

Climate change is likely to

15 to 200 crore people displacement with in the country and out of thenation.

75% of the earnings will be spent on food while generally it is 40%

50% increase in malnutrition of 5years and below children

80% increase in extreme environment events- flood, cyclone, earthquake, disasters, etc.(10-18% torrential rainfall has already increased)

20% decrease in global GDP

1.5 lac people died in 2000.

07% decrease in water for irrigation.

18% desiccation in drinking water.

20% decline in agro products.

25% increase in natural disasters.

30% increase in temperature(Ocean temperature increased by 02 *cduring last 40 years)

2.5*c temperature will be high by 2050.

5.5m glaciers will melt after 50 years.

One Carbon credit is equal to one ton emission of (CO2)Carbon dioxide

Environment, etymologically means surrounding is the sum total ofall external conditions and influence affecting the life and development oforganisms. Most of the people associate it with either animals, scenic visitor

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or with pollution, sanitation and wastes. But, the environment is the entireassemblage of natural resources from which people draw their sustenanceand which provides all raw materials for industrial and agricultural production.Changes in environment, therefore, affect people’s lives .It emerged in theform of resource degradation and environmental pollution. Today the worldhas grown smaller people have become almost one community. Politicaland military alliances have created large multinational groups; industry andinternational trade have produced a global economy worldwide,communications are eliminating ancient barriers of distance, language andrace. We also being drawn to gather by the grave problems we face: overpopulation, industrial development, dwindling natural resources andenvironmental crisis that threatens our air, water and trees, along withbeautiful life forms on the small planet we share.

Environmental Degradation

The control of environmental pollution and or degradation is the main issue.Due to adoption of modern means of science and technology, the man ismodifying the environment according to his own need and requirements.The Euro-centric model of development is synonymous with the economicgrowth, led by rapid industrialization, mass production and mass consumptionof energy. This paradigm has opened Pandora box and led the word todevastating degradation of ecosystem. With the results the ecological systemhas mostly been jeopardized. The existence of life has been put into danger.Both the natural and cultural hazards have forced the large scaleenvironmental degradation and ultimately ecological imbalances. The naturalhazards included floods, droughts, desertification, water erosion andatmospheric pollution while cultural hazards include over population slums,poverty, deforestation and pollution; the environmental degradation isincreasing the trends in desertification and waste land and deteriorating theagricultural products even in such areas where once the flourishing landswere found. There are so many facts about earth climate which are notdisputed; these are sea level rise, global temperature rise, warming oceans,shrinking ice caps, declining Arctic sea ice, glacial retreat and oceanacidification. Climate impact had mostly on agriculture, glacial retreat, coralreefs bleaching, health etc.

The global environment is facing a number of problems due to increasingbiotic pressure, deforestation, over exploitation of land resources andpollution. The environmental degradation can be observed in the form ofsoil erosion decreasing productivity of agricultural land, climatic changes,lack of forests and forest products, decreasing capacity of pastures etc.

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Not only these but the pollution is at the all time high, has not only pollutedthe earth but affected the upper strata as well by creating a hole in theozone(O3) layer. It may have serious implications on the human health, hisactivities and plants. It may also reduce crop yields significantly.

The developing countries face a near crisis situation, economic aswell as environmental. In this region the natural balance betweenenvironment forming and conserving forces on the one hand and degradingand depleting on the other, has been disturbed. It is the function of soil-water forest conservation, population and pollution control measures torestore this balance, even if the face of ever increasing pressure on theenvironment to provide food, fodder, fuel, industrial raw material etc.

Every year more than 1000 animals’ species and 20,000 floweringplant species are in danger of existence and more than one third of theknown bio-species have already been lost. A number of planning’s andtechnological, polluted inputs used for human welfare are becoming anenvironmental problems due to the population explosion, illiteracy, poverty,economic and social inequality, materialistic and consumption oriented lifesystem and the industrialization has polluted the total environment. Hence,the useful life saving system has been narrow down and poisoned.

Earlier the effects were limited to wildlife, plants and naturallandscape only but now a days the environmental degradation, Physicaland Chemical pollution and resource deterioration is seen clearly everywhere.

The human economic activities have affected the 20,000 crorehectare land bought under agricultural uses. It has lost 2 crore Sq. Km.area, which is more than the present agricultural area. The human activitiessuch as-construction, mining, soil erosion, desertification and salinity takeaway as much as 50,000 to 70,000 Sq. Km. agricultural land every year.Erosion alone takes away 250 crore tones of soil every year. We havealready lost 5 lakh Sq. Km. area of cultivated and pasture lands underdesertification. Every year the urbanization, in the developing world, takeaway 3,000 Sq. km. area. Carbon-di-oxide (CO2) has increased by 36 lakhtones while the 24 lakh tones oxygen (O2) has been lost from ourenvironment. The temperature is increasing and the problem of green houseeffect is felt. Ozone (O3) layer has lost 7% over the Antarctica environmentand it may further loose in the coming year.

Third most deteriorating effect of industrialization is, ‘Acid Rains’which has imbalanced the total environmental system. About 40% of the

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total permanent water supplying drainage is converted into waste lands.Every year more than 60 lakh ha forests are cut down for various purposes.So, we are loosing 100-200 crore tones oxygen (O2) every year. Accordingto the ‘Red Data Book’, 400 Birds, 138 Amphibians, 305 mammals and 193fish species and sub-species are in danger. Similarly 25,000 plant speciesare also in danger. According to another report approximately 20,000 plantspecies and 900 animals’ species of chordate group are in danger.

Major Greenhouse Gas Trends

The ecological imbalance and environmental degradation is perceptiblein the form of excessive silt load in river channels and torrents during rains,eroded and denuded hills as a consequence to over grazing, low percentagearea under forest cover with much less density then optimum, gradualdisappearance of humans from forests, lack of natural regeneration, dryingof perennial springs and early drying of ephemeral springs, reduction inmiscellaneous and broad-leaved species with ecological retrogression, anincrease landslides, rock falls and debris, wild life is being fast exterminatedand both man and mountain are becoming poorer.

Indiscriminate road construction has done a lot of damage of forests.The road passes through virgin where “U” bends are created to gain altitudeas the roads ascends, extension of cultivation on steep slopes, naturalcalamity in monoculture forestry cover free grazing of animals, collectionof fuel, fodder etc. for domestic needs and cooking food, etc. help indegradation. The civil and Soyam and Panchayat forests have completelydisappeared. The erosion of cultivated fields, community lands, wastelandand land disturbed due to various activities in the name of development addvery high amount of silt to flow with water. The mining and quarryingactivities in the outer hill ranges are glaring examples of deforestation anddamage of natural resources.

So, the problem is more serious in a mountainous region wherephysical configuration-nature of geological formation, altitude, relief, slope,drainage characteristic and biotic pressure has led to the environmentaldegradation only10% of the world population live is mountain areas. Butanother 40% live in adjacent plains, so the life and livelihood of half theworld, directly, depends on the way in which the watershed eco-systemsare managed.

I believe that to meet the challenge of present day human beingswill have to develop a greater sense of universal responsibility. We mustlearn to work not just for our own sake, family or nation, but for the benefit

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of mankind. Universal responsibility is the real key to human survival. Itwill be the best foundation of world peace, the equitable use of naturalresources and concern for future generation, the proper care of theenvironment. We have all been born on this earth as part of one greatfamily. We all desire happiness and do not want suffering. In turn, gives agenuine sense of universal responsibility, the wish to actively help othersovercome their problems. In India, we have to consider serious reflectionof the development model we have followed and the consequences of thechoice in term of environment as well as poverty, hunger, food security andthe quality of the society we now live in.

Global Warming and Population- The Rio conference estimated thatabout $6000 billion would be required for affective earth restoration and forits care and maintenance per year. Apart from this, the social repercussionsand the underlying violence inherent in such a development model are otheraspects that need to be recognized and considered. The UNDP DevelopmentReport, 1994, highlighted some of these social pathologies. In 1992 in theU.S. alone 14 million crimes were reported. Murder rates tripled in Germany,drug related crimes doubled in Denmark and Norway and 30 fold in Japan,such are the integral part of the development model selected. Schumacherwas one of the first economists in the U.K. who raised the voice againstthe kind of development and economic development taking place in thewest. He observed, “How can one argue that American economy is efficientif it uses 40 percent of the world’s primary resources to support 6 percentof the world’s population without any observable improvement. Improvementis the level of human happiness well-being and peace? Barbara ward toowrote about the bankruptcy of over development concept and processes.As early as 1962, she wrote, “The gap between the rich and the poor hasbecome inevitably the most tragic and urgent problem of our day”. Accordingto the U.N.D.P. report “The richest fifth have 84.7 percent of G.N.P., 84.2percent of world trade, 85.5 percent of world savings and 85 % of domesticinvestment. The poorest fifth have 1.4% of GNP, 0.9% of world trade,0.7% of domestic savings and 0.9% of domestic investment] and is spite ofthe Rio Conference pointing out the global and environmental dangers ofsuch disparities and inequalities, and in spite of the world forum agreeing tothe need for urgent action. Nothing concrete has happened. In fact globally,the poor become poor and rich countries richer. While, India has one ofthe highest numbers of milliners, there are also millions who arebarely surviving.

Development Environment and Gandhi- As early as the early forties,Gandhi had asked “Why must India become industrial in the western sense?

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Gandhi’s question has become even more relevant today. As we are thatwith the new temples of large dams and large industries, hunger and povertyhave not disappeared, inequalities have increased and the human dignity ofpoor and marginal groups, including women, have been severely mauled.The environmental degradation has been extensive. Half of the India’s landis degraded. The rivers are largely polluted and mining, chemical and fertilizerindustries have played havoc with underground reservoirs, polluting waterof the village wells. The Existing paradigm of development ignores andexcludes the sacred and spiritual both and emphasizes only the scientificand economic aspects such as mining and quarrying marble industry, cementindustry and Textile industry in Rajasthan.

Global warming due to the green house gases and industrial smoke,deforestation, high rate of soil erosion, landslides, dying of natural springsand water sources, incidences of drought, floods and epidemics haveincreased, soil is polluted and emitting power is reduced, environmentalland use pollution is changed, pastures are degraded, glacier shrinking, seawater is polluted, and the temperature and water level is increasing andultimately the human existence is in danger, as per WHO report shows thatIndian mother milk contains the largest quantum of DDT in the world.

It is somewhat facile to think that more people mean more crime,more trouble, more poverty, more unemployment, more disease, migrationfood scarcity and the eventual destruction of the planet. A more seriousobjection then physical space is the environment one. It is often argued thatever growing numbers of people, competing for scarce resources, will destroythe conditions, which allow life to sustain itself. The conditions are of climaticchanges, global warming, nuclear threat, global pollution etc. Today theworld population is increasing very fast and the Indian condition is worst. In1974 we had 36 crore, which doubled in 1981 and tripled today. It is morethen 20 child per minute and each year 120 lakh people are added. Theyrequire 125 lakh quintal food, 20 crore meter clothes and 25 lakh houses.Regarding the growing population of world “Ode profanum Vulgus et arce”(the vulgar and the common are taking over) wrote Horace 1800, yearsbefore Malhus talked of men multiplying like mice is the born. The attentionshould be focused on the theory of Thomas Robert Malthus who propoundeda theory in 1830 on population and food supply. Malthus advocated thatwhenever population outstrips the food supply the surplus population shallbe wiped out as a result of war, famine, epidemic etc. until they are balanced.Tsunami, Katrina, Rita, Hud Hud, earth quacks and terrorism in world arethe glaring example of it. About 20% of the world population is mal nourishedand 46% of the disease are related to it, while, 50% death are oriented to

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food. Drinking water and food security are the other main problems of theworld to have hunger free. The concern for environment in India is ratherdismal-our cities and towns are full of slums, stinking garbage, drains chokedwith non-biodegradable materials. If the population explosion continuesunabated, there will be one person to each square yard by 2060 while adead body would need two square yards for its burial.

It has been appealed by various organizations to reduce CO2consumption but no country of the world has taken it seriously over theireconomy but situation of major economies is grim.

Pollution

Apart from carbon dioxide, methane 18% chlorofluorocarbon 14% isresponsible for global warming. Methane is increasing at the rate of 1%,Nitrous oxide 0.25% and chlorofluorocarbon 5% per year. According toJapan Govt. reports America produces 22.2%, China 14%, Russia 6.6%,Japan 4.9%, India 4.2%, Germany 3.6%, England 2.3% and other countriesemit 42.6% carbon dioxide. If it continues the temperature will rise by 2.5to 5.8*c in 2100. The temp has already increased by 0.6% in the presentcentury. Glaciers are melting specially in the Himalayan region.Table 1: Growth in CO2 emission during last five years

S. No. Country Growth% Emission crore tons

1 China 44 239.5

2 India 43 59.6

3 Russia 02 44.9

4 Japan 01 33.6

5 America - 11 140.3

Source : Earth Policy institute, 2014

A few days back 500 billion tones glacier block broke away inLarson sea of Antarctica. This melting may increase up to 5 meter sealevel. So, we have to reduce greenhouse gases 60.-70% at the level of1990, below the level of 5.2%. Otherwise the 50% population will be effectedby floods, sea water level will rise the salinity on productive land will increaseas well ground water salinity too. Many islands will go down and coastalsettlements will be submerged as produce environmental refugees. It isexpected that low laying coastal systems are vulnerable to sea level riseand storm surge-the Arctic, Africa Small Islands, and Asian and Africanmega deltas. India is supplying even drinking water to Maldives islands

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through ships and planes where the water scarcity has already been felt inNovember, 2014.Table 2: Per capita CO2 emission in the world (tons) 2011.

s.no Country Per Capita Emission % to world Average

1. America 16.94 376.4

2. China 5.92 131.1

3. France 5.04 111.1

4. Sweden 4.75 104.4

5. Mexico 3.96 88.9

6. India 1.41 31.1

7. Bangladesh 0.36 8.9

WORLD 4.5 100.0

Source: International Energy Agency,2011.

According to the Central Pollution Control Board of India the capitalcity Delhi 32%childern had inhaling problem while in rural areas it is 18.2%in 2008. Not only this but 43.5% school goers had lungs problem and hencelow efficiency while it is 25.7% in rural areas.Table 3: Carbon dioxide emission by different countries in the world

S. No Country % of the world

1 USA 22.2

2 China 14.0

3 Russia 6.6

4 Japan 4.9

5 India 4.2

6 Germany 3.6

7 England 2.3

8 Other Countries 42.2

Not only this but pollution is more dangerous than any other problemsat present in the world which kills more than 8.8 million people while othersare such as- smoking kill 6.2 million,1.2million, mal nutrition, 3.4million T.B./malaria/HIV, 3.1million road accidents and 0.5 million people are killed inriots every year(Global Allianz of Health and Pollution, WHO) and most ofthem come from developing and poor countries. About 8.5 million kids are

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killed by pollution in the world and 3000 are killed in Delhi alone while 0.5million are die in India alone. More than 400 million people in India aresuffering from pollution based diseases- heart, lungs, cancer, and manymore. According to WHO report 2014 the air pollution is increasing at itspoisonous level and environment is deteorating day by day which commonlytake away three years of an INDIANS life, hence it has been put in the listof most polluted countries of the world. The scientists of the university ofChicago, Howard and Yale has warned that 66 cr people are residing inunhygienic conditions where air pollution is beyond the standard. If Indiacould manage to control the pollution we can 3.2 years of life of eachIndian and ultimately saving 250cr years of life. Due to this pollution theproductivity will decrease and disease will increase and ultimately increasein health expenditure. The Albido will be changed and sky will become blueto WHITE.

Global Warming and Climate Change- The use of fertilizers to increaseproduction emits carbon dioxide and coal, petrol, gases etc also jointlyproduce 2 billion carbon dioxide. Chlorofluorocarbon produces 14000 timesmore heat then the carbon dioxide. The relative concentration of greenhouse gases is CO2- 60%, CH4- 20%, CFC -14%, N2O- 6%. Theconcentration of CO2 in the environment increased from 280 PPM to 368PPM from 1956 to 2001. In the coming year the hot wave will be commonin England and snow fall in Dubai hills. The affects of global warming iscontinued in the Himalaya as early as 1842, but it has increased after 1971seriously. Glaciers are reducing very fast in J&K, H.P. Uttarakhand, Nepal,Tibet and China. The Gomukh glacier was receding at the 7.3 meter since1935 and after 1971 it receded 34 meters per annuam and today it has gone19 km. back. As such, the effect of climatic change has not been mappedout. However, the World Bank Staffers estimated that environmental damagein India amounted Rs.34000 crore each year. Increase in the re-occurrenceof floods, droughts, cyclones, rainfall feathers change, unprecedented heavysnowfall in USA (15, Dec, 2010) and in W. Europe (03.01.11) blocked thelife too. Volcanic smoke also paralyzed life in the W. Europe, heavy rainfallin northern India in the year 2010, 2013 Uttarakhand, 2014 J&K, disturbedthe system during rainy season and in 2015 heavy rainfall during March-April not only disturbed the normal life due to flood but created a problemof food security by destroying crops vegetables and fruits and their flowerstoo. It is also under stood that above 5500 m. only snowfall occurs but dueto global warming and climatic changes it rains and even as early as inNovember, 2014 and in early 2015 the white disaster occurred in Americaand so on.

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Alteration and destruction of habitat is the main enemy of biodiversity.According to the Global Biodiversity Assessment (GBA) report, loss ofnatural habitat will increase the rate of extinction among the species ofplants from one thousand to ten thousand more than the natural rate. Thereare two main reasons for natural habitat loss -One the relentless felling ofthe trees and the other, incredible incidents of forest fire. The globe isspeedily losing its canopy. Fifteen percent of forest areas are now dessert.Many f forest and grasslands in the recent past have suffered abysmal lossof flora and fauna population. Unprecedented forest fires also pose a gravethreat to the plant species. Forest fires have consumed more then 1.7 lakhhectares forest area in India alone. One of the abominable effects is thatthey badly affect the process of silviculture by consuming flowers seeds,saplings and trees. Besides, overexploitation of wild flowers, and herbs ofmedicinal and other uses also paved the way for the near-wreck situation.Another reason why forests are losing their bloom is pollution. Take forinstance the case of valley of flowers is uttarakhand, where the menace ofpolythene pollution is casting its sinister shadow on the environment.Environmentalists blame polythene, a non-biodegradable element shed bythe residents and tourists, for the disappearance of wild flowers. Thecollected polythene were sent to Dehradun in 14000 bags, weighing 600quintals by 15 trucks. Now, the local people have taxed the tourists andbanned the polythene to maintain the ecological balance. The chemicalsused to prepare the idols of lord Ganesha, Durga etc. has done enoughharm to their regions as they were merged in the sea. However, two hotspots out of 25 in the world are available in India. Aravallies are understress bio-diversity is loosing due to deforestation, mining and quarrying,fuel wood supply , livestock pressure and cement industries .

Climate Change & Food Security -The contemporary world in generaland India in particular, is facing a new kind of security challenge due todeteriorating stock of food grain and fast depleting water resources. Hungeris looming large in Africa. FAO has defined food security as physicaleconomic access to food to all people at all times. Findings of AmartyaSen are still valid that there is no shortage of food grain but poor purchasingpower is an important factor. Kalahandi (Odissa) is in permanent newsalong with suicide of farmers of Vidarbha. There has been plethora ofregulation on socio-economic up-liftment and betterment of degradinghabitat but the situation is heading from fry pan to fire. Corruption hasdefeated PDS and MNAREGA.

52% land has lost its productivity due to heavy use of fertilizers,pesticides and lack of water management practices. Land is loosing Zink,

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iron, magnesium, sulphate costing Rs. 520028400 crore. According to theSoil and Land use survey organization 131.15 lakh ha in U.P., 41.62 lakhhect in Haryana, 32 lakh hect in Punjab and 19.14 lakh in H.P. land erodedand lost fertility. As much as 1736.40 lakh hect land (52.85) is loosingproductivity due to salinity, water logging, deforestation and crop rotation.Water logging and soil salination has wiped out great civilization. Babyloniancivilization in the present day in Iraq and once flourished Mohanjodarocivilization came to an end when the river floods brought about water logging.Uncontrolled application of water, pesticides, herbicides, weedicides andfertilizers have begun the land to go out of production and changed the foodchain and habitats. Apart from this Lantana, Partheneium, Eupatorum, waterHyacinth- are steadily populating our forests and grasslands have threatenednot only livestock and crop genetic resources but flora and fauna as well.

Global Warming And Agriculture -The share of agriculture in GDP assharply declined from 61 percent in 1950-51 to 24.2% in 2001-02 and 13.9%in 2013-14, whereas the dependence of the population has only marginallydeclined from 77% to 69% and 56% during the period. Agriculture sectorprovides employment to 56.7 % of the national work force, which is thesingle largest private sector occupation. Agriculture accounts for 14.7% oftotal export earnings and provides raw materials to a large number ofindustries. Spectacular achievements have been made possible through theexpansion of irrigation facilities, increase in net sown area, land reforms,use of high yielding variety seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, weedicides, farmmachines, infrastructure development etc.. The food grain production hasincreased four fold to the level of 212.03 million tones in 2001-02 from50.02 million tones in 1950-51. However, since 1988-99 its stagnant around200 million tones. In spite of spectacular achievements, various constraintshave already surfaced to hamper adequate growth of agriculture. The landand water degradation have reached alarming proportion. About 57% ofthe total geographical area of the country is suffering from derivationalproblems induced largely by human intervention. The productivity of keynatural resources-land and water is declining. During 1990s (1989-90-1999-2000) growth of agriculture decelerated as compared to 1980s (1979-80-1989-90). The oral growth rate of crop production declined from 3.72 % to2.29 % per annuam, productivity from 2.99 to 1.21 per annuam. The growthrate of food grains production declined to 1.92% from 3.54% per annuam.Apart from this the productivity of our crops is already much lower ascompared to other major crop producing countries- China, Japan, Canada,Vietnam, Indonesia etc..

Unsustainable practices like- excessive use of water with

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imbalanced use of fertilizers, especially in the green revolution areas hasaffected soil health and environment adversely. The organic matter contentin the soil has gone down and micro nutrients deficiency has becomealarming.

Scarcity of water in the rainfed areas is serous hardship. Groundwater resources are dwindling due to excessive use. The size of holdingshas reduced from 2.28 ha in 1970-71 to 1.57 hect. in 1990-91. So, thepressure on per unit of land has increased by 2.25 times. Per capitaavailability of agricultural land in the country has declined to 0.14 hect. in2000 from 0.48 ha in 1950, which is projected to be 0.1 hect. by 2025.Therefore it is a must to evolve new approach or paradigm shift inagricultural development by raising the productivity of land and water in amanner which is sustainable over the longer term. Some of the appropriatestrategies may be crop intensification, diversification with the suitable croprotation, expansion of irrigation. Knowledge based eco-friendly technology,revival of public investment, use of endogenous techniques and revival oftraditional wisdom, water management, rain water harvesting, use of bio-fertilizer, integration of ecological issues in planning process to survive againstthe otherwise environmental conditions. The need of another green revolutionis felt.

Global conservation And Forests -National forests are working assetsespecially in tropical countries. They absorb rain water and release itgradually into streams/ rivers and lakes, thereby extending water availabilityinto the dry season when it is most needed. They also act as reservoirs,absorbing monsoon rainfall, checking the impact of torrential rainfall andthus preventing floods. World watch Institute, paper 117, Alen Thein Dec.1993, That in India, forest provided water regulation and flood control valuedat U.S. dollar 72 billion per year, 20 % GDP. Every year destroyed forestlost could have provided 0.8 % GDP per year. The right choice today is tomake forest conservation our foremost national policy. When conventionaland economists calculates the value of a 50 year old tree- timber is 50thousand, while, it contributes during its lifetime Rs. 124030 worth of oxygen,Rs. 2480000 in recycling value, Rs. 2480000 worth of air pollution reductionand Rs. 1240000 in erosion control, totaling to Rs. 6440000 along withcontribution in terms of climate precipitation, pest control, maintenance ofsustainable health and preservation of all life components. Afterindependence India has lost 89232 billion due to soil degradation. Indialoses more then 10 percent of its GDP on account of destruction anddegradation of the countries natural resources.

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Global Warming And Oceans- Regarding the water resources, oceanscovers 70.8% area up to the depth of 3.8 km. and have 97.6 % water ofgeo-sphere- 1400 million qm3. Land cover 29.2 % area and 2.4 % of totalwater – of this 78 % is locked in glaciers, 21 % as ground water and only 1% as surface water, humidity, soil moisture etc. 45 % of the rain water islost in sea and 20 % percolates into ground and remaining 35 % is lost byevaporation in India. Global warming will affect the precipitation pattern allover the globe. world’s most dramatic monsoon occurs in India .due toincreased temperature South Asian Monsoon will become stronger with20.0%increase in rainfall in Eastern India by 2050 &10.0% reduction inrainfall is expected in sub Saharan African areas and yield from such areaswill reduce up to 50.0% by 2020. In case of annual crop, the durationbetween sowing and harvesting will shorten, which will lead to decrease inproductivity. Yield of crops like-mustered, bajara, wheat, rice corn soybean,and barley will decline by 3.0 to 5.0 % for every one degree of temperatureincrease. Higher temperature, humidity, and increased rainfall will increaseinfection of fungal, bacterial diseases and pests on crops. Further, theadaptive capacity of dry land farmers, forest dwellers, fisher folk andnomadic shepherds is very low. The IPCC, in its report 2007, predicts thata 2.7-4.3*C temperature will increase over India by the 2080. The panelalso predicated an increase in rainfall over the Indian sub-continent by 6-8% and that the sea level rise by 88cm by 2100.

The sustainable development is the development that meets theneeds of the present without compromising the ability of future generationsto meet their own needs. Development is which improves the quality of lifewithin the carrying capacity of the Earth’s life support system. It may bedefined as a production system in which technological and managementinputs do not adversely affects the bio-physical system. It had its antecedentsin the alarmingly growing environmental deterioration in the wake ofunprecedented pace of economic growth during the 60s with RachaelCarson’s “The Silent Spring” (1962) explaining the chemical pollution ofbirds. The intellectual of the club of Rome took up a project card “ThePredicament of Making” and Meadows prepared a report in 1972 “TheLimits of Growth”. Owing to the problem the first U.N. conference onHuman and Environment was held in Stockholm (Sweden) 5-10 June 1972and United Nations Environment Programs (U.N.E.P.) was setup in Nairobi(Kenya). The declaration was within “To Bear a Solemn Responsibility, toProtect and Improve the Environment Our Present and Future Generations”in the mean time, apart from governments, working in common groups,NGOs, Voluntary agencies, common recycling and clearing campaigns

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became the power of people. 1983 U.N. General Assembly setup acommission “World Commission on Environment”, headed by Norway’sPrim minister Mrs. Gro Harlen Brundtland to examine the state ofenvironment and development beyond 2000. The report “Our CommonFuture and Environmental Perspectives to the Year 2000 and beyond 1987,”U.N. General Assembly in Dec. 1989 responding to the BrundtlandCommission decided to hold and international conference issues concerningenvironment and development in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992, the 20thanniversary of the Stockholm Conference. Action plan was drawn basedon global partnership to “Save the Earth Planet for Future Generations.”

Since the publication of Brundtland (1987) report – “Our CommonFuture,” sustainable development has become catch world .The EarthCharter, climate change and bio-diversity convention on forestry and Agenda21 were adopted. It included population conference in Cairo 1994, SocialConference in Open Hagen 1995, Kyoto Protocol 1997, Johannes BurgConference on Sustainable Development in 2002, the Delhi Summit 1992about Climate Change etc.

The oldest hill ranges the Aravallis are facing denudation due toserge in the demand for fuel wood and fodder for burgeoning human andcattle population and large scale mining. Active involvement andunderstanding of villagers and local people can generate forest and commonland by Social Fencing alone- such as Bhavta and Suratgarh villages ofAlwar District and Bora- Basa village of district Kota, Sukhana lake ofChandigarh, Dharhara village of Gopalpur Block in Navgachhiya ofBhagalpur sdistrict where, a plant/ many more fruit plants are planted onthe birth of a daughter and her education expenses are meet by their products.Similarly, villagers of Nathuwas in Bhiwani district do not sell their milk inmarket but feed their nutritive food to the family and Chipko movement in1476 in Papsar village, 663 Vishnoi’s sacrificed themselves under the spiritualart of Guru Jambeshwar to protect the forest in the desert of Rajasthan.Apart from this many more examples are there in Uttarakhand and otherparts of the nation. It is felt that the planet earth is facing many problemsand disastrous situations to save the life. There are some limitations foreach and every human being which should not be crossed. Such as- climatechange, bio-diversity and nietroson cycle limits are under threat and thefour others should not be disturbed for the survival of life are phosphoruscycle, use of water resources, salinity and acidity of oceans, and land usechange of the earth. We are on the tipping point and beyond that theremight be serious changes which will not be reversible. We have to plan forsustainable development of the universe. To save the life over the universe

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the scientist (1575) of the word has appealed not to change the life savingsystem of the universe.

We need to have a new paradigm of development, holistic andecological in its approach. We need to shift from analysis to synthesis fromlinear to non-linear thinking, from reductionism to holism, a shift fromalienation to community embedded ness. With such an approach,development, ecology and religion meet. As Gandhi remark “The wholeGamut of man’s activities today constitutes an individual whole” you cannot divide social, economic and religious work in water tight compartments-the spiritual law does not work in a field of its own but express itself throughordinary activities of life. Let us listen to Gandhi- “A man who was farahead of his times”. According to Mahatma Gandhi ‘Nature has enough tomeet everyone’s need, but no ones greed’. Hence “we must think globallyand act locally”. Let us make conservation a habit and follow the threegreen rules-Reduce, Reuse and Recycle (3 R) for saving our lovely planet,the earth.

References:Additional director General of Meteorology (Research) Indian Met. Deptt. Pune

(2006).Annual Climate Survey.

Alley Richrds B.et al (1995) Comparison of Deep Ice cores;Nature,373:393-94,AlleyRichard,B (2005), Ice Sheets and Sea Level changes; Science 310, pp456-60Appenzeller, Tim & Denis r. Dimick (2004), The Heat Is On, National Geographic,Sept. pp.2-75, Barret, Earl W. (1971) Climate Change, Science; 17,p.983.

Brundtland ,Oro H.(1987)Our Common Future, Oxford University Press.

Blaikie,P.and Brookfield, H,(1987), Land Degradation and Society. Methuen, London.

Carson,Richel(1962) Silent Spring: Houghton miffin Books.

Changnon,S.A. (2003) Measures of Economic Impacts of Weather Extemes, Bullition ofthe American Meteorological Society, 84; 1231-35.

Dikshit,K.R. (2009) Tending the Planet Earth; The Key to human Survival, Annals of theNAGI, India. Pp.1-19.

Fourier,Joseph (1824) Remarques Generales sur les Temperatures du Globe Terrestre etdes Espaces Planetaires’ Annales de Cheme et de Physique 27, 136-37, tr. EbenescrBurgess (1937) ‘General Remarks on the Temperature of the Earth and Outerspace’ American Journal of Science, 32 ; 1-20.

Gadgil , Alka &Dhorde Am it (2005) Temperature trends in Twentieth Centuary at Pune,India, Atmospheric Environ ment, vol 39; 6550- 6556.

Hindustan Times,(2005) A Recipe For Disaster, Dec.4, p.13.

IPCC(Inter Governmental Panel on Climate change) (1990) Climate Change; The IPCC

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Scientific Assessment report prepared for IPCC working Group 1. edited by J.T.Houghton et al , Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

—— (1992) Climate Change-1992, the Supplementary Report to the IPCC ScienceAssessment Report, ed. J.T. Houghton, Cambridge.

——- (1996), climate Change 1996: The Science of Climate Change ed. J.T. Houghton,Cambridge.

———(2001)Climatic Change: The scientific Basis, contribution of the working group 1tothird Assessment Report of the IPCC. ed. J.T. Houghton, Cambridge.

International Centre for Integrated mountain Development , Kathmandu Report onHimalayan glaciers &Lakes.

IPCC, (2007), Summary for Policy makers. In Climate Change 2007: synthesis Repot ofthe IPCC fourth assessment report pp 1-2, summary approved at the plenarysession XXVII, Valencia, Spain, 12-17Nov, 2007.

IPCC,(2007) climate Change 2007, The Physical science Basis Contribution of workinggroup 1 to the Fourth Assessment Report ,ed. Susan Soloman et al pp.1-18,Cambridge.

IPCC(2007) Climate Change 2007, Climate change impacts Adaption and Vulnerability-Contribution of Working group II to Fourth Assessment Report of The IPCC,ed.Neil Adgar, pp.1-23 Cambridge.

“IPCC AR4 SYR Appendix Glossary”. Retrieved 14 December 2008.

Karl TR, Trenberth KE (2003). “Modern Global Climate Change”. Science 302 (5651):1719–23.. PM

Kothawale,D.R.& Rupa Kumar K, (2005) On Recent Changes in Surface, Temperaturetrends over India .Geophysical Research Lett. Vol. 32,I 1874.

Kyoto Protocol (approved in 1977): An International Agreement Linked to the UNO.Framework Convention on Climate Change.

Marsh George perkins, (1864) Man and Nature , London:

——————(1898)  Earth as Modified by human Action, New york,C,Scribner’s sons.

Meadows, D.H.,Meadows ,D.L. Jorgan Randers& William W. Behrenh (1972) Limits ofGrowth, revised & enlarged edition (2004)Limits of growth: The Thirty year Update.

“NASA Science Mission Directorate article on the water cycle”. Nasascience.nasa.gov..Retrieved 2010-10-16.

Frequently Asked Global Change Questions, Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center

Kiehl, J. T.; Kevin E. Trenberth (1997). “Earth’s Annual Global Mean Energy Budget” .Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 78 (2): 197–208.Archived from theoriginal on 30 March 2006.

“Chapter 1 Historical Overview of Climate Change Science” . Climate Change 2007: ThePhysical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth AssessmentReport of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Intergovernmental Panel

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on Climate Change. 5 February 2007.. Retrieved 25 April 2008.

“Chapter 3, IPCC Special Report on Emissions Scenarios, (2000) Grida.no.. Retrieved2010-10

Teli, B. L. (2007) Environment, Resource Utilization and Development Continuum- A casestudy. Journal of Water & Land-Use Management, MD pub. Pvt. Ltd. NewDelhi.pp.111-137.

Teli,B.L. (2010) Development, Environment and Climate Change. Nat. Seminar onDevelopment, Environment and climate Change, Shahdol ,M.P. p 36.

Santra, S.C. (2006) Environmental Science. New Central Book Agency (p) Ltd. Kolkata

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CHAPTER - 3

Current State of Climate Change Law withspecial reference to IndiaYumnan Premananda Singh*

Introduction

Climate Change is a serious global environmental concern. It is primarilycaused by the building up of Green House Gases (GHG) in the atmosphere.The global increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily tofossil fuel use and land use change, while those of methane and nitrousoxide are primarily due to agriculture. Global Warming is a specific exampleof the broader term “Climate Change” and refers to the observed increasein the average temperature of the air near earth’s surface and oceans inrecent decades. Its effect particularly on developing countries is adverseas their capacity and resources to deal with the challenge is limited. Scientificstudies have shown that the global atmospheric concentrations of carbondioxide, methane and nitrous oxide which are the most important GHGs,have increased markedly as a result of human activities since 1750 andnow far exceed pre-industrial values.

Although the climate change issue has often led to polarizingdebates, it is premised on a basic question: what do we do with the informationin front of us? The complexity, global scale, and importance of the climateissue has been authoritatively addressed by the Intergovernmental Panelon Climate Change (IPCC or Panel), a specialized body, jointly establishedin 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the UnitedNations Environment Program (UNEP) with a mandate to prepare scientific

Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation (2015) : 35-60 Sati,V. P. et al. (Ed),Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002

ISBN: 81-8019-518-3 (India) ISBN: 1-55528-374-8 (USA)

*Assistant Professor, Govt. Mizoram Law College, Email: [email protected]

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assessments on various aspects of climate change.

The IPCC (2007) have produced a range of projections of whatthe future increase in global mean temperature might be. The IPCC’sprojections are “baseline” projections, meaning that they assume no futureefforts are made to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The IPCC projectionscover the time period from the beginning of the 21st century to the end ofthe 21st century. The “likely” range (as assessed to have a greater that66% probability of being correct, based on the IPCC’s expert judgment) isa projected increased in global mean temperature over the 21st century ofbetween 1.1 and 6.4 0 C.

This paper will not try to explore the province of climate changescience as it would be more fully described by my learned natural scientist.

Climate change law is a new and rapidly developing area of law.The law of climate change is being constructed at the intersection of severalareas of law, including environmental law, energy law, business law, andinternational law. Any effort to address climate change also raises issuesabout the proper role of state, local, and federal governments, as well astheir relationship to one another.

This paper will describe lucidly the global benchmark on climatechange law vis-à-vis legal, regulatory and policy frameworks of India whichare directed towards mitigation and adaptation of climate change regime.

Materials and Methods

The researcher adopted collaborative legal research methodologyin particular its doctrinal and empirical components. In order to undertakethis academic exercise, the researcher formulate research problemsconcerning area of fundamental important of global climate change relatedscientific findings and its ways and means of adaptation and mitigation byemploying case study and analytical legal method of thought process afterbrief review of literature in the field. Primary sources like case law, legaldocuments, available scientific data, conference proceedings and secondarysources like commentary by authoritative experts and juristic writings areused in the process. And finally, come to generalization and interpretationof the study by tools of legal reasoning through induction, deduction, andanalogy and dialectical reasoning.

Results and Discussion

A brief commentary on the result of this academic exercise suffices asseparate headings and sub-headings and analytical discussion of the matter.

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Current State of Global Climate Change Law

There are lots of legally binding international treaties, soft law (declarations– some of them are considered as a part of customary international laweven jus cogens thereby binding obligations on all States). Among the treatiesand soft laws following are worth mentioning:Table 1: International treaties and soft laws

Declaration/Treaties Year of adoption

Stockholm Declaration on Human Environment 1972

Rio Declaration on Environment and Development 1992

Programme of Action for Sustainable Development (Agenda 21) 1992

UN Secretary-General’s report on Human Rights and Environment 2004as part of Sustainable Development

Africa Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural 2003Resources

Barcelona Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment 1975/1995and the Coastal Region of the Mediterranean and its Protocols

Cartagena Convention for the Protection and Development of the 1983Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region

Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and 1972Natural Heritage

Convention for the Control of Transboundary Movements of 1989Hazardous Waste and their Disposal (Basal Convention)

Convention on Biological Diversity 1992

Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a 1991Transboundary Context (Espoo Convention)

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of 1973Wild Fauna and Flora

Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution 1979

Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of 1979Wild Animals

Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping 1972of Wastes and Other Matter

Energy Charter Treaty 1994

International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from 1973/1978Ships and its Protocol

Current State of Climate Change Law

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38 Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation

International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of 1954the Sea by Oil

Kyoto Protocol 1997

Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and its 1985/1987Protocol (Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete theOzone Layer)

Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance 1971especially as Waterfowl Habitat)

Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure 1998for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in InternationalTrade

Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants 2001

UN Convention on the Law of Sea 1982

UN Convention to Combat Desertification 1994

UNGA Resolution 37/7 World Charter for Nature 1982

UNGA Resolution 55/2 UN Millennium Declaration 2000

Apart from these, there are number of established norms ofInternational Environmental Law (such as States have the sovereign rightto exploit their own resources, the duty of a State to notify and consultwith other State in case there is possibility to damage the environment ofother State by its activities, right to a decent and healthful environment,principles of polluter pays, precautionary principles and sustainabledevelopment, environmental impact assessment, inter-generational equity,common heritage of mankind and common but different responsibility) whichare very much relevant in standard setting in combating the global ClimateChange.

In this present research paper, important is assigned to thoseinternational law that directly deals about climate change and allied mitigationand adaption matter.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)is an international environmental treaty (currently the only internationalclimate policy venue with broad legitimacy, due in part to its virtually universalmembership) negotiated at the UN Conference on Environment andDevelopment (so called the Earth Summit) held in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to14 June 1992. The objective of the treaty is to “stabilize greenhouse gas

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39

concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerousanthropogenic interference with the climate system.” Eradication of poverty,avoiding risks to food production, and sustainable development are threeintegrated principles deeply embedded in the Convention (MoEF, 2012).

The treaty itself set no binding limits on GHG emissions for individualcountries and contains no enforcement mechanisms. In that sense, the treatyis considered legally non-binding. Instead, the treaty provides a frameworkfor negotiating specific international treaties (called ‘protocols’) that mayset binding limits on greenhouse gases.

The UNFCCC was adopted on 9 May 1992, and opened forsignature on 4 June 1992 and finally entered into force on 21 March 1994.As of March 2014, UNFCCC has 196 state parties. Parties to theConvention are classified as:

Annex I: 43 Parties to the Convention including the European Union(classify as industrialized (developed) countries and “economies intransition” (EITs))

Annex II: 24 Parties to the Convention including the European Union(members of the Organization for Economic Cooperation andDevelopment). They are required to provide financial and technicalsupport to the EITs and developing countries to assist them in reducingtheir greenhouse gas emissions (climate change mitigation) and managethe impacts of climate change (climate change adaptation).

Annex B: Annex I Parties with first or second round Kyoto greenhousegas emissions targets apply over the years 2008-2012 Doha climatetalks, an amendment to Annex B was agreed upon containing with alist of Annex I Parties who have second-round Kyoto targets, whichapply from 2013-2020. The amendments have not entered into force.

Least-developed countries (LDCs): 49 Parties and are given specialstatus under the treaty in view of their limited capacity to adapt to theeffects of climate change.

Non-Annex I: Parties not listed in Annex I of the Convention are mostlylow-income developing countries. They may volunteer to become AnnexI countries when they are sufficiently developed.

The parties to the convention have met annually from 1995 inConferences of the Parties (COP) to assess progress in dealing with climatechange. In 1997, the Kyoto Protocol was concluded and established legallybinding obligations for developed countries to reduce their GHG emissions.

Current State of Climate Change Law

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40 Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation

One of the first tasks set by the Convention was for signatorynations to establish national greenhouse gas inventories of GHG emissionsand removals, which were used to create the 1990 benchmark levels foraccession of Annex I countries to the Kyoto Protocol and for the commitmentof those countries to GHG reductions.

The convention states that “such a level should be achieved withina time-frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to ClimateChange, to ensure that food production is not threatened, and to enableeconomic development to proceed in a sustainable manner.” Article 3(1) ofthe Convention states that Parties should act to protect the climate systemon the basis of “common but diffentiated responsibilities”, and that developedcountry Parties should “take the lead” in addressing climate change. UnderArticle 4, all Parties make general commitments to address climate changethrough, for example, climate change mitigation and adapting to the eventualimpacts of climate change.

The Convention specifies the aim of developed (Annex I) Partiesstabilizing their GHG emissions at 1990 levels, by the year 2000. TheConvention treats developed countries and developing countries differently.It is very clear from the preamble that developed countries have contributed“the largest share of historical and current global emissions of GHGs”, andhave higher per capita emissions levels than developing countries. Becausethese gases stay in the atmosphere for a significant time, the developedcountries’ historic contribution to GHG emissions has lasting cumulativeeffects. Thus, in ratifying the Framework Convention, developed countriesagreed to adopt policies and measures that will demonstrate that they “aretaking the lead” in addressing climate change. Still, the Convention requiresall parties, both developed and developing, to establish, implement, andperiodically update national programs to mitigate climate change.

Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty, which extends the 1992UNFCCC that commits State Parties to reduce GHG emissions. TheProtocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and enteredinto force on 16 February 2005 following Russia’s ratification. The Protocolcontains binding GHG emission limits for developed countries. There arecurrently 192 Parties (Canada withdrew effective December 2012). Amongmajor developed countries, only the United States is not a party.

The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fightglobal warming by reducing GHG concentrations in the atmosphere to ‘a

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41

Tabl

e 2:

Con

tribu

tions

& a

ctio

ns o

f m

ajor

em

itter

s: im

plic

atio

ns f

or th

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st of

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incl

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0 by

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0.7

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0.4

0.4

(201

0, C

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kg/$

PPP

GD

P)

Current State of Climate Change Law

Page 59: Climate change and socio-ecological transformation

42 Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation

6.R

enew

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26.5

%27

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as %

of

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(201

1)

Page 60: Climate change and socio-ecological transformation

43

10.

Non

-Fos

sil

Fuel

20%

from

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as %

of

non-

foss

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Current State of Climate Change Law

Page 61: Climate change and socio-ecological transformation

44 Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation

level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with theclimate system. The Protocol is based on the principle of common butdifferentiated responsibilities; it puts the obligation to reduce current emissionson developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsiblefor the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

The Protocol’s first commitment period started in 2008 and endedin 2012. A second commitment period was proposed in 2012, known as theDoha Amendment, in which 37 countries have binding targets: Australia,the European Union (and its 28 member states), Belarus, Iceland,Kazakhstan, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland, and Ukraine. Belarus,Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from theProtocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second roundtargets. Japan, New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto’s first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period.Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada (whichwithdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012) and the United States (whichhas not ratified the Protocol because “it exempts 80% of the world, includingmajor population centers such as China and India, from compliance, andwould cause serious harm to the U.S. economy (Desai, 2001, 5)). Onlycertain European states have committed to further CO2 reductions than infirst period. These targets add up to an average five percent emissionsreduction compared to 1990 levels over the five-year period 2008 to 2012.

The targets apply to the four GHGs: carbon dioxide (CO2), methane(CH4), nitrous oxide (N20), sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), and two groups ofgases, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs). The sixGHG are translated into CO2 equivalents in determining reductions inemissions. These reduction targets are in addition to the industrial gases,chloroflurocarbons (CFCs), which are dealt with under the 1987 MontrealProtocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.

Under the Protocol, only the Annex I Parties have committedthemselves to national or joint reduction targets (formally called “quantifiedemission limitation and reduction objectives” (QELRO) – Article 4.1). Partiesto the Kyoto Protocol not listed in Annex I of the Convention (the non-Annex I Parties) are mostly low-income developing countries, and mayparticipate in the Kyoto Protocol through the Clean Development Mechanism.

In several large developing countries and fast growing economies(China, India, Thailand, Indonesia, Egypt, and Iran) GHG emissions haveincreased rapidly (PBL, 2009). For example, emissions in China have risenstrongly over the 1990-2005 period, often by more than 10% year. Emissions

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45

per-capita in non-Annex I countries are still, for the most part, much lowerthan in industrialized countries. Non-Annex I countries do not havequantitative emission reduction commitments, but they are committed tomitigation actions. China, for example, has had a national policy programmeto reduce emissions growth, which included the closure of old, less efficientcoal-fired power plants. Emission limits do not include emissions byinternational aviation and shipping.

Some of the principal concepts of the Kyoto Protocol are:

Binding commitments for the Annex I Parties.

In order to implement the objectives of the Protocol, the Annex I Partiesare required to prepare policies and measures for the reduction ofgreenhouse gases in their respective countries. In addition, they arerequired to increase the absorption of these gases and utilize allmechanisms available, such as joint implementation, the cleandevelopment mechanism and emissions trading, in order to be rewardedwith credits that would allow more greenhouse gas emissions at home.

Minimizing Impacts on Developing Countries by establishing anadaptation fund for climate change to finance concrete adaptationprojects and programmes in developing countries that are Parties tothe Kyoto Protocol.

Accounting, Reporting and Review on order to ensure the integrity ofthe Protocol.

Establishing a Compliance Committee to enforce compliance with thecommitments under the Protocol.

If an Annex I country is not in compliance with its emissions limitation,then that country is required to make up the difference during the secondcommitment period plus an additional 30%. In addition, that countrywill be suspended from making transfers under an emissions tradingprogram (UNFCC, 2006).

Each Annex I country is required to submit an annual report ofinventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions from sourcesand removals from sinks under UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol. Thesecountries nominate a person (called a “designated national authority”) tocreate and manage its greenhouse gas inventory. Virtually all of the non-Annex I countries have also established a designated national authority tomanage their Kyoto obligations, specifically the “CDM process”. Thisdetermines which GHG projects they wish to propose for accreditation by

Current State of Climate Change Law

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46 Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation

the CDM Executive Board. The CDM was designed to limit emissions indeveloping countries, but in such a way that developing countries do notbear the costs for limiting emissions.

At the 16th Conference of the Parties held in 2010, Parties to theUNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited below 20Crelative to the pre-industrial temperature level (UNFCCC, 2011). KyotoParties can use land use, land use change, and forestry (LULUCF) inmeeting their targets. LULUCF activities are also called: “sink” activities.Changes in sinks and land use can have an effect on the climate (Baede,2007). Forest management, cropland management, grazing landmanagement, and revegetation are all eligible LULUCF activities underthe Protocol. Annex I Parties use of forest management in meeting theirtargets is capped (Desai, 2001,9).

On 8 December 2012, at the end of the 2012 UN Climate ChangeConference in Doha, Qatar (COP18/ CMP8), an agreement was reachedto extend the Protocol to 2020 and to set a date of 2015 for the developmenta successor document, to be implemented from 2020.

There is a hope that the coming the UN Climate Change Conference,that will be held in Paris, France in December 2015 will bring certainconcrete steps for GHG emissions limits. The conference objective is toachieve a legally binding and universal agreement on climate, from all thenations of the world and to reduce GHG emissions to limit the globaltemperature increase to 2 0 C above pre-industrial levels (UNFCCC,2013).During previous climate negotiations, countries agreed to outline actionsthey intend to take within a global agreement by March 2015. Thesecommitments are known as Intended Nationally Determined Contributions(INDCs) (WRI, 2015). At the time of writing the paper (on 20th July 2015)only 19 state Parties to the Convention including European Union havebeen submitted their INDCs.

The INDCs combine the top-down system of a United Nationsclimate agreement with bottom-up system-in elements through whichcountries put forward their agreements in the context of their own nationalcircumstances, capabilities and priorities, within the ambition to reduce globalgreenhouse gas emissions enough to keep global temperature rise to 2 degreesCelsius (WRI, 2015). The INDCs will not only contain steps taken towardsemission reductions, but also aim to address steps taken to adapt to climatechange impacts, and what support the country needs-or will provide toaddress climate change. After the initial submission of INDCs in March2015, an assessment phase follows to review and if needed adjust submitted

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47

INDCs before the 2015 UNCCC.

Several INDCs are expected to be submitted during March 2015,with a second wave possible during September 2015 as INDCs submittedafter October 1, 2015 will not be included in the UNFCCC synthesis reportto the 2015 UNCCC. India was expected to submit its INDC by June 2015(at the time of writing this paper, India is not yet to submit her INDC).

Other Important International Treaty

The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer,1987 (a protocol to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the OzoneLayer) is an important an international treaty though it does not directlydeal with the climate change. The Protocol is designed to protect the ozonelayer by phasing out the production of numerous substances that areresponsible for ozone depletion. As a result of this agreement, the ozonehole in Antarctica is slowly recovering. Climate projections indicate thatthe ozone layer will return to 1980 levels between 2050 and 2070 (UNEP,2014). In comparison, effective burden sharing and solution proposalsmitigating regional conflicts of interest have been among the success factorsfor the Ozone depleting challenge, where global regulation based on theKyoto Protocol has failed to do so. As of 23 June 2015, the two ozonetreaties have been ratified by 197 parties, which include 196 states and theEuropean Union, making them the first universally ratified treaties in UnitedNations history (UNEP, 2015).

The treaty is structured around several groups of halogenatedhydrocarbons that have been shown to play a role in ozone depletion.Furthermore, the phasing out of ozone-depleting substances has helped tofight climate change since many of these chemicals are also powerfulgreenhouse gases. According to a recent study, the phasing out of substancesunder the Protocol led to more reductions in greenhouse gases than what isforeseen under the Kyoto Protocol. If further measures are to materialize- accelerated phase out of HCFCs – additional climate benefits could bereaped, possibly as much as taking out again the entire reduction potentialof Kyoto. There is a Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the MontrealProtocol to assist developing country parties to the Protocol whose annualper capita consumption and production of ozone depleting substances (ODS)is less than 0.3 kg to comply with the control measures of the Protocol.

Another important international treaty in this regard is theConvention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution, 1979(CLRTAP), which is intended to protect the human environment against air

Current State of Climate Change Law

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48 Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation

pollution and to gradually reduce and prevent air pollution, including long-rangetransboundary air pollution. It is implemented by the European Monitoring andEvaluation Programme (EMEP), directed by the United Nations EconomicCommission for Europe (UNECE). The Convention (which now 51 Parties)was the first international legally binding instrument to deal with problems of airpollution on a broad regional basis. It was signed in 1979 and entered into forcein 1983. Since 1979 the Convention has addressed some of the majorenvironmental problems of the UNECE region through scientific collaborationand policy negotiation. The Convention has been extended by eight protocolsthat identify specific measures to be taken by Parties to cut their emissions ofair pollutants.

Besides, the CLRTAP, the Convention on Environmental ImpactAssessment in a Transboundary Context, 1991 (Espoo Convention) sets outthe obligations of Parties to assess the environmental impact of certain activitiesat an early stage of planning. It also lays down the general obligation of Statesto notify and consult each other on all major projects under consideration thatare likely to have a significant adverse environmental impact across boundaries.As of April 2014, the treaty had been ratified by 44 states and the EuropeanUnion. The Convention has been amended twice. The first amendmentwas adopted in Sofia in 2001and it entered into force on 26 August 2014. Ithas opened the Convention to accession upon approval by UN Member Statesthat are not members of the UNECE (UNECE, 2014).The Convention wasalso instrumental in the creation of Strategic Environmental Assessment andhas been supplemented by a Protocol on Strategic Environmental Assessment.

Apart from these, the Energy Charter Treaty, 1994 (ECT) is aninternational agreement which establishes a multilateral framework for cross-border co-operations in the energy industry. The treaty covers all aspectsof commercial energy activities including trade, transit, investments andenergy efficiency. The treaty is legally binding, including dispute resolutionprocedures (europa). In this paper, the Protocol on Energy Efficiencyand Related Environmental Aspects (PEEREA) is our concerned whichwas signed along with the ECT. The ECT focus on four broad areas: EnergyTrade, Investment, Energy Efficiency, Dispute Settlement, and EnergyTransit. The treaty has been signed or acceded to by 51 countries and theEuropean Union.

The ECT in Article 19 requires that each Contracting Party “...shall strive to minimize in an economically efficient manner, harmfulEnvironmental Impacts arising from energy use.” Building on the provisionsof the Treaty, PEEREA requires its participating states to formulate clear

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49

policy aims for improving energy efficiency and reducing the energy cycle’snegative environmental impact. In contrast to other activities in the Charterprocess, the emphasis in the work on energy efficiency is not legally binding,but rather on practical implementation of a political commitment to improveenergy efficiency. This is promoted through policy discussions based onanalysis and exchange of experience between the member countries, invitedindependent experts and other international organizations.

Recent years witnessed the emergence of a body of literature andauthoritative statements analyzing climate change from a human rightsperspective. This was a welcome shift, changing the focus from states toindividuals. Climate change negotiations, according to this perspective, canno longer be a forum for state trade-offs and climate change is no longer amere issue squarely belonging to science and politics but an essentiallyhuman process with demonstrable human cause and effect. Report of theOffice of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) publishedin January 2009 (A/HRC/10/61) is an illustration of this trend. It found thatclimate change will potentially have implications for the full range of humanrights.

Current State of Climate Change Law of India

India has reasons to be concerned about climate change. Its largepopulation depends upon climate-sensitive sectors like agriculture andforestry for its livelihood. Any adverse impact on water availability due torecession of glaciers, decrease in rainfall and increased flooding in certainpockets would threaten food security, cause dieback of natural ecosystemsincluding species that sustain the livelihood of rural households, and adverselyimpact the costal system due to sea-level rise and increased extreme events.This aside, achievement of vital national development goals related to othersystems such as habitats, health, energy demand and infrastructureinvestments would be adversely affected (MoE&F,2012). India’s SecondNational Communication to the UNFCCC (2012) has given a detailedaccount of impact assessment on water resources, forests, Indianagriculture, and human health and found that the global climate will definitelyimpact drastically in these areas and India is vulnerable to the climate change.

On 10th May 2010, India released its GHG Emissions Inventoryfor 2007, with the aim of enabling informed decision-making and to ensuretransparency. Until now, the only official emissions estimates available werefor the year 1994. With this publication, India has become the first “non-Annex I” (i.e. developing) country to publish such updated numbers.

Current State of Climate Change Law

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50 Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation

India also announced its intent to publish its emissions inventory ina two-year cycle going forward, which is much more frequent than therequirement under its NATCOM commitments. India will be the firstdeveloping country to do so. According to the results, India’s emissions areless than a fourth of the USA and China. Results also show that the emissionsintensity of India’s GDP declined by more than 30% during the period 1994-2007 due to the efforts and policies that India has proactively put in place.Despite its already low emissions intensity, India intends to do even more.India has announced its intent to further reduce the emissions intensity ofits GDP by 20-25% between 2005 and 2020, even as it acceleratesinfrastructure development and the growth of its manufacturing sector(MoE&F, 2010).

Climate Change Laws of India

India is a State party to major international treaty concerning globalenvironment protection in general and climate change in particular, such asUNFCCC, Kyoto Protocol, Montreal Protocol, Convention on BiologicalDiversity, UN Convention to Combat Desertification and many others.

India has a rich and well developed environmental law. The IndianConstitution is one among the few constitutions in the world that hasprovisions on environmental protection. Articles 48A (Protection andimprovement of environment and safeguarding of forests and wild life), 51A (g) (Fundamental duty toward protection and improvement of naturalenvironment), 21 (Protection of life and personal liberty) are testimonial inthis regards.

Climate change presents many challenges at the legal level. Atpresent, India does not have a separate statute on climate change.There are certain legal, regulatory and policy frameworks which can beused in the mitigation and adaptation efforts of climate change. In additionto these, many concepts in Indian environmental jurisprudence can be usedto address the concerns raised by climate change (detail of thosejurisprudence are discussed in next sub-heading). National legislations arebriefly discussed in the following paragraphs.

Environment Protection: The Environment (Protection) Act wasenacted in 1986 with the objective of providing for the protection andimprovement of the environment. The Act is‘umbrella’ legislation. Itempowers the Central Government to establish authorities under Section3(3) charged with the mandate of preventing environmental pollution in allits forms and to tackle specific environmental problems that are peculiar to

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51

different parts of the country. By exercising the power conferred by theAct, the Central Government issued many Rules and Notices concerningdivergent facet of environment protection, such as Coastal Regulation Zone,Eco-marks Scheme, Eco-sensitive Zone (29 such notification till date),Environmental Clearance, Environmental Standards, Hazardous SubstancesManagement, Loss of Ecology, Noise Pollution, Ozone Layer Depletion,Water Pollution, etc. The important notifications are highlighted below:Table 3: Showing notifications

Subject matter of Notification Year ofnotification

Island Protection Zone 2011

Costal Regulation Zone 2011

Costal Management Zone 2009

The criteria for labeling Cosmetics as Environment Friendly Products 1992

The Scheme on Labeling of Environment Friendly Products (ECOMARK) 1991

Eco-sensitive Zone #

Environmental Impact Assessment 2011/2009/2008/2007/2006/1994

Environmental Standards**

Plastic Waste (Management & Handling) Rules 2011

E- waste (Management & Handling) Rules 2011

The Rules for the Manufacture, Use, Import, Export and Storage 2010of Hazardous micro-organisms Genetically engineered organisms or cells

Batteries (Management & Handling) Rules 2010

The Plastics (Manufacture, Usage & Waste Management) Rules 2009

The Hazardous Waste (Management, Handling & Transboundary 2008Movement) Rules

Fly ash in construction activities, Responsibilities of Thermal 2007Power Plants and Specifications for use of ash-based products/responsibility of other agencies

The Municipal Solid Wastes (Management & Handling) Rules 2001

Dumping and disposal of fly ash discharged from coal or lignite 1999based thermal power plants on land

The Recycled Plastics Manufacture and Usage Rules 1999

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Prohibition on the handling of Azodyes 1997

The Chemical Accidents (Emergency Planning, Preparedness &1996Response) Rules

The Bio-Medical Waste (Management & Handling) Rules 1988

The Manufacture, Storage and import of Hazardous Chemical Rules 1989

Loss of Ecology (Prevention & Payments of Compensation) 1996

Noise Pollution (Regulation & Control) Rules 2000

The Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation & Control) Rules 2000

Water Quality Monitoring Order 2005

# 29 such notification for declaring eco-sensitive region/zone

** 46 such notifications such as for cement plant, petrochemical, electroplating, pesticide,hotel, sulphuric plants/industries, etc.

Source: Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change, GoI

Air Pollution: The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Actwas enacted in 1981 and amended in 1987 to provide for the prevention,control and abatement of air pollution in India. Under this Act revisednotification concerning National Ambient Air Quality Standards was issued.

Energy Conservation and Efficiency: The Energy ConservationAct, 2001 as amended by Amendment Act of 2010 to provide for efficientuse of energy and its conservation and for matters connected therewith orincidental thereto. Under this Act, large energy-consuming industries arerequired to undertake energy audits and an energy labeling program forappliances has been introduced.

The Electricity Act, 2003 as amended in 2007, to better coordinatedevelopment of the power sector by providing a comprehensive frameworkfor power development. Under the Act and the National Tariff Policy2006, the central and the state electricity regulatory commissions mustpurchase a certain percentage of grid-based power from renewable sources.The National Tariff Policy (NTP) 2006 was amended in 2011 to prescribethat solar-specific Renewable Energy Procurement Obligation (RPO) beincreased from a minimum of 0.25% in 2012 to 3% in 2022. In addition,there is also the Energy Conservation Building Code, 2007 dealingthe matter.

Forests Conservation and Wildlife: The Scheduled Tribes andOther Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights)

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Act, 2006, recognizes the rights of forest-dwelling Scheduled Tribes andother traditional forest dwellers over the forest areas inhabited by them andprovides a framework for according the same. The Forest ConservationAct, 1980 was enacted to help conserve the country’s forests. It strictlyrestricts and regulates the de-reservation of forests or use of forest landfor non-forest purposes without the prior approval of Central Government.To this end the Act lays down the pre-requisites for the diversion of forestland for non-forest purposes.

The Indian Forest Act, 1927 consolidates the law relating toforests, the transit of forest-produce and the duty leviable on timber andother forest-produce.

The Government of India enacted Wild Life (Protection) Act,1972 with the objective of effectively protecting the wild life of this countryand to control poaching, smuggling and illegal trade in wildlife and itsderivatives. The Act was amended in January 2003 and punishment andpenalty for offences under the Act have been made more stringent. Theobjective is to provide protection to the listed endangered flora and faunaand ecologically important protected areas.

National Environment Tribunal and National Green Tribunal: In 1995the Central Government established the National Environment Tribunal[through the National Environment Tribunal Act, 1995) to provide forstrict liability for damage arising out of accidents caused from the handlingof hazardous substances.

The National Green Tribunal has been established on 18.10.2010under the National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 for effective and expediousdisposal of cases relating to environmental protection and conservation offorests and other natural resources including enforcement of any legal rightrelating to environment and giving relief and compensation for damages topersons and property and for matters connected therewith or incidentalthereto. It is a specialized body equipped with the necessary expertise tohandle environmental disputes involving multi-disciplinary issues. TheTribunal shall not be bound by the procedure laid down under the Code ofCivil Procedure, 1908, but shall be guided by principles of natural justice.

The Tribunal’s dedicated jurisdiction in environmental matters shallprovide speedy environmental justice and help reduce the burden of litigationin the higher courts. The Tribunal is mandated to make and endeavour fordisposal of applications or appeals finally within 6 months of filing of thesame. Initially, the NGT is proposed to be set up five places of sittings and

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will follow circuit procedure for making itself more accessible. New Delhiis the Principal Place of Sitting of the Tribunal and Bhopal, Pune, Kolkataand Chennai are the other 4 place of sitting of the Tribunal.

Water Pollution: The Water (Prevention and Control ofPollution) Act was enacted in 1974 to provide for the prevention andcontrol of water pollution, and for the maintaining or restoring ofwholesomeness of water in the country. The Act was amended in 1988.The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act was enactedin 1977, to provide for the levy and collection of a cess on water consumedby persons operating and carrying on certain types of industrial activities.This cess is collected with a view to augment the resources of the CentralBoard and the State Boards for the prevention and control of water pollutionconstituted under the Water Act. The Act was last amended in 2003.

Territorial Waters, Continental Shelf: The Territorial Waters,Continental Shelf, Exclusive Economic Zone and other MaritimeZones Act, 1976, to preserve and protect the marine environment and toprevent marine pollution within Continental Shelf and Exclusive EconomicZone.

Public Liability Insurance: The main objective of the PublicLiability Insurance Act, 1991 is to provide for damages to victims of anaccident which occurs as a result of handling any hazardous substance.That Act applies to all owners associated with the production or handling ofany hazardous chemicals.

Biodiversity: The Biological Diversity Act, 2002 was born outof India’s attempt to realize the objectives enshrined in the UN Conventionon Biological Diversity (1992) which recognizes the sovereign rights ofstates to use their own Biological Resources. The Act aims at the conservationof biological resources and associated knowledge as well as facilitatingaccess to them in a sustainable manner and through a just process. Forpurposes of implementing the objects of the Act it establishes the NationalBiodiversity Authority in Chennai.

Apart from these, the Central Motor Vehicles Rules, 1989, DisasterManagement Act, 2005, the Merchant Shipping Act, 1958 and other generallegislation also supplemented the relevant rules in specific subjects.

In addition to preceding laws, India has a rich tradition of judicialactivism in environmental justice through the mechanism of public interestlitigation and creative and progressive judicial creativity. The result is abody of environmental jurisprudence emerged. This body of jurisprudence

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is byproduct of applying accepted international norms as mandated byConstitution of India in case by case basis but crystallized firmly. In turn,the judicial interpretation has strengthened the Constitutional mandate.Notable amongst the fundamental norms recognized by the courts assummed up by Divan and Rosencrany (2009), viz. every person enjoys theright to a wholesome environment, enforcement agencies are under anobligation to strictly enforce environmental laws, government agencies maynot plead non-availability of funds, inadequacy of staff or other insufficienciesto justify the non-performance of their obligations under environmental laws,the ‘polluter pays’ principle, the ‘precautionary principle’, governmentdevelopmental agencies charged with decision making ought to give dueregard to ecological factors including (a) the environmental policy of theCentral and State government; (b) the sustainable development andutilization of natural resources; and (c) the obligation of the presentgeneration to preserve natural resources and pass on to futuregenerations as environment as intact as the one we inherited from theprevious generation, stringent action ought to be taken againstcontumacious defaulters and persons who carry on industrial or developmentactivity for profit without regard to environmental laws, the powerconferred under an environmental statute may be exercised only toadvance environmental protection and not for a purpose that woulddefeat the object of the law, the State is the trustee of all naturalresources which are by nature meant for public use and enjoyment.

Climate change and India’s actionsTable 4: Cumulative and per capita emissions of the EU, the US, China and India in 2030

Region Cumulative Projected Per Capita % of AllowedEmissions in Population in Emissions in Emission2030 (Gt of 2030 (Billion) 2030 (m.t. CO2CO2 eq.) per capita)

EU 3.4 0.596 5.66 9.40%

US 4.6 0.379 12.06 12.70%

China 12 1.574 7.62 33.30%

India 3.4 1.502 2.25 9.40%

Remaining 12.68 4.198 3.02 35.20%countries

36 Gt of CO2 emissions has been assumed to be the annual budget for 2030Source: CEEW Analysis

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India’s emissions are estimated to be of the order of 1331.6 milliontonnes of the carbon dioxide equivalent GHG emissions in 2007. Theemissions indicate an annual growth of 4.2% from the levels in 1994. WhereasIndia’s CO2 emissions are only about 4% of total global CO2 emissionsand much less if the historical concentrations are taken into account. StillIndia has been conscious of the global challenge of Climate Change.

In pursuance of the obligations cast on parties to the UNFCCC,India has undertaken to communicate information about the implementationof the Convention, taking into account the common but differentiatedresponsibilities and respective capabilities and their specific regional andnational development priorities, objectives and circumstances. The elementsof information provided in the communication include a national inventoryof anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks of all GHGs,a general description of steps taken to implement the Convention includingan assessment of impacts and vulnerability and any other relevantinformation. India has submitted the Second National Communication(NATCOM) to the UNFCCC in 2012.

India’s development plans are crafted with a balanced emphasison economic development and environment. The planning process, whiletargeting an accelerated economic growth, is guided by the principles ofsustainable development with a commitment to a cleaner and greenerenvironment.

National Environment Policy, 2006 outlines essential elements ofIndia’s response to Climate Change. A high level advisory group on climatechange viz. the Prime Minister’s Council on Climate Change wasconstituted in June 2007 and reconstituted in November 2014 to coordinatenational action plans for assessment, adaptation and mitigation of climatechange.

On 30th June 2008, India announced and launched its NationalAction Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC). The NAPCC, guided by theprinciples of sustainable development (SD), outlines existing and futurepolicies and programs addressing climate mitigation and adaptation. Theplan identifies eight core “national missions” (Jawaharlal Nehru NationalSolar Mission, National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency,National Mission on Sustainable Habitat, National Water Mission,National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem, NationalMission for Sustainable Agriculture, National Mission for a “GreenIndia”, and National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for ClimateChange) running through 2017 and emphasizes the overriding priority of

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maintaining high economic growth rates to raise living standards, the plan“identifies measures that promote our development objectives while alsoyielding co-benefits for addressing climate change effectively.” The NAPCCalso describes other ongoing initiatives, including: Power Generation,Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency.

The GoI has also constituted an Executive Committee on ClimateChange in January, 2013, under the chairmanship of Principal Secretary toPrime Minister to assist the Prime Minister’s Council on Climate Change inevolving a coordinated response to issues relating to Climate Change at thenational level and to monitor the implementation of the eight National Missionsand other initiatives under the NAPCC.

In addition to the NAPCC, the Government of India (GoI) hastaken several other measures (such as National Clean Energy Fund,State Action Plan on Climate Change, National Implementation Entity,Auto Fuel Vision and Policy 2025, Fuel Consumption Standards forCars, Climate Change Action Programme, Indian Network for ClimateChange Assessment, Montreal Protocol and Ozone Cell under theMinistry of EF&CC , Expert Group on Low Carbon Strategies for inclusivegrowth, National Tariff Policy and preparedness for REDD+) to promotesustainable development and address the threat of climate change. Theinitiatives operate at the national and sub national level and span domainsthat include climate change research, clean technology research anddevelopment, finance, and energy efficiency and renewable energy policyand deployment (MoEF&CC, 2014).

Conclusion

The view that human activities are likely responsible for most ofthe observed increase in global mean temperature (“global warming”) sincethe mid-20th century is an accurate reflection of current scientific thinking.Human-induced warming of the climate is expected to continue throughoutthe 21st century and beyond. In this regard, Gerrard (2010) apt says thoughhis observation is centered around the US Climate Change Law, “The threewords that best characterize the current state of climate change law arefragmention, uncertainty, and insufficiency”.

The Kyoto Protocol has been based criticized from many frontsnotably the idea of climate justice (this has particularly centered on thebalance between the low emissions and high vulnerability of the developingworld to climate change, compared to high emissions in the developed world)and there has not been any global consensus on the crucial issue of limiting

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emissions of GHGs. On the other hand, the first period Kyoto emissionslimitations can be viewed as a first-step towards achieving atmosphericstabilization of GHGs.

In this critical juncture, it is need to take the success model ofMontreal Protocol, in particular effective burden sharing both by developedand developing countries and solution proposals mitigating regional conflictsof interest in keeping in mind the principle of common but differentiatedresponsibility of protection of global commons and economic and socialdevelopment and poverty eradication of the developing countries.

The existing legal tools fall even shorter of the mark. On the otherside, almost all of these efforts are focused on mitigation of emission levels;none seriously grapples with adaptation to the climate change.

The rest of the world is waiting for the US tumult to subside. ThoughChina has overtaken the US as the largest GHG emitter, the US is stillresponsible for the largest portion of the GHGs that have accumulated inthe atmosphere. It is difficult for leaders abroad to adopt strong climatecontrols when the biggest historical emitter still hasn’t.

It is clear that leadership in climate change has not been forthcomingfrom some of the largest emitters. Therefore, countries such as India, likelyto be acutely impacted by climate change would need to develop a strategyon two formats: pressing major emitters to increase their mitigation targets;and ramping up its own ambition to reduce the vulnerability of its ownpopulation to climate change risks. Therefore, it is imperative that discussionaround technology partnerships and financial mechanisms be an importantpillar of any new climate agreement. Additionally, it may be useful toformulate a comprehensible legal framework just like the Climate ChangeBill, 2012 with necessary amendments in domestic level to combat climatechange in the line of the UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol and other relatedenvironmental treaties.

The finding of the intrinsic link between human rights and climatechange is of special relevance to a country like India. The adverse impactof climate change on a range of fundamental rights enshrined in theConstitution is already observed. This places a constitutional obligation onIndia to address climate change impacts from a human rights perspective.

Last but not the least, it is too much to expect global community ingeneral and India in particular to remove all the fragmented, uncertaintyand insufficiency in one swoop, but the need for real progress is urgent.

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References:Baede, A.P.M.(Ed.). (2007) “Annex II”, Glossary: Land use and Land-use change, in IPCC

AR4 SYR

CDKN (2015); “Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCS): sharing lessonsand resources; Climate and Development Knowledge Network”. Cdkn.org. Retrieved15.4.2015

CDKN (2015) India’s Intended Nationally Determined Contributions: Renewable Energyand the Pathway to Paris: Policy Brief. CEEW:New Delhi. Available at http://www.ceew.in/pubications Retrieved 23.07.15

Desai, S. (2001) Tyndall Centre Working Paper 12: The climate regime from The Hague toMarrakech: Saving or sinking the Kyoto Protocol?, Norwich, UK: Tyndall Centre

Divan & Rosencranz. (2009) Environmental Law and Policy in India. New Delhi: Oxford.

Down to Earth (2015) Switzerland, EU are the first to submit ‘Intended NationallyDetermined Contributions’. Available at http://www.downtoearth.org.in Retrieved28.07.15

Europa. The Energy Charter Treaty – A Legal Document. http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/enery/external_dimension_enlargement/127028_en.htmRetrieved 28.07.15

Gerrard, Michael.B. (2010) Introductory Comments: The Current State of Climate ChangeLaw, Sustainable Development Law & Policy, Vol. 10, Issue 2, Climate Law Reporter2010

IPCC (2007) “3. Projected climate change and its impacts”. In Core Writing et al. (eds.).Summary for Policymakers. Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report: Contributionof Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC:Cambridge University Press.

Ministry of Environment & Forest, Government of India (2012) India – Second NationalCommunication to the UNFCCC, Executive Summary: New Delhi. Available athttp://www.envfor.nic.in/sites/default/files/India Second National Communicationto UNFCCC Executive Summary. pdf Retrieved 25.07.15

Ministry of Environment & Forests, GOI (2010); India: Taking on Climate Change Post-Copenhagen Domestic Actions. Available at www.moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/India Taking on Climate Change.pdf Retrieved 25.07.15

Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change, GOI (December, 2014); India’s Progressin Combating Climate Change, Briefing Paper for UNFCCC CoP 20, Lima, Peru.Available at www.indianenvironmentalportal.org.in/files/file/India’s%20Progress%20in%Combating%20climate%20change.pdf Retrieved 25.07.15

PBL (2009), “Industrialized countries will collectively meet 2010 Kyoto target”.Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (PBL) website.

UNECE (2014); “Introduction to Espoo Convention”. Available at http://www.unece.org/env/eia/eia.html Retrieved 20.7.2015

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UNFCCC; “An Introduction to the Kyoto Protocol Compliance Mechanism”. Retrieved30 October 2014

UNFCCC (2013); “Schedule of Events” (PDF). United Nations Framework Conventionon Climate Change. Retrieved 12 November 2014

UNFCCC (2015); “INDC – Submissions”. Available at http://www4.unfccc.int Retrieved22.3.2015

Wikipedia (2015); Intended Nationally Determined Contributions. Available at http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intended_Nationally_Determined_Contributions?oldid=656656939 Retrieved 28.07.15

WRI (2015); “What is an INDC?| World Resources Institute”. Available at http://www.wri.org Retrieved 22.0.2015

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CHAPTER - 4

Climatic Vulnerability and AdaptationTechniques in Western RajasthanAbhilasha Jain* and Bhavna Sharma*

Introduction

Arid regions are characterized by a climate with no or insufficient rainfallto sustain agricultural production. With in India almost 12% land areacomprises arid regions. (First NATCOM, GoI) Rajasthan is India’s largeststate by area (342,239 km2 or 10.4% of India’s total area).The maingeographic feature of Rajasthan is the Aravalli Range, which runs acrossthe state from southwest to northeast. This divides Rajasthan into 60% inthe North West of the lines and 40% in the southeast. The northwest tractis sandy and unproductive with little water but improves gradually fromdesert land in the far west and northwest to comparatively fertile andhabitable land towards the east of India. The area includes the Great Indian(Thar) Desert. The Thar Desert extends between the Aravalli Hills in thenorth-east, the Great Rann of Kutch along the coast and the alluvial plainsof the Indus River in the west and north-west with an area of approximately77000 miles2 (200,000 km2). Most of the desert is covered by huge shiftingsand dunes that receive sediments from the alluvial plains and the coast.The sand is highly mobile due to strong winds occurring before the onset ofthe monsoon. The Luni River is the only river integrated into the desert.Rainfall is limited to 100–500 mm (3.9–19.7 in) per year, mostly fallingfrom July to September. The soil of the Thar Desert remains dry for muchof the year and is prone to wind erosion. High velocity winds blow soil from

Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation (2015) : 61-70 Sati,V. P. et al. (Ed),Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002

ISBN: 81-8019-518-3 (India) ISBN: 1-55528-374-8 (USA)

*Ph.D Research Scholar(Geography), University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, Gmail:[email protected]

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the desert, depositing some on neighboring fertile lands, and causing shiftingsand dunes within the desert. There are few local tree species suitable forplanting in the desert, which are slow growing. Therefore, exotic tree specieswere introduced for plantation like Eucalyptus, Acacia, Cassia and othergenera from Israel, Australia have been tried in Thar Desert. The region isa haven for 141 species of migratory and resident birds of the desert. Onecan see eagles, harriers, falcons, buzzards, kestrel and vultures, includingthe great Indian bustard and Chinkara. The Thar desert is the most denselypopulated desert in the world with a population density of 83/km2.About40% of population of Rajasthan live in the Thar desert. The main occupationof the people is agriculture and animal husbandry.

The coping strategies or adaptations to drought vary across differentagro-climatic regions and are evolved on the long inter generation indigenousknowledge of the society people in those regions. The indigenous knowledgeon coping strategies or adaptations to drought generally relates to mitigationor vulnerability reduction of the direct and indirect impacts of drought.However, most literature on drought discusses the role of state in providingrelief rather than the coping strategies of people or community. Till nowstate intervention in managing disaster risks from climatic hazards hasfocused on reducing exposure and vulnerability of socio-economic systemsto drought, cyclone, storm, flood, etc. through prevention, mitigation andpreparedness actions, with an aim to reduce loss of lives, shelter,infrastructure and livelihoods. However, the results would have been betterif the risk pattern could be anticipated and human experiences dealing withthese risks could be drawn to build resilience.

Materials and Methods

The study addresses the question whether the past experience can helpreducing societal vulnerability to drought and climate change and guidegovernment to formulate better policy and interventions. The objective ofthe study is to provide historical account of droughts and document theindigenous knowledge about the coping and adaptation strategies of peoplein Rajasthan. A case study of a community vulnerable to drought in westernRajasthan is being conducted to show how traditionally society/communityresponded to climatic variability in Rajasthan.

The methodologies used for this study is various published andunpublished literatures (traditional religious texts, books in local languageand English, write-ups, published research papers) on Indigenous knowledgeon drought and famine in India. Adaptations and coping strategies followedby people across India, especially in the arid region as available in published

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text, oral history and research reports were documented. Past and recentstudies have made number of recommendation to deal with climate changeinduced vulnerability to enhance adaptive capacity of communities therebyensuring food security, livelihood security, water security.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), in itsSecond Assessment Report, defines vulnerability as “the extent to whichclimate change may damage or harm a system.” It adds that vulnerability“depends not only on a system’s sensitivity, but also on its ability to adapt tonew climatic conditions” (Watson et al. 1996: 23).Hence, a highly vulnerablesystem is one that is highly sensitive to modest changes in climate and onefor which the ability to adapt is severely constrained. (IPCC 2000a). FurtherAdaptation to climate change includes all adjustments in behaviour oreconomic structure that reduce the vulnerability of society to changes inthe climate system (Smith et al. 1996, quoted in Smit et al. 2000) Accordingto the IPCC Third Assessment Report, adaptation “has the potential toreduce adverse impacts of climate change and to enhance beneficial impacts,but will incur costs and will not prevent all damages.” Furthermore, it isargued that human and natural systems will, to some extent, adaptautonomously and that planned adaptation can supplement autonomousadaptation. However, “options and incentives are greater for adaptation ofhuman systems than for adaptation to protect natural systems” (IPCC 2001:6-8).

It is evident that how the indigenous knowledge was used to harnessavailable water resources to cope with drought and other climatic conditionsto meet the drinking water and irrigation needs. These can be betterunderstood by going through the detailed discussion about Rajasthanexperience. The water harnesssing structures used for supply of drinkingwater varies according to geological conditions, rainfall in the area, andtype of settlement. In most parts of western Rajasthan, the desert area,there is a layer of gypsum at varying depth starting from Northwest toSouthwest districts. Below the gypsum layer, the groundwater is deep andmostly brackish of varying intensity. Therefore, the traditional drinking watersources are designed to overcome these features. Rainwater is harnessedboth on the surface and below surface depending upon the topography anddemand for water.Traditional technologies which saves water and energyand is being practiced in parts of the Rajasthan State is given in the below:

Paar system:- Paar is a common water harvesting practice in thewestern Rajasthan region. It is a common place where the rainwater flowsfrom the agar (catchment) and in the process percolates into the sandy soil.

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In order to access the rajani pani (percolated water) kuis or beris are dug inthe agor (storage area). Kuis or beris are normally 5 metres (m) to 12 mdeep. The structure was constructed through traditional masonry technology.Normally six to ten of them are constructed in a paar. However dependingon the size of the paar the numbers of kuis or beris are decided. There arepaars in Jaisalmer district where the kuis are in operation. This is the mostpredominant form of rainwater harvesting in the region. Rainwater harvestedthrough PAAR technique is known as Patali paani.

Talab:- Talabs are reservoirs. They may be natural or can be human.

Bandhis:- made, such the lakes in Udaipur. A reservoir area of lessthan five bighas is called a talai; a medium sized lake is called a bandhi ortalab; bigger lakes are called sagar or samand. The pokhariyan serveirrigation and drinking purposes. When the water in these reservoirs driesup just a few days after the monsoon, the pond beds are cultivated withrice.

Saza Kuva:- An open well with multiple owners (saza = partner),saza kuva is the most important source of irrigation in the Aravalli hills inMewar, eastern Rajasthan. The soil dug out to make the well pit is used toconstruct a huge circular foundation or an elevated platform sloping awayfrom the well. The first is built to accommodate the rehat, a traditionalwater lifting device; the sloping platform is for the chada, in which buffaloesare used to lift water. Saza kuva construction is generally taken up by agroup of farmers with adjacent landholdings; a harva, a man with specialskills in groundwater.

Johad:- Johads are small earthen check dams that capture andconserve rainwater, improving percolation and groundwater recharge.Starting 1984, the last sixteen years have seen the revival of some 3000johads spread across more than 650 villages in Alwar district, Rajasthan.This has resulted in a general rise of the groundwater level by almost 6metres and a 33 percent increase in the forest cover in the area. Riversthat used to go dry immediately following the monsoon have now becomeperennial, such as the River Arvari, has come alive.

Naada/Bandha:- Naada/bandha is found in the Mewar region. It isa stone check dam, constructed across a stream or gully, to capture monsoonrunoff on a stretch of land. Submerged in water, the land becomes fertile assilt deposits on it and the soil retains substantial amounts of water.

Rapat:- A rapat is a percolation tank, with a bund to impoundrainwater flowing through a watershed and a waste weir to dispose of the

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surplus flow. If the height of the structure is small, the bund may be built ofmasonry, otherwise earth is used. Rajasthan rapats, being small, are allmasonry structures. Rapats and percolation tanks do not directly irrigateland, but recharges well within a distance of 3-5 km downstream. Silting isa serious problem with small rapats and the estimated life of a rapat variesfrom 5 to 20 years.

Chandela:- These tanks were constructed by stopping the flow ofwater.

Tank:- In rivulets flowing between hills by erecting massive earthenembankments, having width of 60m or more. These hills with long stretchesof quartz reefs running underneath them, acted as natural ground waterbarrier helping to trap water between the ridges. The earthen embankmentswere supported on both sides with walls of coarse stones, forming a seriesof stone steps. These tanks are made up of lime and mortar and this is thereason why these tanks survived even after thousand years but the onlyproblem, which these tanks are facing, is siltation of tank beds. Chandelatanks usually had a convex curvature somewhere in the middle of theembankment; many older and smaller tanks were constructed near thehuman settlement or near the slopes of a cluster of hills. These tanks servedto satisfy the drinking water needs of villagers and cattle.

Kunds/Kundis:- A kund or kundi looks like an upturned cup nestlingin a saucer. These structures harvest rainwater for drinking, and dot thesandier tracts of the Thar Desert in western Rajasthan. Essentially a circularunderground well, kunds have a saucershaped catchment area that gentlyslopes towards the centre where the well is situated. A wire mesh acrosswater-inlets prevents debris from falling into the well-pit. The sides of thewell-pit are covered with (disinfectant) lime and ash Most pits have a dome-shaped cover, or at least a lid, to protect the water. If need be, water can bedrawn out with a bucket. The depth and diameter of kunds depend on theiruse (drinking, or domestic water requirements). They can be owned byonly those with money to invest and land to construct it. Thus for the poor,large public kunds have to be built.

Kuis/Beris:- Found in western Rajasthan, these are 10-12 m deeppits dug near tanks to collect the seepage. Kuis can also be used to harvestrainwater in areas with meagre rainfall. The mouth of the pit is usuallymade very narrow. This prevents the collected water from evaporating.The pit gets wider as it burrows underunder the ground, so that water canseep in into a large surface area. The openings of these entirely kuchcha(earthen) structures are generally covered with planks of wood, or put

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under lock and key. The water is used sparingly, as a last resource in crisissituations.

Baoris/Bers:- Baoris or bers are community wells, found inRajasthan, that are used mainly for drinking. Most of them are very old andwere built by banjaras (mobile trading communities) for their drinking waterneeds. They can hold water for a long time because of almost negligiblewater evaporation.

Jhalaras:- Jhalaras were human-made tanks, found in Rajasthan,essentially meant for community use and for religious rites. Jhalars areground water bodies which are built to ensure easy & regular supply ofwater to the surrounding areas. The jhalars are rectangular in shape withsteps on three or even on all the four sides of the tank. The steps are builton a series of levels. The jhalaras collect subterranean seepage of a talabor a lake located up stream. The water from these jhalaras was not usedfor drinking but for only community bathing and religious rites. Jhodhpurcity has eight jhalaras two of which are inside the town & six are foundoutside the city. The oldest jhalara is the Mahamandir jhalara which datesback to 1660 AD.

Nadis:- Nadis are village ponds, found near Jodhpur in Rajasthan.They are used for storing water from an adjoining natural catchment duringthe rainy season. The site is selected by the villagers based on an availablenatural catchments and itswater yield potential. Water availability from nadiwould range from two months to a year after the rains.They are duneareas range from 1.5 to 4.0 metres and those in sandy plains varied from 3to 12 metres. The location of the nadi had a strong bearing on its storagecapacity due to the related catchment and runoff characteristics.

Results and Discussion

Historical review of literature on droughts/famines and theadaptations or coping strategies of Ruler class and the people at large showsthat water being the basic necessity and its availability was uncertain overtime and space, most intervention and activities were related to rainwaterharnessing, storage and regulating the use pattern. People evolved, innovatedtechnologies to construct rainwater harvesting structures suited to differentagro-climatic conditions. Kings,business community, religious priests, etc,tried to provide financial, spiritual and other inputs to support constructionactivities to ensure sustainable drinking water supply. The major policyimplications are: (i) the need to revitalise farmers’ strategies, relevant todayas much as in the past, through technological and other means; (ii) learning

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from farmers as drought managers, the need for public policies to integratedrought management with the overall development strategy for dry areas;and (iii) the possibility of achieving these two objectives of the rationales offarmers’ strategy is made the explicit concern of integrated developmentand drought management interventions.

Since independence, large number of Rural DevelopmentProgrammes, such as, infrastructure development (roads, communication,electrification), market network, new crop technology based on seed-fertilizer-irrigation inputs, and watershed development, were initiated withdifferent objectives of poverty reduction and drought mitigation and relief.These have significantly helped the drought prone areas and population toreduce their vulnerability to severe scarcities caused by periodic droughts.How-ever, most of the initiatives could not bring the desired results becausethey failed to recognize the high environmental diversity and resourcespecificities within the drought prone areas and relate them to the age longadaptations and coping strategies of the people. Similarly, generalizedinstitutional programmes like land reforms, community development, projects,panchayat systems etc., were extended to these areas, without assessingtheir potential impacts on sub-marginal lands, common property resources,and climatic uncertainty. Public relief strategies to help the drought-affectedpeople were designed and pushed to such a level that they have more orless displaced the people’s own adjustment mechanism and generated strongdependence on public relief. Irrigation facilities were developed in a fewpockets, but used on crops requiring high water, and in the areas wellendowed with water. Dry crops in the process also suffered a backlash.Market integration took place, but it had serious adverse effects on strategicself-provisioning system and the fragile resource base. Even the specialinitiative like Drought Prone Area Programme supposed to initiate on basisof watershed and their specificities, in practice had not only discarded theconcept, put followed the development process suitable for other betterendowed areas. All this indicates the need for under-standing and explicitconsideration of specificities of drought-prone areas in both developmentstrategies and drought management.While the National Action Plan onClimate Change (NAPCC) gives the overall approach and objective of theGovernment, the National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture focuses solelyon agriculture. Dry-land agriculture has been identified under the missionas one the important areas. The Bundelkhand Drought Prone AreaProgramme (DPAP), Desert Development Programme (DDP), IntegratedWatershed Management Programme (IWMP), Swajaldhara (The RuralWater Supply Program) and water supply schemes under tribal sub plan

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area are examples of some of the sector specific initiatives by state andcentral governments. Various social welfare schemes are in place in theregion such as National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGS) ,Self Help Groups (SHG) income scheme, Swarna Jayanti Gram SarojgarYojana, Bhoomi Sangragshan Yojana (Earth Preservation Programme) andHariyali Yojana (Greenery Programme), Vidhayak Yojana (StateParliamentary Representative Programme). Apart from very obvioussolutions to the existing problem of climate change policy makers need toexplore new dimensions to climate change efforts such as linking povertyalleviation/economic development with climate change. The National ActionPlan for Climate Change (NAPCC, 2008) is probably the first officialdocument that has made an attempt to indicate the linkages. NAPCC‘identifies measures that promote our development objectives while alsoyielding co-benefits for addressing climate change effectively’. There isneed to explore new areas of co-benefits for example ‘establishment ofcommunity based decentralized renewable energy power plants’ could beone such intervention.

Conclusion

Past and recent studies have made number of recommendation to dealwith climate change induced vulnerability to enhance adaptive capacity ofcommunities thereby ensuring food security, livelihood security, watersecurity. Some of them have been here:

Communities need to be externally supported in building social capitaland individuals need to be provided with options and capacity building touse these options for undertaking adaptation and ensuring livelihood security.Promoting and reviving traditional drought coping mechanisms such astraditional water harvesting structures, drought resistant crop verities thathave under gone transformations due to technological changes with higherrisks. Adoption of communication strategies, tools and techniques tocommunicate climate change risks and solutions tocommunities.Establishment of knowledge sharing platforms wherecommunities can exchange and share their experiences on various measuresthey are taking to deal with climate change impacts. Current adaptationinitiatives are largely mono-sectoral in approach and are highly unsustainable.When inter-sectoral linkages are understood, development planning canrespond to adaptation needs of communities in a more sustainable way.Empowering women through increased participation and contribution ineconomic development activities and decision making processes. Adoptecosystem based approaches of risk management/adaptation. Promote

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livelihood diversification. Promote small scale forestry based enterprisesfor local income diversification and integrated watershed management.

References:A.Vaidyanathan(1985) Water Control Institutions and Agriculture: A Comparative

Perspective. Indian Economic Review, New Delhi, Vol. 20, No.1.

Bollasina,M. and Nigam, S.(2011). Modelling of regional hydroclimate change over theIndian subcontinent: Impact of the expanding Thar desert. J. Climate, 24: 3089-3106.

Davies,M.and Leavy,J.(2007) ‘Connecting Social Protection and Climate Change’,IDS InFocus 2

Davies,M.; Guenther,B;Leavy,J.;Mitchell,T. and Tanner,T.(2009) Climate ChangeAdaptation,

Disaster Risk Reduction and Social Protection: Complementary Roles in Agriculture andRural Growth, Working Paper 320, Brighton: IDS

IPCC,Cambridge, Climate Change (2007): The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of theWorking Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panelon Climate Change, 996 pp. [Solomon, S., D. Qin., M. Manning., Z. Chen., M.Marquis., K.B. Averyt., M. Tignor and H.L.Miller (Eds)]. Cambridge UniversityPress, Cambridge, U.K., and New York, the USA.

Khan,Y (1998), “Climate and Dryland Ecology”, IDS and Rawat Publication, Jaipur.

Moench & Dixit(ed.) (2004) “Adaptive Capacity and Livelihood Resilience”, Institute forSocial and Environmental Transition, Boulder, USA.

Pant,G.B. and Hingane, L.S.,(1988). Climatic changes in and around the Rajasthan desertduring the 20th century. J. Climate 8: 391-401.

Ramana Rao,B.V., Sastri, A.S.R.A.S. and Ramakrishna,Y.S.,(1981). An integrated schemeof drought classification as applicable to Indian arid region. Idojaras 85: 317-322.

Rao,A.S., Climate, Climatic changes and Paleo-climatic aspects of Rajasthan. In:Geographical facets of Rajasthan. (Eds: H.S. Sharma and M.L.Sharma), KuldeepPublications, Ajmer, (1992), pp. 38-44.

Rao,A.S.,(1996). Climatic changes in the irrigated tracts of Indira Gandhi Canal Region ofarid western Rajasthan, India. Ann. of Arid Zone 38(2): 111-116.

Rao,A.S.(2009).Climate & Microclimate Changes Influencing the Fauna of the Hot IndianArid Zone In: C.Sivaperuman, Q.H.Baqri, G.Ramaswamy, M.Naseema (Eds.),Faunal Ecology and Conservation of the Great Indian Desert, Springer-Verlag:Heidelberg, pp. 13–24.

Rao,A.S.and Miyazaki, T.,(1997). Climatic changes and other causative factors influencingdesertification in Osian (Jodhpur) region of the Indian arid zone. J. of Arid LandStud. 7(1):1-11.

Rao,A.S.and Purohit, R.S.(2009). Spatial variability and shifts in rainfall patterns of arid

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Rajasthan,India. Proceedings International Conference on “Nurturing Arid Zonefor People and the Environment:Issues and Agenda for the 21st Century”, CentralArid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, pp. 9.

Rupa Kumar,K.,Sahai,A.K, Krishna Kumar, K, Patwardhan, S.K.Mishra, P.K.,Revadekar,J.V,Kamala, K, and Pant, G.P.,(2006). High-resolution climate changescenarios for India for the 21st century. Current Sci. 90: 334-345.

Roy,M.M, Tewari,J.C. and Molla Ram,(2011). Agroforestry for climate change adaptationsand Livelihood improvement in Indian hot arid regions. International Journal ofAgriculture & Crop Sciences 3(2):43-54.

Sharma,S. and K.Kumar. 1998. “Impacts and Vulnerabilities”, In: Climate Change: Post-Kyoto Perspectives from the South, pp. 61 – 78. New Delhi: Tata Energy ResearchInstitute.

Sikka,D.R.(1997). Desert climate and its dynamics.Curr. Sci. 72(1):35-46.

State of Environment Report (2009). MoEF, Government of India TERI. Climate change and economic changes in India: the impacts on agriculture. Available

at http://www.teriin.org/coping/cccdf.pdf

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). (1999)Compendium of Decision Tools to Evaluate Strategies for Adaptation to ClimateChange. Bonn: UNFCCC.

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CHAPTER - 5

Energy Resource Development in theSundarban Region of West Bengal:Perspective of Climate Hazards andVulnerabilityAnwesha Haldar*

Introduction

Natural hazards that are rooted in changes in the atmospheric systemssuch as deficiency or excess of precipitation, destructive winds andanomalous temperatures etc. can be termed as climatic hazards. Climate-related hazards and its spatio-temporal peculiarity over a particular regionand season though are a chronic menace to the life in that region yet peopletend to adapt with these disasters. Societal vulnerability to the risks associatedwith climate change may exacerbate ongoing social and economicchallenges, particularly for those parts of societies dependent on resourcesthat are sensitive to changes in climate (Adger et. al., 2003). The energyresource exploitation, being the foremost precursor of the changingcomposition of the atmosphere has been causing numerous climaticalterations. By 2001, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC) recognized climate change and increasing global emissions fromthe booming industrialized nations as serious environmental concerns andthus much focus was given on adaptation and capacity generation especiallyfor the marginal groups that depend on climate sensitive resources.

The people of the developed countries use 5.1 times more energythan that of the developing countries (Engelmeier et.al. 2013). With the

Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation (2015) : 71-83 Sati,V. P. et al. (Ed),Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002

ISBN: 81-8019-518-3 (India) ISBN: 1-55528-374-8 (USA)

*Research Fellow, Department of Geography, University of Calcutta,[email protected]

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rapid increase in world population and an even greater rise in the variety ofenergy resource exploitation, it is time to put a check on the uncontrolleduse of these traditional non-renewal sources of energy. Their reserves arenot only fast depleting but are also causing extensive pollutions (Bradford,2006). The soot and dust particles in the air and the oxides of carbon,sulphur and nitrogen emissions contribute to the rise in suspended particulatematter in the air and subsequently lead to green house effects and globalwarming. According to a research conducted by the World HealthOrganization (WHO), around 13,000 people die every year in India becauseof pollution caused by fossil fuel-based electricity generation pollutants.The continuous price hike of fossil fuels has also taken a toll on all types ofmanufacturing industries. To reduce the emissions from coal generation,many of the new plants are based on super-critical technology that emits15% less carbon dioxide, but this was not widely acceptable in India. Thusan alternative source of power generation is of utmost need to curbemissions and attain a sustainable way of development.

Time and again it has been proved that the remote areas are themost vulnerable in the face of any natural hazards and the Sundarbans areno exceptions. As the vulnerability of the rich biodiversity to the climaticchanges is very high, the carbon emissions and environmental pollutionsmust be kept in check. The unique ecosystem of this area is also highlysensitive to any kind of air pollution hence burning of large amounts offossil fuels are detrimental to the surrounding environment. The Sundarbansare an energy deficient region and most reclaimed villages on the islandsare still far from being connected to the conventional power grid due toremoteness, lack of proper accessibility, low affordability of the locals andnon-feasibility to connect with overhead lines. At this point, it is advisableto shift to off-grid, decentralized distributed generation (DDG) energysystems using renewable sources like solar or biomass (Cust, et.al. 2007,JNNSM Phase-II, Policy Document, 2012).

Objectives

The major issue highlighted here is the fact that in the economically backwardareas of South 24 Parganas District of West Bengal, grid electricitydistribution and maintenance often remains a problem. The aim of this paperis to discuss the capacity generated among the locals to adapt to the changingenergy technologies of the climatically vulnerable areas of the Sundarbans.Hence, through this study I have tried to rank the peoples’ preferences andconsumer attitudes, advantages and disadvantages and finally estimate theirfuture energy aspirations. The observations raise a query that whether

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solar power should bring in development or an established minimum levelof development is required for the technology to have wide-spread utility.

Area of Study

It is to be noted that even though large programs and projects have beensanctioned by the Union and State Governments, almost negligible amountof subsidy or awareness have reached the remote islands of Sundarbans.Hence I have chosen the islands of Gosaba and Sagar which are alsocommunity development blocks under South 24 Parganas District in WestBengal for a case study.

Fig.1: The Sundarban Region of West Bengal is located at the southernmost part ofSouth 24 Parganas District of the State

Kapilmuni Ashram on the Gangasagar coast encourages pilgrims,while Gosaba is the main entry points to the Sundarbans wildlife sanctuaryboth attracting tourists from all over the country and world. As both theseC.D. Blocks fall under the reclaimed coastal regions of Sundarban and hasrelatively high population density, their vulnerability level is much highercompared to the other blocks in the region. As mentioned earlier, Sagar andGosaba C.D. Blocks suffer from the lack of timely, adequate and welldistributed developmental grants. For the inhabitants, who are constantlystruggling with climatic challenges such as floods, cyclones and storm surges,lighting facility is of utmost importance in the face of storms, attack of wild

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animals and diseases. This urge for survival has compelled them to exploitany available energy resources being oblivious of the need for sustainabledevelopment of these non-renewal sources.

Materials and Methods

The methodology includes collection and analysis of primary levelobservations, collection of data and interpretation of secondary informationand data. The pilot study has been done through focus group interviewsand 100 households in the different villages within the two blocks. Thetarget population being the rural dwellers, who have almost negligible accessto the basic amenities of living and majorly lack any hazard managementpreparedness. Household samples were used to study the present status ofenergy use in 10 villages of Sagar and Gosaba blocks over a period of threemonths (January to March in 2015). Randomly two sections of the populationwere studied: a) those who were using the solar or other renewable sourcesof electricity for at least two years; and b) those who never used any sortof power. The data is then processed in MS-excel for cartographicrepresentations and maps are prepared using GIS software such as Q-GISand ArcGIS.

Analysis and Discussions

Development is a socio-economic and technological process having themain objective of raising the standard of living of the people and a crucialdeterminant is the regular supply of energy. The State and Indian Governmentemphasized the role of rural electrification by renewable energy sourceswith great importance. Power lines in rural areas were seen as synonymouswith providing the essential infrastructure for boosting rural development.

With a population of more than 450 thousand in about 500sq.kmarea, both these C.D. Blocks fall under the densely occupied reclaimedforested tracts of the Sundarbans. In our field study it was seen that thelevel of education, occupational diversity and income is poor and about70% and 15% of the houses surveyed were below poverty line in Sagarand Gosaba islands respectively (Figures 3 and 4). Most of the workingage group population have either never been to school or have only completededucation hardly up to class ten. Among the inhabitants about 72% of thepopulation is either engaged in agriculture, fishing or have to work as dailylabourers with a meager salary, a bare minimum to sustain their livelihood.35% of the surveyed working population on the island earns less than Rs.2000 a month and about 51% earn above Rs. 2000 but less than Rs. 5000per month while the rest being service or businessmen have relatively higher

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income levels. The locals residents of both the areas are mostly migrantsfrom the adjacent regions namely Midnapore, Howrah, Odisha and Kerela,who have migrated in search of land and there is a predominance of thatchedmud house in the remote villages with little or no basic amenities of livingwhile brick and tin roofed houses are common in the town area (Figures 7and 8). Their prime energy requirements are the cooking fuel and lightingat a minimum cost. The surveys undertaken showed that the level ofeducation and occupational diversity and opportunity were low in case ofGosaba Block while it was comparatively higher in Sagar Island villages.But contrarily environmental awareness was more in Gosaba as theirlivelihood depends more on the surrounding natural environment.

Fig. 3 Fig. 4:

Fig. 5

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Fig. 6 Fig. 7

However in this particular region, development is measured byincreasing agricultural production and income, rather than other muchimportant parameters like higher standards of education, improved healthcare facilities and women empowerment. Hence capacity generationdepends on individual purchasing power which in turn ascertains their statusin society and infrastructural developments of the region such as safedrinking water supply, proper roads and communication, at least one nearbystorm shelters, and a reliable lighting facility in the face of climatic hazardswhich is a frequent phenomenon in these regions. Here we only discuss theenergy sector only.

A reliable energy source in these villages can lead to the expansionof rural industries like agro-based food products, thread and zari work bywomen, rice milling etc., and this supplementary income can improve theirquality of life. In the long run, it is expected that modern energy serviceswould provide indirect social benefits, diversified income opportunities, highereducational quality and enrollment, higher standard of living and equity inthe society.

The villagers have to depend on the conventional fuel sources forlighting, cooking, heating, irrigation etc. The main power source in the villageareas are still fire-wood, straw, cow dung cakes, dried twigs and leaves,kerosene and diesel, all of which have undesirable impacts on the localenvironment. The dust particles, aerosols and carbon content arecontinuously polluting the air within the houses. At this point it is moreviable to use renewable sources rather than the traditional sources. Thecharts below show the dependence of the rural residents of on fuel sourcesin their daily life as per the data collected from our surveys.

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Fig. 8 Fig. 9

Based on the above energy usage figures a consumption rate chartwas devised from the field data which is represented below.Table 1: Average % Fuel Consumption of Households per Day

FUEL TYPE Below 5 k.g./lit 5-8k.g./lit Above 8 k.g./litres

Wood 18 27 55

Cow Dung 45 30 25

Straw and Dried Twigs 38 28 33

Kerosene 52 32 17

Gas On an average, per 3 months 1 LPG cylinder is needed

Source: Primary survey, 2014

Table 2: Average Cost of Lighting Borne by the Households

Type of Lightign Per Month Cost (Rs.) Initial Cost

Less than Rs.160- More with Govt. Individual CostRs. 150 Rs.200 than Subsidy without subsidy

Rs. 200

Kerosene 27 57 17 - -

Solar Power (Rs. 5000) (About Rs. 8000)

0 0 0 38 62

Electric Current - (Rs. 5500-6000)

22 16 13 - 50

Source: Primary survey, 2014

The major requirements in the region for which solar power hasbecome a necessity are street lighting and the satellite television, in theabsence of other entertainment options, followed by the mobile chargingfacilities. It is majorly being used for lighting by the children for studying

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and by the men-folk for doing extra jobs even after sundown. Fan is still aluxury for the below average income group who cannot afford larger solarpanels. Even though LED bulbs are fast capturing the conventional marketwith its low consumption rates, use of solar power is still restrictive.

It can be seen that in Gosaba cooking is still done through traditionalmethods of heating while some changes is seen in case of lighting. In Sagara diverse energy sources are observed for cooking. Grid electricity hasreached most villages in Sagar Island but still proper utilization is a problem.Solar cookers have not been introduced here. Kerosene still rules the remoterural market due to its multi-purpose usage and wider availability throughfare price shops.

It is interesting to note that people in Gosaba, who had the advantageof using the biomass gasifier electricity plant installed by the West BengalRural Energy Development Authority (WBREDA) started feeling thatelectricity is an indispensible part of their lives. But this was closed downafter 3 years of operation since 2011. As people had been already beenintroduced to the electricity related comforts of life, they now have to installanother alternative power source. So, more and more people are installingsolar systems to be assured of a constant and better source of power.Hence this encouraged the fast evolution of Gosaba village into a primetown in this area. Most job opportunities, market, government offices, schoolsand residence of the comparatively affluent locals developed in this centerespecially after the cyclonic storm Aila in May, 2009 when no other sourceof fuel was readily available.

The users marked that solar connection was much safer to useand does not cause any short-circuit fires, shocks or other electric hazards.The users have the discretion of using the power as and when required,hence can curb power wastage. Solar Power is mainly used in Gosaba fornight time lighting, as substitute in running a fan and a light during longpower cuts of the main connection. Shops are kept open even in the evening.A few of the ghats and water pump areas are lighted throughout the night.

But, solar power too has its problems, frequent mal-practices withthe kits and funds have been reported by the locals in Gosaba. Almost nosubsidy is available for private consumption from the government but thelocal cooperative banks have tried to lend their hands and in turn are makingsmall business for themselves in both the islands. The scheme is that acertain percentage of the down payment is waivered and the equal monthlyinstallment facility is provided to clients buying more than 40 W solar panelsand having their own bank account in that branch. As most of the poor

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farmers do not have a bank account or are reluctant in using larger solarpanels, they cannot avail this subsidy hence wide spread use of solar lagsbehind still today. Though the kit, usually a combination package of Tata BPpanels and Exide battery, comes with a warranty of 5 years, in some casesthe battery had to be changed and was charged about Rs. 2000 each time.Lack of awareness on its maintenance and use has hindered widespreadinstallation of individual roof-top solar sets. It has also been noticed thatstreet lighting is a major problem in the both the islands, as poor maintenancereduces its life and no one is willing to take the responsibility of repairing.The women folk complain that either they use a fan and a light for 6 hoursor switch off all other sources to view the television for just 2 hours. Duringmonsoons the batteries fall to their lowest capacity and electricityconsumption even after this causes deterioration to battery life. Areas whichremains mostly under shade with dense canopy or are placed on the leewardslope to the sun rays, will produce electricity at a reduced rate and mayrequire more panels to generate electricity. The salts in the air leaves alayering on the panels further decreasing the efficiency.

In Gosaba town Solar Power is mostly used as a substitute sourceof power, unlike the more remote adjacent areas where it is the only mainsource. Movement after dark is still difficult as the solar powered streetlights are ill maintained. Students remarked that they get an extra 3-3.5 hrsto study in the evening and women can do some knitting and zari work fora living. Although education and occupational diversity has largely benefittedfrom solar power at cheap rates, a lot more distributional improvement isneeded in these remote areas.

In case of Sagar the situation is quite different. It is being observedthat the expected increased demand for standalone roof-top solar panelsdid not amount to much in the Sagar Island mainly because the supply ofgrid electricity is fast gaining ground. The region has the privilege of havingelectricity from the renewable electricity plants such as the wind and solarplants set-up by the WBREDA that were mostly closed down so theyalready have faced the problems with these sources of lighting. Now theydo not want to incur any more cost on these power connections. Theirincreased dependency on the electric appliances has caused higher wattageconsumption which falls short of the capacity of the installed solar panels.Other factors like sparse and scattered population of the islands interspacedby extensive agricultural lands, lack of awareness and poor purchasingpowers hindered any type of renewable energy sources to develop andhence the expected socio-economic benefits have been slow in materializing,if it can be materialized at all.

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People here still dream that thermally generated electricity throughthe grid system can bring in a lot more development in this region as it did tothe large cities. Hence they can never be fully satisfied with individualsolar power panels. Although the thermal gridded electricity is their preferredsource, people too are facing some problems. It has been observed thatonly the comparatively higher income groups who have access to theconcerned authorities availed the grid electricity facility in their ownresidences. The installation price ranges from Rs.7000-10000 with ownmeters, mostly without EMI facility. It is definitely a burden on most of thehouseholds with less than Rs.5000 a month as their family income, which isa majority. The wired connections are installed, are prone to frequent powercuts, voltage fluctuations etc. In the situation of any strong winds or rain,the connection gets switched off and hence in times of climatic calamitiesno electricity is available. This is a major drawback to the climaticallyvulnerable communities where weather disturbances are a commonoccurrence for almost eight months a year. It is found that the duration andfrequency of power-cuts occurred rises with the onset of the pre-monsooncyclonic season and lasts till the post-monsoon climatic disturbances (Fig.11)

Fig. 10 Fig. 11

Fig. 12

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A perception study on the attitude of the respondents without solarpower at home markedly differs in the two study areas (Fig. 12). Accordingto the people in Gosaba town, they want solar power due to three majorreasons: a) they were already used to lighting their homes during the nighttime, b) face problems with the state electric supply lines and c) want analternative source of power during emergencies in adverse environmentalconditions. While none has claimed that they do not want a solar systemeven if they can afford in Sagar. In Gosaba the percentage of the peoplewilling to get a substitute connection is more even though they already havethe electric supply line, but most back out due to high initial cost. Some donot want another source as they feel that it may add substitially to theirexpenditure.

It is also noticed that the mindset of the residents of this area is nottowards a rapid change in their lifestyle, especially the women who are stillthe major controllers of household affairs. Men who have forayed into theouter world are more eager to trying out the new solar technologies forirrigation, lighting etc. but when it comes to cooking, winnowing, milling orany other household work using electricity which is done by women, theyare reluctant to alter. They would rather prefer a time tested introduction ofany technology how so ever beneficial it may be. Another important factorto be noted here is that the women in these villages due to lack of awarenesshave lower propensity to adapt to the changing technologies.

Conclusion

The absence of reliable access to clean energy impedes prospects fordevelopment. There are several technological options, policy levers, andeconomic instruments for the power sectors, however, barriers to changeinclude vested interests, political inertia, and inability to take meaningfulaction, profound global inequalities, weak technology-transfer mechanisms,and knowledge gaps that must be addressed to transform global markets.

With the constant rise of population density, using solar energyseems the most eco-friendly way of power supply to the Sundarban region.But no technology, however good, can be imposed on a community. It takestime, experience and level of development in accepting them. Despite alarge drop in capital costs and an increase in fossil fuel prices, solar energytechnologies are not yet competitive with conventional technologies forelectricity production. The economic competitiveness of these technologiesdoes not improve much even when the environmental externalities of fossilfuels are taken into consideration. Besides the economic disadvantage, solarenergy technologies face a number of technological, financial and institutional

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barriers that further constrain their large-scale deploymentnin this remoteand relatively inaccessible area.

Acknowledgement

The author gratefully acknowledges the financial assistance given by U.G.C.for carrying out the research work based on which the present paper hasbeen prepared. She also likes to thank Prof.Lakshminarayan Satpati forsupervising the work.

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Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp. 337–350.

Policy on Co-generation and Generation of Electricity from Renewable Sources of Energy,Department Of Power & Nonconventional Energy Sources, (5th June, 2012), Govt.of West Bengal

Energy Resource Development in West Bengal

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CHAPTER - 6

Impact of Climatic Policy Adopted in India onManufacturing ExportsDipankar Roy*

Introduction

The most pooping up issue to the present generation is Climate Change.Indeed it is one of the most complex problems facing the entire mankindtoday. The overriding complexity of this phenomenon along with its deeperuniversal spread over effect on a wider range of aspects, continuouslyimpacting the very survival of life on earth. The exact size and consequencesof climate change exerts varieties of perceptions. There is now no hiddensecrets regarding the risks involve with climate change and are indeedprofound. Climate change has the potentiality to be the major social andeconomic challenge for coming decades (Dan Cunniah, 2010). The SternReview (2006) also revealed that climate change is the most serious andconcerning issues that needed to be solved as early as possible. Thus, thereis strong evidence that climate change is a reality1. Among the severalaspects of climate change the most prominent one is economy and trade2.There has been a rapid expansion of international trade deepened tradeliberalization among countries within the last few decades. The currentvolume of world trade has gone in an uneven way, approximately 32 timesgreater than the 1950 level ( Harun Onder, 2005). The ratio of worldmerchandise trade to world gross domestic product has increased fromless than 20 percent to more than 50 percent in just a few decades.

Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation (2015) : 85-99 Sati,V. P. et al. (Ed),Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002

ISBN: 81-8019-518-3 (India) ISBN: 1-55528-374-8 (USA)

*Assam University, Silchar1 Joint statement by 11 national science academies from Brazil, Canada, China, France,Germany, India, Italy, Japan, Russia, U.K. and USA to world leaders, 7 June, 2005.2 Climate Change 2007, Synthesis Report (A Report of the IPCC), p.2

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Importantly, the reduction in average world tariff at major export destinationshas partly became the reason that smoothen the trade ( Baldwin,2006) andthat resulted in drastic increase in carbon di oxide concentration in theatmosphere, from about 310 ppm ( parts per million) in 1950 to about 390ppm by the end of current century (World Bank, 2010). The simultaneousexpansion of trade, greater trade liberalization and higher pollution intensities,therefore blinks up the link between climate impacts, trade and tradeliberalization. However, for years, the linkages between climate and tradepolicies and recently trade and climatic policies have been debated amongexperts, specialists and academicians. Actually, experts came out with thesurprising outcome that the complex relation between trade and climaticregimes has often been characterized by mutual avoidance rather thanmutual supportiveness. In order to make this complex relation mutuallysupportative a number of climatic policies, such as Kyoto Protocol, UnilateralTrade Measures, and Montreal Protocol have been signed internationally.And the Kyoto Protocol is indeed the most prominent one among them.Along with other world economic giants, India too signed the Kyoto Protocol,and this paper is an attempt to explore the impact of climatic policy adoptedin India on India’s international trade especially with regard to manufacturingexports.

The Kyoto Protocol

It is been believed that mostly economic and non-economic activities areresponsible for the observed increase in global mean temperature or “globalwarming” since the mid-20th century and it leads the current scientificthinking in this regard3. Moreover, human-induced warming of the climateis expected to continue throughout the 21st century and beyond.The Intergovernmental  Panel  on  Climate  Change (IPCC,  2007)  hasproduced a range of projections of what the future increase in global meantemperature might be.[8] The IPCC’s projections are ”baseline” projections,The IPCC projections cover the time period from the beginning of the 21stcentury to the end of the 21st century4. They projected an increased inglobal mean temperature over the 21st century of between 1.1 and 6.4 °C5.The range in temperature projections partly reflects different projections offuture greenhouse gas emissions. Different projections contain differentassumptions of future social and economic development such as economicgrowth, population level, energy policies etc, which in turn affects projectionsof future greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions6. 

The process started back in 1992. In 1992 the UN Conference onthe Environment and Development is held in Rio de Janeiro and brought out

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the Framework Convention on Climate Change (“FCCC” or“UNFCCC”) among  other  agreements. After  that  in  1995 Parties  to  theUNFCCC met in Berlin, which was indeed the 1st Conference of Parties(COP) to the UNFCCC to outline specific targets on emissions. In 1997,December the parties again met in Kyoto, Japan, and conclude the KyotoProtocol in which they agree to the broad outlines of emissions targets.And finally in 2002 Russia and Canada ratify the Kyoto Protocol to theUNFCCC bringing the treaty into effect on 16 February 2005.

The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty, which extends the1992 United Nations Framework Convention on ClimateChange (UNFCCC) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gasesemissions, based on the premise that (a) global warming exists and (b)man-made CO2 emissions have caused it. The Kyoto Protocol was adoptedin Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February2005. There are currently 192 Parties to the Protocol. The Kyoto Protocolimplemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming byreducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to the level thatwould prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climatesystem. The Protocol is based on the principle of Common but DifferentiatedResponsibilities: it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions ondeveloped countries on the basis that they are historically responsible forthe current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. As a result, itsets binding emission reduction targets for 37 industrialized countries, mostlyMember States of the European Economic Area (EU + EFTA) in its firstcommitment period. These targets add up to an average five per centemissions reduction compared to 1990 levels over the five-year period 2008to 2012. The Protocol’s first commitment period started in 2008 and endedin 2012. A second commitment period was proposed in 2012, known as theDoha Amendment, which would commit only Europe to furtherCO2 reductions  until  2020  but  has  yet  to  be  ratified.  Negotiations  arecurrently under way to agree on a post-Kyoto legal framework that wouldobligate all major polluters to pay for CO2 emissions. The new framework

3 US National Research Council (2001), Climate Change Science: An Analysis of Some KeyQuestions. Washington, D.C., U.S.A.: National Academy Press.4 IPCC, Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II andIII to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC), Cambridge University Press.5 Temperatures are measured relative to the average global temperature averaged over theyears 1980-1999, with the projected change averaged over 2090–20996 Karl, TR, et al, ed. (2009). “Global climate change”.

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will be negotiated at the December 2015 meeting of the Conference ofParties to the UNFCCC in Paris, France.

Some of the principal concepts of the Kyoto Protocol are:

Binding commitments for the Annex I Parties. The main feature of theProtocol is  that  it established  legally binding commitments  to reduceemissions of greenhouse gases for Annex I Parties. The commitmentswere based on the Berlin Mandate, which was a part of UNFCCCnegotiations leading up to the Protocol7.

Implementation, in order to meet the objectives of the Protocol, AnnexI Parties are required to prepare policies and measures for the reductionof greenhouse gases in their respective countries. In addition, they arerequired to increase the absorption of these gases and utilize allmechanisms available, such as joint implementation, the cleandevelopment mechanism and emissions trading, in order to be rewardedwith credits that would allow more greenhouse gas emissions at home.

Minimizing Impacts on Developing Countries by establishing anadaptation fund for climate change.

Accounting, Reporting and Review in order to ensure the integrity ofthe Protocol.

Compliance, establishing a Compliance Committee to enforcecompliance with the commitments under the Protocol.

Moreover, the Protocol defines three “flexibility mechanisms” thatcan be used by Annex I Parties in meeting their emission limitationcommitments8. The  flexibility mechanisms  are  International  EmissionsTrading (IET), the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), and JointImplementation (JI). The economic basis for providing this flexibility is thatthe marginal cost of abating emissions differs among countries9. ”Marginalcost” is the cost of abating the last ton of CO2 -eq for an Annex I/non-Annex I Party. At the time of the original Kyoto targets, studies suggestedthat the flexibility mechanisms could reduce the aggregate cost of meetingthe targets. Studies also showed that national losses in Annex I grossdomestic product (GDP) could be reduced by use of the flexibilitymechanisms. The CDM and JI are called “project-based mechanisms,” inthat they generate emission reductions from projects. The difference betweenIET and the project-based mechanisms is that IET is based on the settingof a quantitative restriction of emissions, while the CDM and JI are basedon the idea of “production” of emission reductions. The CDM is designed

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to encourage production of emission reductions in non-Annex I Parties,while JI encourages production of emission reductions in Annex I Parties.The production of emission reductions generated by the CDM and JI canbe used by Annex I Parties in meeting their emission limitationcommitments. The emission reductions produced by the CDM and JI areboth measured against a hypothetical baseline of emissions that would haveoccurred in the absence of a particular emission reduction project. Theemission reductions produced by the CDM are called Certified EmissionReductions (CERs); reductions produced by JI are called Emission ReductionUnits (ERUs). The reductions are called “credits” because they are emissionreductions credited against a hypothetical baseline of emissions. Each AnnexI country is required to submit an annual report of inventories of allanthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions from sources and removals fromsinks under UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol. These countries nominate aperson called a “designated national authority” to create and manageits greenhouse  gas  inventory. Virtually  all  of  the  non-Annex  I  countrieshave also established a designated national authority to manage their Kyotoobligations, specifically the “CDM process”. This determines which GHGprojects they wish to propose for accreditation by the CDM ExecutiveBoard.

A number of emissions trading schemes (ETS) have been, or areplanned to be, implemented world-wide. In Asia it was been launched inTokyo, Japan. The emissions trading in Tokyo started in 2010 and the schemeis run by the Tokyo Metropolitan Government.

List of Asian Countries who signed the Kyoto Protocol:

Climate change is a globally faced phenomenon. And the level ofenvironmental degradation cannot be brought down unless there has beenany team work from of all the countries of the world. With this recognitionmost of the countries came forward and accepted the Kyoto Protocol toprotect the environment, to have a fresh climate, to have an atmosphereworth living. Countries from all the continents became a member party ofthe Kyoto Protocol and so thus the from Asia. Following table representsthe list of Asian countries that signed the Kyoto Protocol and accepted itwith the prior objective of environmental restoration. The table portrays the

7 Liverman, D.M. (2008). “Conventions of climate change: constructions of danger and thedispossession of the atmosphere” . Journal of Historical Geography8 Bashmakov, I., et al., “Policies, Measures, and Instruments”9 Toth, F.L., et al., “Where Should the Response Take Place? The Relationship betweenDomestic Mitigation and the use of International Mechanisms”.

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signing date and acceptation date of the Kyoto Protocol by the Asiancountries.Table 1: List of Asian parties to the Kyoto Protocol

S.No Country Signed*10 / S.No Country Signed* / AcceptanceAcceptance

1 Afghanistan 25 March, 2013 19 Philippines 15 April, 1998*20November, 2003

2 Bangladesh 22 October,2001 20 Malaysia 12 March, 1999*4September, 2002

3 Bhutan 26 August, 2002 21 Maldives 16 January, 1998*30December, 1998

4 Brunei 20 August,2009 22 Myanmar 13 August, 2003

5 Cambodia 22 August,2002 23 Mongolia 15 December, 1999

6 China(PRC) 29 May, 1998* 24 Nepal 16 September,200530 August, 2002

7 India 26 August, 2002 25 Oman 19 January, 2005

8 Indonesia 13 July,1998*3 26 Pakistan 11 January,2005December, 2004

9 Iran 22 August, 2005 27 Qatar 11 January, 2005

10 Iraq 28 July, 2009 28 Saudi Arab 31 January, 2005

11 Japan 28 April, 1998* 29 Singapore 12 April, 20064 June,2002

12 Jordan 17 January, 2003 30 Sri Lanka 3 September, 2002

13 Kazakhstan 12 March, 1999* 31 Tajikistan 5 January, 2009!9 June, 2009

14 North Korea 27 April, 2005 32 Timor 14 October, 2008

15 South Korea 25 September, 33 Turkmenistan 28 Sep, 1998*111998*8 Jan,1999November, 2002

16 Kyrgyzstan 13 May, 2003 34 U.A.E 26 January, 2005

17 Laos 6 February, 2003 35 Uzbekistan 20 November, 1998*12 October. 1999

18 Lebanon 13 November, 36 Vietnam 3 December, 1998*2006 25 September, 2002

10 * refers to the signing date.

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From the above table it is clear that most of the Asian countriesshowed positive response towards the Kyoto Protocol. Though signing wasoptional, indicating an intention to ratify the Protocol but accepting theProtocol refers to implementation of the same from the date of it’seffectiveness. Majority of the Asian countries accepted the Protocol before2005. However, a few signed to accept the same after 2005. And Indiaaccepted the Kyoto Protocol in 26th August, 2002.

Review Literature

Recently a number of studies have analyzed the effects of unilateral or subglobal climatic policies in combination with trade measures and allocationschemes. Some of these studies focus just on specific energy-intensive,trade-exposed sectors, like copper, steel, or cement (Gielen and Moriguchi2002; Demailly and Quirion 2006, 2008; Ponssard and Walker 2008; Fischerand Fox 2009). Though these partial equilibrium studies ignore importantglobal, general equilibrium effects, they provide some useful insights forinterpreting results from general equilibrium approaches. Fischer and Fox(2009) compare different border adjustment options with output-basedrebating. They revealed that while all such policies focused on improvingdomestic competitiveness for a given sector and none necessarily bringsreduction in global emissions, since some emissions are being repatriatedalong with output. They also noted down the general equilibrium effects ofthe climate policies themselves, in association with global energy pricechanges as well as relative price changes for manufacturing: countervailingpolicies merely affect the latter, but the full extent of emissions leakage ismuch more sensitive to the former. Multicounty, multisector computablegeneral equilibrium (CGE) models are used to capture the global effects ofclimate policy, and their specifications can have important implications forcarbon leakage and policy outcomes.

Peterson and Schleich (2007) observed border carbon adjustmentoptions for industrialized countries, emphasizing the calculation of the carboncontent for imports, which affects the stringency of the border adjustment,and on the breadth of their application across sectors. They find that borderadjustment increases the welfare losses for unilaterally abating regions, inpart by driving up carbon prices and shifting burdens to less intensivelytraded sectors. Fischer and Fox (2007, 2009) compare designs for domesticrebate (output-based allocation) programs within a unilateral U.S. climatepolicy. Their model also considers interactions with labor tax distortions,and they show that output-based rebating (designed appropriately) cangenerate lower leakage and higher welfare than grandfathering and, in

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some circumstances, even auctioning.

Burniaux and Martins (2000) study revealed that average economy-wide leakage is highly sensitive to the parameterization of fossil energy.Average leakage rates in various CGE studies range from 10 to 30 percent(Babiker and Rutherford 2005), although some models report leakage ratesbelow 10 percent for a coalition of Annex I countries, those with reductioncommitments under the Kyoto Protocol (Burniaux et al. 2009; Mattoo et al.2009) and other models find rates above 100 percent for oligopolistic marketstructures with increasing returns to scale (Babiker 2005). For individualsectors, however, calculated leakage rates can be much higher than theaverage leakage rates (Paltsev 2001; Fischer and Fox 2009; Ho et al. 2008).Böhringer et al. (1998) show that leakage rates are also highly sensitive tothe specification of international trade in the CGE model, with importantimplications for the efficiency effects of output-based allocation of emissionsallowances. If products of the same variety produced in different regionsare traded as homogeneous goods, leakage rates are rather high and apolicy of output-based allocation turns out to be pareto-superior to auctionedpermits or likewise uniform emissions taxes. If, however, these traded goodsare treated as qualitatively different, leakage rates are rather low and thebetter unilateral climate policy applies auctioned permits rather than output-based allocation.

Babiker and Rutherford (2005) consider a coalition of Kyoto ratifierspursuing their emissions targets; the reference scenario, where coalitionmembers implement Kyoto with no border adjustment, is compared withscenarios with such adjustment measures as import tariffs, export rebates,exemption of energy-intensive industries, and voluntary export restraintsby non-coalition countries. They find that most coalition members are betteroff with tariffs rather than rebates for mitigating their own welfare losses.Exemptions are the most costly to the coalition members but the mosteffective at reducing carbon leakage. Major non-coalition members, likeChina, India, and Brazil, are found also to benefit from the adjustment policies,with the exception of the import tariff policy.

Mattoo et al. (2009) also look at the effects of border carbonadjustment options implemented by a coalition of industrialized countries.In their analysis, Mattoo et al. find that import taxes confer the largestwelfare losses on lower- and middle-income countries, particularly whenimposing countries fully adjust for emissions intensities in the country oforigin. Mattoo et al. (2009) argue that border adjustments based on domesticor best-available technology emissions rates are able to offset most of the

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competitiveness impacts with less detrimental effects on developing countries.They also downplay the leakage effects but note that these are sensitive tothe major parameter assumptions.

Jaffe et al. 1995, conducted a study on U.S manufacturing sectorand concluded that the environmental regulations impose significant costs,slow productivity growth, and thereby hinder the ability of U.S. firms tocompete in international markets. This loss of competitiveness might resultsin declining exports, increasing imports, and a long-term movement ofmanufacturing capacity from the United States to other countries, particularlyin ‘pollution-intensive’ industries”.

It has been noticed that pollution-intensive industries tend to becapital-intensive, so capital abundance in developed countries may outweighthe impacts of environmental regulations (Antweiler et al. 2001). A fewresearchers came out with an approximation that transportation costs maydiscourage relocation to countries far from the major markets formanufactured goods. Ederington et al. (2005) find that transportation costsdiminish the impact of pollution abatement costs on net imports: an industrywith high transport costs (e.g., at the 80th percentile in the manufacturingsector) experiences a percentage increase in net imports equal to about 20percent of the impact for an industry with average transport costs (e.g., atthe 50th percentile in the manufacturing sector). Firms with a significantshare of their investments in large, fixed physical structures also appear tomove activity less in response to environmental regulations (Ederington etal. 2005). Proximity to firms that produce inputs or purchase outputs (forexample industrial parks and related forms of so-called “agglomerationeconomies” also discourages relocation (Jeppesen et al. 2002). Thesementioned factors actually determine whether an industry is “footloose,” orsufficiently mobile that a small change in production costs, such as from anenvironmental regulation, could drive some firms to relocate to othercountries.

Since the most pollution-intensive industries tend to be relativelyimmobile by these measures of “footlooseness,” the empirical literaturetypically finds quite limited impacts of environmental regulations oninternational competitiveness. However recent research by Levinson andTaylor (2008) shows that U.S. pollution abatement costs in the 1970s and1980s increased net imports in the manufacturing sector from Mexico andCanada. Extensive literature on the competitiveness effects of variation inenvironmental policies across the U.S. states has shown more significantimpacts on domestic firm relocation resulting from variation in the stringency

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of environmental regulations (Henderson 1996; Greenstone 2002). A studyconducted on U.K manufacturing sector estimated that implementation ofcarbon taxation that is carbon price increase the production costs in lime,cement, and iron and steel by more than 25 percent in the UK. Aluminum,inorganic chemicals, and pulp and paper would experience cost impacts onthe order of 10 percent at €20 per ton CO2 ( McKinsey & Company andEcofys,2006).

From the review of existing literature we cannot draw any clearconclusion regarding the impact of climatic policy on international trade.Because some of the authors are of the opinion that implementing climaticpolicy has limited merely negligible effect on trade, but a few recent studieson industrialized countries revealed that climatic policy implementationresulted in increase in production cost and finally fall in exports and increasein imports. Hence, it is bit difficult to draw a clear conclusion.

Materials and Methods

Data used in this study are collected from secondary sources. Dataon manufacturing exports are collected from Reserve Bank of India (RBI),however data on World GDP growth rate (annual) has been collected fromWorld Data Bank, data on Exchange rate has been collected from UnitedNations Statistics Division - National Accounts, data on Price Deflator hasbeen collected from IMF. A number of variables have been used in thestudy to capture the broad objective of the study. Here, I give a brief outlineof each of the variables:

Manufacturing Exports: It is nothing but the India’s totalmanufacturing exports to the rest of the world.

Real Exchange Rate: It is determined as Exchange rate divided byPrice Deflator of India / Price Deflator of USA. Real Exchange Rate hasbeen considered just to normalize the Exchange Rate. Symbolically RealExchange Rate (RER) = Exchange Rate(ER) / Z (in USD).

(Where Z= Price Deflator of India / Price Deflator of USA).

World Import: It represents total worldwide import. The model couldhave a better representative if it would have possible to include worldmanufacturing import but due to non availability of data we have incorporatedworld import.

Given the above details, to analyze relationship betweenmanufacturing export and climatic policy, the following model has beenestimated:

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—— (1)

—— (2)

Where stands for natural logarithmic value of India’ssManufacturing Export with the rest of the world in year t, is the realexchange rate in year t, is the natural logarithmic value of worldimport, in year t and is a white noise error term, D1t and D2t representsDummy variable11

Lagged value of the dependent variable is included in the modelbecause export in the previous year is expected to have an effect on theexport in current period. So, inclusion of lagged dependent variable isimportant and justified. Moreover, another reason behind inclusion of laggeddependent variable is that such explanatory variable often helps in depressingthe problem of autocorrelation.

The exchange rate has always an impact on trade, if there is anychange in exchange rate it is expected to have an impact on trade, say itdepreciation it will encourage exports and in case of appreciation exportswill be relatively dearer. Thus inclusion of Real Exchange Rate is justified.

And lastly, World Import, this has been included because if thetotal import worldwide has an increasing trend then obviously Indian beingan exporter, increase in world import will leave a positive mark on India’sexport. And manufacturing exports as it comes under the total exports ofIndia, the inclusion of World Import is important and justified.

Results and Discussion

Before we move on to interpretation of the estimated results, it isimportant to check for reliability of the estimated model through diagnostictests. In model 1 although the dummy is come to be statistically insignificantbut the adj- R2 value is accounted to be 0.96, which means that 96 %variations in the dependent variable is explained by the explanatory variables.Moreover the F statistic is found to be significant at beyond 1 % level ofsignificance, attesting the overall strength of the model.

Turning to the analytical part, it is clear from the table that lastyear’s trade export will have a positive impact on current year’s export,which is quite jusfiable. Since the focus of the study is to find out the

11 Dummy variable has been included to capture the impact of climatic policy adoptedin India. D1 = 0 before 2005, 1 after 2005

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impact of climatic policy adopted in India on its international trade, thevariable of prime concern is Dt. The coefficient of Dt is found to be negativeand insignificant, which implies that climatic policies do not levy any impacton manufacturing export. As expected the coefficient of world import isfound to be significant with expected sign. However, one of the importantvariables RER is found to be insignificant, theoretically it should have impacton trade but in the study it has been found that it is insignificant. And it isquite hard to believe that in a country like India, export turns to be priceinelastic. This actually put a question, whether there is any structural breakor not? In order to find out the fact, we have conducted the Bai–Paronstability test and found that there is a break at 1988. Thus model 2 has beenconsidered including break at 1988.

Turning to model 2, the lagged dependent variable id again foundto have positive impact on the dependent variable as it was in model 1, andthe relation is obvious and justifiable. Along with this inclusion of new dummyD2 is found to have a positive impact on the dependent variable and it isstatistically significant too. Well though the dummy of our prior concern i.e;D1 is again found to be insignificant, implying no affect of climatic policy onIndia’s manufacturing export. But in model 2, the variable RER is found tobe significant and with expected sign too, implying appreciation of domesticcurrency will have a negative impact on manufacturing export12. Alongwith this the coefficient of World import is again found to be statisticallysignificant with positive sign, justifiable again with literature.

Summary and Conclusion

This chapter summarizes the findings of the study and madeconcluding remarks

Ø Export value in the previous year is found to have a positive effectin current year’s export.

Ø Implementation of climatic policy is found to have no significanteffect on manufacturing exports in aggregate.

Ø However stating climatic policy impact less will not be accurate itcould have impact on other sectors.

Ø Exchange rate is found to have significant affect with regard tomanufacturing exports.

D2 = 0 before 1988, 1 after 198812 The estimated error term of equation (2) is found to be stationary at level. To keepthings simple we have not reported the panel unit root test results in the article.

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Ø World import is found to have positive and significant impact onmanufacturing exports in aggregate.

Implementation of climatic policy must have an impact onmanufacturing export for obvious reasons. In other words implementationof carbon pricing or carbon taxation increases the cost of production, lowproductivity and thus the price of the product gone up (Jaffe et al. 1995).And in some developed countries it has been noticed by experts that carbontaxation has resulted in loss of competitiveness in the international marketleading to increase in their net imports and reduction in manufacturingexports (Carbon Trust (2008). However coming to the context of India, inthe present study no such impact has been noticed, but that would be wrongto draw a stick conclusion that climatic policy is impact less in Indianmanufacturing exports and this is because though India signed the KyotoProtocol in back in 2002 but the Protocol itself got effective in 2005 so inthe present study dummy has been used to capture the impact after 2005,but as we have limited data on manufacturing exports so drawing aconclusion based on this limited data would not strictly appropriate to someextent. Moreover as theory suggests that exchange rate should have animpact on exports in this study too exchange rate in found to have significantrole. Apart from this world import is having a positive impact onmanufacturing export. And it is quite justifiable as worldwide importincreases India’s export should have increased.

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McKinsey & Company and Ecofys. (2006) EU ETS Review: Report on InternationalCompetitiveness.

Paltsev, S. (2001) The Kyoto Protocol: Regional and Sectoral Contributions to the CarbonLeakage. Energy Journal.

Peterson, E.B., and J. Schleich. (2007) Economic and Environmental Effects of Border TaxAdjustments. Sustainability and Innovation Working Paper. Karlsruhe, Germany:Fraunhofer Institute Systems and Innovation Research

Ponssard, J.P., and N. Walker. (2008) EU Emissions Trading and the Cement Sector: ASpatial Competition Analysis. Manuscript. Paris: Laboratoire d’Économétrie, CNRSet École Polytechnique.

Impact of Climatic Policy

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CHAPTER - 7

Contemporary Climate Change: A BriefReview of the Science in the Context of theCurrent World Economy and PolityL. N. Satpati*

Introduction

Nothing in this world can remain unchanged over time and space. But, themost important aspects of any change are its direction and magnitude thathas significant impacts on the operation on different systems, both naturaland human, on this unique planet earth. Like many other natural processesweather and climate also change, either naturally or due to human influenceon various components of nature. Whatever may be the causal factor(s)the key question of climate change pertains to whether life, including humanbeing, on the earth’s surface can survive against the change. Man has verylimited corrective options against a natural change, but he can surely playvital roles in minimizing the threats and vulnerability by rectifying his misdeedsthat cause the adverse changes. On this particular issue the climate changeagendum has taken centre stage among the different stake-holders includingscientists, economists, politicians, activists, media and common people.

The Protagonists

The UNEP and WMO sponsored IPCC, since its beginning, has been foundto advocate in favour of climate change with two basic findings: (1) theglobe (earth) is increasingly warming, and (2) human activities, especiallyrelating to emission of greenhouse gases, are responsible for the change.The 5th Assessment Report (AR) prepared and published by the IPCC

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ISBN: 81-8019-518-3 (India) ISBN: 1-55528-374-8 (USA)

*Professor, Department of Geography, University of Calcutta, E-mail:[email protected]

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Working Group-I categorically points out that ‘warming of the climate systemis unequivocal, human influence on the climate system is clear, and limitingclimate change will require substantial and sustained reductions ofgreenhouse gas emissions’(IPCC-AR5,). The greenhouse gas hypothesisof global warming got huge attention across the world nations and generatedserious debates leading to a number of protocols like Montreal and Kyotothat concerned world economy and polity over the climate change science(Wheeler, 2012).

The IPPC assessed observed and estimated global warmingscenario and its consequences on sea level, water, energy, bio-diversity,food security, human crises etc. Letcher (2009) had been so vigorously andsuccessfully propagated through numerous institutional set-up that IPCCwas jointly (with the Inconvenient Truth fame former US Vice PresidentAl Gore) awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 for ‘the efforts to buildup and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change,and lay the foundations for the measures that are needful to counteractsuch change’ (The Nobel Peace Prize, 2007). Subsequently many nations,of both developed and developing economy, formulated their climate changepolicy and actions plans on the basis of this 4th AR, titled ‘Climate Change-2007’, although many of the Americans remained cynic on the issue andthe US Government did nothing appreciable to reduce greenhouse gases,although the country had the topmost per capita emission. The emergingeconomies like Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa (BRICS) whichhappen to be the top emitters of greenhouse gases in the form of carbondioxide, methane and nitrogen oxides, factually have less per capita emissionand have their own arguments of necessity based developmental projectsand related environmental degradation problems. But the European Union(EU) countries with their ‘dirty fuels’ almost exhausted have switched overto clean energy systems, and obviously want to put pressure on theaccelerated economic growth processes of the developing nations. Therising temperature trends and morbidity incidents in some of the EU countrieslike UK, Italy, France, Germany etc. during the last two decades or so hascompelled them to think over the contemporary climate change characterisedby global warming.

Although not financially so committed, the Barrack Obama led USGovernment has very recently jumped into the climate change issue, as aprotagonist and most of the Americans have now, especially since the ‘globaleconomic melt-down’ that affected the country very badly, begun to believethat climate change is happening, and has trying to do something positive toreduce problem. The US President could perhaps successful in convincing

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the people about climate change on the basis of frequent occurrences ofdevastating storms, floods, cold waves and snow falls in the different partsof the country.

The Antagonists

The ‘petroleum lobby’ promoted by a number of multinational corporationsdefinitely have their negative attitude to accept the scientific evidences ofwarming due to massive fossil fuel consumption in industries, transport andenergy production. A good number of scientists, although very few comparedto the IPCC led protagonists, still do not approve the ‘exaggerated’ warmingtrend (Ahmed) and especially its linkage to anthropogenic forcing. Theyhave their scientific arguments based on observed data and their analysisto justify that the warming or cooling are primarily related to naturalprocesses like sun spot cycle, global circulation systems of winds and oceancurrents, transfer of heat from one storage to the other, influence of watervapour of different hydrological cycles etc. Some of them also allege ofselective elimination of data that shows non-warming (i.e. cooling) trendsby the protagonists of warming and wish to coin the term ‘climate gate’. Itis also argued that the trend of temperature rise since the IndustrialRevolution (may be considered as the commencement of the anthropogenicforcing) is not consistent till today, as there were periods of warming andcooling in between.

The most serious challenge to the findings of ‘Climate Change-2007’ of the IPCC have be made by the Nongovernmental InternationalPanel on Climate Change (NIPCC), which produced a comprehensive caseby case report entitled ‘Climate Change Reconsidered’ in 2009 against theIPCC report of 2007. According to the NIPCC (2014), ‘nature, not humanactivity, rules the climate’ and concludes that human effect on climate islikely to be small relative to natural variability, and whatever small warmingis likely to occur will produce benefits as well as costs’.

Conclusions

Regarding the scientific issues of global climate change including the trendsof temperature there are conflicting evidences put forward by variousagencies. The differences particularly occur due to the selection of differenttime-space scales, models and methods of statistical analysis. Question isoften raised as to why warming trends are almost ubiquitous globally sincethe late 1980s when the world became political economically unipolar afterthe fall of the former USSR. Is there any scientific bias which is heavilyinfluenced by the IPCC? The qualities of instrumental data on regional

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climate trends especially in terms of density and continuity which are reliableto run local and/or regional models are also often questionable. The IPCCitself has pointed out, in AR-4, a number of scientific misunderstandings onvarious complex issues of climate system.

Many of the predictive models have been found not good enoughto project climate trends. It is often found that many scientific papers arebased on very limited data of even less than 10 years time span to projecttemperature and rainfall trends. Use of shorter time-span, of less than 30years or so, for climate trends is contrary to basic scientific understandingof climate system; and therefore, the IPCC and other agencies should gofor integrated measures of climate change to avoid confusion andcontroversies (Bala, 2013). It is also dangerous to incorporate everything inthe fold of climate change. For example, flood (inundation) and drought canbe highly related to pedogeomorphic conditions, glacial melts to paleoclimaticor paleaocrogenic environments (Raina, 2011), and morbidity to malnutritionand underdevelopment. Moreover, global warming or climate change is arelatively slow process against which man can take appropriate technologicalas well as behavioural corrective measures to make the planet earth morebeautiful and liveable.

Water, food and energy are the most important tradable commoditiesin the global market, and their linkages to climate change issues are political-economically very significant. The humid tropical countries have enoughprecipitation but the quality of usable water is less due to misuse, pollutionand degradation. Population pressure of the developing economies of Asia,Latin America and Africa is very high compared to their resource utilization.However, many of these countries are endowed with rich bio-diversity andenvironmental resources. Since the countries are fast developing to eradicatepoverty and morbidity their resource utilization rate is becoming more withconsumption of more water, food and energy. The traditional energy sources(wood, coal and oil) of these countries definitely produce huge greenhousegases, but it is not possible for them to switch over to cleaner fuels likesolar or nuclear power due to technological disadvantages and economicbackwardness. The developed countries of Europe and America havealready achieved a high level of standard of living, further development oftheir economy and society is a luxury before the eyes of the developingnations. The ‘North-South divide’ is obviously unavoidable, but tagging it toclimate change issues for trade is certainly profitable for the developedcountries. The science of climate change has, thus to a great extent, boggeddown with global economics and politics.

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References:IPCC AR5 Media Portal. Available from: <http://www.ipcc.ch/news_and_events/

press_information.shtml#.UxbFCD-SxSk >. [5 March 2014]

Wheeler, S. M. (2012) Climate Change and Social Ecology- A New Perspective on theClimate Change, London and New York: Routledge.

Letcher, T. M. (2009) Climate Change: Observed Impacts on Planet Earth, Amsterdam:Elsevier.

The Nobel Peace Prize 2007. Available from: <http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/2007>. [3 March 2014].

Ahmed, R. (2011) Greenhouse Effect, Global Warming and Climate Change: A CloserLook at the Climatic Processes, Evidences and Related Issues, Ahmed, R. and S.Dara Shamsuddin (ed.) Climate Change Issues and Perspectives for Bangladesh,Sahitya Prakash, Dhaka, pp. 1-15.

Climate Change Reconsidered. Available from: <http://nipccreport.org>. [4 March 2014].

Bala, G. (2013) “Why the Hiatus in Global Warming in the Last Decade?”, Current Science,105(8) pp. 1032.

Raina, V. K. (2011) “Glacier Retreat and Global Warming: A Review”, Indian Journal ofGeomorphology, 16(1-2), pp.19-28.

Contemporary Climate Change

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CHAPTER - 8

Distribution and Properties of RainfallOccurrences in Drought Prone Areas ofJalgaon District (Maharashtra)D.S. Suryawanshi* N.A. Patil**, A. L. Suryawanshi**

Introduction

The yield of crops particularly in rain-fed condition depends on the rainfallpattern. Simple criteria related to sequential phenomena like dry and wetspells could be used for analyzing rainfall data to obtain specific informationneeded for crop planning and for carrying out agricultural operations(Srinivasa Reddy, G.V.et.al.,2008) Understanding the events of occurrencesof dry spells and intensive rainfall are crucial to decrease the adverse effectsof dry spells at sensitive crop development stage and occurrences of runoffin the middle of the season from damaging the crops in the field respectively(Yemenu et.al. 2013). The Markov Chain Probability Model has beenextensively used to study spell distribution and other properties of rainfalloccurrence, long term frequency behavior of wet and dry weather as wellas for computation of probability of occurrence of daily precipitation.

Another aspect useful for crop planning is forward and backwardaccumulation of rainfall to determine the onset and monsoon largelydetermine the success of rain fed agriculture. Pre-monsoon showers helpin land preparation and sowing of kharip crops. Late onset of monsoondelays sowing of crops leading to poor yields due to early withdrawal of

*Associate Professor & Vice principal, V.W.S.College, Dhule (Maharashtra), [email protected]

**Associate Professor, Dept of Geography, NYNC College, Chalisgaon, Jalgaon((Maharashtra)

Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation (2015) : 107-120 Sati,V. P. et al. (Ed),Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002

ISBN: 81-8019-518-3 (India) ISBN: 1-55528-374-8 (USA)

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rains affects the yield due to severe moisture stress especially when thekharip crops are at critical growth stages of grain formation and graindevelopment (Dixit et. al., 2005)

The Study Area

The region selected for the study is the drought- prone tahsils located inJalgaon district of Maharashtra. There are 09 drought- prone tahsils identifiedby V.Subramaniam, Review Committee (1987) appointed by theMaharashtra State Government. These tahsils are Amalner, Dharangaon,Parola, Erandol, Chalisgaon, Bhadgaon, Pachora, Jamner and Muktainagar.Which has been selected for the present study? It covers an area of about6994.54 sq.km located in the drought-prone areas of Jalgaon district ofMaharashtra state. It lies between 20011’to 21013’ North latitudes and 74046’to 76024’ East longitudes (Fig.1). The area under study is at South of theTapi river in Jalgaon district, in the East, the area is bordered by the Buldhanaand Jalna district, to South the Hatti, Ajanta, Satmala ranges and Chandorhills from a natural boundary between the study area and the district ofAurangabad and Nasik, the West is surrounded by Dhule district to theNorth, Tapi river. It comes under tropical semi- arid region of central India.Average rainfall is 682.8 mm of the said area. Over the years, temperatureand relative humidity varies 180c to 350c and 45 % to 72 %.Main waterresources of the study region are shallow/ deep tube wells, water harvestingponds and discharge from small streams. The monsoon rainfall, whichcontributes about 89 % of the total annual rainfall, extends from June toSeptember. July and August are the wettest months.

Objective of the Study

1. To find out the exact time of onset and termination of monsoon atthe study area

2. To determine the initial and conditional probability of dry and wetspell weeks

3. To search probability of two and three consecutive dry and wetspell weeks using Markov chain model.

Hypothesis

The distribution & properties of rainfall occurrence is uneven and theirpositive as well as negative impact on agriculture planning

Materials and Methods

The present study depends upon Meteorological daily rainfall data

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collected from India Meteorological Department (IMD), Pune for 31 years(1980 to 2010), for 09 rain gauge stations. The daily rainfall data in aparticular year have been converted to weekly data. The long term meanand its maximum and minimum, standard deviation and co-efficient ofvariation of the rainfall in meteorological standard weeks (smw) have beencalculated (Table 1). The following Weibull’s formula has been used forcalculating percent probability of onset and withdrawal

P= (M/N+1)*100

Where, M- is the rank number and N- is the number of years of data used.

The concept of estimating probabilities with respect to a givenamount of rainfall is extremely useful for agricultural planning. In a cropgrowing season, many times decisions have to be taken based on theprobability of receiving certain amount of rainfall during a given week [P(W)] which is called “initial probability.” Then the probability of rain nextweek, if we had rain this week [P (W/W)] etc. are very important and arecalled “conditional probability.” These initial and conditional probabilitybecomes the basis for the analysis of rainfall using Markov chain process.

The information on initial and conditional probability were givenbased on weekly level using First Markov Chain Model (Equation 2to 7).(Probability of a week being dry or wet is under initial probability while incase of conditional probability, if a given period i is wet or dry, then thechance of (i+k) th period is wet and given as wet/wet or wet/dry areestimated. A threshold limit of 10 mm and 20 mm of rainfall were selectedas critical for different purposes of agricultural planning. The differentformulas used for this analysis are shown below;

Initial probabilities

Pd = Fd/N……..…….2)

PW = FW/N…………3)

Conditional probabilities

Pww = FWW/N….….4)

pwd =1-pdd….………5)

Pdw = 1- pww…….…6)

pdd = Fdd/N…………7)

Where, Pd = probability of the week being dry, pw – probability of week

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being wet, Fd = number of dry weeks, Fw = number of wet weeks, N =number of years of data, pdd = probability of a dry week preceded by a dryweek, pww = probability of a wet week preceded by a wet week, pwd =probability of a wet week preceded by a dry week, pdw = probability of adry week preceded by a wet week, Fdd= number of dry weeks precededby another dry week, Fww = number of wet week preceded by a wetweek. The collected data has been processed and analyzed by preparingvarious charts, maps and diagrams using Geographical Information System(G.I.S.) software.Table 1: Characterization of the main rainy season (1980-2010)

Particulars Week DateNO

Mean week of onset of the main rainy season 25 18-24 June

Earliest week of onset of the main rainy season 23 04-10 June

Delayed week of onset of the main rainy season 28 09-15 July

Mean week of withdrawal of the main rainy season 41 08-14 October

Earliest week of withdrawal of the main rainy season 36 03-09 September

Delayed week of withdrawal of the main rainy season 43 22-28 October

Mean length of the main rainy season  17 weeks (119 days)

Duration of the main rainy season    

Longest  21 weeks (147 days)

Shortest  9 weeks(63 days )

Source: Computed by the Researchers 2015

Table 2: Probability of onset and withdrawal of the main rainy season

Onset

Week 23 24 25 26 27 28    

P (%) 9.7 29 48.4 67.7 87.7 96.8    

Withdrawal

Week 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43

P (%) 6.5 16.1 29 35.5   48.4   96.8

Source: Computed by the Researchers 2015

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Results & Discussion

Onset and withdrawal of main rainy season at study region

The onset and withdrawal of the main rainy season at the study area is18thJune-24 th June and 8th -14th October respectively. According to Tableno.1, the main rainy season starts on the 25 th week (18th June -24 th June)and remains active upto the 41 st week (8th October -14th October). Thisimplies that the mean length of the main rainy season for the study region is17 weeks or 119 days. The earliest and delayed weeks of onset of the mainrainy season are 23 rd week (4thJune-10th June) and 28 th week (9th July-15th July) respectively. Similarly, the earliest and delayed week of withdrawalof the main rainy season are 36 th week (3rd September -9 th September)and 43 rd week (22nd October -28 th October) respectively.

Probability of main rainy season at the study area

The results of probabilities of onset and withdrawal of the main rainy seasonare presented in Table 2 and the results reveal that there are 96 % probabilitythat both the onset and withdrawal of the main rainy season will occurduring at 28 th and 43 rd week. There are no withdrawal probabilityoccurrences of main rainy season at 40 th and 42 nd weeks Therefore thesetwo weeks are not included in the probability calculation. The weeklyrainfall for mean, maximum, minimum, standard deviation and co-efficientof variation of the study area rainfall were calculated and the result isshown in Table 3, & Fig. 2. There are 17 weeks (23 rd to 39 th week) wherethe rainfall exceeds more than 20 mm and 3 weeks (40 th to 42 nd week)where rainfall is less than 20 mm during the main rainy season. Thecoefficient of variation during the main rainy season varies from maximumof 93.0 % at 23rd week to minimum of 50.7 % at the 28 th week. The co-efficient of variation at the onset and withdrawal weeks is 85.9 % and132.8% respectively for the study area during the main rainy season. Thethreshold limit for coefficient of variation for weekly rainfall should be lessthan 150 % (Senthilvelan et. al., 2012). During the rainy season in the studyregion if the coefficient of variation is less than 150 %, the lesser the variabilityof rainfall during rainy season showed the higher dependability of rainfall.Therefore, agricultural operation and growing rain fed crops is possibleduring the rainy season.

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Table 3: Descriptive statistics on weekly rainfall data. (1980-2010)

Week Mean Max Min S D CV (%)

W01 0.9 10.1 0.0 2.4 270.1

W02 0.7 10.2 0.0 2.3 328.8

W03 0.7 4.9 0.0 1.7 241.6

W04 0.4 5.7 0.0 1.2 278.6

W05 0.5 4.2 0.0 1.0 213.8

W06 1.0 7.6 0.0 2.2 229.5

W07 0.6 5.3 0.0 1.3 229.1

W08 0.7 7.8 0.0 1.7 241.9

W09 0.8 5.8 0.0 1.4 173.9

W10 1.2 11.6 0.0 2.9 256.0

W11 1.0 7.7 0.0 2.8 283.6

W12 0.6 7.8 0.0 1.5 259.0

W13 0.4 4.9 0.0 1.0 257.6

W14 0.6 4.2 0.0 1.1 191.4

W15 0.2 2.6 0.0 0.6 299.3

W16 0.1 0.9 0.0 0.2 278.5

W17 0.2 3.0 0.0 0.6 323.2

W18 0.3 5.4 0.0 1.0 302.4

W19 2.0 11.0 0.0 2.8 138.0

W20 1.4 9.6 0.0 2.2 152.8

W21 2.6 18.8 0.0 4.2 156.9

W22 3.8 17.5 0.0 4.4 116.9

W23 23.3 90.2 0.0 21.7 93.0

W24 34.8 90.9 4.2 21.6 62.1

W25 29.3 120.3 2.3 25.2 85.9

W26 34.9 109.6 8.1 24.4 70.1

W27 37.5 130.3 8.6 25.2 67.2

W28 37.0 79.1 3.4 18.7 50.7

W29 37.4 95.8 8.9 21.2 56.6

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W30 32.6 87.9 4.4 22.8 69.9

W31 27.7 135.0 3.0 24.9 89.9

W32 60.5 180.0 7.7 37.3 61.6

W33 45.2 168.2 8.2 34.1 75.5

W34 44.5 122.9 1.6 28.1 63.2

W35 36.9 100.1 6.6 25.4 68.9

W36 37.1 91.7 3.7 26.9 72.5

W37 30.1 90.2 4.4 22.9 76.0

W38 23.6 117.8 1.1 21.2 89.6

W39 21.0 66.6 3.5 18.8 89.5

W40 18.7 73.1 0.0 17.3 92.6

W41 14.1 65.3 0.0 17.7 125.5

W42 10.3 49.5 0.0 14.2 137.4

W43 4.3 33.4 0.0 7.3 171.2

W44 2.3 23.3 0.0 4.7 199.6

W45 4.9 27.2 0.0 6.1 124.5

W46 3.8 12.9 0.0 3.9 102.9

W47 2.4 11.4 0.0 3.3 134.7

W48 1.4 19.1 0.0 3.5 256.8

W49 1.9 16.1 0.0 3.9 205.0

W50 1.9 18.0 0.0 4.0 215.0

W51 1.6 19.1 0.0 4.4 276.6

W52 1.3 19.0 0.0 3.9 288.9

682.8 995.0 320.8 168.2 24.6

Source: Computed by the Researchers 2015

Initial and conditional probabilities of main rainy season

The initial and conditional probability of 10 and 20 mm thresholdlimit rainfall are summarized in Table 4 & 5 for all 52 weeks. However, thisarticle discusses only initial and conditional probability of dry and wet weekduring the main rainy season (25 th to 41 st week).Considering 20mm thresholdlimit, the initial and conditional probability of dry weeks ranges from 9 to 80% and 74 to 90 % respectively.The first week of the main rainy season, the

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chances of occurrence of dry week (pd) and dry week preceded by dryweek (pdd) are 31 and 77 % respectively. Similarly, at the end of the mainrainy season, dry week (pd) and dry week preceded by dry week (pdd) hasa chance of 80 % and 84 % occurrences respectively. During the mainrainy season, the initial and conditional probability of wet weeks rangesfrom 16 to 87 % and 0.0 to 77.0 % respectively. In the first week of themain rainy season chance of occurrence of wet week (pw) and wet weekpreceded by wet week (pww) is 65 and 35 % respectively. Similarly, at theend of the main rainy season, wet week (pw) and wet week preceded bywet week (pww) has a chance of 16 and 0.0 % occurrences respectively.

Table 4: Initial and conditional probabilities at 10 mm threshold limit of rainfall.

Initial Probabilities (%) Conditional Probabilities (%)

Week Pd Pw Pdd Pww Pwd Pdw

W01 93.0 3.0 90.0 3.0 10.0 97

W02 93.0 3.0 90.0 3.0 10.0 97

W03 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

W04 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

W05 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

W06 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

W07 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

W08 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

W09 96.0 0.0 90.0 0.0 10.0 100

W10 90.0 6.0 84.0 6.0 16.0 94

W11 93.0 3.0 90.0 3.0 10.0 97

W12 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

W13 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

W14 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

W15 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

W16 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

W17 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

W18 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

W19 93.0 3.0 94.0 3.0 6.0 97

W20 93.0 3.0 90.0 3.0 10.0 97

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W21 93.0 3.0 90.0 3.0 10.0 97

W22 86.0 10.0 81.0 10.0 19.0 90

W23 25.0 71.0 13.0 52.0 87.0 48

W24 6.0 90.0 3.0 87.0 97.0 13

W25 6.0 90.0 3.0 81.0 97.0 19

W26 3.0 93.0 3.0 84.0 97.0 16

W27 0.0 96.0 3.0 84.0 97.0 16

W28 6.0 90.0 3.0 84.0 97.0 16

W29 3.0 93.0 3.0 94.0 97.0 6

W30 13.0 83.0 13.0 71.0 87.0 29

W31 16.0 80.0 13.0 68.0 87.0 32

W32 3.0 93.0 7.0 90.0 93.0 10

W33 3.0 93.0 10.0 90.0 90.0 10

W34 6.0 90.0 23.0 84.0 77.0 16

W35 10.0 86.0 23.0 77.0 77.0 23

W36 6.0 90.0 23.0 84.0 77.0 16

W37 13.0 83.0 19.0 74.0 81.0 26

W38 16.0 80.0 35.0 65.0 65.0 35

W39 32.0 64.0 61.0 39.0 39.0 61

W40 32.0 64.0 58.0 42.0 42.0 58

W41 55.0 41.0 81.0 26.0 19.0 74

W42 68.0 28.0 48.0 16.0 52.0 84

W43 87.0 9.0 77.0 10.0 23.0 90

W44 93.0 3.0 84.0 3.0 16.0 97

W45 77.0 19.0 61.0 3.0 39.0 97

W46 77.0 19.0 71.0 13.0 29.0 87

W47 93.0 3.0 84.0 6.0 16.0 94

W48 93.0 3.0 90.0 3.0 10.0 97

W49 90.0 6.0 84.0 6.0 16.0 94

W50 90.0 6.0 84.0 6.0 16.0 94

W51 90.0 6.0 84.0 6.0 16.0 94

W52 90.0 6.0 84.0 6.0 16.0 94

Source: Computed by the Researchers 2015

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At 10 mm per week threshold limit, the probability of occurrencesof initial and conditional probability is 90 and 81 % respectively for 25 th

week at the start of the main rainy season. Therefore the land preparationcould be undertaken in 24 th week. At 20 mm per week threshold limit, theconditional probability of wet week (pww) during the main rainy season ismore than 50 % with a value of 61 % for 27 th week. Therefore 27 th weekis the right week for planting at the study area. On 27th week a meanrainfall amount of 37.5 mm was contributed and this amount of rainfall isgood for germination and there will be no moisture stress during thegermination period. At rainfall amount of more than 25 mm, there won’tbe moisture stress and it is good for germination period.

At 20 mm threshold the probability of dry week (pd) being morethan 50 % is during 38 th, 52 nd and 23rd week and also the chance of dryweek preceded by dry week (pdd) is more than 50 % during 23rd to 41st

week for the main rainy season, during those dry weeks specifically at theend of the main rainy seasonTablse 5: Initial and conditional probabilities at 20 mm threshold limit of rainfall.

INITIAL PROBABILITIES (%) CONDITIONAL PROBABILITIES (%)

Week Pd Pw Pdd Pww Pwd Pdw

W01 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

W02 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

W03 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

W04 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

W05 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

W06 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

W07 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

W08 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

W09 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

W10 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

W11 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

W12 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

W13 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

W14 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

W15 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

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117

W16 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

W17 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

W18 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

W19 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

W20 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

W21 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

W22 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

W23 51.0 45.0 77.0 26.0 23.0 74

W24 19.0 77.0 84.0 58.0 16.0 42

W25 31.0 65.0 77.0 35.0 23.0 65

W26 31.0 65.0 77.0 39.0 23.0 61

W27 15.0 81.0 84.0 61.0 16.0 39

W28 15.0 81.0 87.0 65.0 13.0 35

W29 19.0 77.0 84.0 58.0 16.0 42

W30 31.0 65.0 74.0 35.0 26.0 65

W31 35.0 61.0 77.0 35.0 23.0 65

W32 9.0 87.0 87.0 71.0 13.0 29

W33 10.0 86.0 90.0 77.0 10.0 23

W34 23.0 73.0 84.0 58.0 16.0 42

W35 29.0 67.0 84.0 52.0 16.0 48

W36 35.0 61.0 77.0 39.0 23.0 61

W37 42.0 54.0 81.0 32.0 19.0 68

W38 55.0 41.0 74.0 13.0 26.0 87

W39 65.0 31.0 74.0 10.0 26.0 90

W40 57.0 39.0 87.0 23.0 13.0 77

W41 80.0 16.0 84.0 0.0 16.0 100

W42 83.0 13.0 90.0 3.0 10.0 97

W43 90.0 6.0 94.0 0.0 6.0 100

W44 93.0 3.0 97.0 0.0 3.0 100

W45 93.0 3.0 97.0 0.0 3.0 100

W46 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

Distribution and Properties of Rainfall Occurrences in Drought inMaharashtra

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W47 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

W48 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

W49 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

W50 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

W51 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

W52 96.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

Source: Computed by the Researchers 2015

Supplementary irrigation and moisture conservation practice needto be undertaken. The probability of a wet week (pw) being more than 75% is during 32 nd. The probability of wet week preceded by wet week(pww) being more than 60 % is during 27th ,28th ,32nd and 33rd week.Inaddition 27 th,28 th to 29 th, 32 nd to 36 th week have weekly rainfall morethan 35 mm. Therefore, during these week’s harvesting of excess amountof run-off water for supplemental irrigation and soil erosion control measuresneed to be practiced.

Conclusion and Suggestions

During rainy season the mean weekly rainfall is found to be more than 40mm during 32nd -34th smw and found to be less than 20 mm during 22nd -1st

smw and 40th -52nd smw. The coefficient of variation during rainy seasonvaries from 93.0 % (23rd smw) to 125.5 % (41st smw). The weeklycontribution of rainfall towards annual average rainfall is found to be highestduring 26th -36th smw accounting to 63.0 % of the average annual rainfall.With the results derived from detail analysis of rainfall, one can use theseresults for agricultural planning. Here are some recommendations foragricultural planning. It is clear from the results that since, probability ofoccurrence of wet week is more than 35 % during 23rd -24th smw andaverage weekly rainfall ranges from 23.3 to 34.8 mm, this pre monsoonrain can be utilized for summer ploughing and initial seed bed preparations,

The mean onset of rainy season is found to be 25th smw. So, during24th smw (11th -17th June), the sowing operations can be taken up since, theprobability of wet week is more than 45 % and average weekly rainfall ismore than 25 mm . Sowing operations taken at 24th smw helps for goodgermination of seeds and helps in avoiding moisture stress for germinationperiod during 24th -26th smw. In the event of delayed start of rainy season,the sowing operation can be taken up latest by 28th smw (9th -15th July) andfurther delay in sowing that cause very low productivity and crop failure.

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Since, mean length of rainy season is observed to be 17 weeks (119 days),during kharip, short duration crops of groundnut, maize, pigenpea, greengram, sunflower, cowpea and other low water required crops which havehigh return value can be taken up.

Another advantage of growing short duration cereals,pulses andoilseeds in first fortnight of June is that these can be harvested by the endof September. (39th smw) and short duration rabi crops can be sown during40th -43rd smw (1st October- 28th October). Since winter rainfall is uncertainand erratic than South-West monsoon, growing of high value Rabi cropswithout supplementary irrigation would be very riskey. The significantcontribution of weekly rainfall (> 40 mm during 32nd -34th smw and highconsecutive wet week probability during 32nd -35th smw, hints for potentialscope of harvesting excess runoff water for future supplemental irrigations.Similarly, high consecutive dry week probabilities after 44th smw, hints forneed of supplementary irrigations and moisture conservation practices tobe taken up.

References:Agrawal, A.,Singh, R.V., Chauhan, H.S., (1984),”Probability of sequence of wet and dry

days in Nainital Tarai region. J Agri. Engineering (ISAE), 1984; 21 (4); 61.70.

Babuan, P.N., Lakshminarayana, P. (1971), “Rainfall Analysis of a Dry Land Watershed”.J. Indian Water Resource. 17: 34-38.

Chattopadhyay, N. and Ganesan, G.S., 1995, “Relative contribution of energy andaerodynamic terms to potential evapotranspiration at Madras”, Mausam, 46, 3,263-274.

Dash M.K.,Senapati P.C.(1992). Forcasting of dry and wet spell at Bhubaneswar foragricultural planning. Indian J. Soil Consev.10 (1-2); 75-82.

Dixit, A.J., Yadav,S.T. and Kokate, K.D., 2005, “The variability of rainfall in Konkanregion. J. Agrometeo., 7: 322- 324.

Gupta, S.K., Babu, R. and Tejwani, K.G., 1975, “Weekly rainfall of India for planningcropping programme”, Soil Consev. Digest, 3, 1, 31-36

Kumar,D and Kumar,S. 1989, “Rainfall distribution pattern using frequency analysis”. J.Agric.Engg. 26, 1, 33-38.

Mandal,K.G, Kumar, A.,Ghosh, S., Kundu D.K., Panda, R.K., Mohanty ,R.K. ,Raychaudhari, M., Padhi, J., Majhi, P., Sahoo, D.K.(2013).Analysis of Rainfalland soil Charecteristics of kuanria Canal Command for Water ResourcesManagement.Research Bulletin.

Menkar M.Erkosa T. (2006). Rian water management to enhance rainfed agriculture inEthiopia. Proceeding of the eighth conference: 37-56.

Nemichandrappa,M, Balakrishnan,P. and Senthilvel,S.,2010 “ Probability and confidence

Distribution and Properties of Rainfall Occurrences in Drought inMaharashtra

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limit analysis of rainfall in Raichur region” ,Karnataka J. Agic. Sci., 23, 5,737-741.

Pandharinarh, N. (1991). Markov chain model probability of dry and wet weeks duringmonsoon period over Andhra Pradesh 42 (4); 393-400.

Panigrahi, B. and Panda,S.N.(2002), Dry spell probability by Markov chain model and itsapplication to crop planning Indian J.Soil Consn. 30:95 -100.

Prakash, C. and Rao D.H., 1986, “Frequency analysis of rain data for crop planning Kota”,Indian J. of Soil Cons., 14, 2, 23-23

Reddy GVS,Bhaskar SR, Purohit RC,Chittora AK (2008), Markov chain model probabilityof dry, wet weeks and statistical analysis of weekly rainfall for agricultural planningat Bangalore, Karnataka J. Agric. Sci 21(1).

Reddy GVS. Et. al. (2008). Markov chain model probability of dry, wet weeks and statisticalanalysis of weekly rainfall for agricultural planning at Bangalore, Karnataka. J.Agri. Sci...21 (1).

Senthilvelan A. & et.al.(2012). Markov chain model for probability of weekly rainfall inOrathanadu Taluk, Thanjavur District, Tamilnadu. Int. J. Geomatics Geosci.3 (1).

Shahraki, N.,Bakhtiari, B., Ahmadi, M.M.,(2012).”Markov chain model for probability ofdry, wet days and statistical analysis of daily rainfall in some climatic zone of Iran:pp. 399-406.

Singh,G.& et.al.(2013). Precipitatiion management under rice based cropping system; Acasestudy for transect 4 of indo- gangitic plain. Int.J. Agron. Plant prod. 4 (5); 3782-3790.

Srinivasa Reddy,G.V. et.al.,(2008),Markov Chain Model Probability of Dry, Wet Weekand Statistical Analysis of Weekly Rainfall for Agricultural Planning at Bangalore,Karnataka journal of agricultural sciences, 21 (1), pp 12-16.

Subbulakshmi,S.,Selvaraju,R. and Manickasundaram,S.,2005, “Rainfall probability analysisfor crop planning in selected locations of Tamil Nadu”, Madras Agric.J.,92,1-3,76-83.

Subramaniam, V. (1987): Review Committee appointed by the Maharashtra State Govt.

Yemenu F.Chemeda, D.(2010).Climate resources analysis for use of planning incrop.production and rainfall water management in the central highlands ofEthiopia,the case of Bishoftu district,Oromia region. J. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci.(HESS). (7); 3733-3763.

Yemenu,F, Chemeda D (2013), dry and wet analysis of the two rainy season for decisionsupport in agricultural water management for crop production in central highlandsof Ethiopia. J. Biol. Agric. Health Care 3 (11); 1-6.

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CHAPTER - 9

Climate Change and Community BasedForest ManagementC. Hmingsangzuala*, P. Rinawma**

Introduction

Forest plays a vital role for the well-being of living organism in severalways. And, conversely people take part a major part in either making theforests more productive or gradually destroying which directly or indirectlyinfluence the atmospheric conditions in the earth surface. It is importantthat the forests get the right value because it is essential for the peopleliving and recognize the impact is of unsustainable exploitation but also tounderstand how much this exploitation is costing the environment and thewhole world globally (Smith, 2012).

Climate change is when the average long-term weather patternsof a region are altered for an extended period of time, typically decades orlonger (Allison, 2010). The Earth’s climate has never been completely staticand in the past the planet’s climate has possible changed due to naturalcauses such as volcanic eruptions, variations in earth orbit or changes inthe sun’s intensity. Around 13 million hectares of forest were converted toother uses or lost through natural causes each year between 2000 and2010. The world has an estimated 850 million hectares of degraded forests,which could potentially be restored and rehabilitated to bring back lostbiodiversity and ecosystem services, and, at the same time, contribute toclimate change mitigation and adaptation (FAO, 2010).

*Research Scholar, Professor**, Dept of Geography, MZU Corresponding author:[email protected]

Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation (2015) : 121-132 Sati,V. P. et al. (Ed),Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002

ISBN: 81-8019-518-3 (India) ISBN: 1-55528-374-8 (USA)

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Human activities like the burning of fossil fuels, industrialproduction, etc., increase greenhouse gas levels. This traps more heat inour atmosphere, which drives global warming and climate change (UNEP,2011). Human activities have caused the Earth’s average temperature toincrease by more than 0.75°C over the last 100 years (World Bank Report,2010). According to the IPCC, the average temperature of the earth’ssurface has risen by 0.74 degrees C since the late 1800s and it is projectedto increase by another 1.1 to 6.4 degrees C by the year 2099. The sea levelrose on average by 10 to 20 cm during the 20th century, and an additionalincrease of 0.18 to 0.59 cm is projected by the end of the current century.Carbon emissions from deforestation and degradation account for about 20per cent of global anthropogenic emissions (IPCCWGI, 2007). The increasinganthropogenesis activities like burning of fossils fuels, conversion of foreststo agricultural land at unprecedented rates and other activities certainlycausing momentous boost in the levels of Carbon dioxide (CO2) andGreenhouse gases in the atmosphere. These changes could lead to globalwarming at an unprecedented rate and could have serious implication forflora and fauna. There is a growing consciousness that in order to conserveenvironment and for a healthier climate the deforestation of land has to bechecked by various means in diverse corner.

The role of forest and forest management in our everyday life isobvious. Shrinking forests and lack of and/ or failure of forestry have becomeglobal issues (Bhattacharya, 2001). Forest are the best conditioner ofenvironment and are the best sink for CO2 (next only to the ocean) andrecycle about 18000 million tones of this compound every year (Jha, 1999).As a result of the cutting of the forest nearly 1 per cent of the land surfaceof the country is being laid bare every year (Jha, 1999). Deforestation isbound to cause sinking of oxygen with enormous increasing green houseeffect. It also causes isolation of rural people from natural environment andimbalance cultural or ethical which disturbed historical importance. It ismainly caused by rapid growth of population. Population explosion is notexpanding the size of the world’s ‘dining table’ (beside turnings this worldinto a competing forest of cement and mortar), but it also creating a crisisof resources, through the material depletion and through replacing a recurringproductive cycle with a dead end (Jha, 1999). In Mizoram, decrease offorest cover in the state is due to shortening of shifting cultivation cycle andbiotic pressure (FSI report, 2011).

However, forests, when sustainably managed can have a centralrole in climate change mitigation and adaptation. High-quality forestmanagement secures the survival of forest ecosystems and enhances their

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environmental, socio cultural and economic functions. It can both maximizeforest contribution to climate change mitigation and help forests and forest-dependent people adapt to new conditions caused by climate change.Accordingly, climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts must providesynergies and be balanced with other national and local forest objectives(Nayak, 2002).

Community Based Forest Management

Forest management is the process of planning and implementing practicesfor the stewardship and use of forests and other wooded land aimed atachieving specific environmental, economic, social and/or cultural objectives.(FAO, Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005)

Community based forest management is the management, bycommunities or smallholders, of forests and agro forests they own, as wellas the management of state-owned forests (some of which share customarytenure and rights under traditional laws and practice) by communities(Molnar et al). It constitutes “a powerful paradigm that evolved out of thefailure of state forest governance to ensure the sustainability of forestresources and the equitable distribution of access to and benefits fromthem” (Guiang et al).

And, therefore, Community-based forest management is themanagement of forest by community with accessing planning and decisionmaking which includes a varying degree of civic participation, maximizedall sources knowledge and interest in conservation including local users,those with vested interests and indigenous groups endeavor to empowerlocal people to take an active role in improving conservation and developmentfor the benefits of local communities and acts as an enhancement of globalenvironmental improvement, and makes use of all human resources availablefor conservation. Community participation alone is limited, however, in itsability to exert influence on a large scale. Good governance and policiesare needed to complement, support and encourage community participation(Keller, 2009).

Forest Governance and Policies

Strategies for adapting and mitigating the effects of an increased greenhouseeffect are presently being considered at the national, regional andinternational level. It is important to observe the world forest managementproblems not only the level of the community, or even the nation, but asintegral components of a global system which shapes the way and rate offorest resources are exploited and used and which therefore determines

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how it effect environment. Eliciting authentic community participation inforest management is difficult and time-consuming in developed countriesand even more so in developing nations. But evidence it has conformed oneof the principle lessons from resource management projects; thatsustainability of forest resource depends strongly on the effectiveparticipation of local people. This means more than participation asbeneficiaries or as paid employees. Rather, it means participation in decisionmaking, in problem identification, project design and implementation, andmonitoring and evaluation. Establishment of a process of local participationhas proved to be a more effective method of sustaining forest resourcesthan approaches that attempt to deliver economic benefits without involvinglocal people or building commitment to the outcome of the forest resourcemanagement (Bhattacharya, 2001).

The forest policies and acts tend to reflect the changed global view,and community participation is worldwide accepted as a concept andessential tool for the sustainability of forest resource management.Shrinkage and degradation of forest mainly because of phenomenal increasein the biotic pressure in the developing countries and over consumption inthe developed countries which created a rapid dilemma in global climaticchange, has specially attracted the attention of the forest policies of differentcountries and the world as a whole (Bhattacharya, 2001). Therecommendation of Rio Earth Summit and Agenda 21 on Sustainable ForestManagement Centre around community participation and the necessity forcommunity participation for Sustainable Forest Management has been clearlyspelt out in various chapters. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) hasreleased elaborate guidelines and recommendations on people’s participationin rural development and criteria and indicators of sustainable forestmanagement (FAO, 1992 &1996). UNESCO promotes self reliance amongcountries of the humid and sub-humid tropics in research and managementand to encourage the continuing participation of various sectors of thecommunity in these activities. UNEP convention on Biological Diversity on5th June 1992 recognizing the close and traditional dependence of manyindigenous and local communities embodying traditional lifestyles onbiological resources, and also support and provide for the participation ofthe interest parties in the development, implementation and planning ofnational forest policies. World Bank project also focus on change in forestryprogramme with special reference to the role of forests in rural developmentand environment particularly watershed management.

At national scenario, though very little is known about themanagement of forests before the advent of the British, a perusal of the

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travelogues of the early 19th century and the Gazetteers gives us a pictureof well-wooded country whose pasture and forest resources were controlledand fairly managed by the local village community (Ghate, 1992). Duringthe British Period (1855-1947), The Government Forest Act, 1865, IndianForest Act 1878, National Forest Policy 1894, Indian Forest Act 1927 wasmainly concerned about exploitation and utilization of forest resources,maximization of forest revenue and the centralization of the forestadministration. After Independence, there was some rethinking on the issueof forest policy which emphasized ecological and social aspects of forestryand gave secondary importance to the needs of commerce and industry asalso to the needs for revenue.

The National Forest Policy of 1988 and the Central GovernmentGuidelines for Joint Forest Management of 1990 made radical shifts fromthe previous forest policies, most specifically the National Forest Policy of1952 which focused on forests for timber and stressing the need of industryand defense, and the recommendations of the National Commission onAgriculture 1976, which had approved commercial forestry to continue onforest land. Thus, the 1988 National Forest Policy proposed the creation ofa people’s movement to protect forest resources of the country. Followingits footsteps in June 1990, the Central Government issued a circular onJoint Forest Management to operation participatory forest managementand addressing the community forest protection activities in India (Nayak,2002). This was the beginning of many new initiatives to associate localvillager and NGOs with protecting forests for the mutual benefits of thevillage community and the government.

There have been enormous changes in the forest managementsetting of the country over the last few decades, still persist loopholes insome management schemes. According to India State of Forest Report2011, the forest cover between the assessment periods (2009-2011) reflectsthe actual change on the ground during intervening period. The real changecan be attributed to either management interventions such as harvesting ofshort rotational plantations, clearances in encroached areas, biotic pressures,shifting cultivation practices etc. After taking into account the interpretationalchanges, the actual or real change in forest cover between the twoassessment period works out to 367 sq km on the negative side. At thecountry level, there is net improvement of 43 sq km in very dense forestand 498 sq km in moderate dense forest category. Open forest area hasreduced by 908 sq km. Only 23.41 per cent of the total geographical area iscovered by forest.

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Community Forest Management through Preservation of HistoricalSites and Monuments: A Lesson for Broader Initiative Measures

Every community and society has a very precious heritage which has to beand can be transferred to the next generation and it is the responsibility ofthe civil society to reassign that heritage to the future generation. One ofthe most exciting aspects of forest management today in tribal areas is theway in which native peoples are seeking to protect archaeological andhistoric sites and cultural resources which are found in various part of theland. The preservation and restoration of historical sites and monumentplays a cultural, economic and environmental role. It includes conservationof historic elements along with its adjacent spot. Forest is a communalproperty with no individual staking any claim to them though all the individualshad recourse to forests for their needs. For tribal in particular, the forestsremained a life-blood. The symbiotic relationship of the tribal with the forestconstituted the foundation of the independence of the tribal from the outsideworld (Ghate, 1992). Relationship between preservation of historic elementand forests intimately play an important role to strengthen or rebuildcommunities which can have long-term environmental and cultural impacts.This type of preservation goes hand in hand to the community of Chawngtlaivillage from the last decades.

Profile of the Village

Chawngtlai village in Champhai district was purposely selected for the studybecause of the preservation of forests through conservation of historicalsites and monuments by community with the help of Welfare committee,NGOs and village council. In 2014, it had a population of 1,925 divided into342 households all belonging to the Mizo tribe and spread over a geographicalarea of 3148 hectares. It is lies between 230 26’57" North and 930 12’42’’East with a highly vegetative cover, flat land and part of undulatingtopography. Out of the total geographical area of 3,148 hectares, 2,300hectares (73.06%) is under community land, 120 hectares covered by denseforest (3.81%), reserved forest (Government, NGOs & community safety)613 hectares (3.59%), Wet rice cultivation, Horticulture and other landbased activities covered 413 hectares (13.03%), uncultivable Barren land -150 hectares (4.76%) and 52 hectares (1.65%) is built-up land.

Formation of the Community Participation

Rural to Urban migration has long been associated with economicdevelopment and growth of rural people in Mizoram. Many villagers movefrom one place to another in search of better standard of living, better

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education and opportunity of jobs. More than 300 family were shifted theiroriginal place of Chawngtlai to Aizawl after statehood. The rapid increasingmigrated people who are resides in the capital city automatically tends toimprove their native place when they found a lot of development in the city.In 1995, they were formed Chawngtlai Welfare Committee (CWC), Aizawlto promote their member within the city as well as Chawngtlai village. TheGeneral Headquarter of CWC located at Aizawl and people who are livingin various parts of the world can become a member of this welfare group ifthey are accepted themselves as a member of Chawngtlai village.

Chawngtlai Historical Village Committee (CHVC) also establishedin order to preserve historical sites and monuments within the village andalso try to endorse tourism industry with the help of CWC and other Non-Government Organization like YMA, MHIP and MUP. All the communitymember who are living inside the village and other work together for thepreservation and restoration of historical sites and monuments for thedevelopment of village economy which direct and indirectly formulateextension of forest cover.

Management Operation Effort by Community

Chawngtlai Welfare Committee organized a long-term developmentprogramme i,e., preservation of historical sites and monuments collaborationof historical committee with inhabitant people in all sphere of developmentalschemes. The committee thought that development make more and moreplaces to become important for communities to keep their identitiesintact. Even striking historical monuments can help to define a communityand hint at its past. The sense of history can contribute to community pride,and to a better understanding of present situation. Preservation of historicalelements can add character and/or charm to a community, and emphasizeits uniqueness. If historical elements are historically significant or unusual,they can also be a source of community pride, and lead to other improvements.It can also attract investment and change the nature of a deterioratingneighborhood or an area restored to its original appearance could serve asa magnet for tourists, and provide jobs for local residents. Local residentscould also be employed in rehabilitation or restoration as artisans or workers,if they have the skills, or as trainees. In the latter case, many local peoplemay have developed enough competencies as carpenters or the like to startnew career. Deliberate scheme for the conservation of historical sites andmonuments are a relatively recent phenomenon. In several countriesconservation services have existed for, at the most, about a hundred years.During this period, principles have evolved, and new techniques have

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developed. on 21st February 2014, Chawngtlai was declared as the ‘MizoHistorical Village’ by the villagers because of its historical contributiontowards defending Mizo and Zoram from foreign invaders, and also attemptto preserve historical elements, reconstruction of monuments. Started manymore projects like setting up of Pipu Chhuahtlang – procurement ofequipments and historical values in return which directly relates to tourismand refurbishes monuments of the past still existed in the locality, consideringshowcase of the past bravest chief of Mizo, Nikuala who sacrificed his lifefor Mizoram from foreign clutch and control of them. Village people arealso wholehearted in this programme and the entire community explorestheir full capability with involving their full potential under the dominion ofCWC, CHVC, NGOs and Village Council. The major effectiveperformances of Chawngtlai village community are as under:-

1) Some of the above protected historical sites and monuments were placedon forest cover land and all the surrounded area also protected. So, alarge tract of land (around 613 hectares) has been retained bycommunity. It means that 5 sq km community land becomes a reservedforest in the village within a very short span of time.

2) Voluntarily, every family planted trees nearby house, and the villagedweller planted more than 5,000 trees in barren land, road side, andforest area.

3) More than 4,000 flowers are also planted to flourish the village.

4) The village attracts more than 6,000 tourists from neighboring stateand abroad.

5) Various projects – setting up of Mizo typical village, Thangchhuah Mual,Mizo Snares corner, Museum of Mizo, Zo tree fruits corner, Mizo chiefcorner, Mizo Warriors Corner, Mizo medicinal Corner, Mizo currycorner, Unique and prominent ancient Mizo corner, Chief Nikuala andhis Warriors corner has been implemented to renovate Mizo culturewhich expected more than 500 hectares of forests should also keepback after completion of these projects.

Restructure, novelty new techniques of forest conservation forclimate change

Climate related deteriorations on the monumental buildings occur in variousparts of the world. The international community widely agrees that climatechange will constitute one of the major challenges of the 21st century,calling for an integrated approach to issues of environmental preservation

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and sustainable development. The expert meeting took place on 16th and17th March, 2006 at the UNESCO headquarters in Paris and resulted in thepreparation of a report on predicting and managing the effects of climatechange on World Heritage, as well as a strategy to assist States Parties tothe WH Convention to implement appropriate management responses. Atits 30th session in July 2006, the World Heritage Committee reviewed thesetwo documents and took the decision to request all the States Parties toimplement the strategy so as to protect the outstanding universal values,integrity and authenticity of the World Heritage sites from the adverseimpacts of climate change.

Global climate change challenged to find a way of living that willensure the longevity and health of our environmental, economic, and socialresources. The National Trust for Historic Preservation initiated itsSustainability Initiative to help preservationists, environmentalists, policymakers, and the public understand preservation’s value in fosteringsustainable development. The concept of sustainability (defined anddiscussed more below) provides a holistic lens through which toevaluate the environmental, economic and social costs and benefits ofchanges to the built environment (Frey, 2007). According to the AncientMonuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958 ( No. 24 of1958), if someone destroys, removes, injures, alters, defaces, imperils ormisuses a protected monument s/he shall be punishable with imprisonmentwhich may extend to three months, or with a fine which may extend to fivethousand rupees, or with both. Federal Emergency Management Agency(FEMA) also uses preserving historic, cultural and natural aspects of nationalheritage for practical means and measures to protect, restore and enhancethe quality of the environment, to avoid or minimize adverse impacts of theenvironment.

Though the conservation of forest is frequently ensured throughlegislation and policies at international and national level, cooperation betweencommunity and government/agency is very week at the actual ground. Thepresent study reveals that one of the most important ineffective forestmanagement strategies is unwillingness or inability at various levels ofgovernment to involve local community in a meaningful ways. Social capital,comprising community confidence, mutuality, trust, institutional environment,social networks, leadership pattern, and community collectivity, remainslow in uncertain situations emerging out of insecurities. This obviously leadsto intra as well as inter community conflicts, thus reducing mutual respectand recognition between communities. In the absence of assurances thatthe forest would be available to the village community’s institution of rule

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making becomes a stop gap arrangement (Nayak, 2002). In recent years,people are becoming more and more conscious of the unity of human valuesand regard ancient monuments as a common heritage. The commonresponsibility to safeguard them for future generations is recognized. It isour duty to hand them on in the full richness of their authenticity (EuropeanCommission, 2010). The very big question is that how far the problemstook place by the earth due to climate related dilemma? Is it necessary toreconstruct climate change adaptation and mitigation policy? What measureswill be initiates to undertake effectively this global threat?

Conclusion

Climate change may be one of the greatest threats facing the planet whichshow increasing temperatures in various regions or increasing extremitiesin weather patterns, and there is now remarkable scientific consensus thatit is mainly occurrence by human-induced. With steadfastly increasing globalwarming, chances for ecosystems to adapt naturally are diminishing. Thisformulates an alarming rate of conservation to check immensely escalatingclimatic change over the earth. The suggestion may move towards theconservation of historical sites and monuments along with its surroundingarea, participating local community for planning, decision making, problemidentification, project design and implementation, monitoring and evaluationand also involve in creative functions in their respective vicinity. If climaterelated deteriorations of monuments is a burning issue or if the climatechange affects various problems like global warming, corrosion of historicalelements etc., the policy drive in the course of community based forestmanagement through preservation of historical sites and monuments forexpansion of forest cover to reduce carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, andthis might attracts a large amount of tourist to give a greater opportunity foreconomic development and adaptive responses especially in rural areas ofthe world who have heartfelt relation with forest and historic associationsmay perhaps generate perceptible influence of the climatic change directlyor indirectly in an optimal matter.

References:Allison, Ian (2010) The science of climate change: questions and answers, Australian

Academy of Science, Canberra

Bhatacharya, Kumar, Ajoy (2001) Community Participation and Sustainable ForestDevelopment: Global Perspective, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi.

Clesia, William, M (1998) Climate change, Forests and Forest Management, An overview,Daya Publishing House, New Delhi.

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GOI (2011) India State of Forest Report 20011, Forest Survey of India (Ministry ofEnvironment & Forest) Government of India, Dehradun

FAO (1996) Participation in Practice – lessons from People’s Participation Programme,Rome Italy

FAO (2005) Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005 Progress towards Sustainableforest Management, Rome, Italy

Frey, Patrice (2007) Making the Case: Historic Preservation as Sustainable Development,

A draft White Paper presented in advance of the Sustainable Preservation Research RetreatOctober 2007, hosted by the National Trust for Historic Preservation.

Ghate, Rucha S (1992) Forest Policy and Tribal Development, A study of Maharashtra,Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi.

IPCCAR4WG1 (2007), Solomon, S.; Qin, D.; Manning, M.; Chen, Z.; Marquis, M.;Averyt, K.B.; Tignor, M.; and Miller, H.L., ed., Climate Change 2007: The PhysicalScience Basis, Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Reportof the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press

Jha, J.K. (1999) Deforestation and Village Life, Mittal Publications, New Delhi.

Keller, Dennis (2009) Community Participation in Sustainable Forest Management, SriLanka, European Tropical Forest Research Network, Issue No. 50, November2009 p-66

Molnar, Augusta, France Marina, Purdy Lopaka and Karver Jonathan (2011) Community-Based Forest Management, The Extent and Potential Scope of Community andSmallholder Forest Management and Enterprises, Rights and Resources Initiative,Washington

Nayak, Prateep, K (2002) Community-Based Forest Management in India: The Issue ofTenurial Significance, Paper presented at the 9 th Biennial Conference of theInternational Association for the Study of Common Property,17th - 21st June 2002,Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe.

NLUP implementing Board, Mizoram (2013) Rural Land Use Plan for New Land UseProject, Mizoram, Volume-II ( Champhai, Kolasib and Serchhip District), NLUPimplementing Board, Aizawl, Mizoram.

Rethy, P. Dabral PP Singh & Binay. Sood K.K. (2003) Forest Conservation andManagement, International Book Distributors, Dehradun

Smith, Tierney (2012) The Role of Forests in Combating Climate Change, http://www.rtcc.org/2012/09/30/why-are-forests-important-for-climate-change/ 2 nd

October 2012, 4:54 pm

Sekar, Gana, Arul, S (2001) Forestry and Rural Development: Planning and Management,Kanishka Publisher, New Delhi.

Skutsch Margaret M (2003) Community Based Forest Management as a Climate Strategy(with carbon as a non-timber forest product), Technology and Development GroupUniversity of Twente, Netherlands

Climate Change and Community Based Forest Management

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UNESCO/UNEP (2011) Climate Change Starter’s Guidebook: An issues guide for educationplanners and practitioners. United Nations Educational, Scientific and CulturalOrganization and the United Nations Environment Programme, 2011, Paris

United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (1972) Preserving andRestoring Monuments and Historic Buildings, Arts Graphiques Coop Suisse,Switzerland

World Bank (2010) World Development Report 2010: Development and climate change,Oxford University Press, Washington

World Resources Institute, IUCN, UNEP (1992) Global Biodiversity Strategy, IUCN,Gland, Switzerland.

http://whc.unesco.org/documents/publi_climatechange

http://www.icbse.com/topics/protect-heritage-monuments

http://www.fema.gov/about-agency

[email protected]

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CHAPTER - 10

Rainfall, Agriculture and Socio-economicTransformation: A Study from Kalchini Blockof Alipurduar District in North Bengal, IndiaMahua Sengupta* and Suman Chakrabarty**

Introduction

According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC),increasing average global temperatures will have a number of impacts tothe hydrological cycle, including changes in precipitation. Changes in rainfalland other forms of precipitation will be one of the most critical factors inthe coming days, though the magnitude of overall increase in precipitationis uncertain. The changes are expected to differ from region-to-region,with some areas becoming wetter and others becoming dryer (WRF, 2015).

The evolution of monsoon rainfall in Southeast Asian countries canbe understood by the trends of rainfall totals compiled from various sources.Through the application of General Circulation Models (GCMs), an uncertainresponse of summer monsoon precipitation was recorded (IPCC, 2007).The substantial variability of onset and duration of the summer monsoonexerts a strong control on water resources, agriculture, economics,ecosystems, and human mortality throughout South Asia. The effect hasalready been found on 24th July 2004, as northeastern India and Bangladeshreceived an early monsoon onset and experienced maximum flooding that

Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation (2015) : 133-147 Sati,V. P. et al. (Ed),Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002

ISBN: 81-8019-518-3 (India) ISBN: 1-55528-374-8 (USA)

*Consultant, Institute of Livelihood Research and Training, Basix India, 3rdFloor, SurabhiArcade, Troop Bazar, Bank Street, Koti, Hyderabad- 500 001, E-mail:[email protected]**Assistant Professor, Department of Anthropology, Mrinalini Datta Mahavidyapith, Birati,Kolkata – 700 051,

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caused a death toll of approximately 1000 across South Asia (Coenraads,2006). Asfaq et al. (2009) in their study found that enhanced greenhouseforcing results an overall suppression of summer precipitation, a delay inmonsoon onset, and an increase in the occurrence of monsoon break periodsin the South Asia. The study result of Schewe and Levermann (2012) ledthem predict that the increasing temperature in the late 21st century andearly 22nd century will cause frequent changes and shifts to the monsoonprecipitation up to 70% below normal levels. The onset of monsoon overSoutheast Asia may be delayed up to 15 days in the future (Ashfaq et al.,2009; Loo et al, 2014). The variations in the sign and magnitude ofprecipitation change throughout South Asia highlight the importance of spatialcomplexity in the climate response, and suggest that the potential impactsof future climate change in this region requires improved understanding ofa host of climate processes.

Situation of India, as a South Asian country, is more or less same.According to Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, Ministry of EarthSciences (GoI), a decrease in number of rainy days (5-15 days on anaverage) is expected over much of India, along with an increase in heavyrainfall days in the monsoon season. A 10-15% increase in monsoonprecipitation in many regions, a simultaneous precipitation decline of 5-25% in drought-prone central India and a sharp decline in winter rainfall innorthern India are projected by Revi, 2008. The annual and monsoon rainfalldata for the period of 1901-2009 shows that rainfall is decreasing in almostall the subdivisions during the winter season, decreasing most parts of thecentral India during the pre-monsoon season and increasing for most of theareas during the post-monsoon season (Atri and Tyagi, 2010). Turner (2013)in his study showed that monsoon rainfall in India is likely to increase furtherin the future.

India, being a home to an extraordinary variety of climatic regions(Atri and Tyagi, 2010), is one of the most vulnerable and multi-hazard riskprone countries in the world (Parasuraman and Unnikrishnan, 2000; IFRC,2005). Over the centuries, it has been facing a wide range of natural (e.g.drought, flood, cyclone, storm surge, earthquake and landslide) and human-made hazards (e.g. fire, environmental health risks, road and chemicalaccidents). Climate change is expected to increase the frequency andintensity of these current hazards, to increase the probability of extremeevents, to spur the emergence of new hazards and to enhance thevulnerabilities with differential spatial and socio-economic impacts. Especiallythe variability in the onset and withdrawal of rainfall during the monsoonseason has profound impacts on natural ecosystems, agriculture, water

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resources, health and economics of the country (Parikh and Parikh, 2002;Senapati, 2009). As Indian agriculture is highly sensitive to monsoon variabilityand 65% of the cropped area is rain-fed (Chang, 1986; Zickfeld, 2005),Indian agriculture depends mostly on monsoon rain. Good monsoons correlatewith a booming economy and weak or failed monsoons (droughts) result inwidespread agricultural losses (Vaswani, 2006). In this way, monsoon rainsultimately impact the overall economic growth of India, as a majority of the150 poorest districts in the country are in the rain-fed regions, as Indianagriculture employs 600 million people (out of which more than 350 millionpeople completely depend on rain-fed agriculture) and as it alone composes14.62% of the national Gross Domestic Product/ GDP (UNDP,2014). The Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research has reportedthat, if the predictions relating to global warming made by the IPCC cometo fruition, climate-related factors could cause India’s GDP to decline by upto 9%. Contributing to this would be shifting growing seasons for majorcrops such as rice, production of which could fall by 40%.

India ranks first among the countries that practice rain fedagriculture (Sharma, 2012). A majority of the Scheduled Tribes (nearly50% of which are below the official poverty line) in India depend on rain-fed farming, and medium-to-long-term aggregate food security of the countryitself depends on stable and sustainable growth of rain-fed agriculture(NABARD consultancy services, 2007). Climate change and its overallconsequences could, therefore, catalyze the ongoing agrarian crisis in ruralIndia into a migratory rout (Sainath, 2002). Revi (2008) in his study reportedthat climate change induced drought and resource conflict may force thepace of rural-urban migration (urbanisation) over the next few decades.He also showed that a demographic transition that will see India’s populationstabilizing at about 1.6 billion in the 2060s.

While Climate Change is global phenomenon and has a global effect,the immediate repercussions are local (Acharya and Chettri, 2012). In orderto make informed decisions, policymakers need timely and useful informationabout the possible consequences of climate change, people’s perceptionsof whether the consequences are positive or negative (Scheraga et al.,2002) . But unfortunately there are limited micro level studies on socialdimension of climate change in West Bengal, where 60% farm activity israin-fed (The Hindu, 2015). Especially there is hardly any study in NorthBengal, the growth in agricultural productivity of which is again much lowerthan the rest of the State (IAMR, 2002). Therefore, in order to have apreliminary understanding of the aforesaid changes and its overallconsequences on people and society in North Bengal, the present study

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was conducted with the following objectives:

To understand the trend of rainfall (annual as well as seasonal) for acertain period of time

To understand the trend of paddy production (mainly rainfed) of thatarea

To understand survival strategies at local level in terms of socio-economic transformation, if there is any change in first two points

Materials and Methods

The Study Area and its Significant

For the present study, a block- Kalchini has been selected from NorthBengal, which is important in terms of geographical, demographical andenvironmental situation. Geographically Kalchini community developmentblock (26016’ & 2700’ north latitude and 8404’ & 89053’ east longitude),covering the area of 892.57 sq. km., is an administrative divisionin Alipurduar subdivision of newly formed district-Alipurduar in West Bengal(divided from Jalpaiguri district on 25 June 2014). The block ranged fromTarai of Dooars, foothills at Raimatang & Buxa Fort, and beneath the hillsridges and deep valleys of the lower Himalayan belt along the Lepchakha,Chunabhatti & Adma. It is bounded by Madarihat Block towards west,Alipurduar-I Block towards South, Falakata Block towards west andAlipurduar-I Block towards East. Figure 1 shows the location of Kalchiniblock. It is approximately 36 KM from District headquarters and 550 KMfrom the State capital Kolkata.

Block Headquarters is at Hamiltangunje. Kalchini and Jaygaonpolice stations serve this block. Rural area under Kalchini block consists of45 villages under 11 Gram Panchayats (Jaigaon–I, Jaigaon–II, Dalshingpara,Malangi, Satali, Mendabari, Latabari, Chuapara, Kalchini, Garopara andRajabhatkawa), while urban area consists of two censustowns (Jaigaon and Uttar Latabari). The Block is in the 105 m elevation(altitude). During summer, the highest day temperature is in between 25°Cto 39°C. Average temperatures of January is 19°C, February is 22°C, Marchis 27°C, April is 29°C and May is 29°C. The area is intercepted by numerousrivers and their revulets, streams, riverine and Jhoras mostly rushing downfrom the hills of Bhutan such as- Toorsa, Hasimarajhora, Basra, Gobarjyoti,Panchphaley, Jogikhola, Bahunijhor, Bholanala, Dhobijhora, Bania, BhatparaNala, Gangutia, Pana, Dima etc. The main water sources of kalchini are riverwater, well or hand pump.

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Demographically, the soul of Kalchini lives in its villages. Accordingto Census 2011, there are 62,737 households in the block comprising of atotal of 298,458 populations (Male- 154,829; Female- 143,629). Out of this,about 211,808 are living in villages. Total number of Scheduled Cast (SC) is30,157 and Scheduled Tribe (ST) is 120,282. The block is characterized bydiverse ethnic culture of different communities like Mech, Garo, Rava,Dukpas, Adivasi, Bengali, Nepali etc.. The tribes like Rava, Mech, Garoare engaged in agricultural activities, while Santal, Oraon, Ho are workingin tea garden as waged labourer. Workers in Kalchini are calculated as120,238 (Male- 83,329, Female- 36,909), out of which 89,666 are regularand 30,572 are Irregular (i.e get jobs only few days in a month). The blockmay be considered backward in terms of both educational status as well aspoverty level. A total of 116,512 people (out of 298,458 populations) in theblock are illiterate. On the other hand, as per Annual Employment report of(undivided) Jalpaiguri, poverty rate of the block is 52.16% (Das, 2013),which is highest among all other blocks.

Finally environmental condition is equally diverse on the basis ofthe geographical position of Kalchini block. The northern part possessedenvironmental condition of sub-Himalayan region, whereas southern partof the block contains sub-tropical forest environment. The landscapes arealso varied from north to south as moderate and high elevation to planeland. The aforementioned information was collected from the official recordof Kalchini block office.

Data: Both primary and secondary data from various sources were usedto analyze the present understanding. The rainfall and agricultural productiondata was collected from Assistant Director of Agriculture office located inHamiltangunje. They have their own periodical databank. They establisheda precipitation centre adjoining to their regional centre at Kalchini. Thecollated data includes total annual rainfall throughout the block, number ofrainy days in a year, month-wise rainfall during rainy season (July andAugust months) for last nine years, and finally High Yield Variety (HYV)as well as traditional variety of paddy production based on rainfed agriculturefor the last five years. The data of socio-economic transformation wasmainly collected by using observation methods and through 11 FocusedGroup Discussion (FGD) with the local people including farmers and sometea garden labourer covering a total of 162 individuals of different Panchayatsof Kalchini block. Apart from this, there was also in-depth interaction withlocal Government officials by using an open ended unstructured schedule.The data collection was done for a period of the last one and half years (i.e.March, 2014 to July, 2015) with a specific interval.

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Data Analysis: The data on rainfall and paddy production was entered inthe Microsoft Excel software and calculated the mean year-wise differenceas well as trends of changes in rainfall and paddy production over theyears.

Results and Discussion

The annual trend of rainfall is one of the significant parameters of climatechange even in micro level environment as shown in Table 1. During lastnine years (from 2006 to 2014), a high level of fluctuation of rainfall wasobserved. The highest mean rainfall occurred in the year 2012 (4245.0mm) followed by 2007 (3968.0 mm) and 2008 (3725.6 mm). The meanannual rainfall of Kalichini Block does not show any strong linear decreasingor increasing trend over the years, as found in macro level trend of southAsian countries including India. However, the mean rainfall for first fiveyears (2006 to 2010) was slightly higher (3466.04 mm) compared to that(3446.84 mm) of last five years (2010 to 2014). Figure 2 also shows a slightdeceasing trend (though not significant), which is important for predictingfuture condition of climate change in general.Table 1: Trend of total annual rainfall (in mm) in Kalchini Block for last nine years

S. no Year Total annual Difference between tworainfall (mm) consecutive years

1 2006 2913.6 …

2 2007 3968.4 1054.8

3 2008 3725.6 -242.8

4 2009 3120.0 -605.6

5 2010 3602.6 482.6

6 2011 3035.6 -567.0

7 2012 4245.0 1209.4

8 2013 3389.0 -856.0

9 2014 2962.0 -427.0

Source: Office of the Assistant Director of Agriculture, Kalchini Block, Hamiltangunje

Although the overall fluctuation was noted in rainfall data but therewas a strong indication of decreasing in the number of rainy days in thestudied locality from 2006 to 2014 (Table 2). The strength of associationbetween rainy days and years of occurrence was more than 50 % (R2=0.56, as shown in Figure 3). It is interesting to observe that though the total

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annual rainfall was highest in 2012, the number of rainy days of that yearwas only 89 and showed a negative trend in respect to its preceding year.The highest number of rainy days was observed in the year 2010 (107days), while the lowest number was observed in 2013 (79 days).

In the national context, the decreasing rainy days is found to be acommon trend in every geographical location. A decrease in the number ofrainy days (by 5 to 15 days on an average) is expected over much of India(Rupa Kumar, et.al, 2006), and these changes are ultimately expected toincrease the vulnerability of Indian agriculture and natural resource linkedlivelihoods.Table 2: Trend of no. of rainy days (in days) in Kalchini Block for last nine years

S. no Year No. of rainy day Difference between twoconsecutive years

1 2006 109  …

2 2007 111 2

3 2008 117 6

4 2009 91 -26

5 2010 107 16

6 2011 96 -11

7 2012 89 -7

8 2013 79 -10

9 2014 95 16

Source: Office of the Assistant Director of Agriculture, Kalchini Block, Hamiltangunje

In a rainfed agricultural zone like studied block in north Bengal, it isessential to understand the rainfall during rainy season, as it is the mainconsumption sources of agriculture. Table 3 represents the rainfall data inmonsoon period over last nine years. July rainfall was found to be highest in2007 and lowest in 2014, whereas August rainfall was highest in 2014 andlowest in 2006. There was a large shift of the onset of rain during rainyseason of the study areas, especially in the year 2014. In this year, themean rainfall during July was 282.1 mm, while rainfall during August was1133.9 mm. Figure 4 shows that there is a clear decreasing trend in Julyrainfall and a slight increasing trend in August rainfall, though the strengthof association between year and occurrence of July and August rainfallwas low (R2 = 0.285 and R2 = 0.006, respectively).

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A similar result was found by Guhathakurta and Rajeevan (2006).Through constructing monthly, seasonal and annual rainfall time series of36 meteorological sub-divisions of India using a fixed but a large networkof about 1476 rain-gauge stations, they found that the contribution of June,July and September rainfall to annual rainfall is decreasing for some sub-divisions while contribution of August rainfall is increasing in some othersubdivisions. A 10 to 15 percent increase in monsoon precipitation in manyregions, a simultaneous precipitation decline of 5 to 25 percent in semi-aridand drought prone central India and a sharp decline in winter rainfall innorthern India is also projected by a previous study (Ramesh and Yadava,2005).

These changes, however, may create an impact of the productionsystem as well as socio-economic life of local population. FGD with localpeople supports the assumption. Due to drastic change in the onset of rainfalland decease of July rainfall in 2014 had an impact of Aman paddy and theyhad experienced a great loss. The situation made them think for takingadaptive measure in respect to this change. This implies a need of adaptationof sub-regional agriculture, changes in water supply arrangements and astrong policy emphasis on water conservation (Revi, 2008).Table 3: Trend of month-wise rainfall (in mm) during rainy reason in Kalchini Block forlast nine years

S. no Year July rainfall Difference August Differencebetween two rainfall between twoconsecutive consecutiveyears years

1 2006 798.8  … 286.6  …

2 2007 1139.8 341.0 920.0 633.4

3 2008 1116.8 -23.0 1009.8 89.8

4 2009 723.6 -393.2 856.4 -153.4

5 2010 763.8 40.2 696.2 -160.2

6 2011 654.0 -109.8 587.4 -108.8

7 2012 943.0 289.0 633.2 45.8

8 2013 944.4 1.4 299.0 -334.2

9 2014 282.1 -662.3 1133.9 834.9

Source: Office of the Assistant Director of Agriculture, Kalchini Block, Hamiltangunje

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As mentioned earlier, Climate change, characterized by increasingcarbon dioxide and temperature and uncertainty in rainfall, can have asignificant effect on crop growth, development and yield. Food security ofdeveloping countries such as India can, therefore, be further threatened ifsuch a climatic change would have a negative impact on crop growth andyields. It is, therefore, important to quantify the possible impact of climatechange on rice yields (Mall and Agarwal, 2002). Hence, in search of climatechange impact on agricultural production in Kalchini block, the data relatedto rainfed paddy production was taken into consideration (Table 4) on thebasis of available data (from 2010 to 2014). It was observed that there is aslight decreasing trend in the production rate of both HYV as well as localvariety of paddy (Figure 5). Most importantly, the rate of declination ismore for local verities (R2 = 0.3625) than HYV (R2 = 0.2405), which ismay be due to the fact that HYV could mask the negative impact of changesin the monsoon (Auffhammer et al., 2011). The analysis also showed thatthe production of HYV per hector is always higher compared to localvarieties in each year (difference varies from 653 kg/ hector to 869 kg/hector), which is common for all areas. For last five years, the people had,therefore, been interested to grow HYV in their agricultural land (smallholding) with the assumption that these HYV productions might help themto get optimal paddy during rainy reason. However, FGD shows that therewas village, population and region specific variation and also there is variationin the choice of using the HYV for cultivation. This observation supportsthe inference of Discussion report of 20 UN agencies (drafted and designedby Inis communication, 2011) that Climate change risks, impacts, perceptionsand responses do differ across regions and cultures and even across socialclasses.

To meet the increasing demand of ever growing population in India,it was estimated that rice yields must increase by at least 45% by 2020 tomeet the future demand (Hossain, 1995; Kumar, 1998; Mall and Agarwal,2002). But unfortunately, several intensively cultivated areas, especiallynorth and north-east India, have started showing signs of rice yield stagnationand deterioration of soil health (Sinha et al., 1998). Using the data of USDA,Foreign Agricultural Service, Senapati et al (2013) showed in their studyhow the total production of rice has been decreasing over years in all overworld, including India.

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Table 4: Trend of rainfed paddy production (Kg/hector) of local and hybrid varieties inKalchini Block for last five years

S. no Year HYV Difference Local Difference Difference(Kg/ between variety between betweenhector) two (kg/ two HYY and

consecutive hector) consecutive Localyears years

1 2010 2398  … 1745 …  653

2 2011 2212 -186 1343 -402 869

3 2012 2265 53 1445 102 820

4 2013 2250 -15 1400 -45 850

5 2014 2270 20 1415 15 854

Source: Office of the Assistant Director of Agriculture, Kalchini Block, Hamiltangunje

On the basis of the above discussion, it was found that there wassome moderate impact of climate change on rainfall and rainfed agriculturein the studied block. According to the observation in the field area andbased on FGD with various people living throughout the block, it wasobserved that due to high fluctuation in the timing of rain and lack of properirrigation system, farmers faced a lot. They tried to mitigate the situation bydecreasing agricultural production through replacing the local/wild varietiesof paddy with HYV. But unfortunately they failed to get sufficient yield, asAman is more exposed to weather fluctuation and it is not possible to reducethis risk by only altering proportion of land allocation to local and HYVvarieties (Hasan, 2010). Moreover, the problem became complicated dueto the use of insufficient quantity of fertilizer, coupled with huge damage toplantation by wildlife and frequently occurring devastating flood. As per theflood action plan prepared by the Block development Office (2013) ofKalchini block, tragically, all 11 Panchayats of this block are flood prone.Most of the rivers and their rivulets are prone to flooding during monsoonseason causing extensive damage.

Climate change and different social issues are interlinked. Climatechange is not the only driver of change that impacts social aspects of life(Global Environmental Outlook, 2012). On the other hand, societies’ abilityto successfully respond to climate change can be influenced by social issues,like finance, food, health, education, migration, poverty and security (Driessenet al., 2013). In addition, other processes of societal change, such asglobalisation, urbanisation, demographic shifts, changes in world marketstructures, and changes in energy demand and supply affect societies’

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capacity to respond (Inis communication, 2011). Climate change cannot beseen in isolation from the challenges that these issues pose.

Current micro-level studies also reported a number of differentfactors having impact on one another. Infiltration and illegal migration inrural areas of Alipurduar, Mal, Nagrakata and Kalchini from Assam, Nepaland Bhutan and settlement of these immigrated people without proper jobfacilities, already increased poverty rate of these areas (Das, 2013). Poorinfrastructure, small size of land holdings, lack of entrepreneurship and highilliteracy rate complicated the situation. The hilly tracts of Bauxa, Jainty,Matiali and Kalchini areas are not even well connected with main roadsthroughout the year.

There are several ongoing programmes of Govt in the district forsupporting the agricultural production (as per NABARD report for undividedJalpaiguri), especially for the production of paddy, viz. AgricultureTechnology Management Agency (ATMA), National Food Security Mission(NFSM), Integrated Pest Management (IPM), Promotion of OrganicFarming, Bio-village programme, Mini-mission–II, National WatershedDevelopment Project etc. Many other Govt. programmes, applicable foragricultural sector other than paddy, are also available. But the awarenesslevel is not satisfactory to avail the benefits. Moreover, presently differentgovernment departments of newly born district are themselves facing a lotof problems, and a number of government activities are still beingadministered by Jalpaiguri district.

Efforts from some non-government organizations are also not rare.Still, these initiatives could not meet their requirement sufficiently. The abovementioned issues and their complex interaction made the situation morevulnerable towards food insecurity. As a result, people are either migratingoutside in search of secondary occupation, or involving in various illegalactivities to form a new socio-economic dimension for their survival.

These are all the urgent areas for future research work. As awhole, due to the scatter secondary sources and least preservation ofinformation in the block level, the study contains some limitation but produceda meaningful understanding about the interrelationship between rainfall,agriculture and socio-economic transformation in the studied block.

Climate policies will presumably not always be the main driver forsocietal change, but they can make crucial contributions. To be implemented,climate policies have to compete with a variety of societal issues that areoften seen as more urgent. Also, other policies may possess scope for

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synergies or, more problematically, conflict with climate policy objectives.A way forward may be to embed adaptation and mitigation strategies inbroader policy programmes and to connect them to other societal values(Termeer et al., 2011; Dworak et al., 2012), where they can be side effectsof other sustainable development policies such as energy and food security(Román et al., 2012).

Conclusion

Adaptive actions may be taken to overcome adverse effects of climatechange on agriculture. Innovative agricultural practices, creating thenecessary agricultural technologies and harnessing them to adapt theiragricultural systems to changing climate are required to play a role in climatemitigation and adaptation. The interventions may include improvement inforecasting and early warning systems, establishing hazard and vulnerabilitymapping, augmenting public awareness, creating community-based forestmanagement and afforestation projects, improvement in irrigation and lastly,diversification towards horticulture and livestock. Right kind of technologiesand policies are required to strengthen the capacity of communities to copeeffectively with both climatic variability and changes. Adapting to thepotential effects of climate change is a complex and ongoing process requiringactions by individuals, communities, governments and international agencies.To be successful on an ongoing basis, an assessment process should bethere, and the assessment team and approach should be multidisciplinary.All these will cumulatively may offers opportunity for raising farm incomessignificantly, enhancing employment elasticity and putting less pressure onnatural resources.

However, on a single note, it may be concluded that micro levelunderstanding of rainfall, agriculture and socio-economic transformationmay have added importance in nation-wise mitigation measures of climatechange like the present study in Kalchini block.

Acknowledgement

First of all we would like to give our sincere thanks to the AssistantDirector of Agriculture and his officials, Government of West Bengal,Kalchini Block for providing meaningful data from their records. Heartiestthanks are also to BDO and PDO of Kalchini block for their support toprovide different relevant information. Last but not the least, we expressour wholehearted gratitude to all the participants from local community,who have given their valuable views and local perceptions regarding rainfedagriculture production and changing nature over the years.

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CHAPTER - 11

Occupational Structure of Scheduled TribePopulation in Indian Himalayan RegionB. R. Pant*

Introduction

The tribal community and their habitats constitute very significant parts ofbackward people and regions of the country respectively. About half of thetotal tribal population of the world lives in India. They comprise about the18 per cent of country’s land and 8.6 per cent of its population. As per 2011Census the tribal population of the Indian Himalayan Region is 11795981persons constituting 11.31 % of the country’s tribal population (104281034persons) and residing in about 16.23% of its geographical area. TheScheduled Tribes, like the Scheduled Castes, is the most socially,economically and educationally disadvantaged, marginalized and excludedgroups in our country. According to Census of India 2011, there are morethan 500 main and sub-tribes in the Indian Himalayan States/ Regions*.Some tribes are common in the Indian Himalayan States/ Regions. Theaborigines in Indian language are known as “Adibasi”-Adi and basi standingfor “original” and “inhabitants” respectively. Constitutionally these humangroups are known as Scheduled Tribes (S.T.), “Anusuchit Jati”, “Vanjati”,“Vanbasi”, “Pahari”, and “Adimjati” etc. The main characteristic featuresof Indian tribes are variation in size of the population, inhabit all climaticzones, belong to all in four races-Negrito, Proto-Austroloid, Mongoloid andCaucasoid and use Indo-Aryan, Dravidian and Tibeto- Burman language.According to article 342 of the constitution the Scheduled Tribes are the

Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation (2015) : 149-170 Sati,V. P. et al. (Ed),Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002

ISBN: 81-8019-518-3 (India) ISBN: 1-55528-374-8 (USA)

*Associate Professor, Department of Geography, M. B. Government P. G. College Haldwani,Nainital (Uttarakhand)

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tribes or tribal communities, which may be notified by the President ofIndia.

In spite of crucial importance of the regional dimensions in theproper evaluation of the social phenomena for the better appreciation ofthe diverse character of the Indian polity, geographical research in the countryhas tended to ignore it either almost entirely or treated it area of peripheralinterest. Despite various incentives available to the researchers in the field,tribes continue to receive scant attention from the social as well as thepopulation geographers. Evidently the social sciences including geographywere already seized of the problem of Indian tribes and studies such asthose of Singh (1972), Singh L.R.(1956 and 1965), Srivastava (1958) Raza(1984), Aggarwal and Mathur (1973),Ashfaq Ali (1972),Vidyarthi (1974),Mookharjee (1986), Gupta and Baghel (1995), Joshi (1996), Bhole andBhangale (1999), Chib (1995), Pathak (2001), and Pant (1935). Authorslike Tiwari (1953), Srivastava (1958), Upreti (1967 and 1968), Berreman(1972 and 1983), Chand (1989 and 2004), Bisht et al. (1995), Satyal et el.(1999), Samal (1993), Pant (1995, 1996, 2007, 2010a and 2010b), Gangwarand Pant (2011 and 2012) etc. have focused on the multifarious problemsfaced by the tribes in the different parts of the IHR and country.

Objectives

The main objectives of the present study is to analyse the inter state/regionand inter district occupational structure of Indian Himalayan tribal population.

Materials and Methods

The present study is based on the secondary data released by the Census2001 and 2011 Keeping in view the nature of study, the data have beenanalyzed and interpreted with the help of mathematical methods. Inmathematical methods simple average and percentage have been used. Toexamine the spatial pattern, total 109 districts of the IHR have been dividedinto various ranges (%) and groups such as very low, low, medium, high,very high etc.

Study Area

As per Census 2011 the Indian Himalayan Region consists of 4, 69, 61,740persons accounting of 4.01% of total population of the country. The IndianHimalayan Region , consists of ten whole states- Jammu and Kashmir,Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland,Tripura, Manipur, Mizoram, Meghalaya and two partial part of the WestBengal (Darjiling district) and Assam (Karbi Anglong and Dima Hasao

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districts). There are 109 districts in the Indian Himalayan Region accounts17% of the total 640 districts in the country in 2011 Census. Geologicallyand Geographically Meghalaya and few portion of NE Region are similarwith the Deccan Plateau but due to physiographic similarities and adjacentlocation, these parts and states are included in the Indian Himalayan Regionfor development planning point of view. It makes the northern boundary ofIndia extending from Nanga Parvat (8126 m) in west to Namcha Baruwa(7755 m) in the east, having a length of 2500 km and width about 160 to 400km encompasses an area of about 533606 km2. As per Census 2011, thetribal population of the Indian Himalayan Region is 11795981 persons account11.31% of the country’s tribal population (as 104281034 persons constitute8.6 % of its total population).

The Indian Himalayan Region like other mountains throughout theworld is experiencing environmental degradation due to various biophysicaland socio- economic factors. Mountains are known for their specialtiessuch as inaccessibility, fragility, marginality, diversity, niche and adaptability(Jodha, 2005 Cited by GBPIHED, 2010). The level of socio- economicdevelopment of the Indian Himalayan Region cannot be compared with theother parts of the country. Therefore, it is necessary to analyze the presentdemographic scenario and underlying factors for comparatively low andslow development. The data and trends of various attributes of populationwill be helpful in the planning and policy making of the Indian HimalayanRegion.

List of Indian Himalayan Districts

Jammu and Kashmir( 22 Dstricts) 1-Bandipure 2- Kupwara 3-Gandarbal4-Srinagar 5-Baramula 6- Badgam 7- Pulwama 8- Shuphian 9- Punch 10-Kulgam 11- Rajauri 12- Reasi 13- Anantnag 14- Ramban 15- Doda 16-Udhampur 17- Jammu 18- Samba 19- Kathuwa 20- Kistwar 21- Kargil 22-Leh.

Himachal Pradesh (12 Districts) 23- Chamba 24- Lahul and Spiti 25-Kangra 26- Kullu 27- Mandi 28- Hamirpur 29- Una 30- Bilaspur 31- Solan32- Sirmaur 33- Shimla 34- Kinnaur.

Uttarakhand (13 Districts) 35- Uttarakashi 36. Dehradun 37- Tehri Garhwal(Tehri) 38- Rudraprayag 39- Hardwar 40- Garhwal (Pauri) 41- Chamoli42- Bageshwar 43- Almora 44- Nainital 45- U.S.Nagar 46-Champawat47- Pithoragarh

Sikkim (4 Districts) 48- North District (Sikkim) 49- West District (Sikkim)50- South District (Sikkim) 51- East District (Sikkim)

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Arunachal Pradesh (16 Districts) 52-Tawang 53- West Kemeng 54-East Kemeng 55- Kurug Kumey 56- Papumpare 57- Lower Subansiri 58-Upper Subansiri 59- West Siang 60- East Siang 61- Upper Siang 62- DibangValley 63- Lower Dibang valley 64- Anjaw 65- Lohit 66- Changlang 67-Tirap

Nagaland (11Districts) 68-Mon 69- Longlang 70- Mokokchung 71-Tuensang 72-Zunheboto 73- Wokha 74- Kiphire 75- Phek 76- Kohima 77-Dimapur 78- Paren

Manipur ( 9 Districts) 79- Senapati 80- Ukhrul 81- Imphal East 82- ImphalWest 83- Tamenglong 84- Bishnupur 85- Thoubal 86- Churachandpur 87-Chandel.

Mizoram (8 Districs) 88- Champhai 89- Aizawal 90- Kolasib 91- Mamit92- Serchhip 93- Lunglai 94- Saiha 95- Lwangtlai

Tripura (4 Districts) 96-South Tripura 97- West Tripura 98-Dhalai 99-North Tripura

Distribution of Tribal Population in the Indian Himalayan Region

The distribution of tribal population in any geographical region differs fromone place to another. It is mainly governed by the geo-environmental factorswhich have both restrictive and permissive condition to human activities.The tribal population of the IHR mostly concentrated relatively in moreinhospitable areas like rugged mountains, ravarine land, extreme climaticzone, dense forest and marshy areas. According to Census of India 2011the tribal population of the IHR is enumerated 1,17,95,981 persons constituteabout 25.2 % of the total IHR population and 10,42,81,034 person arerecorded as tribal people in the whole country which is 8.6 % of the allcastes population. The IHR contains 11.31% of the total country’s tribalpopulation. The concentration of Himalaya’s total tribal population varies1.75% in Sikkim to 21.67% in Meghalaya. As per Census 2011, maximumtribal population of the IHR is found in Meghalaya (21.67%). The secondlargest number of tribal people are registered in Nagaland (14.51%)immediately followed by Jammu and Kashmir (12.66%) (Table 1).The states/regions which have 5 to 10 % tribal population of the IHR are Tripura(9.89%), Mizoram (8.78%), Arunachal Pradesh (8.07%), Manipur (7.65%)and Assam Hills (5.85%). Remaining states/ regions have less than 5 %IHRs tribal population. It is worth to mention that the states/ regions whichhave more remote and inhospitable geographical areas registered moretribal population such as Meghalaya, Nagaland and Jammu and Kashmir.

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Contrary this the states having more level fertile land, irrigational and otherinfrastructural facilities have less tribal population such as Uttarakhand andSikkim.

District wise distribution of Himalayan tribal population varies fromminimum 386 persons (negligible proportion) in the Rudraprayag district ofUttarakhand to maximum 661158 persons (5.6 %) in the East Khasi Hillsdistrict of Meghalaya state. Out of total 109 districts of the Himalaya 67.0% districts have less than 1.0 % of Himalaya’s tribal population. About22.0 % districts have 1.01 to 2.00 % tribal population of the Himalaya.Only 7.3 % districts have more than 3.01 % tribal population of the IndianHimalaya. These are Aizawl, West Khasi Hills, Jaintia Hills, Darjiling, WestTripura, West Garo Hills, Karbi Aonglong and East Khasi Hills. But theirlargest proportion to total states / regions population in the IHR is found inMizoram (94.4%) followed by Nagaland (86.5%), Meghalaya (86.1%),Arunachal Pradesh (68.8%), Assam Hills (59.0%), Manipur (35.1%), Sikkim(33.8%),Tripura (31.8%), W.B. Hills (21.5%) and Jammu and Kashmir(11.9%). Himachal Pradesh (5.7%) and Uttarakhand (2.9%) have lessthan 10 % tribal population of the total population.

Major Occupational Structure

The percentage of total workers in tribal population has recorded lower(42.8%) in comparison to the national average (48.7%) as a whole in 2011which is lower than the 2001 figures. The percentage of tribal total workersvaries minimum 35.7% in Jammu and Kashmir to maximum 53.5 % inHimachal Pradesh. Himachal Pradesh has lot of orchards and tourist placesin which maximum people are engaged as workers. Except HimachalPradesh all states have less than 50 % tribal workers. More than 50%tribal population is dependant in the Indian Himalayan Region.

The total tribal worker varies minimum 22.5% in Kupwara districtof Jammu and Kashmir to maximum 66.4% in Kinnaur district of HimachalPradesh. About 5.5% districts of the IHR have less than 30% workers in2011. These are Baramula, Badgam, Shupiyan, Samba, Ganderbal andKupwara districts of Jammu and Kashmir. There are no much moreoccupational opportunities for the people of Jammu and Kashmir becauseof terrorism (internal and external) created by the terrorists. GenerallyKashmiri people have shifted to their families to other states for gettingemployment, security and safety. One third districts of the IHR are in verylow zone i.e. 30.01 to 40.0% total workers. About 45% districts have 40.01to 50.0% workers. Only 12.84 % districts of the IHR are in the moderatezone which has 50.01 to 60.0 % tribal workers of the total tribal population.

Occupational Structure of Scheduled Tribe Population

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These are Chamba, Mon, Lahul & Spit, Hamirpur, Mandi,Zunheboto, Bilaspur, Chamoli, Bageshwar, South District, Chandel, WestDistrict, Uttarkashi and Mokokchung. Only 2.75% of the IHR have morethan 60.01 % workers. These are Kinnaur, Peren and Longleng.

About 48.7 % male tribes of the IHR are registered as workers in2011 which is lower than the national average (53.9%). The workparticipation rate of male tribes was minimum 44.5% in Nagaland tomaximum 56.5% in Himachal Pradesh. More male workers are registeredin Himachal Pradesh and Sikkim because of the more requirements ofmale population in tourism industry and horticultural activities. The economyof these two regions is based on tourism and horticulture.

District wise distribution of tribal male worker to total tribal malepopulation in the state/region varies from minimum 36.1% in Kupwaradistrict of Jammu and Kashmir to maximum 68.6 % in the Kinnaur districtof Himachal Pradesh. Table 4 gives the spatial distribution of districts bydifferent ranges and groups of male worker concentration in the IndianHimalayan Region. The concentration of the Himalayan male tribal workerhas been grouped into four groups i.e. below 40.00 %, 40.01 to 50.0 %,50.01 to 60.00 % and more than 60.01 % respectively classified as verylow concentrated zone, low, moderate and high concentrated zones. Outof total 109 districts of the Indian Himalayan Region 5.5 % districts haveless than 40.0 % tribal workers .These are Kurung Kumey, Imphal West,Badgam, Papum Pare, Lower Subansiri and Kupwara. About 47.71 %districts have 40.01 to 50.00 % male tribal working population. More than2/3 (39.45%) districts have 50.01 to 60.0 % tribal workers. These are Mon,Mandi, South District, Hamirpur, West District, Rudraprayag, Kullu,Zunheboto, Solan, Udham Singh Nagar, North Sikkim, East Sikkim, Chamoli,Mokokchung, Serchhip , Thoubal ,Lunglei,West Tripura, Chandel,Sirmaur,Una, Champhai, Garhwal, Kangra, Mamit, Nainital, Hardwar, Dehradun,Leh(Ladakh), Bageshwar, Udhampur,

Srinagar, Kolasib, Shimla, South Tripura, Tuensang, Aizawl,Pithoragarh, Reasi, Uttarkashi, Rajouri, Dhalai and West Kameng. Only7.34 % districts have more than 60.0% male tribal workers. These arePeren, Chamba, Champawat, Tehri Garhwal, Longleng, Bilaspur Lahul &Spiti and Kinnaur.

Out of total tribal females only 36.9% are considered as workersin the whole IHR which is 6.7% lower than the national average (43.5%).The percentage of female workers is decreased from 39.7 % in 2001 to36.9% in 2011. The percentage of female workers is varies minimum 25.1

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% in Jammu and Kashmir to maximum 47.7% in Himachal Pradesh. Fiftypercent states/ regions of the IHR have less female workers than regionalaverage (36.9%) and nine states/regions have also less number of womanworkers than national average (43.5%) District wise distribution of femaletribal workers varies from minimum 7.4 % in Kupwara district of Jammuand Kashmir to maximum 64.2 % in the Kinnaur district of HimachalPradesh.

The concentration of the Himalayan female tribal worker has beengrouped into four groups i.e. below 20.00 %, 20.01 to 40.0 %, 40.01 to60.00 % and more than 60.01 % respectively classified as very lowconcentrated zone, low, moderate, and high concentrated zones. Out oftotal 109 districts of the Indian Himalayan Region 11.93 % districts haveless than 20.0 % female tribal worker. These are Punch, Kargil, Badgam,Ramban, Pulwama, Garhwal, Jammu, Shupiyan, Ganderbal, Srinagar, Samba,Baramula and Kupwara. More than 52 % districts have 20.01 to 40.00 %female tribal workers. About 1/3 (33.94%) districts have 40.1 to 60.00 %female workers. These are Longleng, Hamirpur, Mon, Lahul & Spiti,Chamba, Mandi, Zunheboto, Chamoli, Bageshwar, Uttarkashi, Bilaspur,Chandel, Tamenglong , Phek, Tuensang, Upper Siang, Mokokchung,Ukhrul,Anjaw, West District, Pithoragarh, Wokha, South District, Serchhip,Tawang, Tirap, Senapati, Kullu, Kiphire, Champhai, Thoubal, Kurung Kumey,North Sikkim, Lunglei, Rajouri, Leh(Ladakh) and West Kameng. Only1.83% districts have more than 60.01% female tribal workers. These districtsare Kinnaur and Peren.

Out of total population 57.2, 51.3 and 63.1 % persons, males andfemales respectively are registered as non workers. Maximum 64.3 % ofthe total population in the IHR is registered as non wokers in Jammu andKashmir which may be the main reseson for unrest in the youth of thestate. Similar circumfrances are also prevailing in the eastern states / regions.Therefore, there is an urgent need of such policies which generate theemployment and provide the economic base of the local youths.

About 70.6 % population of the total workers of IHR is registeredas main worker in 2011 which is higher than the national average (64.8 %).Out of the total states / region of the IHR maximum 84.8 % main workersare in Mizoram while Jammu and Kashmir has minimum 45.2 % mainworkers. It is clear from the table 12 that the states /regions which havemore resources and more job opportunities have more main workers. Outof the total main male and female workers of IHR, 77.7 % males and only61.1% females are registered as main workers which are respectively more

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than the national averages. Maximum 90.2% males of total male workersin Mizoram state are considered as main male workers while Jammu &Kashmir state has minimum 55.6% male main workers. The percentage offemale main workers is varies from minimum 24.7 % in Jammu & Kashmirto maximum 77.4% in Mizoram. Out of total states /region of the IHR,33.3% have less than 50% female main workers. These states/regions areJammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Tripura and Assam hills. Proportionof main workers is reflection of the educational level of the region; whereeducational level is high the proportion of main workers is also high andvice versa. District wise distribution of tribal main workers in the state/region varies from minimum 21.1 % in Pulwama district of Jammu & Kashmirto maximum 92.1 % in the Mamit district of Mizoram. Table 4 gives thespatial distribution of districts by different ranges and groups of total mainworkers in the Region. The concentration of main workers in the Himalayantribal population has been grouped into five groups i.e. below 30.00%, 30.01to 50.0 %, 50.01 to 70.00 %, 70.01 to 90.0 % and 90.01 % and aboverespectively classified as extremely low concentrated zone of main workers,very low, low, moderate and high concentrated zones. Out of total 109districts of the Indian Himalayan Region 1.83 % districts have less than30.0 % main tribal workers to total working population. These are Kupwaraand Pulwama districts of Jammu & Kashmir State. About 13.76 % districtsare in between 30.01 to 50.00 % main workers. These are Hamirpur,Badgam, Mandi, Bilaspur, Doda, Kargil, Kishtwar, Ganderbal, Kulgam,Punch, Baramula, Rajouri, Bandipore, Chamba and Anantnag. More than1/4 (29.36%) districts have 50.01 to 70.0 % main workers. More than 50.0% districts have 70.01 to 90.0% main workers. Only 1.83 % districts havemore than 90.01% main workers to total workers. These are Mamit andSerchhip districts of Mizoram state. The main factor for higher proportionof working population is because these districts are more infrastructurallydeveloped.

District wise distribution of tribal main male workers varies fromminimum 27.4 % in Pulwama district of Jammu & Kashmir to maximum96.8 % in the Mamit district of Mizoram. Table 5 gives the spatial distributionof districts by different ranges and groups of total main male workers in theRegion. The concentration of main workers in the Himalayan tribal populationhas been grouped into five groups i.e. below 30.00 %, 30.01 to 50.0 %,50.01 to 70.00 % 70.01 to 90.0 % and more than 90.01 % respectivelyclassified as extremely low concentrated zone of main male workers, verylow, low, moderate and high zones of main male workers. Out of total 109districts of the Indian Himalayan Region 1.83 % districts have less than

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30.0 % main male tribal workers to total male working population. Theseare Kupwara and Pulwama districts of Jammu & Kashmir State. About7.34 % districts have 30.01 to 50.00 % main male workers. These areRajouri, Punch, Chamba, Kishtwar, Ganderbal, Anantnag, Bandipore andBaramula. More than 16.50 % districts have 50.01 to 70.0 % main workers.

These are Dibang Valley, Srinagar, Bageshwar, Bilaspur, KurungKumey, Zunheboto, Peren, Chamoli, Kangra, Garhwal, Badgam, Mandi,Hamirpur, Ramban, Shupiyan, Doda, Kulgam and Kargil. Out of total67.89% districts of the IHR have 70.01 to 90.0% main male workers. Only6.42 % districts have more than 90.01% main male workers to total maleworkers. These are Mamit, Serchhip, Champhai, Almora, Lower DibangValley, Tehri Garhwal and Champawat. The districts which are relativelyless developed have more male workers.

The percentage of female main workers is varies from minimum24.7 % in Jammu & Kashmir to maximum 77.4% in Mizoram. Out of totalstates /region of the IHR, 33.3% have less than 50% female main workers.These are Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Tripura and Assam hills.Proportion of main workers is dependant on the educational level of theregion; where educational level is high the proportion of main workers isalso high. District wise distribution of tribal main female workers in thestate/region varies from minimum 4.8 % in Pulwama district of Jammu &Kashmir to maximum 87.9 % in the Serchhip district of Mizoram.

The concentration of main female workers in the Himalayan tribalpopulation has been grouped into five groups i.e. below 20.00 %, 20.01 to40.0 %, 40.01 to 60.00 % 60.01 to 80.0 % and more than 80.01 %respectively classified as extremely low concentrated zone of main femaleworkers, very low, low, moderate and high zones of main female workers.Out of total 109 districts of the Indian Himalayan Region 8.26 % districtshave less than 20.0 % main female tribal workers to total female workingpopulation. These are Bilaspur, Chamba, Punch, Badgam, Bandipore,Rajouri, Kulgam, Anantnag and Pulwama. About 16.51 % districts have20.01 to 40.00 % main female workers. These are South Tripura, WestTripura, Hamirpur, Kishtwar, Srinagar, Dhalai, Mandi, Shupiyan Kargil,Ramban, Kangra, Udhampur, Baramula, Una, Kupwara, Doda, Ganderbaland Reasi. More than 19.0% districts have 40.01 to 60.0 % main femaleworkers. Out of total 43.12% districts of the IHR have 60.01 to 80.0%main female workers. About 12.84 % districts have more than 80.01%main female workers to total female workers. These are Serchhip, Tirap,West Siang, Lower Dibang Valley, Champawat, Mamit, East Khasi Hills,

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East Kameng, Anjaw, Kohima, Champhai, Aizawl, Changlang and EastSiang.

Occupational Structure by Category

Cultivators

As already stated in previous paragraphs that 70.6% workers of the totaltribal working population in the IHR is registered as main workers in 2011.Out of them 54.5%, population is enumerated as cultivators which was59.0 % in 2001which is more than the country average 40.7% and 44.7%during the same years. The numbers of cultivator are decreased from 2001to 2011 in all regions/districts of IHR. The percentage of cultivators isvaries from minimum 13.8 % in W.B.Hills to maximum 73.1 % in AssamHills (Table 9). Out of total states /region of the IHR, about 50.0% haveless than 50% cultivators. These are Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,Sikkim, Tripura, Meghalaya and W.B. Hills. In the states/regions wheremeans of livelihood is tourism, horticulture and household industries haveless proportion of cultivators and other states/regions are dependant onsubsistence agriculture.

District wise distribution of tribal cultivators varies from minimum6.9% in Srinagar district of Jammu and Kashmir to maximum 84.4 % in theTirap district of Arunachal Pradesh. Table 9 gives the spatial distribution ofdistricts by different ranges and groups of cultivator concentration in theRegion. The concentration of the cultivator has been grouped into fivegroups i.e. below 20.00 %, 20.01 to 40.0 %, 40.01 to 60.00 % 60.01 to 80.0%, and more than 80.01 % respectively classified as extremely lowconcentrated zone, very low, low, moderate, and high concentrated zones.Out of total 109 districts of the Indian Himalayan Region 8.26 % districtshave less than 20.0 % cultivators. These districts are Pulwama, Baramula,Darjiling, Bandipore, Ganderbal, Kargil, Imphal West, Champawat andSrinagar. About 26.61 % and 27.52% districts have 20.01 to 40.00 % and40.01-60.0% cultivators respectively.

More than 1/3 (33.03%) districts have 60.01 to 80.00 % cultivators.These districts are Tamenglong, Kinnaur, Kurung Kumey, East Kameng,Mamit, Senapati, Changlang, Peren, West Siang, Lohit, Karbi Anglong, UpperSubansiri, Kiphire, Reasi, Phek, Ukhrul, Serchhip, Upper Siang, Chandel,Lower Dibang Valley, Dima Hasao, Wokha, Kishtwar, Lawngtlai, Champhai,Lahul & Spiti, East Garo Hills, East Siang, Dehradun, Zunheboto, WestDistrict, Churachandpur, West Kameng, Ribhoi, West Garo Hills and SouthGaro Hills. Only 4.59 % districts have more than 90.0% cultivators. These

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districts are Tirap, Mon, Anjaw, Longleng and Tuensang.

Out of the total main male worker, 51.4% males are enumeratedas cultivators in 2011 which was 56.3 % in 2001which figures are morethan the country average 43.2 % and 47.6 % during the 2011 and 2001Censuses respectively. The numbers of male cultivator are decreased from2001 to 2011 in all regions/districts of IHR. It is due to the unviability ofagriculture and attraction towords the other jobs available in the urban places.The percentage of male cultivators is varies from minimum 16.2 % inW.B.Hills to maximum 74.9 % in Assam Hills (Table 9). Out of total twelvestates /region of the IHR, seven have less than 50% cultivators. Thesestates /region are more potential for providing the employment to their peoplein tourism and horticulture.

District wise distribution of male tribal cultivators varies fromminimum 5.5% in Champawat district of Uttarakhand to maximum 79.5 %in the Anjaw district of Arunachal Pradesh. The concentration of the malecultivator has been grouped into five groups i.e. below15.00 %, 15.01 to30.0 %, 30.01 to 45.00 %, 45.01 to 60.0 %, and more than 60.01 %respectively classified as extremely low concentrated zone, very low, low,moderate and high concentrated zones. Out of total 109 districts of theIndian Himalayan Region 7.34 % districts have less than 15.0 % malecultivators. These districts are Tehri Garhwal, Imphal West, Bandipore,Ganderbal, Almora, Kargil, Srinagar and Champawat. About 21.1 % and19.2% districts have 15.01 to 30.00 % and 30.01-45.0% male cultivatorsrespectively. More than 1/3 (34.86%) districts have more than 60.01%male cultivators.

These districts are Anjaw, Tirap, Mon, Karbi Anglong, Reasi,Longleng, Tamenglong, Senapati, Mamit, Changlang, Lohit, Kurung Kumey,Tuensang, Kinnaur, Peren, East Kameng, West Siang, Serchhip, Chandel,Upper Subansiri, Dima Hasao, Lower Dibang Valley, East Garo Hills, Ukhrul,Lawngtlai, Upper Siang, Champhai, East Siang, Kishtwar, Churachandpur,Phek, Kiphire, Udhampur, Dehradun, Udham Singh Nagar, Ramban, WestDistrict and Wokha.

In 2011, about 59.7 % of the main female workers are consideredas female cultivators in the Indian Himalayan Region which was 62.1 % in2001which figures are more than the country average 36.4 % and 41.2 %during the 2011 and 2001 censuses. The higher percentage of femalecultivators in comparasion to the country average is because that no otheroccupation is available in the IHR except subsistence agriculture. Thenumbers of female cultivator are also decreased from 2001 to 2011 in all

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regions/districts of IHR. The percentage of female cultivators is variesfrom minimum 9.4% in W.B.Hills to maximum 74.6% in Arunachal Pradesh.Out of total twelve states /region of the IHR, 1/3 states /region have lessthan 50% female cultivators. These states /region are Jammu & Kashmir,Himachal Pradesh, Tripura and W.B.Hills.

District wise distribution of female tribal cultivators varies fromminimum 5.3% in Imphal West to maximum 90.2 % in the Longleng district.The concentration of the male cultivator has been grouped into five groupsi.e. below 20.00 %, 20.01 to 40.0 %, 40.01 to 60.00 %, 60.01 to 80.0 %, andmore than 80.01 % respectively classified as extremely low concentratedzone, very low, low, moderate and high concentrated zones. Out of total109 districts of the Indian Himalayan Region 10.09 % districts have lessthan 20.0 % female cultivators. These districts are Jammu, Kupwara,Bandipore, Champawat, Shupiyan, Kulgam, Pulwama, Baramula, Darjiling,Srinagar and Imphal West. About 22.02 % and 21.1 % districts have20.01to 40.00 % and 40.01-60.0% female cultivators respectively. Fifteen percentdistricts have more than 80.01% female cultivators. These districts areLongleng, Tirap, Tuensang, Mon, Anjaw, Kiphire, East Kameng, Kinnaur,Phek, Tamenglong, Peren, Kurung Kumey, Hamirpur, West Siang,Changlang, Kishtwar and Upper Subansiri.

Agricultural Labours

Out of total tribal main workers 9.0 % tribal people are registeredas agricultural laborers in the IHR which is much lower than the nationalaverage (36.3%). The agricultural labours is decreased from 2001 (10.2%)to 2011 (9.0%). The percentage of agricultural laborers in the IHR variesminimum 2.1% in Arunachal Pradesh to maximum 28.9 % in Tripura.Overwhelming area of Tripura state is suitable for agriculture while otherstates / regions have not conducive condition for agriculture like Tripura.Maximum agricultural practices in Tripura are performed by the in migrantsor refugees (Landless people).

District wise distribution of total tribal agricultural laboures variesfrom minimum 0.01% in Almora district of Uttarakhand to maximum 36.5% in the Pulwama district of Jammu & Kashmir. Table 13 gives the spatialdistribution of districts by different ranges and groups of total agriculturallaboure concentration in the Region. The concentration of the totalagricultural laboure has been grouped into six groups i.e. below 5.00 %,5.01 to 10.0 %, 10.01 to 15.00 % 15.01 to 20.0 %, 20.01 to 25.0% and morethan 25.01 % respectively classified as extremely low concentrated zone,very low, low, moderate , high and very high concentrated zones. Out of

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total 109 districts of the Indian Himalayan Region 57.8 % districts haveless than 5.0 % total agricultural laboure. About 10.09 % districts havemore than 20.01% total agricultural laboure. These districts which havemore agricultural labour are Udham Singh Nagar, Dhalai Bandipore,Pulwama, Kulgam, Shupiyan, Champawat, South Tripura, Anantnag, WestTripura and Hardwar.

Out of the total main male worker, 9.3 % males are enumerated asagricultural labour in 2011 which was also 9.3 % in 2001which figures areless than the country average 31.3 % and 30.3 % during the 2011 and 2001censuses respectively. The numbers of male agricultural labour are sameduring 2001 to 2011 in all regions/districts of IHR. It is due to the unviabilityof agriculture and attraction towords the other jobs available in the urbanplaces. But in country level the numbers of male agricultural labours areicreased from 2001 to 2011. The percentage of male agricultural labour isvaries from minimum 1.9 % in Arunachal Pradesh to maximum 27.1 % inTripura. Out of total study units of the IHR, 2/3 has less than regionalaverage of 9.3% male agricultural labours. These are Himachal Pradesh,Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Assam Hills andW.B.Hills.

District wise distribution of male tribal agricultural labour variesfrom minimum zero % in Amora district of Uttarakhand to maximum 39.1% in the Shupiyan district of Jammu and Kashmir. Table 14 gives the spatialdistribution of districts by different ranges and groups of male agriculturallabour concentration in the Region. The concentration of the male agriculturallabour has been grouped into five groups i.e. below 5.00 %, 5.01 to 10.0 %,10.01 to 15.00 %, 15.01 to 20.0 %, 20.01 to 25.0% and more than 25.01 %respectively classified as extremely low concentrated zone, very low, low,moderate, high and very high concentrated zones. Out of total 109 districtsof the Indian Himalayan Region 59.63 % districts have less than 5.0 %male agricultural labour. About 18.35 % districts have 5.01 to 10.00 %male agricultural labour respectively. Remaining 22.02 % districts havemore than 10.01% male agricultural labours. These districts are Garhwal,Kishtwar, East Khasi Hills, Punch, Badgam, Kupwara, Nainital, Ribhoi,West Khasi Hills, Jaintia Hills, Ganderbal, Baramula, Dhalai, Udham SinghNagar, Bandipore, North Tripura, Shupiyan, Kulgam, Pulwama, Anantnag,South Tripura, Champawat, Hardwar and West Tripura.

In 2011, about 8.6 % of the main female workers are consideredas female agricultural labour in the Indian Himalayan Region which was11.3 % in 2001which figures are less than the country average 45.1 % and

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44.8 % respectively during the 2011 and 2001 censuses. The lowerpercentage of female agricultural labour in comparasion to the countryaverage is because that the nature of prevailing agricultural is subsistencein the IHR. The numbers of female agricultural labour are also decreasedfrom 2001 to 2011 in all regions/districts of IHR. The percentage of femaleagricultural labour is varies from minimum 2.3% in Arunachal Pradesh tomaximum 34.2% in Tripura (Table 9). Out of total twelve states /region ofthe IHR, 10 states /region have less than 10% female agricultural labours.These states /region are Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim,Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Assam Hills andW.B.Hills.

District wise distribution of female tribal agricultural labour variesfrom minimum zero% in Almora and Rudraprayag districts to maximum54.2 % in Champawat district of Uttarakhand. Table 15 gives the spatialdistribution of districts by different ranges and groups of female agriculturallabour concentration in the Region. The concentration of the femaleagricultural labour has been grouped into five groups i.e. below 5.00 %,5.01 to 10.0 %, 10.01 to 15.00 %, 15.01 to 20.0 % and more than 20.01 %respectively classified as extremely low concentrated zone, very low, low,moderate and high concentrated zones. Out of total districts of the IndianHimalayan Region 56.88 % districts have less than 5.0 % female agriculturallabour. About 22.02 % districts have 5.01 to 10.00 % female agriculturallabour. These are Thoubal, Kulgam, Kolasib, Punch, Kishtwar, Shupiyan,West District, South Garo Hills, Una, Senapati, Chandel, Kargil, Chamba,East District, Darjiling, Mamit, Champhai, Rajouri, North Sikkim, Kullu,Churachandpur, Aizawl, Baramula and Dehradun. Only 5.5 percent districtshave more than 20.01% female agricultural labour. These districts areChampawat, South Tripura, West Tripura, Hardwar, Udham Singh Nagarand Dhalai. The agricultural conditions viz. favourable climatic condition,comparatively fertile level land, ample water for irrigation, application oftechnology, use of high yielding variety seeds, use of pesticides andinsecticides etc. are very conducive in these districts. Generally agriculturallabours are in migrants from other districts where income generatonopportunities are very few.

Workers in Household Industries

Out of total tribal main workers only 1.4 % tribal people are registered asworkers in household industries in the IHR which is slightly more than thenational average (1.3%). The household industry workers is decreasedfrom 2001 (2.6%) to 2011 (1.3%). The percentage of household industry

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workers in the IHR varies minimum 0.8 % in Arunachal Pradesh tomaximum 3.3 % in Uttarakhand. Conditions for household industry (cottage)in tribal areas of Uttarakhand, Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradeshstates are very suitable and generally performed by the women folk. Womenof these areas have expertise for making woolen clothes, carpets, shaulsetc.

District wise distribution of total tribal household industry workersvaries from minimum 0.02% in Reasi district of Jammu and Kashmir tomaximum 27.6 % in the Uttarkashi district of Uttarakhand. Table 16 givesthe spatial distribution of districts by different ranges and groups of totalhousehold industry workers concentration in the Region. The concentrationof the total household industry workers has been grouped into five groupsi.e. below 1.00 %, 1.01 to 2.0 %, 2.01 to 3.00 %, 3.01 to 4.0 % and morethan 4.01 % respectively classified as extremely low concentrated zone,very low, low, moderate and high concentrated zones. Out of total 109districts of the Indian Himalayan Region 33.94 % districts have less than1.0 % total household industry workers. Approximately 40% districts have1.01 to 2% household industry workers. About 12.84 % districts have morethan 3.01 % total household industry workers. These districts which havemore household industry workers are Bandipore, Ramban, Bishnupur,Baramula, Jammu, Kangra, Kupwara, Uttarkashi, Bageshwar, Shupiyan,Chamoli, Pithoragarh, Rudraprayag and Shimla.

Out of total tribal main workers only 1.1 % male tribal people areregistered as household industry workers in the IHR which is equal fromthe national average (1.1%). The male household industry workers isdecreased from 2001 (1.6%) to 2011 (1.1%). The percentage of malehousehold industry workers in the IHR varies minimum 0.7 % in ArunachalPradesh and Tripura to maximum 2.0 % in Uttarakhand. Conditions forhousehold industry (cottage) in tribal areas of Uttarakhand, Jammu andKashmir and Himachal Pradesh states are very suitable

District wise distribution of male tribal household industry workersvaries from minimum 0.01% in Reasi district of Jammu and Kashmir tomaximum 23.8 % in the Uttarkashi district of Uttarakhand. Theconcentration of the male household industry workers has been groupedinto five groups i.e. below 1.00 %, 1.01 to 2.0 %, 2.01 to 3.00 %, 3.01 to 4.0% and more than 4.01 % respectively classified as extremely lowconcentrated zone, very low, low, moderate and high concentrated zones.Out of total 109 districts of the Indian Himalayan Region 46.79 % districtshave less than 1.0 % male household industry workers. Approximately

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40% districts have 1.01 to 2% household industry workers. About 12.75 %districts have more than 2.01 % male household industry workers. Thesedistricts which have more household industry workers are Thoubal, Jammu,Bishnupur, Una, Kathua, Garhwal Bandipore, Rudraprayag, Kangra,Uttarkashi, Bageshwar, Shupiyan, Chamoli, Pithoragarh and Shimla.

Out of total tribal main workers only 1.9 % tribal women areregistered as household industry workers in the IHR which is slightly higherfrom the national average (1.8%). The female household industry workersin region are decreased by 4.1% in 2001 to 1.9 % in 2011. The percentageof female household industry workers in the IHR varies minimum 1.0 % inSikkim and Arunachal Pradesh to maximum 6.4 % in Uttarakhand.Conditions for household industries (cottage) in tribal areas of Uttarakhandare very suitable.

District wise distribution of female tribal household industry workersvaries from minimum zero percentage in Almora and Pauri districts ofUttarakhand and 0.01% in Dibang district of Arunachal Pradesh tomaximum 44.8 % in the Shupiyan district of Jammu and Kashmir. Table 18gives the spatial distribution of districts by different ranges and groups offemale household industry workers concentration in the Region. Theconcentration of the female household industry workers has been groupedinto five groups i.e. below 1.00 %, 1.01 to 2.0 %, 2.01 to 3.00 %, 3.01 to 4.0% and more than 4.01 % respectively classified as extremely lowconcentrated zone, very low, low, moderate and high concentrated zones.Out of total 109 districts of the Indian Himalayan Region 30.28 % districtshave less than 1.0 % female household industry workers. Approximately42% districts have 1.01 to 3% household industry workers. About 18.35 %districts have more than 4.01 % female household industry workers. Thesedistricts which have more female household industry workers are Shupiyan,Bageshwar, Uttarkashi, Ramban, Pithoragarh, Chamoli, Baramula,Kupwara, Badgam, Anantnag, Rudraprayag, Bishnupur, Bandipore, Jammu,Una, Chamba, Shimla, Imphal West, Ganderbal and Udham Singh Nagar.

Other Workers

As per 2011 Census 35.1 % of main total tribal worker in the IHR isconsidered as other workers or workers in tertiary sector such as business,services or white color jobs i.e. employee in various infrastructural unitswhich is 13.5 % more than the national average (21.6%) which was 28.2%in 2001. The number of total other workers in 2001 to 2011 was increasedboth in the country and Indian Himalayan Region. The overall increasementin tertiary sector is a result of the economic and infrastructural development

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not only in the IHR but also in the country as a whole in one hand and nonviability of agriculture on the other. In the Indian Himalayan Region thereare no such possibilities of development in primary or secondary sectors.Indian Himalayan Region is still infrastructurally undeveloped and there ismuch more possibility of development in this sector. It will provide moreemployment and accomodate more population. The percentage of totalother worker varies minimum 19.9% in Assam Hills to maximum 77.6 % inW. B. Hills. Two third states/ regions have more than 30 % other workers.These are Jammu and Kashmir (48.6%), Himachal Pradesh (45.2%), Sikkim(48.6 %), Nagaland (31.5%), Mizoram (41.1%), Tripura (30.1%),Meghalaya (35.3%) and W. B. Hills (77.6%). The main reason behind thecomparatively high percentage of total other workers in these states / regionsis more requirement of human resource for tourism, horticultural, educational,medical, transport, communication, security, other social and economicrelated activities. District wise distribution of total main other workers variesfrom minimum 12.4% in Mon district of Nagaland to maximum 88.2 % inthe Srinagar district of Jammu and Kashmir. Table 19 gives the spatialdistribution of districts by different ranges and groups of other workersconcentration in the Region. The concentration of the other workers hasbeen grouped into five groups i.e. below 20.00 %, 20.01 to 40.0 %, 40.01 to60.00 %, 60.01 to 80.0 % and more than 80.01 % respectively classified asextremely low concentrated zone, very low, low, moderate and highconcentrated zones. Out of total 109 districts of the Indian Himalayan Region12.84 % districts have less than 20.0 % other workers. Approximately41% districts have 20.01 to 40.0 % other workers. About 27.52 % districtshave 40.01 to 60.0% other workers. Remaing 18.35% districts have morethan 60.01% other workers.These districts are Almora, Darjiling , Dimapur, Ganderbal, Samba, Kangra, Tehri Garhwal, Jammu, East District, ImphalEast, Aizawl, Baramula, Papum Pare, Shimla, Thoubal, Bandipore,Leh(Ladakh), Srinagar, Imphal West and Kargil.

As per 2011 Census 38.2 % workers in the IHR are registered asmale other workers which are 13.8 % more than the national average(24.4%). The number of male other workers was increased from 2001 to2011 both in the country (20.6%) and Indian Himalayan Region (32.8 %).After Indo-China and Indo- Pak wars, the IHR received special attentionfor infrastructural development due to its strategic importance. Educatedmale population has got more employment in developmental schemes. Thepercentage of other male worker varies minimum 19.9% in Assam Hills tomaximum 74.8 % in W. B. Hills. More than two third states/ regions havemore than 40 % other male workers. These are Jammu and Kashmir

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(48.2%), Himachal Pradesh (53.5%), Sikkim (51.4 %), Mizoram (42.8%),and W. B. Hills (74.8 %) (Table9). The main reason for high percentage ofother male workers in these states / regions is more requirement of malepopulation for tourism, hotel, horticulture, educational, medical, transport,social and economic related infrastructural services. District wise distributionof total main other workers varies from minimum 12.3% in Shupiyan districtof Jammu and Kashmir to maximum 89.5 % in the Kargil district of thesame state. Table 20 gives the spatial distribution of districts by differentranges and groups of other male workers concentration in the Region. Theconcentration of the other workers has been grouped into five groups i.e.below 20.00 %, 20.01 to 40.0 %, 40.01 to 60.00 %, 60.01 to 80.0 % andmore than 80.01 % respectively classified as extremely low concentratedzone, very low, low, moderate and high concentrated zones. About 7.34 %districts of the Indian Himalayan Region have less than 20.0 % other maleworkers. These are Mamit, Senapati, Anjaw, Tirap, Mon, Karbi Anglong,Udham Singh Nagar and Shupiyan. Approximately 41% districts have 20.01to 40.0 % other male workers. About 27.52 % districts have 40.01 to 60.0%other male workers. Remaing 23.86 % districts have more than 60.01%other male workers. These districts are Dimapur , Kangra, Darjiling ,Ganderbal, Samba, East District, Hamirpur, Thoubal, Rudraprayag, PapumPare, Aizawl, Jammu, Imphal East, Baramula, Leh(Ladakh), Champawat,Shimla, Mandi, Garhwal, Bandipore , Una, Kargil, Srinagar, Almora, TehriGarhwal and Imphal West.

As per 2011 Census, out of total tribal main female workers only29.8 % women are registered as other workers in the IHR which is 13.1%higher from the national average (16.7%) (Table9). The female otherworkers in the IHR are increased by 7.3 % from 2001 to 2011. Thepercentage of female other workers in the IHR varies minimum 18.6 % inUttarakhand to maximum 82.7 % in W.B.Hills. It is worth to that in Jammuand Kashmir and W.B.Hills (Darjiling district) number of female otherworkers are more than their male counterpart. These two regions are morefamous for tourism, horticulture, tea cultivation etc. The demand of femaleworkers in personal relation officer in tourist information centres, hotelreceptionist, workers in shops, malls, tea gardens etc. Out of total regionsseven have less female other workers than the regional average (29.8%).

District wise distribution of female tribal other workers varies fromminimum 6.4% in Mon districts of Nagaland to maximum 87.3 % in theImphal West district of Manipur. The concentration of the female otherworkers has been grouped into five groups i.e. below 20.00 %, 20.01 to40.0 %, 40.01 to 60.00 %, 60.01 to 80.0 % and more than 80.01 %

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respectively classified as extremely low concentrated zone, very low, low,moderate and high concentrated zones. Out of total 109 districts of theIndian Himalayan Region 30.19 % districts have less than 20.0 % femaleother workers. One third (33.03%) districts have 20.01 to 40.0 % otherworkers. The districts which have 40.01 to 60.0 % female other workersare Papum Pare, Ganderbal, East Khasi Hills, Punch, Doda, Kangra,Leh(Ladakh), Thoubal, Udhampur, Kupwara, Ramban, Dibang Valley, Reasi,Anantnag, Rajouri, Kullu, Badgam, North Sikkim, Jaintia Hills, Nainital,Una and Saiha.About 15.59 % districts have more than 60.01% femaleother workers. These are Kulgam, Imphal East, Bishnupur, Jammu,Pulwama, Kargil, Baramula, Dimapur, Aizawl, East District, Bandipore,Almora, Samba, Shimla Imphal West, Srinagar and Darjiling.

Conclusion

The tribal community and their habitats constitute very significant parts ofbackward people and regions of the country respectively. They compriseabout the 18 per cent of country’s land and 8.6 per cent of its population.The tribal population of the IHR mostly concentrated relatively in moreinhospitable areas like rugged mountains, extreme climatic zone, dense forestand marshy areas. The tribal population of the IHR is enumerated 1,17,95,981persons in 2011 constitute about 25.2 % of the total IHR population and10,42,81,034 person are recorded as tribal people in the whole countrywhich is 8.6 % of the total population. The IHR contains 11.31% of thetotal country’s tribal population. The concentration of Himalaya’s tribalpopulation varies 1.75% in Sikkim to 21.67% in Meghalaya. But their largestproportion to total states / regions population in the IHR is found in Mizoram(94.4%) followed by Nagaland (86.5%), Meghalaya (86.1%), ArunachalPradesh (68.8%), Assam Hills (59.0%), Manipur (35.1%), Sikkim(33.8%),Tripura (31.8%), W.B. Hills (21.5%) and Jammu and Kashmir(11.9%). Himachal Pradesh (5.7%) and Uttarakhand (2.9%) have lessthan 10 % tribal population of the total population. The states/ regions whichhave more inhospitable geographical areas registered more tribal populationsuch as Meghalaya, Nagaland and Jammu and Kashmir. Contrary to thisthe states having more level fertile land, irrigational and other infrastructuralfacilities have less tribal population.

The percentage of total workers in tribal population has recordedlower (42.8%) in comparison to the national average (48.7%) as a whole in2011 which is lower than the 2001 figures. The percentage of tribal totalworkers varies minimum 35.7% in Jammu and Kashmir to maximum 53.5% in Himachal Pradesh. Himachal Pradesh has lot of orchards and tourist

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places in which maximum people are engaged as workers. The total tribalworker varies minimum 22.5% in Kupwara district of Jammu and Kashmirto maximum 66.4% in Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh. There are nomuch more occupational opportunities for the people of Jammu and Kashmirbecause of terrorism (internal and external) created by the outfits/ terrorists.

Out of total population 57.2%, 51.3% and 63.1 % persons, malesand females respectively are registered as non workers. Maximum 64.3 %of the total population in the IHR is registered as non wokers in Jammu andKashmir which may be the main reseson for unrest in the youth of thestate. Similar circumfrances are also prevailing in the eastern states / regions.Therefore, there is an urgent need of such policies which generate themore employment and provide the economic base of the local youths.

About 70.6 % population of the total workers of IHR is registeredas main worker in 2011 which is higher than the national average (64.8 %).Out of the total states / region of the IHR, maximum 84.8 % main workersare in Mizoram while Jammu and Kashmir has minimum 45.2 % mainworkers. The states /regions which have more resources and more jobopportunities have more main workers. Out of the total main workers, 54.5%population is enumerated as cultivators which was 59.0 % in 2001which ismore than the country average 40.7% and 44.7% during the same specifiedperiods. It is very considerale situation that the numbers of cultivator aredecreased from 2001 to 2011 in all regions/districts of IHR because of nonviability of agricultural activities. By and large the female cultivators aremore than their male counterpart in each Himalayan states /regions. Thepercentage of cultivators is varies from minimum 13.8 % in W.B.Hills tomaximum 73.1 % in Assam Hills. In the IHR only 9 % main workers areregistered as agricultural labours. In this sector, male agricultural labourersare more than female agricultural lbourers. Only 1.4% tribal main workersare enumerated as household industries workers which are more thannational average (1.3%). About 1.9% tribal women are engaged in householdindustries which is more than the male workers (1.1%). About one thirdmain workers (35.1%) are registered as othe workers i.e workers in otherprofessions which is 13.5% more than the country average. Among otherworkers, 38.2% male tribal workers are employed in various sectors.W.B.Hills is only region which have maximum other worker than theHimalaya states.It is only because of tourism and tea industries are welldeveloped in the region.

The study suggest that there is urgent need to establish the moreinfrastructural facilities such as educational, medical, transportation,

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communication with pollution free small scale electronic and cottageindustries. The geographical environment of the region is more suitable forthe development of Tourism and horticulture which should be promoted. Asa result of these initiatives more tribal people will be engaged in the regionand out migration problem will be checked to some extent,

References:Aggrawal, B.C. and K.S.Mathur, (1973) Tribe, Caste, Peasantry. Lucknow thnographicand

Folk Culture Society.

Ali, S. A. (1972) Tribal Demography in Madhya Pradesh , Bhopal; Jai BharatPublishersHouse.

Anonymous, (2001) Census of India PCA Totals, SC/ST Population in CD, R.G.I. ofIndia, New Delhi.

Anonymous, (2011) Census of India, 2011 pca_state_distt_st2011 (http://www.censusindia.gov.in).

Bhole, A.S. and S.D.Bhangale (1999) Role of Imigration of Tribal Population in Utilizationof Resources in Jalgaon District. Geog. Review of India 61 (1): 89-94.

Bisht, G.S., G.S. Satyal and H.Singh, (1995) Agricultural Economy of the Bhotias inCentral Himalaya: Status and Potentialities, in B.R.Pant and M.C.Pant (eds.),Glimpses of Central Himalaya: A Socio Economic and Ecological Perspective,Radha Publications New Delhi.317-332.

Chand, R., (1989) Socio Economic Structure of Villages in Kumaun Himalaya, Geog.Review of India, 51(4): 25-35.

Chand, R., (2004) Brokpas: The Hidden Highlanders of Bhutan, PAHAR POTHI Nainital:164p.

Chib S.S., (1995) Demographic Dynamics in the Trans Himalaya Tribal Region of Kinnaur,H.P. Perspective of Socio Economic Implications, Geog. Review of India, 57(1):22-28.

Gangwar, S.P. and B.R.Pant, (2012) Food and Nutrition of Tharu Tribe in Uttarakhand.The Transactions of the Institute of Geographers, India. Vol. 2(1& 2): 33- 41.

Gangwar, S.P. and B.R.Pant, (2011) Occupational Pattern of Tharu Tribe in Uttarakhand: A Sample Study. The Transaction of the Institute of Geographers India, Vol. 1 (1and 2): 53- 62.

Gupta, H.S. and A. Baghel, (1995) Fertility Pattern among the Scheduled Tribes of RaipurDistrict. Annals of the NAGI, 15 (2): 36-54.

Jodha, N.S. (2005) Himalayan Journal of Science, 3(5): 33-43.Cited by GBPHIED, 2010.Report of the Task Force, Planning Commission, Govt. of India :p15.

Joshi, Hemlata, (1996) Demographic Profile of Banswara- A Predominantly Tribal Districtof Rajasthan, Geog. Review of India, 58(3): 219-230.

Occupational Structure of Scheduled Tribe Population

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Mookerji, S., (1986) Ecology and Tribals: A Process of Human Adjustment withEnvironment, The Geographer, 50 (2).

Pant, B.R., (1995). Nutrition Availability Pattern of Scheduled Tribe Population inUttarakhand –Buksa a Case, Geog.Review of India, 57 (4):358-366.

Pant, B.R., (1996) Food and Nutrition Intake Scenario of Tharu Tribes…Himalaya. TheJournal of Landscape System and Ecological Studies, 19(1):112-119.

Pant, B.R., (2007) Literacy Pattern among the Scheduled Tribe Population of India GeogReview of India Kolkata: 69(2)170-177.

Pant, B.R., (2010a) Tribal Demography of India, Anamika Publishers and Distributors(Pvt) Ltd. New Delhi.288p

Pant, B.R., (2010a). Tribal Demography of Uttarakhand. Envis Bulletin-Himalayan Ecology,18 :1-9.

Pant, S.D., (1935) Social Economy of Himalayas, George Allen & Unwin, London:267.

Pathak, C.R., (2001) Impact of Development on the Tribal Community in JharkhandState, Geog. Review of India, 63 (4): 305-316.

Raza, Moonis, and A.Ahmad, (1984) Social Geography : Tribes, Caste,Literacy, Religion,in Shah Manjoor Alam (ed.) ICSSR Survey of Research in Geography 1972-75,Concept, Delhi.70-72.

Samal, P.K., (1993) The Status of Women in Central Himalaya: A Cultural Interpretation,Man in India, 73 (1):87-95.

Satyal, G.S., K.Kumar and D.S.Rawat, (1999) Sustainable Use of Natural Resources: ACase Study of Tribal Village in the Kumaun Himalaya, Geog. Review of India, 61(2): 183-195.

Singh, K.S., (ed.) (1972) Tribal Situation of India, Indian Institute of Advanced Study,Shimla.

Singh, L.R., (1956) The Tharus: A Study in Human Ecology, NGJI (3):153-166.

Singh, L.R., (1965) The Tarai Region of U.P.: A Study in Human Geography, Ram NarayanLal Beni, Allahabad.

Srivastava, S.K., (1958) The Tharus: A Study in Culture Dynamics, Agra University Press,Agra: 343p.

Vidyarthi, L.P., (1974) Tribal Development in Independent India and its Future, Man inIndia, LIV (1):45-79.

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CHAPTER - 12

Traditional Ecological Knowledge forEcotourism Initiative of Forest Community:A case in Nameri National Park of Assam, IndiaNiranjan Das*

Introduction

Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) is an academic term referring toindigenous or other forms of traditional knowledge regarding localenvironmental resources. TEK can be defined as ‘a cumulative body ofknowledge, practice, and belief, evolving by adaptive processes and handeddown through generations by cultural transmission’. It concerns therelationship of living beings including human with one another and withtheir environment’. TEK is commonly used in natural resourcemanagement as  a  substitute  for  baseline  environmental  data  to measurechanges over time in remote regions that have little recorded scientificdata.

Ecotourism has been growing in many fragile ecosystems, and hasbeen increasingly linked to the unique natural environment and biodiversityfound in these areas. Maintaining an unspoiled and attractive destinationcontributes greatly to visitor satisfaction, conserves the area’s biodiversityand contributes to the wellbeing of the local populace (ConservationInternational, 2007). Indigenous tourism evolves when the indigenous peopleoperate tours and cultural centers; provide visitor facilities and control touristaccess to their cultural sites, natural resources and tribal lands (Zeppel,2006).

Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation (2015) : 171-183 Sati,V. P. et al. (Ed),Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002

ISBN: 81-8019-518-3 (India) ISBN: 1-55528-374-8 (USA)

*Post -Doctoral Fellow, Department of Business Administration, Tezpur University,Napaam-784028, Tezpur (Assam); E-Mail: [email protected]

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The term Indigenous Ecotourism has emerged since the mid-1990sto describe collective ecotourism projects developed on indigenous landsand territories in Latin America, Australia and Canada (Zeppel, 2006). Suchan approach to ecotourism recognizes the need to promote both the qualityof people’s lives and the conservation of resources (Scheyvens, 1999).Indigenous ecotourism involves tourism that is based on indigenousknowledge systems and values, by promoting the aboriginal customarypractices and livelihoods (Johnston, 2000). In other words, it cares for theenvironment and involves indigenous people in the decision-making andmanagement.

Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) has become a major focusof the native resident in the world (Toledo, 2002). TEK offers a means toimprove natural resource management and environmental impactassessments (Huntington, 2000). Currently, a vast number of native peopleno longer rely on TEK because their education has been outside of theirown culture and traditions (Augustine, 1997). Modernization is the maincause for the non-utilization of TEK (Phuthego and Chanda, 2004). Likemany native tribes in the world the local community in the fringe of theNameri National Park is characterized by unemployment, lack of economicdiversification for sustains livelihoods. Much of this development focuseson community-based ecotourism that benefits local people (Notzke, 2006).As indigenous people gradually represent themselves and are repositioned,mostly by environmental activists, as the rightful interpreters of ecosystems,the role of ecological protector is internalized by the many indigenouscommunities in the buffers of Nameri National Park that plan to developecotourism.

Peoples from villages move away to the urban areas for sustainbetter livelihoods. This lifestyle has been changing significantly theirtraditional culture and also affected their ability to develop tribal integrityand sustainable economic development. In order to reduce the crisis, TEKcreates an important way leading to the economic development of uniqueecotourism opportunities. By linking these values to the development ofecotourism, appropriate decisions can be made that will employ native people,support the continued use and development of their TEK and result inecologically sustainable economic development (Butler et al., 2007). In thisresearch ethno-botanical data show the adaptation of traditional knowledgeand results of the forest community collected during 2013-2014 from theforest villages in Nameri National Park. The purpose of this research wastwofold: first, to explore the community ethno-botanical knowledge and,secondly, to discuss the application of TEK in the development of ecotourism

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from their traditional perspective.

However, early critics of tourism development pointed out that theindustry was dominated by outside interests who retained most of the benefitsand left host destinations to bear the costs (Maoz, 2006). Over the past twodecades, ecotourism activities (Weaver, 2008) and community-basedapproaches (Scheyvens, 1999) have gained in popularity. These approachesattempt to mitigate the negative impacts of tourism and emphasize thepositive, with a goal of ensuring the net positive impact, along with a fairdistribution of said impacts.

Review of Literature

Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) is the ideological beliefs,values and practices that evaluate the history and context of communitieswhich may be shared by other indigenous peoples. Turner et al. (2000)referred to TEK as the knowledge of ecological principles, and provided abasic framework for this study. Its general characteristics are categorizedwithin three broad themes: practice and strategies for resource use andsustainability; philosophy or worldview; and communication and exchangeof knowledge and information. Indigenous peoples have resided in aparticular locale for a long time, and depended on the resources of theirhomeland. The scope of TEK is wide and includes detailed knowledge offlora and fauna, natural occurrences and the use of traditional technologies.Indigenous ecotourism ventures should be used to distinguish those initiativeswhich are environmentally sensitive, but which also aim to ensure thatmembers of local communities have a high degree of control over theactivities taking place, and a significant proportion of the benefits ensue tothem (Lascurain, 1996). This is in contrast to ecotourism ventures whichare controlled wholly by outside operators, and it is also distinct from contextsin which most of the economic benefits of tourism accumulate to thegovernment (Akama, 1996).

Community-based approach to ecotourism recognizes the need topromote both the quality of life of people and the conservation of resources.A useful way to determine responsible community-based ecotourism is toapproach it from a development perspective, which considers social,environmental and economic goals, and questions how ecotourism can meetthe needs of the host population in terms of improved living standards bothin the short and long term (Cater, 1993). This perspective differs somewhatfrom those approaching ecotourism predominantly from an environmentalperspective. Buckley, for example, devised a framework which proposesthat ecotourism is based on nature tourism which is sustainably managed,

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includes environmental education and supports conservation (Buckley, 1994).Meanwhile, Lindberg take an economic perspective when they examineecotourism case studies from Belize (Lindberg et al., 1996). While theyconsider the extent to which ecotourism generates economic benefits forlocal communities, they do not account for how the greater amount ofmoney entering communities might be distributed, or how communities arebeing affected socially and culturally by the ecotourism ventures. Evenwhere ecotourism results in economic benefits for a local community, itmay result in damage to social and cultural systems thus undermining peoplesoverall quality of life (Wilkinson, 1995). Community-based approaches toecotourism therefore need to acknowledge the importance of socialdimensions of the tourism experience, rather than primarily focusing onenvironmental or economic impacts.

Study Area

Nameri National Park is located in the foothills of theEastern Himalayas in  the Sonitpur District  of Assam, India,  about  35kilometers from Tezpur (districts headquarter). Nameri shares its northernboundary with the Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary of Arunachal Pradesh. Togetherthey constitute an area of over 1000 km2 of which Nameri has share a totalarea of 200 km2 comprising east and west buffer area. Parts of the areawere declared as Naduar Reserve Forest (Present East Buffer) in 1876and Nameri Wildlife Sanctuary in the year 1985. The Nameri NationalPark was formed in the year1998.

During the British period the reserve forest was designated asGame Century for hunting of animals. Presently no villages situated insidethe core area of the park. There are 4(four) forest villages and 1(one)agriculture farming corporation has been situated in the west buffer of thepark. Similarly 5(five) forest villages are located in the east buffer. Thereare total 18(eighteen) revenue villages are situated outside but along thesouthern and south-western boundary of the park. These villages comprisethe south buffer area. Villagers are dependable to the park to sustain theirlivelihood. They are engaged in collection of NTFP (Non timber forestproduce) and grazing of livestock. A sizable proportion of local populacehas been engaged in ecotourism activities as tour guide, providing localaccommodation, selling handicraft, work in the ecocamp etc for theirlivelihood.

The Assam (Bhorelli) Angling & Conservation Association(ABACA) in the park has been organizing regulated angling (catch andrelease basis) competitions every year since 1981 with the assistance and

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cooperation of the department of sports, department of tourism anddepartment of environment and forest, government of Assam.

Materials and Methods

This study conducted a field inventory of ethno-botanical knowledgewith the local people. Furthermore, six forest trails that surround the villagesin east and west buffer and are close to daily life (namely Eco camp area,Bhalukpung and nearby roads) were chosen for the site of the field survey.The line transects the sampling area and visually illustrates how specieschange along it; key specimens were collected. The attributes from eachdistinct species were photographed, with as many samples as possible beingcollected. The main collection of ethno-botanical data was taken from April2014 to February 2015. This data was collected either directly from fieldsurveys on-site through individual interviews, or off-site by way of focusgroup interviews with local management committee members. All of thephotographs or fresh specimens were provided during each interview. Atotal of 12 families with elders from 28 families chosen from 157 people inthe population made up the study group without distinction of gender or agegroup. Oral consent was obtained from each respondent.

During the interviews, a standardized set of questions was used toinquire about each plant the authors had collected; data was gathered aboutthe use of said plants, information that the community no longer activelyuses. The authors believe that it was important to gather such informationabout these ‘unknown’ or considered ‘useless’ species in order to documentknowledge that would have been lost, and to preserve the knowledge oftraditional names. All of the interviews were carried out with at least one ofthe local people being used as an interpreter or assistant.

Based on the above database, the authors chose to use thetheoretical framework of Champion et al., (2000) regarding traditionalecological knowledge to analyze the 80 species of useful plants identified inthis study. It categorizes traditional ecological knowledge into three broadthemes: philosophy or worldview, practices and strategies for sustainableliving, and communication and exchange of knowledge. Local ethno-botanicalknowledge derived from past generations through experimentation,observation and practice. Based on empirical observations, ecologicalpractices and exchange with others, all such knowledge has an obvioussurvival value. Within their belief system, the local community resides inthe park has a sense of spiritual and practical respect for their environmentalcomponents. The philosophy or worldview shapes environmental perceptionand gives meaning to environmental observations (Berkes, 1999). The local

Traditional Ecological Knowledge for Ecotourism

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names and usage were documented for 80 species. The plants were dividedinto seven main categories based on their level of importance in the tribe’straditional usage and lifestyles (Table-I). As for the category of use, plantswere used predominantly for food but also for household tools, buildingmaterials, hunting, agricultural materials, medicines and toys, although invarying levels of importance. Those plant species identified as useful donot represent the total plant population as recognized by the villagers in thepark; instead they represent the study’s initial findings. It was estimatedthat there are around more than 200 plant types recognized by the community,but not all have names associated with them.

Results

Wild Plants Database and Analysis: The researchers collected a totalof 240 wild plant specimens (table I). These included 80 families and 240species. The local names and usage were documented for 70 species. Theplants were divided into seven main categories based on their level ofimportance in the forest communities’ traditional usage and lifestyles (tableII).Table I: Wild plants collected from the three forest trails

Types of Plants Number of Families Types of Species

Parasites 03 11

Grasses 09 18

Ferns 12 27

Scrubs 17 21

Gymnosperms 06 41

Monocotyledons 05 134

Dicotyledonous 34 07

Total 83 259

As for the category of use, plants were used predominantly forfood but also for household tools, building materials, hunting, agriculturalmaterials, medicines and toys, although in varying levels of importance.

Practices and Strategies for Sustainable Living

The practices of indigenous peoples to improve and retain theirliving resources are derived from generations of observation andexperimentation, leading to an understanding of complicated ecological

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Tabl

e II

: T

he lo

cal c

omm

unity

util

izat

ion

of p

lant

s

Util

izat

ion

of P

lant

s

Type

s of

Food

Hou

seB

uild

ing

Hun

ting

Agr

icul

tura

lM

edic

ines

Toys

plan

tsho

ldm

ater

ials

mat

eria

lsH

Ato

ols

Para

site

s1

20

00

00

0

Gra

sses

30

00

00

06

Fern

s7

50

00

00

0

Scru

bs5

93

00

00

Gym

nosp

erm

s1

00

40

00

0

Mon

ocot

yled

ons

32

00

00

00

Dic

otyl

edon

ous

1224

74

117

918

Tota

l32

427

1111

79

24

Traditional Ecological Knowledge for Ecotourism

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principles (Berkes et al., 2000). The traditional management of plants in theNameri and surrounding region is a good example of how the many facetsof TEK are interwoven to provide ecological sustainability. Sia Nahar (Kayeaassamica) is an original plant found locally (Das, 1998). It is a medium tree,up to 10 meter in height and 80 cm in diameter, with a straight trunk,horizontal branches and bark fissured into small scales. Its habitat ranges inelevations in between 120 to 200 meter in the locality. The seeds containsof oil. Ancestors of the locality used the Nahor seeds for lighting just as thepeople use kerosene for lighting.

According to the local villagers, after harvesting one hamlet theymove on to another, letting the harvested tree continuously produce resin.However, the local people did not discuss about selective harvesting interms of specific rules. When being asked about how and what can beharvested, most participants responded that it depended on which was thebest part. In the case of perennials, for example the Sia Nahar, it wasexplained that the best part is close to the root. That part was the mostdesirable portion of the plant because of its rich oil and can be use ascharcoal, harvesters tended to collect only that section (about man height)for lamps. In the case of the Jamuk (Syzygium fruticosum), it was animportant plant for the hunting season. When the fruit of the trees grow, itmeans the hunting and fishing season is coming. As long as plants maintainmeristematic tissues and have the capacity to absorb sufficient nutrientsand water, they can reproduce and maintain populations, even allowing forcertain harvesting levels (Turner, 2001).

Communication and Exchange of Knowledge

The modes of communicating and exchanging traditional ecologicalknowledge in native societies are inherently different from the waysmainstream society passes on knowledge and information (Berkes et al.,2000). Plant knowledge in nearby villages of Nameri National Park hasdeveloped through generations of sharing traditions and stories. This is alsomanifested by the passing down of information from the elders to the young,which is the third theme in the Turner et al. (2000) framework. Thisknowledge begins to accumulate from a young age for the local people andincreases over time. Most of the villagers explained that they had acquiredtheir plant knowledge through hunting and gathering activities with villageelders, parents or grandparents.

However, there have been changes in the transfer of this traditionalecological knowledge. Tourism development in the Nameri National Parkhas influenced the traditional customs, resulting in the loss of this knowledge.

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There are two factors at play here. First, most of plants are rarely harvestedanymore and elders are no longer teaching the children about them, leadingto the younger villagers’ lack of knowledge. Secondly, the fact that thechildren are being educated far away from the village is a critical factor inthis loss of knowledge. As people are no longer consuming plants, they aregradually losing their knowledge about them.

In addition to these losses, researchers also found that there wasa gender imbalance concerning the TEK. The plant gathering location wasthe best place to interview individuals. However, in most indigenous societiesthe cultural norms grant men greater public access and recognition thanwomen.

Ecological Knowledge of Hunting Plants

It also seems to be associated more with men than women, a fact whichwas substantiated by the respondents who were mainly men. During theinterviews, researchers got a lot of responses such as ‘I don’t know. Ididn’t know it. I have seen it before… I don’t know the function (of plants)…you have to ask those men. This is because women are forbidden to gohunting with men’ (from the female informants). The women’s knowledgeappeared scanty; more often than not, the men reminded them of factsabout hunting plants. Women’s use of the environment proves to besufficiently different from those of men to represent a distinct habitat, inthe ecological sense.

Plant Names Related to Environmental Aspects

In Nameri National Park the local names of many plants are related toelements contained in or represented by the natural environment. Plantnames often describe physical traits of the plant or refer to other types ofanimals or vegetation associated with it. The meanings of certain tree namesare drawn from an observed relationship between the natural environmentand humans, often from a very insightful understanding of natural processes.The communities near by the park maintain a traditional relationship withtheir natural resources, including plants, as they view themselves as membersof an integrated natural community.

Discussion

There is an important opportunity for the people of the fringe villages inNameri National Park to link tourism development with their TEK. As itdocumented above, this aspect of TEK creates an important pathwaytowards the economic development of unique ecotourism opportunities.

Traditional Ecological Knowledge for Ecotourism

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How might the TEK be best incorporated into indigenous ecotourism inorder to prevent the loss of knowledge that has been passed down fromone generation to the next? Furthermore, how might they benefit from thenew applications? The local community represents an exception to TEKapplications in ecotourism activities. For the village, tourism is not somethingcoming from the outside. It is emerging from the groups themselves as ameans to survive. It must be viewed as the first step in an ongoing processof involving aboriginal people and incorporating their inherent knowledgeinto ecotourism assessment and management (Liu, 1994).

For the community in Nameri National Park, control was a majorcomponent of the ecotourism development initiative. They proposed howand what was to be developed since funding for the project (Assam BhorelliAnglers and Conservation Association) came primarily from them in theyear 1956. Thus, as the project moved forward and the community becamemore excited and involved; its success depended on the participants’enthusiasm. As the ecotourism evolved, there was considerable discussionover who would benefit from it and who would be involved. To avoid conflictand competition, the community developed a collective strategy centeredon their traditional communal spirit. With strong leadership, it becameapparent that the ecotourism initiative was paying more than economicdividends.

Protection of Resources and Sustainability Issues

Anderson (1991) discusses how ‘geography matters’ when developingtourism activities because of each particular place in the world having itsown unique mix of political, social, cultural, environmental and economiccontexts into which must be woven a comprehensive tourism developmentstrategy. The community vision for sustainable ecotourism includes a needfor more tourists and additional cultural resources. A clear focus on theinvolvement of local youth was emphasized to preserve TEK and to instill asense of pride in the younger generation. Consequently, the elders conducttraditional investigations of their territory and share their knowledge withthe youth. In light of environmental pressures, the communities in the areabelieve that there may be negative impacts on their tourism industry and itssustainability.

Ecotourism as a Means for TEK Practice among Community

The forest dwellers in Nameri National Park retain a record of what theresources and land have provided for generations. They are the principlemanagers of resources who also bear the burden of any negative impacts.

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Consequently, they must develop unique strategies for adjusting to andaccommodating said impacts to continue their direct use of the land and itsresources. The community intends to ensure an environmental quality suchthat their traditional pursuits are maintained. The people are well aware ofthe dangers of the transformation of their traditional ecological knowledge(Dei, 2002). The impact of tourism development and having the childreneducated far from community leaders reduces the TEK’s use. In order topreserve their ancient knowledge, they hold activities such as investigatingtraditional territory and ecotourism programs to educate the youngergenerations, while still following proper practices and participating alongsidetribal ecotourism interpreters (Butler, 2007). TEK is acknowledged as havinga fundamental importance in the management of local resources and in thehusbanding of worldwide biodiversity (Huntington, 2000). Traditional resourcemanagement structures can continue to provide effective stewardship forlands and ecosystems which are not yet significantly disrupted bydevelopment and all of its related ecological pressures (Waver, 1993).Besides, the application of TEK can be used for ecotourism programmingand interpretation, in order to enhance the context of ecotourism or nature-based tourism. This combination of interests and activities is ideally suitedto the incorporation of TEK into tourism planning and highlighting it as partof the tourist experience (Menzies, 2007).

Conclusion

For the village community, tourism is not something coming from the outside.It is emerging from the groups themselves as a means to survive. It shouldbe viewed as the first step in the ongoing process of involving native peopleand incorporating their knowledge into ecotourism assessment andmanagement. In the words of Stevenson (1996) ‘indigenous people possessknowledge and experiences not grounded in traditional lifestyles, spirituality,philosophy, social relations, and cultural values’. It also allows the peopleinhabitant in Nameri National Park and nearby to engage in ecotourismdevelopment.

The Nameri case suggests a number of perspectives. It is rare tofind an ecotourism organization that is community based which is notmanaged or co-managed by outsiders in the park. As Scheyvens (1999)emphasized, it is important for local communities to have control and sharein the benefits of ecotourism initiatives. Ecotourism should promote bothconservation and development at the local level; the community residesnear by the park are one of those rare examples since it was initiated andmanaged exclusively by them. Also, it has been suggested that TEK systems

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and institutions can serve as entry points into sustainable natural resourceutilization and management. This could be achieved through the explorationof the local people’s cultural practices and integrating useful aspects intomodern natural resource management.

Acknowledgement

Authors are indebted to the villagers of the Nameri National Park of Assam,who have provided valuable information about their traditional ecologicalknowledge (TEK) and way of practices for the ecotourism initiatives duringfield survey.

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CHAPTER - 13

Growth and Characteristics of Population ofUrban Centres of SikkimRashmi Prakash*

Introduction

One of the basic characteristics of population composition is the one basedon the place of residence. Human settlements have been categorized asrural and urban. Urban places are points of higher concentration ofpopulation. Different countries have adopted different criteria for definingurban places. There is no universally accepted definition. In fact, urban, ingeneral, refers to a relatively large and dense settlement of populationprimarily engaged in non-agricultural pursuits. There are qualitative as wellas quantitative criteria to distinguish rural settlements from urban. In Indiaa settlement is classified as urban if it has some local administration e.g.,municipal corporation , cantonment board, notified area committee etc. orif it satisfies the following three criteria: a)size of population more than5000,b) density is more than 400 persons per sq. km. c) .more than 75% ofmale workers are engaged in non-agricultural sector. Besides, the RegistrarGeneral and Census director have the power to declare any settlementurban. (Chandna1998) Urban settlements are different not only in terms ofpopulation concentration but also in terms of infrastructural amenities andsocio-cultural developments. Any change in rural –urban population or anincrease in urban population in any state is an index of socio-economictransformation. All urban centres are not similar either in populationconcentration or in other functional characteristics. Urban centres evolve

*Associate Professor, University Department. of Geography, T.M. Bhagalpur University,Bhagalpur, 812007.

Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation (2015) : 185-200 Sati,V. P. et al. (Ed),Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002

ISBN: 81-8019-518-3 (India) ISBN: 1-55528-374-8 (USA)

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as a result of the process of urbanization in which there goes on a continuoustransformation of rural society into urban society. Villages turn into kasbas,kasbas into towns and towns into cities and so on. It is a process that leadsto social and economic change in the population as well as transformationof the area. That is why the level of urbanization is an index of socio-economic development/ transformation of the region and the people. Anincrease in the percentage of urban population is indicative of socio-economictransformation.

The process of urbanization has many dimensions. It ranges fromphysical spread of the urban centres to the social and demographic changes.A new culture develops in urban areas. New types of problems anddemographic characteristics are associated with urban centres, quitedifferent from rural centres. All urban centres do not have similar populationcharacteristics and problems associated with. The urban centres act asnodal centres influencing and transforming the life style of neighbouringareas. In recent years there has been a rapid growth in urban population inSikkim. Almost one out of every four persons in Sikkim lives in an urbanarea. Therefore, the study of the demographic profile of urban centres ofSikkim becomes significant.

Purpose

The paper deals with urban population dynamics and characteristics ofpopulation of the state of Sikkim which became a member of the NorthEast Council in 2002. The purpose of the present paper is to highlight thedynamics of population in the context of urban population growth duringdifferent decades in the state of Sikkim and to analyze and compare thepopulation characteristics of towns and city of Sikkim and find out thedisparities in their population composition to highlight the socio-economictransformation of the state.

Area of Study

Sikkim is a tiny mountainous state hemmed in the eastern Himalayan region.It became a member of the North East Council on 23rd December 2002following an amendment to the NEC Act.

It is bounded in the north by Tibet, in the south by the state of WestBengal, in the west by Nepal and in the east by Bhutan. The river Tistaflows from north east to.south almost in the middle of the state and is joinedby the river Rangit along the southern boundary of the state. It had a totalpopulation of 540851 (2001) out of which the urban population was 59870,which constitutes only 11.06% of the total population. IN 2011 census the

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state had153578 urban population which is 25.15% of the total population.The state is divided into four districts namely North, South, East and Westhaving10.60%, 14.44%, 43.19% and3.85% of urban population out of thetotal population of the district (2011). There are 440 inhabited villages andseven uninhabited forest blocks. There are altogether nine towns, four inEast district, two each in South and West districts and one in North district.These towns are Municipal town (Gangtok), Census town (Upper Tadong)and Notified Area. Out of the total urban population of the state 88.30% isin East district having four towns while only 2.07% is in North district. Thusthere is a great disparity in the distribution of urban population.

According to 2011 census the total urban populations of the stateis153,578 scattered in the eight statutory towns and one census town.Gangtok (M.Cor), the capital town of the state is obviously the most populatedwith 100,286 persons in the East district followed by Namchi (M.Cl) andRangpo (NP) with 12,190 and 10,450 respectively. The census townRhenock has the population of 5,883 persons. Thus it is apparent that all thefour towns sharing 122,487 (79.76 per cent) are located in East district.South district has two towns namely Jorethang with 9009 population andNamchi with a population of 12190. Thus the total urban population ofSouth district according to 2011census was 21,199 which constitute 13.80per cent of the total urban population. West district has two towns. Gyalshinghas a population of (4013) and Nayabazar with a population of (1235) outof the total urban population of 5,248 (3.42 per cent) and the North districthas only one town Mangan with a population of 4,644 (3.02per cent).

Urban Centres

Gangtok, the capital of the state, emerged as the first town in 1951 andremained the only town till 1971. In fact in 1951 Gangtok was given thestatus of a census town. According to 1971 census there were seven townsand the number increased to eight by 1981 census. This increase was dueto bifurcation of Nayabazar into twin towns of Jorethang and Nayabazar.In 2001 census Upper Tadong has been classified as a census town thusincreasing the number of towns to nine. In 2011 census a new census townRhenock was created. Increase in the number of towns is an index ofgrowth of urbanization.

There has been reorganization of territories of major towns after1981 census. Many localities of Gangtok (M.C.) were taken away. Someareas of Singtam, Namchi, Jorethang and Gyalshing towns were alsoexcluded from their jurisdiction and were merged with the adjacent ruralareas. These changes in the boundaries of towns led to a decrease in the

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population of these towns and ultimately the urban population of the state in1991 census.

Gangtok was a class VI town in 1951, became class IV town in1971 and class III in 1981 with a population of 36747. Its population hasbeen increasing rapidly. Growth of other towns has been slow. Out of thetotal nine towns one town Gangtok (Municipal Corporation) belongs to classI while two towns namely Namchi (Municipal Council) and Rangpo (NagarPanchayat) fall in class IV. The three towns each namely Jorethang (NagarPanchayat), Singtam (Nagar Panchayat) and Rhenock (Census Town) fallin class V, while other three towns each namely Mangan (Nagar Panchayat),Gyalshing( Nagar Panchayat) and Nayabazaar (Notified Bazaar Area) fallin class VI with population less than 5,000.

Gangtok is located on the top of the spur in the northern part ofEast district at a height of 1818 meters. To the west of the hill flows theriver Rani khola and on its east flows Raro chu , a tributary of Rani khola.The town is also a major trade and commerce centre. It has hospitals,police station, schools, colleges, stadium, market complex, governmentoffices, secretariat, Royal palce and Governor House. About 50% (2001census) and more than 65% (2011census) of the urban population of thestate resides here.

Namchi, Mangan and Gyalshing grew as district headquarters andpolice stations and gradually became centres of trade and commerce intheir respective areas. Singtam and Rangpo are two towns which grew asindustrial centres in East district located at the confluence of two tributarieswith Tista – Singtam at the confluence of Tista and Rani khola and Rangpoat the meeting point of Tista and Rangpo chu. These towns are situated ata lower height on the slopes of these river valleys. Nayabazar and Jorethangare located at the confluence of Rangbong khola ( Ramman) with riverRangit. Nayabazar is on the west bank and Jorethang on the east bank ofthe river Rangit. These twin towns are separated by the river Rangit. Theyare along the southern boundary of the state at a much lower altitude.Upper Tadong was designated as a separate town from Gangtok in 2001. Itis contiguous to Gangtok. In 2011 Upper Tadong has been merged withGangtok. A new census town,Rhenock (CT) has come into existence.

All towns are well connected by roads. National Highway runsalong river Tista and Rangpo, Singtam, Gangtok, Mangan, Jorethang andNayabazar are all located aliong this highway. Gyalshing and Namchi arealso connected with Gangtok by Gyalshing- Namchi road. Except Gangtokand Upper Tadong all towns are class VI towns. These centres have been

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designated as towns because of their functional character and not becauseof population concentration.

Population Distribution

According to 2011census urban population of sikkim is 25.15% .Thepercentage is lowest inWest dstrict and highest in East district. Out of thetotal urban population of the state 79.8% is in East destrict and only 3.0 %in North district, the least among the four districts. West and South districtshave 3.4% and 13.8% respectively (Table 1)Taable1: Male-female distribution of population in Urban Centres of Sikkim

Urban centres Tot. pop. Male pop. Female pop.

Mangan (NP) 4644 2456 (52.89%) 2188 (47.11%)

Gyalshing (NP) 4013 2054 (51.18%) 1959 (48.82%)

Nayabazar (NBA) 1235 656 (53.12%) 579 (46.88%)

Namchi (MCI) 12190 6166 (50.58%) 6024 (49.42%)

Jorethang (NP) 9009 4656 (51.68%) 4353 (48.32%)

Gangtok (M Cor) 100286 52459 (52.31%) 47827 (47.69%)

Singtam (NP) 5868 3097 (52.78%) 2771 (47.22%)

Rangpo (NP) 10450 5555 (53.16%) 4895 (46.84%)

Rhenock (CT) 5883 3174 (53.95%) 2709 (46.05%)

SIKKIM 153578 80273 (52.27%) 73305 ( 47.73%)

In 2001 census the urban population percentage of Sikkim was11.10 (2001). Of the total urban population North district had 2.08%, Westdistrict had 3.03%, South district had 6.58% and East district had 88.30%.Thus there was great disparity.

Similar is the situation even in 2011. Percentage of urban populationin the state was 25.15. The percentage was max 43.19 in East districtfollowed by 14.44 in South district, 10.62 in North district and only 3.85 inWest district. Of the total urban population North district had 3.0%, Westdistrict had 3.4%, South district had 13.80% and East district had themaximum i.e.79.8%. Maximum increase was in South district.

In 2001 Mangan subdivision had only one town, Mangan and had4.06% of the population of the subdivision. In the West district Gyalshingwas in the Gyalshing subdivision and only 1.28% of the total population ofthe subdivision was urban. Nayabazar in Soreng subdivision and the

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percentage of urban population was only 1.69%. The urban population inWest district was distributed between Gyalshing (45.39%) and Nayabazar( 54.60%). In South district two towns are located in Namchi subdivision.The percentage of urban population in the total population of the subdivisionwas 4.52% and there was wide disparity in the share of the urban population- 24.80% in Namchi and 75.19% in Jorethang. In East district all fourtowns are in the Gangtok subdivision which had an urban population of52987 which is 28.04% of the total population of the subdivision. Out of thisthe share of Gangtok town was 55.04%, Singtam 10.25%, Rangpo 7.23%and Upper Tadong 27.69%. In 2011 census subdivision- wise populationhas not been displayed.

There is great disparity in the population concentration of differenttowns and city. The percentage share of urban population of the state (Table2) shows that the distribution was very uneven in 2001 and 2011. Accordingto 2001 census more than 70% of urban population of the state wasconcentrated in Gangtok (49.02%) and Upper Tadong (23.98%). Theremaining 27% were in other towns: 9.07% in Singtam, 6.19% in Rangpo,5.05% in Jorethang, 2.08% in Mangan, 1.66% in Nayabazar, 1.63% inNamchi and 1.38% in Gyalshing.Table 2: Share of urban and rural population in the Urban Centres

Urban centres Share in total Share in urban Share in Urban femaleUrban Pop. (%) male pop. (%) pop (%)

2001 2011 2001 2011 2001 2011

Mangan 2.08 3.23 2.36 3.06 1.76 2.98

Gyalshing 1.38 2.61 1.49 2.55 1.25 2.67

Nayabazar 1.66 0.80 1.64 0.82 1.69 0.78

Namchi 1.63 7.93 1.75 7.68 1.49 8.21

Jorethang 5.05 5.86 4.80 5.80 5.14 5.93

Gangtok 49.02 65.29 48.65 65.35 49.48 65.24

Singtam 9.07 3.82 9.31 3.85 8.79 3.78

Rangpo 6.19 6.80 6.21 6.92 6.18 6.67

Upper Tadong 23.98 23.78 24.22

Rhenock 3.83 3.95 3.69

SIKKIM 11.06 25.15 11.34 24.84 10.76 25.49

Source: Calculated on the basis of data from Census of India 2001, Final Populationtables, Series 12, Sikkim, Pub. By Controller of publications, Civil Lines, New Delhi

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In 2011 more than 65% of the total urban population of the statewas in Gangtok(65.29) followed by only 7.93% in Namchi,6.80% in Rangpo,and 5.86% in Jorethang. In all other towns it is less than 04%. In Nayabazaarit is even less than one percent.

A similar trend was observed in the distribution of male and femalepopulation in urban centres, but in all centres the percentage share of femalepopulation was less than the male population, as is generally true for allurban centres, during both censuses. In case of males it ranges between48.65% ( Gangtok ) to 1.49% ( Gyalshing) and in case of females it rangesbetween 49.48% ( Gangtok ) to 1.25% ( Gyalshing).in 2001. In 2011 theshare of females in total urban population was a little more. In case of maleit ranges between 65.35% (Gangtok) to 0.82% (Nayabazaar), and forfemale it ranges between 65.24%9 (Gangtok) to 0.78% (Nayabazaar).

Growth of Population

Growth of population of towns & cities is a good index to assess urbanization.It can be measured as (a) the proportion of population living in urban places,(b) the absolute number of persons living in towns and cities, (c) rate ofgrowth of urban dwellers. In general, it is growth of urban population.

Growth of population of different towns during 1981-1991, 1991-2001 and 2001-2011 shows that during 1981 – 91 all those towns whosejurisdiction was changed registered a decline (Table 3). Maximum declinewas registered in Namchi (- 56.35) followed by Jorethang (- 50.55) andGangtok (-31.90). The percentage decline was higher than the averagedecline in urban population (- 27.50) of the state. In case of Singtam (-4.33) and Gyalshing (- 3.76) the percentage of decline was even less than5 %. Rangpo recorded maximum increase (+ 21.53), Nayabazar (+9.77)and Mangan (+ 2.95) also recorded an increase.Table 3: Growth of population

Urban centres Total population Decadal Change (%)

1981 1991 2001 2011 1981–91 1991-01 2001-1

Mangan 780 803 1248 4644 2.95 55.42 272.1

Gyalshing 745 717 828 4031 - 3.76 15.48 387.01

Nayabazar 952 1045 996 1235 9.77 - 4.69 24.00

Namchi 1444 630 979 12190 - 46.6 55.40 1145.15

Jorethang 3921 1939 2967 9009 - 50.55 53.02 203.64

Gangtok 36747 25024 29354 100286 - 31.90 17.30 241.64

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Singtam 4043 3868 5432 5868 - 4.33 40.43 8.03

Rangpo 2452 2980 3709 10450 21.53 24.46 181.75

Upper Tadong —— —— 14357

Rhenock 5883

Sikkim 51084 37006 59870 153578 -27.54 61.71 156.51

Source: 1. Final population tables, Series 12, Sikkim, Census of India 2001, Directorate ofCensus Operations Sikkim, Dec. 2003

2. Census of India 1991, Series 22, Sikkim General population Tables and primary CensusAbstract Part II A & B, Directorate of Census Operations, Sikkim 1994

During the decade 1991- 2001 all towns recorded an increase intheir population ranging from 55.42% in Mangan to 15.48% in Gyalshing.Mangan is followed by namchi (55.40%), Jorethang (53.02%), Singtam(40.43%), Rangpo (24.46%) and Gangtok (17.30%). The only town thatregistered a decline was Nayabazar (- 4.69%). Thus the situation is quitechanged compared to the previous decade. A new town Upper Tadong hascome up. This area developed as part of Gangtok but considering the rapidincrease in population concentration it was made a separate town only at alittle distance from Gangtok. Taking this into consideration it can be saidthat in reality the population of Gangtok increased by (29354 + 14357 =43711), i.e., by 74.68%.

During 2001-2011 decade an increase of 156.5% was registered inthe urban population in Sikkim. Maximum increase was in Namchi 1145%followed by Gyalsing 387%, Mangan 272%, Gangtok 241%, Jorethang 203%,and Rangpo 181.7%. It was only 24% in Nayabazar and 8.03% in Singtam.

There are several factors responsible for such a big growth : (1)Changes in the jurisdiction of towns, (2) Reorganization of rural areas asurban centres, (3) Growing importance of Gangtok , Mangan , Singtam andother district headquarters leading to rural - urban migration, (4)Development of urban amenities and better socio-economic opportunitiesin towns , especially in Gangtok, making them more attractive for migrationunder a conscious policy of the government , and (5) Increase in industrialestablishments in Rangpo and Singtam and development in transportservices. Mangan grew because it is the only town in the north and now iswell connected with different parts. It is in the Dzongu area which is areseved area and is being given special treatment.

Literacy

Not much disparity is found in the literacy rates of towns. There has been

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an increase in literacy since 1981 in almost all urban centres. During 1981literacy rate varied from 59.0 in Jorethang to42.9 in Rangpo. According to2011 census highest literacy rate was in Gyalshin (89.44) followed byGangtok (which now includes Upper Tadong) (89.32) and Rhenock (89.32).Lowest rate was in Mangan (83.8).In all other towns it was higher than 88except Singtam (86) and Rangpo (87.27). According to 2001 census literacyrate was highest in Jorethang (90.0) followed by Gangtok (86.16) and Namchi(85.8). It was close to 80% in other towns except upper Tadong (84.8). InUpper Tadong, Namchi, Jorethang and Gangtok it is higher than the stateaverage (84.82). Lowest literacy rate is observed in Nayabazar (76.93)followed by Gyalshing (79.15) and Mangan (79.41). The trend was similarin 1991.

The growth in literacy rate was much higher during 1981 – 91 and hasslowed down during 1991 – 2001. In 1981 the literacy rate in Mangan was54.50 which rose to 76.03 in 1991 and 79.41 in 2001. Maximum increase inliteracy rate was in Rangpo (+29.2) and minimum in Mangan (+21.7). During1991 -2001 there was increase in all towns except Gyalshing where a declineof (1.1) was found. Maximum increase was in Nayabazar (+9.5) followedby Rangpo (+8.2). In last decade i.e.2001-2011 the increase was highest inNayabazar(+12.08) followed by Gyalshing (10.34).All towns registered anincrease except Jorethang (-1.06) which showed a decrease but in all othertowns and even in Gangtok (3.1) the increase was of less than 10 (Table 4)Table 4: Literacy rate

Urban centres 1981 1991 2001 2011 Decadalchange (%)2001-11

Mangan Total 54.5 76.0 79.4 83.8 4.4

Male 78.9 82.0 87.8

Female 70.5 75.1 79.3

Gyalshing Total 54.5 80.2 79.1 89.4 10.3

Male 72.7 80.9 93.6

Female 75.6 76.5 85.0

Nayabazar Total 44.1 67.4 76.9 89.0 12.1

Male 77.6 71.9 92.9

Female 55.2 67.1 84.4

Namchi Total 56.0 80.0 85.8 88.1 2.3

Male 81.9 87.4 91.3

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Female 77.2 83.4 84.8

Jorethang Total 59.0 83.5 90.0 88.9 - 1.1

Male 85.9 89.1 93.4

Female 80.0 88.8 84.2

Gangtok Total 58.9 83.0 86.2 89.3 3.1

Male 86.8 89.6 92.8

Female 77.8 82.0 85.5

Singtam Total 51.0 77.2 80.9 86.1 5.2

Male 82.4 84.5 90.4

Female 69.5 76.0 81.3

Rangpo Total 42.9 72.1 80.3 87.3 7.0

Male 80.3 85.5 91.6

Female 61.4 73.9 82.3

Upper Tadong Total —— —— 84.8

Male 88.9

Female 79.8

Rhenock Total —— —— —— 89.3

Male 92.8

Female 85.6

In 2011 in all urban centres the male literacy rate is higher than thefemale literacy rate. The female literacy rate is highest in Gangtok city &Rhenock( 85.5) while the male literacy rate is highest in Gyalshing (93.67)followed by Jorethang(93.36) towns. The female literacy rate varies between79.3 (Mangan) and 85.53.83 (Gangtok). The male literacy rate variesbetween 92.77 (Gangtok & Rhenock) and 87.79 (Mangan). There is a highpositive correlation between male / female literacy rates in urban centres.

Sex Ratio

In India Sex-ratio is number of females per thousand males.The urban sex-ratio of Sikkim is 848. A look at the sex-ratio data of 1991, 2001 and 2011 ofdifferent towns and city clearly depicts that there has been a favourablechange in the sex-ratio in all towns during the last decade. In 1991 it variedbetween 581 in Mangan and 866 in Nayabazar while in 2001 it ranges

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between 619 in Mangan to 889 in Jorethang and in 2011 it ranges from 881in Rangpo to 977 in Namchi.. In 2011 in six towns it was below the stateaverage (913).These were Gangtok(912), Singtam895, Mangan 891,Nayabazar 883,Rangpo 881 and Rhenock851. Only in Namchi (977) andJorethang (935) it was higher than the state average. Though these aredeveloped urban centres yet the sex-ratio is comparatively higher. There isdisparity in sex-ratio in different towns .During last decade maximum riseis noticed in Mangan, Namchi and Gyalshing towns (Table 5).

Table 5: Sex Ratio

Urban centres 1991 2001 2011 Decadal Change 2001 - 11

Mangan 581 619 891 272 ( 43.9%)

Gyalshing 626 693 954 261 (37.7%)

Nayabazar 866 851 883 32 (3.8%)

Namchi 620 706 977 271 (38.4%)

Jorethang 719 889 935 46 (5.2%)

Gangtok 764 885 912 17 (1.9%)

Singtam 712 784 895 111 (14.2%)

Rangpo 778 827 881 54 (6.5%)

Upper Tadong —— 846 ——-

Rhenock ——- ——- 851

Sikkim 828 913 85 (10.3%)

Work Force

The distribution of urban work-force in different towns is very uneven.According to 2001 census more than 50% of the working population was inGangtok and about 24% in Upper Tadong. In all other towns the percentageshare of workers was less than 10%. In most towns it is less than even 5%.In2011 69.92% of urban working population was in Gangtok. In all othertowns the share of working urban population was 10 %. Namchi had7.31% followed by Rangpo with 7.04% and Jorethang 5.37%. In remainingtowns it was less than 5%.Lowest wokforce was in Nayabazar (0.68%)(Table 6).

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Table 6: Work force 2011

Urban centres Percentage of workers % share DecadalOf total Change

Total Male Female Urbanworkers

Mangan 37.61 51.22 22.34 2.71 - 7.66

Gyalshing 37.42 52.14 22.00 2.33 - 10.77

Nayabazar 34.65 55.03 11.57 0.67 - 0.49

Namchi 37.56 48.96 25.89 7.12 - 7.84

Jorethang 37.37 56.61 16.79 5.23 + 1.02

Gangtok 43.65 58.97 26.84 68.02 + 1.56

Singtam 35.75 54.79 14.47 3.26 - 2.64

Rangpo 42.21 59.45 22.63 6.85 + 7.23

Rhenock 41.56 49.54 20.55 3.80 ———-

Sikkim 40.76 + 0.27

Source: Calculated from data from District census handbook, 2011, Sikkim

Decadal change in the percentage of workers showed great disparity amongtowns. During the decade 1991-2001 there has been increase in thepercentage of workers in all towns except Mangan which recorded adecrease from 50.8% in 1991 to 45.3%, a decline of -5.9 percent points.During the next decade, the percentage of working population in the statewas increased from 40.49% (2001) to 40.76% (2011). Highest percentagewas in Gangtok (43.65% followed by Rangpo (2.2%),and Rhenock(41.5%).In rest of the towns it was less than 40% lowest percentage beingin Gyalshing (34.6%).

Distribution of urban working population (2001) showed that in allthe towns more than 50 % of the population is dependent population whilethe share of dependent increased during the next decade (2011). It wasabout 56%.The work participation (2001) rate in different towns variesbetween 34.99 in Rangpo to 48.19 in Gyalshing and between34.6%(Nayabazar) to 43.65% in Gangtok. In Gangtok, Rangpo and Rhenock thepercentage of workers was higher than the state average.

In all towns the male work participation rate is higher than 50%except Namchi where it is 48%. “Male participation rate is ubiquitouslymore than the female participation rates in almost all countries of the world”(Chandna, 1986). Here also in all urban centres male participation rate is

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higher than the female work participation rate. The male work participationrate varies between (59.5%) in Rhenock and (48.96%) in (Namchi). Thefemale work participation rate is much lower. In all towns it is lower than25% except Gangtok and Namchi. It ranges between (26.84%) in Gangtokto (11.57%) in Nayabazar. In almost all towns, except these two, thepercentage of female non-workers is more than 75%. Thus the dependencyratio is very high among female population in towns. In Nayabazar, Jorethangand Singtam it is more than 80%. This shows that the number of female,children and elders is high in urban centres of Sikkim.

Scheduled Caste population

There is not much difference in the percentage of scheduled caste populationto total population of the urban centres among urban centers. In 2011 censusthe percentage varies between10.14% in Rhenock and 3.64% in Namchi.In Mangan (3.83%), Gyalshing (4.75%), Singtam (4.87%) and Namchi(3.64%) the percentage is less than the state average (5.17%) (Table 7).Table 7: Schedule caste population

Urban centres % of total population Share in totalSC pop. (%)

Total Male Female

Mangan 3.83 3.86 3.79 2.24

Gyalshing 4.75 4.52 5.00 2.41

Nayabazar 6.55 7.01 6.04 1.02

Namchi 3.64 3.50 3.78 5.59

Jorethang 6.29 5.86 4.68 7.14

Gangtok 9.97 4.61 4.95 60.37

Singtam 4.87 4.77 4.98 3.60

Rangpo 7.68 6.85 8.62 10.11

Rhenock 10.14 8.94 11.59 7.52

Sikkim 5.17

Source : Calculated on the basis of data from District Census handbook, Sikkim 2011

There is great disparity among towns in the percentage share oftotal urban scheduled caste population. According to 2011 census it variesfrom 60.37% in Gangtok to 1.02% in Nayabazar. In Mangan, (2.24)Gyalshing (2.41) and Rangpo (10.11) it is more than 10 percent.

During the decade 2001-2011 there has been an increase inscheduled caste population in Mangan by 2.23 percent points ( pp), Gangtok

Growth and Characteristics of Population

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by 5.17 pp , and Singtam by 0.27pp.In all other towns the percentagedeclined. It ranged between 0.41 pp (Jorethang) and 3.55pp in Gyalshing.

Almost similar trend is observed in the scheduled caste male andfemale population in 2011census. Except in Gyalshing, Rhenock and Rangpoa higher percentage of female than male is found in all other urban centres.Male female differential is not so significant.

Schedule Tribe Population

The overall percentage of urban scheduled tribe population of Sikkim hasdecreased from 1981 till 2001.The average urban scheduled tribe populationwas 20.04% in1991 and 15.86% only in 2001 but it recorded an increaseduring the last decade and was 25.53% in the 2011 census.

According to 2011 census the percentage of tribes in all centres isnot equal. Mangan ((43.49%) has the highest percentage followed byGyalshing (30.94%) and Gangtok (28.4%) Except for Gangtok thepercentage in these towns is higher than the state average. The inequalityin the distribution of tribes is because of their fixed settlement in somespecified areas. North and East districts are areas of tribal concentration.Mangan is the only town in North district and Gyalshing the districtheaquarter. In all other towns it is less than 15% (Rhenock 14.8%, Jorethang13.8%, Nayabazar 14.6%, Singtam and Rangpo 11.6%) while Gangtok andNamchi has 25%. During 1991-2001 the decline was because of largeinflux of people, mainly non-tribal, from India and Nepal. In general, townswith lower percentage of scheduled caste population have higher percentageof scheduled tribes (Table 8)Table 8: Schedule tribe population

Urban centres % of total population Share in totalST pop. (%)

Total Male Female

Mangan 43.49 40.30 47.07 5.15Gyalshing 30.94 29.69 32.26 3.16Nayabazar 14.65 15.54 13.64 0.46Namchi 26.54 25.64 27.47 8.25Jorethang 13.84 13.10 14.63 3.17Gangtok 28.43 26.59 30.44 72.71Singtam 11.63 10.75 12.63 1.74Rangpo 11.67 10.62 12.68 3.11Rhenock 14.80 13.32 16.59 2.55Sikkim 25.53Source: Calculated on the basis of data from District Census handbook, Sikkim 2011

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Findings

A comparative study of population change and population characteristicsreveals that there is great disparity in the distribution growth and compositionof population among different urban centres. The decadal change duringlast decade in state’s urban population has been stupendous. Extremelylarge in most of the towns .It made Gangtok a city. There has been continuousincrease in literacy rate in all towns. Literacy rate is greater than 80% in allurban centres as such it is almost equal in all towns. Both these factsindicate socio-economic transformation. Sex-ratio is almost same in all urbancentres. There has bee little increase in the percentage of workers in Gangtokand Rangpo but in all other towns there has been a decline but there is notmuch disparity. During last decade only in three towns scheduled castepercentage has increase but in most of the towns a decrease is registered.While in all towns and city there has been an increase in the percentage ofscheduled tribe population by more than 6%, maximum being in Namchifollowed by Mangan. Disparity is evident in case of the distribution of bothscheduled tribe and scheduled caste population.

Conclusion

Urban growth is mainly due to rural –urban migration, migration from otherIndian states and from Nepal, for better socio-economic opportunities andamenities in urban centres. In the last decade women and children andelders from villages moved to towns along with the male workers, leadingto an increase in the dependency ratio in all towns. It is more than 60% inmost of the towns. People now prefer to have amenities of towns whichare an index of growth and transformation. Gangtok being the capital hasdeveloped infrastructure and has been able to attract more people. Theconscious policies of government which have facilitated the establishmentof industries in Rangpo ,Singtam and Gangtok with provisions of greateramenities here are also responsible for growth of these centers.Reorganisation of rural areas into urban (census town & notified area),increase in the area of Gangtok by merging Upper Tadong are also causeof extreme increase in urban population.

There has been planned development after Sikkim became amember of North East Council. There is need to develop infrastructure andurban amenities in all towns especially smaller ones, for uniform and balancedurban development in the state. The future of northeast states lies in aregional perspective for socio-economic development and therefore it callsfor regional planning.

Growth and Characteristics of Population

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200 Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation

References:Census of India (1991) Series 22, Sikkim , General population tables and primary Census

Abstract Part II A&B Directorate of Sikkim operations, Gangtok,1994.

Census of India (2001) Series12,Sikkim, Final Population Tables, Directorate of censusoperations, Sikkim, Dec. 2003.

District census Handbook, (2011) Sikkim, Directorate of census operations, Sikkim.

Chandna, R.C. (1998) Population.Kajyani Publishers,New Delhi, pp150-151.

Chandna, R.C. (1986) Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi,

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CHAPTER - 14

Condition of Urban Slums: a Case Study ofRajendra Nagar in Indore cityRekha Verma*

Introduction

Slums are considered as problem for urban development in the world. AllIndian cities have slums. slums are physically substandard and there isproblems of quality, housing standard, health, sanitation, water supply etc.the presence of slums in the city refers to a condition of defective physical,social and economic Environment Day by day this problem appears to bemore acute in class one and metropolitan cities Indore is not exceptionSlums are known by different name in various part of India. i.e. katras,juggi, Jhopadi in Delhi, Chawls in Bombay, aqhatas in kanpur, Bustels inKolkata, Keris in Bangalore etc. In Indore it is called Zopadpatti.

The growth of slums in India is very high. Today the 20% populationof Bombay, 16% population of Kolkata, 33% of Chennai and 10% ofBangalore is living in slums. In Indore, about 16.9% population of the totalcities population resides in slums area.

Industrial development, easy job opportunity, high wedges, urbanattraction, high standard of living and amenities in urban area, free holdoccupancy of houses and land along the road side and railway line are themajor aspects which influence the origin and growth of slums in Indiancities as well as the critical rural development like uncertainty of job lowwedges low-ever living condition & isolated, life and no lixurious life arethe push factors of rural population to migrate in the cities. Large scale of

*Professor of Geography, Govt. PG College, Mahu, M.P.

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migration from rural to urban area is the main cause of origin of slums inthe city. Over burden of slum population is creating pressure over theamenities of urban dwellers. It create social economic, political andenvironmental problem in urban areas. Therefore the study of slums inIndore is the main objective of the paper.

Study Area

Indore is the heart of Madhya Pradesh. It is known as mini Bombay andeconomically very developed district in Madhya Pradesh. It has four tehsiland five urban centers. Total urban population of Indore is 1597441 by2001 and slum population of the city is 259577 it is 16.57% of the total.They are reside in the slums, that is scattered nearby railway line and roadside of Malwa mill area of Indore, rajendra nagar, laxmibai nagar and centralplace of Indore city.

Objective of the Study

1- The conditions of slums in urban area of Indore.

2- The present proper is an attempt to highlight.

3- To examine the causes responsible for the origin of slums.

4- To suggest measure for better living and planning for slums in Indorecity of Madhya Pradesh.

Methodology

To do the research work some field surrey is essential. In this research 1)primary date has been collected with the help of questionnaire survey, fieldobservation and interview of the slum respondents 2) secondary date hasalso been collected from the Censuse and district hand book of Indore 3)sampling method has been adopted for survey of households.

- 5% households of the total households have been taken as a sampleof slums.

- Pull and push factors have been studied in depth.

- Tabulation has been done on the boss of questionnaires schedule.

- Diagram has been prepend on the basis of tables and then analysishas been done.

Rajendra Nagar of Indore is selected for study purpose the detailinformation about 50 households and 234 persons were collected byquestionnaires , interview technique and field observation applied as a

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representative for case study.

Findings

The present study shows that the living condition in the slums of Indore isnot bad, family size of dwellers is small. From Table 01 it is clear that:Table 1: Size of family, according to the No. of members

S ize Family Percent

0-3 11 22%

3-6 31 62%

6-9 08 16%

Total 50 100%

Source: Primary data

22% of the families have 2 to 3 persons, 62% families have 3 to 6 personsand only 16% have 6 to 9 persons due to old parents who are living withthem.Table 2: Type of family

Type Number Percent

Nuclear 36 72%

Joint 14 28%

Total 50 100%

Table -2 shows that only 28% families are joint families and 72% are nuclearfamilies.

Table 3: Family classification by caste

Caste Number Percent

SC 36 72%

ST 12 24%

OBC 01 02%

GEN 01 02%

Total 50 100%

Cast: caste system is essentially a peculiar feature of the social system ofIndia. Therefore the study reveals that 72% of slum dwellers are scheduled

Condition of Urban Slums

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204 Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation

castes 24% are scheduled tribe 2% slum dweller are OBC and rest 29%are of general cast.

Educational Status: Education is the most important factor for makingeconomy of a country in a better position. Table 4 shows that only 5-respondent are graduate from which 3 are male and 2 are female 12 personsout of 234 are educated up to higher secondary. From this 7 are female and5 persons are male. 14 persons are got their education up to middle fromwhich 8 are female and 6 are male. 22 persons are got education up to 5th

class from which 14 are female and 8 are male members. this table showsthat literacy ratio of female is more than male. And illiteracy ratio is justopposite the male 105 and female are 76 that mean 75% people are illiteratebecause they are busy in daily earning and have no extra time to study.

House Types: Development of the area represent by the buildings andhouses constructed over there. Table 5 indicates that number of UN metallichouses is 50% and metallic houses are 36% although 14% houses arecomposite it means its walls are of bricks and roofs are of tin or thatchesTable 4: Education status

Education Standard Male Female Total

Illiterate 105 76 181

Primary 08 14 22

Middle 06 8 14

Higher secondary 05 7 12

Higher Education Graduation 03 2 05

Total 127 107 234

Table 5: Type of residence

Type Number Percent

Kuchha 25 50%

Packka 18 36%

Composed 07 14%

Total 50 100%

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Table 6: Number of rooms

No. of Un Metallic Metallic Composed Total PercentRooms

0-2 16 64% 10 55% 04 56% 30 60%

2-4 5 20% 08 45% Nil - 13 26%

4-7 4 16% - - 03 44% 07 14%

Total 25 100% 18 100% 07 100% 50 100%

According to the Number of Rooms: Table no 6 shows that 60% peoplehave only one to two rooms 24% slum dwellers have two to four rooms andonly 14% dwellers. Have more than four rooms. These families are jointfamilies and have mostly metallic houses.

Ownership of the Houses: Ownership means they have their own houses,from table 7 it is indicated that 58% dwellers have their own houses and42% have rented houses, according to the rent 73% dwellers are paying300/- because they have only one or two rooms 24% are paying 300/- to600/- as a rent and only 3 percent dwellers are paying more than 600/-because they have 3 to 4 rooms.

Water Availabilities: Water is the most important basic need for humanbeing so it is important to study about the water facility in the slum area.People get water from ½ kmt distance form tube well, also received waterfrom railway station’s tape, and govt. tape, which is also located at thesame distance near road side.Table 7: Ownership of the house

Type Number Percent

Won house 29 58%

Rented 21 42%

Table 08: Rent of rooms

Rent Number Percent

0-300 15 73%

300-600 05 24%

600-> 01 03%

Total 21 100%

Condition of Urban Slums

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206 Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation

Other Facilities: Slum which reflects that it is very dirty and withoutrequired facility area and it is true because there has not been any bathroomin any house. All the slum dwellers have one point electricity supply. Whichgovt. has provided totally, free in the area. There has no facility of publichealth service center. Mostly people are age group of 45 to 50 and they arelabor class they get only seasonal diseases nobody have serious diseases.

Causes of Origin of Slum: From the survey and analysis of the informationcollected by interview of the slum dwellers it have been marked that peoplewere settled in slum due to transport facilities to go for working place andfree of cost they are getting govt. land. Nearness to the place of work andmarket, easy job opportunity availability of amenities nearby the area, arethe main causes of establishment and organ of slums.

The detail study about the causes of origin and establishment of slums hasbeen done in depth during survey. The analysis shows that physiography ofrural area, climatic hazards, and uncertainty of rainfall. Shortage of waterin rural areas, low wedges no job opportunities and due to social conditionspeople emigrate from village area to city these are the push factors. Thepull factors which are responsible to attract to words cities has been observedthat easy job opportunity, high wages, free govt. hand, easy and low priceshelter. Urban amenities are the dominant factors to attract the peoplefrom village to city.

Economic condition, transport facilities easy communication,relatives and city’s attraction are main causes to attract the people fromtown to city, like Indore. Indore is a commercial capital of the MP andsurrounded by industrial belt. So there pull actors are more important toestablish the slum. It has been studied that slum dwellers has settled nearthe place of work to save time, energy and money.

The Measures

Problem of slum is increasing day by day. Large and speedy growth ofslums is main problem. Govt. and municipality should made plan to overcame to this problem. The measures given below can be better cure for theprohibitive the conditions of slums form worse to worst. (1) It is necessarythat government should plan to reorient the slum dwellers to go to the ruralareas again (2) Job opportunities in the rural areas should be increase (3)Infrastructure amenities should be provided in rural area to stop large scaleimmigration.

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Conclusion

From the survey and analysis of the information collected from the slums, itis cleared that the economic and living conditions of the people of slums isvery poor. The intensive field wok has been marked that in large city likeIndore have number of facilities therefore people migrated from other citiesand from village areas around to Indore.

It is necessary that government should plan to reorient the slumdwellers to go to the rural areas again, job opportunities in the rural areasshould be increase, Infrastructure amenities should be provided in ruralarea to stop large scale immigration.

The local rural resources can be utilized properly and socio-economic balance should be maintained and it is useful for proper planningfor India. To overcome the problem municipal corporation should providethe identity card to the slum dwellers and Indira Awas Yojana, GurukulYojana, housing development corporation project should be planned for theslum dwellers. So their housing and living Quality and condition can beimproved in the study region.

Condition of Urban Slums

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CHAPTER - 15

Influences of Changing Human Societies andthe Climate Change: A Ground Reflectionfrom SikkimDawa Sherpa* and Suman Ghimeray**

Introduction

Climate has never been static and change is the eminent part of the climatebut the faster rate of change due to various undesired ever increasing naturaland human induced inferences has resulted into serious climate changeissues which poses threat to various life forms in the earth.Climate changeis a term that refers to major changes in temperature, rainfall, snow, orwind patterns lasting for decades or longer.As according to a report of theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the average rise insurface temperature in the past 100 years (1906 to 2005) was 0.74 f C butthe rate of warming in the last part of 50 years (1956-2005) was littlehigher (0.13 f C per decade) than the rate of warming in the first part of 50years was 0.07 f C(IPCC, 2007, p. 104). Similarly referring to the IPCC,there has been prediction based on observation and if the current trendcontinues then that the global average surface temperature will increasemore than 3 f C by the end of the 21st century while the sea levels roseduring the 20th century by 0.17 meters but by 2100, sea level is expected torise between 0.18 and 0.59 meters(Seetharam, 2012, p. 3).This rapid changeis very hazardous and challenges the lives on the earth which requiresworld’s attentions. Moreover, the severity in the changing climate is raised

Research Scholars, *Department Of Geography, Sikkim University, **Department ofEconomics, Sikkim University

Email: [email protected]

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by the human induced activities which are rooted in the series of complexitiesand nexus of humans and natural factors.

As the past studies show that the climate change in the Himalayasare already posing significant impact on biodiversity, hydrology, livelihoodand almost every other aspect of the environments and humanenterprise(Bawa & Ingty, 2012, p. 415). It is important to understand thecause and effects of the climate change. Moreover, the expected effectsof the global climate change can be confronted by multifacetedcomprehensive approaches the policy level, including local, regional andglobal strategies. As two fundamental response strategies highlighted bythe United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC):mitigation and adaptation where mitigation seeks to limit climate change byreducing the emissions of Green House Gases (GHGs) and by enhancingsink opportunities, on the other hand, adaptation aims to alleviate the adverseimpact through a wide range of system-specific actions(Bawa & Ingty,2012, p. 420).The mitigation of the causes of the climate change is one ofthe ultimate way of dealing with the climate change especially when it isnot too late to respond.

There are both human-made and natural factors contribute toclimate change. The ever-changing Human societies provides certain shareof factors responsible for the global warmingwhich includes burning fossilfuels, cutting down forests, and developing land for farms, cities, and roads.These activities all release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Whilenatural causes include changes in the Earth’s orbit, the sun’s intensity, thecirculation of the ocean and the atmosphere, and volcanic activity whichcontributes to the changing the climate.

Although the Earth’s climate has changed many times throughoutits history, the rapid warming seen today cannot be explained by naturalprocesses alone.Human activities are increasing the amount of greenhousegases in the atmosphere. Some amount of greenhouse gases is necessaryfor life to exist on Earth—they trap heat in the atmosphere, keeping theplanet warm and in a state of equilibrium. But this natural greenhouse effectis being strengthened as human activities (such as the combustion of fossilfuels) add more of these gases to the atmosphere, resulting in a shift in theEarth’s equilibrium.

This paper deals with the influences of the changing human societiesand the nature of impact on the climate change, moreover, this tries tounderstand how the dynamics of change in societies can bring about changein the environment and questioning the regulation of the operation of the

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studies of the climate change in local levels.

Understanding the role of humans as destroying agent in shapingthe face of the earth can be better illustrated by the George P. Marsh’sarguments which he originally proposed in 1864 entitled “Man and Nature,or Physical Geography as modified by Human Action”.

“Man has too long forgotten that the earthwas givento him for usufruct alone, not for consumption, stillless for profligate waste. Nature has provided againstthe absolute destruction of any of her elementarymatter, the raw material of her works; the thunderboltand the tornado, the most convulsive throes of eventhe volcano and the earthquake, beingonly phenomenaof decomposition and re-composition. But she has leftit within the power of man irreparably to derange thecombinations of inorganic matter and of organic life,which through the night of eons she had beenproportioningand balancing, to prepare the earth forhis habitation, when, in the fullness of time, his Creatorshould call him forth to enter into itspossession”(Marsh, 2002, p. 170).

The phenomena of nature as the act of decomposition and re-composition by nature is something that human considers disasters but theact of humans as destructing agents provides various challenges to thenature to reformulate its status which results into disastrous events. Thecase of climate change is not very different from the relationship betweenunhuman acts of humans and undeniable acts of the nature as climatechange. In other words, my point of argument here is that changing natureof human societies has greater share in changing the climate rapidly andmitigating the causes of climate change is equally important to tackle climatechange as the adaptation measures.

Global Scenario of Climate Change and the changing humansocieties

The climate of the earth was never static and has been continuously changingduring the course of its evolution. The climate changes either because ofthe natural forces or the human influences or from a combination of both.Different researchers have different opinions and observations. In Similarcase(Telwala, 2012, p. 105) refers to Folland’s observation that the earth’sannual global mean surface temperature has warmed up by about 0.61 +-

Influences of Changing Human Societies and Climate Change

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0.16 f C between 1861 and 2000. Similarly, IPCC Report 2013 writes thatthe globally averaged combined land and ocean surface temperature dataas calculated by a linear trend, show a warming of 0.85 [0.65 to 1.06] °C,over the period 1880 to 2012, when multiple independently produced datasetsexist. The total increase between the average of the 1850–1900 period andthe 2003–2012 period is 0.78 [0.72 to 0.85] °C, based on the single longestdataset available(IPCC, p. 3).

The drivers of climate change are the Natural and anthropogenicsubstances and processes that alter the Earth’s energy budget. Radiativeforcing (RF) quantifies the change in energy fluxes caused by changes inthese drivers for 2011 relative to 1750 (IPCC, 2013, p. 11), where humanactivities are credited for this rapid rising of temperature and the climatechange.It evolved with the discourse of period of post industrial revolution(post 1900) which witnessed sharp increase in the production and releaseof greenhouse gases in to the atmosphere. Since, GHGs are the gases inthe atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within thermal infraredranges, its higher concentration leads to greenhouse effects while the majorGHGs are water vapour, carbon dioxide methane, ozone, nitrous oxide andother pollutants (Rahman, et al., 2012, p. 21). Deriving perspectives towardsthe major roles of humans in changing the climate, as (Seetharam, 2012, p.3) argues that carbon dioxide concentrations did not rise much above 280parts per million by volume (PPMV) until the industrial revolution. By nowit has reached the level of 370 PPMV and rising at a rate of 1.5 PPMV peryear. Whereas the methane gas concentrations increased by 1 % per yearfrom 1978 till 1990. As Seetharam argues that about two-third of the currentemissions of methane are released by human activities such as rice growing,the livestock rearing, coal mining, use of landfills and natural gas handlingwhich experiences increasing over the years. Similarly, nitrous oxide isformed by many microbial reactions in soil and water, including those actingon the increasing amounts of nitrogen containing fertilizers. Its concentrationhas increased approximately 13 % in the past 200 years (Seetharam, 2012).

As the result of recent climate change, different researchers’ statesthat the glaciers have started melting the Greenland ice sheets is reduced,permafrost in cold regions has started disappearing and sea levels havereportedly risen. From ecological point of view the climate change hassignificantly affected the vegetation structures, community composition andecosystem dynamics both in terms of evolution and extirpation of species,cited in (Telwala, 2012, p. 106).

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Various studies indicates that the climate change is a result of humanactivities on the globe rather than natural causes but one needs to understandthat both the natural and human provides uneven shares of causes to thechanging climate. Understanding the rate and uneven reflection of climatechange is rather complex with the diverse human activities, even when thefever of rapid economic development among countries has fueled a lotmore in terms of misusing the resources which will eventually result intowarming and climate change. In fact (IPCC, 2007) provides predictionsbased on the pattern of changes in different parameters that by the end ofthe 21st century temperature will change between 1.1 and 6.4 f C(Telwala,2012, p. 106) and it seems like humans aredesperately trying to fulfill thisdestiny with their harmful practices.Among various causes, uncontrolledand ever increasing population growth in the world has been the biggestchallenges of unsustainability of the nature.

The population growth rate might have gone down in successivedecades but the fact is that the population is increasing at a faster rate. As(table 1) shows that in terms of 1950s, the total population of the world wasabout 2.5 billion while it rose to close to 7 billion peoples in 2015, creating asharp rise of 4.5 billion within 65years of time but the size of the earth is stillthe same. Understanding and analyzing the dynamics of how this increasingpopulation is adjusting on the surface of the earth will light the path thatwhy earth is undergoing rapid unsustainable change in due course of time.

Influences of Changing Human Societies and Climate Change

Table 1 Total population of the world by decade, 1950-2050, (historical and projected).

Year Total world Population (Mid-Year figure) Ten-year growth sale (%)

1950 2,556,000,053 18.9

1960 3,099,451,023 22.0

1970 3,706,618,163 20.2

1980 4,453,831,714 18.5

1990 5,278,639,789 15.2

2000 6,082,966,429 12.6

20101 6,848,932,929 10.7

20201 7,584,821,144 8.7

20301 8,246,619,341 7.3

20401 8,850,045,889 5.6

20501 9,346,399,468 __

1. Projected.

Source:U.S. Census Bureau, international database,

http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/a0762181.html

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Moreover, it is predicted that the population will reach the mark of 10 billionby the end of the 21st century, we can predict the destruction and pressureon the earth surface with such rising populations. A very differentperspective has been presented to this projection of population growth,whereinEngelman argues that “with the planet heating up and growingnumbers of people putting increasing pressure on water and foodsupplies and on life sustaining ecosystems, will this projected populationboom turn into a bust?” (Engelman, 2011). In other words, the parallelchanging of the climate and the human societies provides complex impactto one another.

There are various changing phenomena of climate change but wesuperficially try to cover such factors as human induced and nature regulatedbut the fact lies bit more complex in reality. As Sunita Narain (Director ofthe Center for Science and Environment) argues that climate change isabout the economy and the use of energy to produce and regulate itseconomy.Even though the industrialized countries have managed to de-linksulfur dioxide emissions fromeconomic growth. She argues that they failedto do the same with carbon dioxide emissions. Furthermore, she arguesthat per capita carbon dioxide emissions remains closely related to a country’slevel of economic development and thus standard of living. It is evident thatas long as the world economy is carbon-based – driven by energy fromcoal, oil, and natural gas – growth cannot be de-linked substantially fromCO2 emissions. The only way to avert climate change is to reduce emissionsdramatically. But things are never quite this simple. The use of fossil fuels(the major reason for CO2 emissions) is closely linked to economic growthand lifestyle. Every human being contributes to the CO2 concentrations inthe atmosphere. However, the person’s lifestyle decides the amount that isemitted. The more prosperous a country’s economy is higher is its fossilfuel consumption, resulting in higher greenhouse gas emissions(Narain, 2009,p. 10).

Though the nexus of changing human societies and the climatechange seems little ambiguous but there is no country in the history that hasimproved its level of human development without corresponding increasein per capita use of energy (Narain, 2009, p. 16). In other words, there ispositive correlation between increasing energy consumption pattern andthe development of the human societies. For instance, India being rapidlygrowing economics of the world in a recent years has still 800 million people(79.9 %) still subsist on less than US 2$ and more than 400 million don’thave access to electricity, similarly it stands at 128th position in the worldHDI(Ghosh, 2009, p. 18). In other words, more access to energy and income

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results into better improvement in the human development index.

In the series of changing global scenario of human societies, therehas been increase in urban population that give rise to the mass consumptionsand high production of unwanted pollution and wastes along with theincreasing use and need of the energy. Moreover, urbanization has beenhallmark of development and modernization. The figure 1 gives theinformation of growing urban population since 1980s till 2010 where wefind positive growth rate in case of urban population. Bangladesh as yet todevelop country, India, China and Brazil as rapidly developing countriesand France and USA as the developed countries shows uninterrupted growthof urban population.

Source: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL?page=4 * compiled by theauthor

Despite the fact of unequal population and areas along with theeconomy and level of development. The only unifying factor among thesecountries are their growing urban population and rising consumption levelswhich are adding more pressure to the earth for its sustenance.

There are various other factors that are responsible to the indirectchange in the composition of the factors responsible for the climate change,some of the highlighted factors are deforestation. Referring to UNEP, thetotal area of the world in 1990 was nearly 7000 M Ha and by 1975 it wasreduced to 2890 M Ha(Sharma, et al., 2012). Destruction of the forestdoes not only regulate extinction of different animals and plants but largelyencourages rise in carbon dioxide content. It is further substantiated by thefact that the numbers of vehicles in the world are rising day after day, asDaniel tencer writes an article entitled “can the world handle this many

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wheels?” where he writes that numbers of cars in the world wide surpasses1 billion in 2010. He presents the numbers of vehicles in 2009 as 980 millionwhile in 2010 it rises to 1015 million(Tencer, 2013). When humans burngasoline, coal, natural gas, and other common fuels to make electricity ordrive cars, they release a substantial amount of carbon dioxide into theatmosphere. For every gallon (or liter) of gasoline a car burns, 1300 timesthat volume of CO2 is released as a gallon of gas weighs about 6 pounds or2.8 kilograms, but the released CO2 would weigh over 19 pounds or 8.75kilograms (NCSE, 2012).

Understanding Climate Change in Sikkim

Sikkim, the 22nd state of the Indian Union is located in the southernmountainous ranges of the Eastern Himalayas between northern latitudes27f 04’ 45’’ to 28 f 07’ 45’’ N latitudes and 88f 00’ 45’’ to 88f 35’ 15’’ Elongitudes. The state is separated by the Singalila range from Nepal in thewest, Chola range from Tibet in the northeast and Bhutan in the southeast.Rangit and Rangpo rivers form the borders with the Darjeeling district ofWest Bengal in the south. Sikkim Himalaya measures a total geographicalarea of 7,096 sq. km measuringjust 65 Km east to west and 115 Km fromnorth to south. Most part of Sikkim is mountainous with altitude varyingbetween 300 meters above sea level to over 8500 meters atkhangchendzonga peak(Gazetteer of Sikkim, 2013, p. 1). It encompassesthe lesser, central and the Tethys Himalayas.

Sikkim is a land of rich and diverse floras and faunas, it is one ofthe 26 bio-diversity hotspot in the country with 4500 species of floweringplants, 362 species of fern and allies, 55 species of orchids, 424 species ofmedicinal plants and 23 species of bamboo while 590 species of birds conveysthe muse of the dales and forests, valleys and gorges, lakes and mountainsthat garland the tiny state of the land, 48 species of fish are in continuouswhispering engagement with the waterways.Furthermore, eleven mightymajestic peaks, varying in altitude from 5882.6 m at Masunyaga to 8597.8m at Khangchenzonga endowed with many surprises(CRESP Report, 2008,p. 29).

The climate of the state can be roughly divided into tropical,temperate and alpine zone. It varies from the tropical heat in the valleys toalpine cold in the higher altitudes. Places with an altitude of 19, 900 feetand above are snowbound and places as low as 9850 feet come within thesnowline in winters. The temperature in the lower altitudes fluctuate between4 f to 35 f c and places within moderate height (around 6000 feet) such asGangtok has temperatures between 1f c and 25 f c and in the high altitude

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area (above 13100 feet), the temperature never rises above 15f c andslides below the freezing point in winter. The mean temperature in thelower altitudinal zone varies from 1.5 degree centigrade to 9.5 degreecentigrade. Temperature varies with altitude and slope. The maximumtemperature is recorded usually during July and August and minimum duringDecember and January(Gazetteer of Sikkim, 2013, p. 3).

The undulating terrain or the varying altitudinal profile of the stateranging from 300 m to 8598 m in less than 100 km is responsible for abruptchanges in climatic variations in the state. For instance, annual averagerainfall varies from 821.1 mm at Thangu to 3494.5 mm at Gangtok(CRESPReport, 2008, p. 30), similarly the temperature varies widely in terms ofhigh altitude areas of Nathula and lower regions like Jorthang in case ofsummer and winters.

Situated on such diverse ecosystem, as like other Himalayan regionsor the world, Sikkim is said to be warming. With repository of glaciers andsnow along with diverse floras and faunas, this fragile and sensitive natureact as a laboratory where the impact of climate change gets amplified andcan be studied closely and understood better. Sikkim Himalaya is perhapsmost in tune to the signs of change brought about by climate warming. Thepeople across the towns and villages of Sikkim narrate revealing insights onhow global warming is affecting their lives and livelihood. This is furthercomplemented by the scientific data available. Meteorogical Departmentrecords reveal that in between1958-2005there had been a slight change inthe climate of Gangtok. According to Dr K Seetharam, Director of theMeteorology Centre, Gangtok, and maximum temperature has been risingby 0.2fC per decadeand minimum temperature has been falling by 0.3fCper decade. The annual rainfall has beenincreasing by 49.6mm perdecade(Khawas, 2015, p. 321).

Using the temperature and rainfall data of 1981 to 2010 at Tadongas the basis of analyses, (Rahman, et al., 2012) he concludes that the meanminimum temperature has increased by 1.95 fC while mean maximumtemperature did not exibit any significant change, and the rainfall was foundincreased by 124 mm within the period of three decades. Moreover, rainfalldecreases in the last two decades with 355 mm and there forms the increasein mean minimum temperature, showing change in both temperature andrainfall.

Using the temperature and rainfall data of 1951-1980 and 1961 to1990, (Seetharam, 2012) argues that there has been decrease in both meanminimum and maximum temperatures from 1961 to 1990 as compared to

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the period of 1951-80. But questioning the use of data of information fromthe mid-latitudes or mid altitude areas and understanding the impact andnature of the climate change in the higher ranges of the Himalayan regionscreates kind of knowledge gaps (Bawa & Ingty, 2012, p. 415).

There are key changes predicted due to climate changes in Sikkim,such as changes in forest vegetation types, shifts in the geographic distributionof flora and fauna, changes in the phenology of the state, changesecosystems, impacts on the livelihoods, and initiation of frequent disastersand so on (Bhattacharya, et al., 2012, p. 319). Along with such predictions,the strategies for the adaptation and mitigation are building to tackle theclimate change.

Understanding and Linking the Changing Human Societies and theClimate Change in Sikkim

Climate varies with every one kilometer of the distance in Sikkim Himalaya,so does the demographic, social and economic profile of the human societies.The rapidly changing social and economic conditions of the peoples aresubject to various complex nexus of human activities. History reveals thathow humans as the agent of change domesticated different plants andanimals, how they use different geographical spaces to live and turn theminto home. The changing nature of human societies can be understood bythe changing nature of its population growth within a state in successivetime (see figure 2).

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The population of Sikkim has been growing since the availability ofthe data, in the year of 1891, the total population of Sikkim was just 30,458persons whereas according to the census of India, 2011, the population ofSikkim is 610577. The population within a century grew about 20 timesmore than what it was in 1891. Similarly, there is 12.36 percent growth rateof population in between 2011-2001. This simple addition of populationdecades after decades is thus adding more pressure to the land they inhabitand one won’t be wrong to argue that this brings series of problems in theenvironment.

Changing sectoral share of Gross state Domestic Product in Sikkimmarks the changing nature of engagement of societies with the environment,from producers to consumers, sellers to buyers and primary to non-primaryworkers are some of the sign of so called developed and modernsocieties.According to census 2001,in Sikkim, around 54% of the populationis still engaged in agriculture and allied activities, around 11 % in industrialactivities and around 35 % in services. 11 percent of total land area ofSikkim is presently under cultivations. It is evident from the (Fig 3) thatSikkim is undergoing sectoral changes, the primary sector had greater sharein 1980-81 as tertiary and secondary sectors had limited opportunity becauseof less education, low infrastructure and lesser population composition toform social nexus.It is clear from the figure 3 that the share of primary washighest with 48.9 percent whereas in 2010-11 it fall down to 11 percentwhereas non-primary marked the ever increasing share of GSDP.

Sikkim in case of Human Development is growing in a successiveyears, the data (fig 4) shows that with a decade and more, it has changedfrom 0.454 to the 0.665. Similarly, trends in GSDP and Per Capita Incomeof Sikkim (fig 5) shows a positive growth rate, there is a positive relationship

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between the changing Gross State Domestic Product and Per Capita Incomewith the positive growth rate of Human Development Index of the state.Arguing on the basis of the assumption that no country develops withoutmaximizing the consumption level of energy and resources. Moreover, thegrowing use of science and technology has changed the fate of humansocieties in utilizing and maintaining resources. Interestingly, on such similarsituation, Marsh in his article argues that purely untutored humanity, it istrue, interferes comparatively little with thearrangements of nature, and thedestructive agency of man becomes more and moreenergetic and unsparingas he advances in civilization, until the impoverishment,with which hisexhaustion of the natural resources of the soil is threateninghim, atlastawakens him to the necessity of preservingwhat is left, if not ofrestoringwhathas been wantonly wasted(Marsh, 2002).

Humans compensating role in the nature hardly compensate thedestruction that they caused once they break it. As (Narain, 2009) arguesthat per capita carbon dioxide emissions remains closely related to a country’slevel of economic development and thus rising standard of living shows theconsumption levels of energy and hence creation of undesirable wastesand pollution.

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The other side of the story about the growth and development of the staterelies on the exploitation of the natural resources, for instance there hasbeen process of building Hydro Power Projects on the river Tista andRangeet, which brings elixir to the societies residing the state. Well, asaccording to the Department of Energy and Power, Government of Sikkimand data provided up to 2010, there has been 22 major and minor dams toproduce electricity with the potential capacity of 5000 MW and harnessingas much as possible where Tista stage 3, 4, 5 and 6 contributes the majorshare of energy which are more than 500 MW in each stations.At times,the confusion and ambiguous thoughts arises that what this has to do withclimate change, but the minor changes in the ecologically fragile regionscreates cumulative changes in successive levels. For instance, changingthe nature of morphology and ecology of the places automatically generateschanges in the physical systems of the place since all this factors areembedded in the system one way or the other.Fig 6: Map showing some Dams Construction Sites, Buffering Areas and the Protected

Forest areas of Sikkim

Source: SANDRP, 09/10/2013

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It gets more interesting when we find some legitimizing answersand arguments regarding the unsustainable acts of humans, where we cansee the definite gain to the society but at the case of environmentaldegradation. Similar arguments goes with the installation of power projectsand the need of the energy to accommodate the increasing population ofthe state. Moreover, the globalization of science and technology, along withthe compression of time-space, the prospects of tourism haunts societies tograb the opportunities of earning good income.

The map (fig 6) shows that how the ecologically sensitive areasare protected by the government policies, it reflects the responsible roleplayed by the government but at the same time, does the construction ofdams next to these protected areas preserves the sanity of the areas. Thisis hardly a matter of in-depth research, but with experiences and observationfrom other similar cases one can hypothetically argues that construction ofthe dams initiates changes in the regions which sometimes turns out adverse.

As the rebuilding role played by Government of Sikkim and activelyresponded by the societies in Sikkim, the percentage of forest and treecover has gone up to 47. 59 % in 2011 which was 44.09 % in the year 1997.It had 3.5 % growth in between, beside this the initiation of Organic Farmingas the method of Agricultural practices seems much friendly to theenvironment. It was organic before, but with the focus on optimizingproductivity with maximum profits linger the harmonious act of humanswith the nature. There is a huge expectation of reduction of carbon dioxideemission with increasing forestry and ecofriendly measures in the state.

But there are challenges in facts, observing on the field, theagricultural practices by the people and initiatives taken by the authority,raises a very simple question, that how greenhouses differs from thegreenhouses? as whether the legitimizing move of constructing Greenhousesfor the agricultural practices, more importantly by every householdsperforming agriculture and horticulture practices and numbers ofgreenhouses by progressive farmers in the state, does seemed providingmajor contribution to the climate change in their areas. Enhancinggreenhouses for economic purposes is not very different from otherinhumaneactivities of the human societies.

Observation, Discussion and Conclusion

As understanding the influences of changing human societies and the parallelchange of climate. The Climate change is actually when the balance betweenincoming and outgoing energy is distressed, this changes the amount of

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heat within the climate system and affects all those processes describedabove that transport heat around the globe. We experience this as changingweather patterns with full of prediction and observations. Moreover, humansprovides ample scope of influences in this system as it actively engageswith the nature in every day basis.

The case of Sikkim is as the diversity of altitude and bio-diversity ismuch dense and as the matter, weather and climate varies within thekilometers of the distance, how can one understand the mechanisms ofclimate change in diversified spaces with limited data collecting centers?For instance, the case of climate change in fragile ecosystem of Lachungor Dzongu with the help of data collected from the meteorological centerssituated at Gangtok or relatively at the lesser altitude than the case study.Moreover, lots of studies have been carried out to understand the impact ofclimate change in Sikkim and without any doubt, all the research paper hastalked about the changing climate and its adverse effects. While, there isno point of denying the fact that the climate is changing, but the way itportrays and problematized the effects are not solely caused by the naturalactivities, in fact changing nature of human societies has played major rolein influencing climate and environmental change. Most importantly, thechanging nature of human societies is hardly problematized. Even whenthe mitigation of the human causes seems best deal to deal upon, there hasbeen end numbers of focuses on the adaptations, ignoring the soft factsthat climate change operates in dualistic manner, where human societiesinfluences climate change and in responds climate change influences humans(fig 7).

Fig 7: Dualistic Influences of Change

The process of handling climate change as mitigation and adaptation,where adaptation seems more challenging at the moment but the proper

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mitigation and acting upon it will surely reduce the impact of climate change.Moreover, analyzing the nature of changing human societies will help toseparate the changes occurring within the climate change and the share ofhuman societies to it.Since, the overarching political initiatives and the politicsof nature has been initiated through the climate change. In other words, theunsustainable human activities and their effects on the nature producescertain changes in the climatic systems, whereas the legitimization of climatechange superficially hides the inhumane activities of destructions causedby certain section of the societies but experienced by all. Moreover, theuneven consumption levels of the different society’s shares differentpercentage of effects and rather than generalizing the climate effects, thereis a need of understanding the shares of destruction caused by differentsocieties and act up on it as if we really cared about solving the issues ofclimate change.

In cases of consideration that climate change occurs way abovethe human activities, Marsh provides his observation and argument to thiscase “I am not aware of any evidence that wild animalshave everdestroyed the smallest forest, extirpated any organic species, ormodifiedits natural character, occasioned any permanent change ofterrestrial surface, orproduced any disturbance of physical conditionswhich nature has not, of herself,repaired without the expulsion of theanimal that had caused it”(Marsh, 2002).In fact there are end numbersof instances presented by various researchers about the human influenceson the nature and environment but it has failed to organize itself.

The harmonious picture of human societies coexisting with itsenvironment and the nature in Sikkim with various policies and activities onnarrow theatres, like planting new forests, banning on the grazing of animalsin the forests, building the tradition of taking care of nature,barrages offlowingstreams restrained by heavy walls of masonry and other constructionsfor sustainable economic generation, organic farming and sustainableeconomic growth through eco-tourism aretrue but partial in presentation,as reverse to this picture the constructions of micro including mega dams inecologically fragile regions, initiating mass tourism in the places of exoticand endangering ecosystems, buildings of industries along the river sides,construction of big infrastructures with proper certification and researchsuch as airport at Pakyong.

The positive relationship between the changing human societiesand the claimed climate change in Sikkim raises the question of understandingthe critical gaps in knowledge and availability of data while falsifying and

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verifying the relationships in definite propositions. Reflecting the realitiesfrom the ground of Sikkim, there seems a close and positive relationshipbetween the changing climate change and the climate change which carriesimportant message in dealing and understanding the climate change.

References:Bawa, K. S. & Ingty, T., (2012) Climate Change in Sikkim: A Synthesis. In: M. L. Arrawalia

& S. Tambe, eds. Climate Change in Sikkim: Patterns, Impacts and Initiatives.Gangtok: Information and Public Relations Department, Government of Sikkim,pp. 413-424.

Bhattacharya, S., Krishnaswamy, S. & Rao, C. K., (2012) Vulnerability of Sikkim toClimate Change and Strategies for Adaptation. In: M. L. Arrawatia & S. Tambe,eds. Climate Change in Sikkim: Patterns, Impacts and Initiatives. Gangtok:Information and Public Relations Department, Government of Sikkim, pp. 317-332.

CRESP Report, (2008). Physiography and Sacred Space and Time. In: B. R. Burman, ed.Human Ecology and Statutory Status of Ethnic Entities in Sikkim. Gangtok: Deprtmentof Information and Public Relations, Government of Sikkim, pp. 29-44.

Engelman, R., (2011) Revisiting Popultion Growth: The Impact of Ecological Limits.Environment 360, 13 October, pp. 1-6.

Gazetteer of Sikkim, (2013) Physical Aspects. In: I. M. Uprety, S. Rai & S. Mondal, eds.Gazetteer of Sikkim. Gangtok: Home Department, Government of Sikkim, pp. 1-29.

Ghosh, P., (2009) Is India a Solution to the Problem or a problem to the solution?. In: S.Narain, et al. eds. Climate Change: Perspectives from India. New Delhi: UNDP,India, pp. 17-36.

IPCC, (2007) Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. In: R. K. Pachauri & A. Reisinger,eds. Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, IIand III to the Fourth Assessment REport of the Intergovernmnetal Panel on ClimateChange. Geneva: IPCC, p. 104.

IPCC, (2013) Introduction. In: T. F. Stucker, D. Qin & G. K. Plattner, eds. Climate Change2013: the physical Science Basis, Working Group I contribution to the FifthAssessment Report of the IPCC. Switzerland: IPCC, pp. 1-33.

Khawas, V., (2015) Pathways for Climate Resilent Livelihoods: The case of A largeCardamom Farming In the Dzongu Valley of the Tista River Basin, Sikkim Himalaya.In: W. L. Filho, ed. Climate Change in the Asia-Pacific Region. Switzerland: SpringerInternational Publishing, pp. 319-334.

Marsh, G. P., (2002) Man and Nature. Organization and Environment, June, 15(2), pp.170-177.

Marsh, G. P., (2002) Man and Nature. Organisation and Environment, 15(2), pp. 170-177.

Narain, S., (2009) A Just Climate Agreement: The Framework for an Effective Global Deal.

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In: S. Narain, et al. eds. Climate Change: Perspectives from India. New Delhi:UNDP, India, pp. 7-16.

NCSE, (2012) How much does Human Activity Affect Climate Change?.[Online]

Available at: http://www.ncse.com[Accessed 30 July 2015]

Rahman, H. et al., (2012). An Analysis of Past Three Decade Weather Phenomenon in theMid-Hills of Sikkim and Strategies for Mitigating Possible Impacts of ClimateChange of Agriculture. In: M. L. Arrawatia & S. Tambe, eds. Climate Change inSikkim: Patterns, Impacts and Initiatives. Gangtok: Information and Public RelationsDepartment, Government of Sikkim, pp. 19-48.

Seetharam, K., (2012). Climate Change Synthetic Scenario Over Gangtok. In: M. L. Arrawatia& S. Tambe, eds. Climate Change in Sikkim: Patterns, Impacts and Initiatives.Gangtok: Information and Public Relations Department, Government of Sikkim,pp. 1-18.

Sharma, R. K. et al., (2012). Study of Forest Fires in Sikkim Himalayas, India usingRemote Sensing and GIS Techniques. In: M. L. Arrawatia & S. Tambe, eds. ClimateChange in sikkim: Patterns, Impacts and Initiatives. Gangtok: Information andPublic Relations Department, pp. 233-244.

Telwala, Y., (2012) Climate Change and Alpine Flora in Sikkim Himalaya. In: M. L.Arrawatia & S. Tambe, eds. Climate Change in Sikkim: Patterns, Impacts andInitiatives. Gangtok: Information and Public Relations Department, Governmentof sikkim, pp. 103-124.

Tencer, D., (2013) Can the world handle this many wheels?. The Huffingston Post, 02 09,pp. 1-3.

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CHAPTER - 16

Mainstreaming Adaptation in India – TheMahatma Gandhi National Rural EmploymentGuarantee Act and Climate changePrakash Chand Meena*

Introduction

The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act(MGNREGA) aims at enhancing the livelihood security of people in ruralareas by guaranteeing 100 days of wage-employment in financial year to arural household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled manualwork. The Act also seeks to create durable assets to augment land andwater resources, improve rural connectivity and strengthen the livelihoodresource base of the rural poor. The Mahatma Gandhi National RuralEmployment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) works are largely focusedon land and water resources, which include: water harvesting andconservation, soil conservation and protection, irrigation provisioning andimprovement, renovation of traditional water bodies, land development anddrought proofing. These MGNREGS works have the potential to generateenvironmental benefits such as groundwater recharge, soil, water andbiodiversity conservation, sustaining food production, halting landdegradation and building resilience to current climate risks such as moisturestress, delayed rainfall, droughts and floods.Sustainable asset creation,natural capital enhancement, social inclusion and empowerment canform part of such a strategy and are central constituents of theMGNREGA (UNDP, 2010). The MGNREGA is a pathway to rural

*Department of Geography,University of Rajasthan Jaipur 302004 E-mail:[email protected]

Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation (2015) : 227-232 Sati,V. P. et al. (Ed),Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002

ISBN: 81-8019-518-3 (India) ISBN: 1-55528-374-8 (USA)

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economic rejuvenation that addresses some of the underlyingvulnerabilities present, and simultaneously enhance adaptive capacitiesfor the future.

Material and Methods

The main objective of this assessment was to generate empirical evidencefrom different parts of India with diverse agro-climatic and socio-economiccharacteristics, to assess the potential of MGNREGS to deliverenvironmental benefits to promote conservation of natural resources,sustained water supply and food production, in addition to sustainedemployment and livelihoods. The study is also aimed at assessing thepotential of MGNREGS works to reduce vulnerability to climate risks. Herethe f i ndings of studies assessing environmental benefits generated throughimplementation of MGNREGS works and their implications for reducingvulnerability to climate change and global warming.

The study is composed of mainly two components namely; i)assessment of the impacts of MGNREGA on environmental benefits, andii) assessment of implications of MGNREGS works in reducing vulnerabilityto climate risks. However, a limited institutional assessment was conductedto gain insights into how institutional arrangements can further be improvedto enhance generation of environmental benefits through well implementedMGNREGS works. The study included an assessment of ecological, physicaland socio-economic indicators. The methods included biophysicalmeasurements (such as groundwater, soil organic carbon and biomassestimation), household survey and PRA of the beneficiaries of MGNREGS(employment generated, increased area irrigated, crop yields, etc.), anduse of secondary data (area irrigated, afforested area, etc.).

Results and Discussion

Impacts of MGNREGA on forests, plantations and fruit orchards: UnderMGNREGS, drought proofing works such as afforestation and reforestation,and horticulture development activities have been implemented. In 31 ofthe 40 study villages, forest (Dalbergia, Neem, etc.) as well as fruit yielding(Mango, Guava, Jackfruit, Lemon, etc.) tree species have been planted onindividual farm lands and common property resources under MGNREGS.The forest tree species have the potential to yield fodder, fuelwood andnon-timber forest products and similarly fruit trees provide fruits, flowersand nuts, generating additional income and diversifying livelihoods,contributing to reduction in vulnerability to climate risks, especially in rainfalldeficit years. Some of these tree species planted had not reached the fruit-

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bearing stage when this study was undertaken.

Potential Impacts of MGNREGA on carbon sequestration: SeveralMGNREGS works leading to increase in soil organic carbon, and raising oftree plantations and fruit orchards leading to carbon sequestration in biomassand soil, potentially contribute to mitigation of climate change. In the studyvillages, it was found that in 72% of the 899 beneficiary sample plots,covering all the MGNREGS works, higher soil organic carbon content wasrecorded as compared to control plots. Similarly, in 31 of the 40 villagesafforestation works were undertaken and horticultural plantations have beenraised. These forest and fruit trees sequester carbon in biomass and soil.However, in the study villages, the forest plantations and fruit orchardswere too young to estimate the biomass carbon accumulation, but have thepotential to sequester carbon in the long-term. Agricultural and livelihoodvulnerability reduction due to MGNREGA: MGNREGA works related towater and land development have been shown in this study to havecontributed to generation of environmental benefits such as groundwaterrecharge, increased water availability for irrigation, increased soil fertility,reduction in soil erosion, and improved tree cover. These environmentalbenefits derived from MGNREGS works have contributed to reducing theagricultural and livelihood vulnerability in the post-MGNREGSimplementation period, compared to the pre-MGNREGS period and furtherhave the potential to not only build resilience to cope with current climaterisks but also build long-term resilience to projected climate change.

Dominance of water and land related MGNREGS works: UnderMGNREGS, bulk of the works (about 80%) implemented in the four districtsare linked to natural resources such as surface water, groundwater,croplands, soils and wastelands (for forestry).

Impact of MGNREGS on water resources: Implementation ofMGNREGS works such as water conservation and harvesting works,drought proofing, irrigation provisioning and improvement works, andrenovation of traditional water bodies have contributed to improvedgroundwater levels, increased water availability for irrigation, increasedarea irrigated by ground and surface water sources and finally improveddrinking water availability for humans and livestock.

Suggested Good Practices:

Based on the main conclusions and the recommendations presentedin this study, an illustrative set of good practices that could be considered indesigning, selection, implementation and monitoring of MGNREGA works

Mainstreaming Adaptation in India

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is given below:

Assessment of status of village ecosystems, production systems andnatural resources; soil, water, forests, and crop, livestock and forestproduction systems

Assessment of the extent of degradation of cropland, grassland, waterresources, etc., and the drivers of degradation, and sharing of suchinformation with the village communities

Prioritize interventions to conserve and regenerate natural resources;land reclamation, soil fertility improvement, water conservation andforestry are examples of such interventions

Focus on community resources or assets; irrigation tanks, canals, grazingland and forests

Gram Sabha must have primacy in decisions on selection of works –decision making should be based on knowledge and information aboutthe status of natural resources, impacts of MGNREGA works, etc.

Generate and provide access to information through application of ICTto Gram Sabha and Gram Panchayat on status of village resources(land, water, forests, etc.)

Weather projections, soil and water conservation technologies, etc.Technical assistance to be provided only for specific works such ascheck dam construction,

Minor irrigation works and canal construction. Ensure completion ofworks initiated through continuous monitoring

Ensure maintenance of all assets created; civil structures, forests andplantations through provision of contingency funds to Gram Panchayatsfor maintenance of assets created

Provide incentives for village communities for conservation andrestoration of community natural resources

Monitor the status of natural resources, works implemented, impactsof works, and status of assets created and create access to monitoredinformation to Gram Sabha and Gram Panchayat.

Conclusion

MGNREGS is one of the largest rural development programmesimplemented in India. The present study aimed at quantifying and generating

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empirical evidence on the potential of MGNREGS to generate environmentalbenefits, and reduce vulnerability to climate risks. The empirical evidencefrom the 5 study districts representing 5 states, with diverse socioeconomicand environmental conditions, shows that MGNREGA is generating multipleenvironmental and socio-economic benefits; leading to improved wateravailability and soil fertility resulting in increased crop production. Increasedarea under plantations and orchards potentially contributing to alternateincomes, increased employment generation and reduced migration. Furtherthe implementation of MGNREGS works has contributed to reducingvulnerability to climate risks. The key findings and recommendations arepresented in the Executive Summary.

References:Bassi,N, Kumar, DM, Niranjan,V, & Sivamohan, M (2011) Employment Guarantee and

its Environmental Impact: Are the Claims Valid?, Economic and Political Weekly,vol. 66, no. 34.

Channaveer, H, Lokesha, Hugar, LB, Deshmanya, JB & Goudappa, SB (2011) Impact ofMGNREGA on Input-use Pattern, Labour Productivity and Returns of SelectedCrops in Gulbarga District, Karnataka, Agricultural Economics Research Review,vol. 24, pp 517-523.

GoI (2010). Groundwater Scenario of India 2009–10, Central Ground Water Board, Ministryof Water Resources.

Haque, T. (2011) ‘Socio-economic Impact of Implementation of Mahatma Gandhi NationalRural Employment Guarantee Act in India.’ Social Change 41(3): 445-71.

Kareemulla, K., Reddy, SK, Ramarao, CA, Kumar, S & Venkateswarlu, B (2009) Soil andWater Conservation Works through National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme(NREGS) in Andhra Pradesh: An analysis of livelihood impact, AgriculturalEconomic Research Review, vol. 22, pp. 443-450.

Krishnan, S & Balakrishnan, A (2012) Impact of Watershed Works of MGNREGS onPoverty Alleviation - A MicroLevel Study, Indian Streams Research Journal, vol.2, no. 7, pp. 2230-7850.

Kumar, R. and R. Prasanna. (2010) ‘Role of NREGA in Providing Additional Employmentfor Tribals and Curtailing Migration’. National Rural Employment Guarantee Act(NREGA): Design, Process and Impact, Delhi: Ministry of Rural Development,Government of India.

Malik, RPS (2012) Effi cacy of Employment Generation Programs in Providing WaterSecurity: An Assessment of Mahatma Gandhi National Rural EmploymentGuarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) in Madhya Pradesh, Water Policy ResearchHighlight, IWMI-TATA Water Policy Program.

Mistry, Paulomee and Anshuman Jaswal. (2009) ‘Study of the Implementation of theNational Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGS): Focus on Migration’.Ahmedabad: DISHA.

Mainstreaming Adaptation in India

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MoRD, Ministry of Rural Development (2012) MGNREGA Sameeksha: An Anthologyof Research Studies on the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment GuaranteeAct, 2005, Government of India.

MPISSR, Madhya Pradesh Institute of Social Science Research (2010) Assessment of theEffectiveness and Impact of Kapildhara Sub-Scheme, Ministry of RuralDevelopment (MoRD) & United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), NewDelhi.

Ravindranath, NH & Murthy, IK (2013) Greening of MGNREGS,United NationsDevelopment Programme (UNDP), New Delhi.

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CHAPTER 17

Impact of Agroclimatic Factors on PlantSecondary Metabolites and theirAccumulation in Medicinal Plants: Acommercial approachAwadhesh Kumar*

Introduction

The medicinal plants are a diverse group of plant species which includesannuals, biennials, perennials etc. In every parts of earth infect they growin all habitats as well as in all climatic regions. Approximately 50,000-70,000plant species are used in traditional and modern medicines throughout theworld. Even various places which are unexplored a large number of plantspecies still unidentified; so for in the wild there are the potential sources ofmedicines. Since time immemorial to day today these make an essentialcontribution to our health care; provide livelihoods to tribal and rural people;because of different kinds of chemicals present in various parts of plantshaving the curable properties make plants always an interest. Thesechemicals in plants synthesized by the different kinds of metabolic pathwayswhich happening in plants for its developments and other purposes. Thechemicals, formed in end of the processes by each metabolic pathways/cycles constituently known as phytochemicals. In plants, thesephytochemicals are two types; one is primary metabolites and second oneis called secondary metabolites. The secondary metabolites are oftenreferred to as compounds that have no fundamental role in the maintenanceof life processes in the plants, but they are important for the plant to interact

*Dept of Horticulture, Aromatic and Medicinal Plants, Mizoram University, Aizawl–796004, India, E-mail: [email protected]

Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation (2015) : 233-252 Sati,V. P. et al. (Ed),Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002

ISBN: 81-8019-518-3 (India) ISBN: 1-55528-374-8 (USA)

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with its environment for adaptation and defense. However we are beginningto understand the crucial role played by them in plant growth anddevelopment. In higher plants a wide variety of secondary metabolites aresynthesized from primary metabolites e.g., carbohydrates, lipids and aminoacids (Ramakrishna and Ravishankar, 2011). Phytochemicals which aresynthesized by the plants have potency to cure the diseases. Thesecompounds are chemically different to each other in function ant itsstructures. People on all continents have long applied poultices and imbibedinfusions of hundreds, if not thousands, of indigenous plants, dating back toprehistory. These plants are still widely used in ethno-medicine around theworld. Natural products have, until recently, been the primary source ofcommercial medicines and drug leads. A recent survey revealed that 61%of the 877 drugs introduced worldwide can be traced to or were inspired bynatural products.

From a biological point of view, heterogeneous individuals of thesame species can be classified as either geoherbs or non-geoherbs (Huangand Zhang, 1997), with their unique chemical constituents resulting fromthe interaction between minor-polygenes and differential ecology (Huang,et, al., 2008). Mostly plants resist biological, physical and chemicalenvironmental stresses by regulating the accumulation of secondarymetabolites in long periods of adaption to the environment (Ferreyra, et,al., 2012; Hartmann, 2004; Heldt and Piechulla, 2010; Kliebenstein, 2013;Wink and Mohamed, 2003). The ecological factors are the dominant factorsaffecting the secondary metabolites of the plants (Ncube, et, al., 2012).

Therefore, the climate change is not only a major globalenvironmental problem, but it is also an issue of great concern to a developingcountry like India. As stated by the Intergovernmental Panel on ClimateChange (IPCC), climate change is “Unequivocal”. The IPCC projected aglobal average temperature rise of 4.2°C towards the end of the 21st century.Studies also show that recently in addition to shifting phenology, plant specieshave begun to adapt to recent climate changes through altered speciesranges (Parmesan, 2006). India has tremendous reasons to be concernedabout the impacts of climate change on medicinal plants. The primary healthcare of more than 60 per cent of our population especially of tribal and ruralpeople and livelihoods depends greatly on medicinal plants wealth. Medicinalplants sector is facing ecological and economical challenges. The majoreffects can be generalized as changes in the geographical limits, changes incrop yields and impacts on production system. Plants produce a vast numberof secondary metabolites, so called because these metabolites are not directlyinvolved in primary processes of basic growth and development. Plant natural

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compounds determine flavor and taste of vegetables, can have beneficialor detrimental effects on the health of humans or livestock upon ingestion,and provide an important basis for pharmaceutical research. Many plantnatural products play an important role in the interaction of plants with theirenvironment, and in particular with their biotic environment, where theymay serve as attractants for pollinators or seed dispersers, in defense againstnatural enemies or as allele chemicals against competitors. Tens of thousandsof plant secondary metabolites have already been described. For example,ca. 21 000 alkaloids, 22 000 terpenoids, and 5000 flavonoids and tannins areknown, but this is probably only a fraction of what is present in nature(Wink, 2010).

Climate change and global warming are the warning calls and verywell acknowledged threats today, worldwide and almost all the species ofworld biodiversity are affected by the same (Badola, 2010). Nowdays, theclimate change and global warmings have already knocked the doors ofexisting biological resources world-wide and exerting a pressure, apparentlyor non-apparantly, on the living style and resources practices by peoples ofAyurveda conceivably, the old and pioneer of all medicinal system of worlduses various resources like plants, anmals and minerals for alleviation illness.(Agnivesh, 1983; Shastri, 2004). The climate change is the major threat tobiodiversity and one of the main factors affecting human health and well-being over the coming decades. Cold weather crops like rye, oats, wheatand apples are expected to decline their productivity by about 15% in thenext 50 y and strawberries will drop as much as 32% simply because ofprojected climate changes (Pimm, 2009). Moreover, in leaves of Ginkgobiloba ozone fumigation increased the concentrations of terpenes,decreased the concentrations of phenolics (He, et, al., 2009). According toIdso and Idso, (2000), the plants grown at high levels CO2 exhibitedsignificant changes of their chemical composition; a prominent example ofa CO2 effect is the decrease of the nitrogen (N) concentration in vegetativeplant parts as well as in seeds and grains resulting in the decrease of theprotein levels.

The present paper focused on importance of secondary metabolitesand effects of various Agroclimatic factors that influence the production ofsecondary metabolites and their compositions; those present in form ofvarious mixtures of volatiles (essential oils) and non-volatiles compounds.

Secondary Metabolites

The Secondary metabolites are those metabolites which are often producedin a phase of subsequent to growth, have no function in growth (although

Impact of Agroclimatic Factors on Plant

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they may have survival function), are produced by certain restrictedtaxonomic groups of microorganisms, have unusual chemicals structures,and are often formed as mixtures of closely related members of a chemicalfamily. The simplest definition of secondary products is that they are notgenerally included in standard metabolic charts. A metabolic intermediateor product, found as a differentiation product in restricted taxonomic groups,not essential to growth and the life of the producing organism, and biosynthesisfrom one or more general metabolites by a wider variety of pathways thanis available in general metabolism. Secondary metabolites are not essentialfor growth and tend to be strain specific. They have a wide range ofchemical structures and biological activities. They are derived by uniquebiosynthetic pathways from primary metabolites and intermediates. In plants,these secondary metabolites are known as phytochemicals.

These Phytochemicals are made by the plants by their metabolicreactions to carry their life processes. So, commonly it is known asMetabolites.

Metabolites

The term metabolite is derived from a Greek word ‘Metabole’ whichmeans change.

Based on process of making the metabolites, these are of twotypes

Anabolism: It is consisting of a Greek word in which ‘Ana’ means ‘up’;and ‘bolism’ means ‘through’. So, it means through up. On other hand itcan be defined as “a constructive process in which a complex molecule issynthesized from simpler ones. Consumers rather than produce cellularenergy is called as anabolism.

Example: Photosynthesis

6CO2 + 12H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2

Chlorophyll (Carbohydrate)

Catabolism: A degradative process in which complex molecules are brokendown into simpler ones.

Example: Respiration and Digestion

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Enzymes

C6H12O6 CO2 + 6H2O + 686 Kcal

(Carbohydrate) ATP Energy

Diagrammatic representation of the whole processes Metabolites

Anabolism Catabolism

Ana bole Cata bole Up through Down through

Through up Through down (Process of making complex molecules) (Process of making smaller molecules) (Photosynthesis) (Respiration and Digestion)

Plant Metabolites / Plant Products

There are two types of two types of Plant metabolites:

1. Primary plant metabolites

2. Secondary plant metabolites

Primary plant metabolites

The compound that plays a vital role in the maintenance of lifeprocesses in the plant e.g., Seeds, fruits, flowers etc.

Secondary plant metabolites

Secondary plant metabolites can be defined as “the compounds that haveno recognized role in the maintenance of fundamental life processes in theorganism that synthesized them”. In other words it can be defined as “theend product of the primary metabolites” is called as secondary plantmetabolites. e.g., Alkaloids, Alkenes,/Aldehydes, Phenols (Lignin, Tannin,Anthocyanin), Terpenoids.

Formation of Secondary Metabolites in Plants

More than two hundred years of modern chemistry and biologyhave described the role of primary metabolites in basic life functions suchas cell division and growth, respiration, storage, and reproduction. In biology,the concept of secondary metabolite can be attributed to Kossel, 1891.

Impact of Agroclimatic Factors on Plant

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Defining secondary metabolites, one has to consider that they: (a) have nodirect implication on the growth and development of plants; (b) are oftensynthesized synthesized from primary metabolites; (c) have a distributionwhich is sometimes confined to a genus or species; (d) are often accumulatedin high concentrations [1–3% fresh weight (f.w.)]; (e) may show high toxicity;(f) may have a marked biological effect on other organisms; (g) frequentlyhave different production and accumulation sites; and (h) are sometimesaccumulated in the vacuoles in a glycosidic form or accumulate in specialsecretory structures, e.g. trichomes, ducts, canals, laticifers. But overallthe plant secondary metabolites are a group of naturally occurring compoundclasses biosynthesized by differing biochemical pathways. How theformation of secondary metabolites is happening in medicinal plants is shownin fig. 2.

Fig. 1: Formation of secondary metabolites in medicinal plants

Agrotechnology

Agriculture helps to meet the basic needs of human and their civilization byproviding food, clothing, shelters, medicine and recreation. Hence, agricultureis the most important enterprise in the world. It is a productive unit wherethe free gifts of nature namely land, light, air, temperature and rain wateretc., are integrated into single primary unit indispensable for human beings.

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Secondary productive units namely animals including livestock, birds andinsects, feed on these primary units and provide concentrated productssuch as meat, milk, wool, eggs, honey, silk and lac. Agriculture providesfood, feed, fibre, fuel, furniture, raw materials and materials for and fromfactories; provides a free fare and fresh environment, abundant food fordriving out famine; favours friendship by eliminating fights.

Nowadays the government of India strongly recommendedintroducing the good agricultural practices (GAP). These good agriculturalpractices mainly adapted from the WHO guidelines on good agriculturaland collection practices (GACP) to suit the policy framework onenvironmental health in India.

A good agricultural practice in reference to medicinal plants is acultivation programme specially designed to ensure to get optimal yield interms of both quality and quantity of any medicinal crop anticipated forhealth purposes. In regard to good agricultural practices, there are variouscomponents of agriculture which consider as important factors. The optimumyield can be achieved through maintain these components at a proper time.The components of agrotechnology (agriculture) like Domestication,Cultivation Practices and Post harvest technologies are depicted in followingfigure (Nautiyal, et, al., 2002).

Fig.2. components of agrotechnology

Impact of Agroclimatic Factors on Plant

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Factors that Influence the Production of Secondary Metabolites

Plants produce a vast number of secondary metabolites, so called becausethese metabolites are not directly involved in primary processes of basicgrowth and development. Plant natural compounds determine flavor andtaste of vegetables, can have beneficial or detrimental effects on the healthof humans or livestock upon ingestion, and provide an important basis forpharmaceutical research. Many plant natural products play an importantrole in the interaction of plants with their environment, and in particularwith their biotic environment, where they may serve as attractants forpollinators or seed dispersers, in defense against natural enemies or asallelochemicals against competitors. Tens of thousands of plant secondarymetabolites have already been described. For example, ca. 21 000 alkaloids,22 000 terpenoids, and 5000 flavonoids and tannins are known, but this isprobably only a fraction of what is present in nature (Wink, 2010). Thevarious factors are depicted in figure-2, which are responsible for theincreasing and decreasing of secondary metabolites in plant.

Time to time many authors also discussed about importance ofvarious abiotic stress signals which are creating stress in plants. Accordingto Mahajan and Tuteja, (2005) the abiotic stress are many types (fig.4).The abiotic stress mostly consisted of environmental stresses. There are awide range of environmental stresses (high and low temperature, drought,alkalinity, salinity, UV stress and pathogen infection) are potentially harmfulto the plants (Seigler, 1998). Environmental stresses, such as pathogen attack,UV-irradiation, high light, wounding, nutrient deficiencies, temperature andherbicide treatment often increase the accumulation of phenylpropanoids(Dixon and Paiva, 1995). Nutrient stress also has a marked effect on phenoliclevels in plant tissues (Chalker-Scott and Fnchigami, 1989).

Fig.3. Various abiotic stress signals causing stresses in plants.

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Loss of genetic diversity, particularly related to potential medicinalspecies has taken place; more so in the Worlds’ tropical rain forests and itsconservation aspect has, of late, captured the attention of herbal scientistsand experts (Duke, 1985). With emphasis it can be stated that the ultimatesolution of medicinal plant conservation is medicinal plant cultivation in ascientific way (Foster, 1993). However, in nature several factors hinder ahomogeneous and continuous production of secondary metabolites (Table1) and this has led industry to search for alternative procedures to overcomethese problems. Including all factors the most considered factors are altitude,temperature, rainfall, diurnal variation, radiation characteriatics, soil type,use of fertilizers and growth regulators (plant hormones), etc. which influencethe plant secondary metabolites in medicnal plants (Trease, 1992). Therefore,keeping these factors in mind the good agricultural practices should beprepared. Some of the factors are shown here that how they are influencingthe secondary metabolites in plants.

Effect of Altitudes

At higher altitude (1900-2700), the plant Chrysanthemum cinerarifolium(Trev.) Bocc gives the best yield of flowers and pyrethrines; likewiseGentiana lutea shows the more bitter constituents with increasing thealtitude. However in case of Cinchona succirubra has no any record ofalkaloids production at low altitudes (Trease, et, al., 1992). Solanumlaciniatum is an Australian species of relatively recent introduction andhas also shown to be very promising at relatively higher altitudes of Himalayasand thus successfully domesticated. Such instances of successfuldomestication of medicinal crops in India have been studied in details(Chatterjee, 1996). The following table shows that how these secondarymetabolites varied with the changing of altitude in medicinal plants (Table1).Table1: Effect of altitude on active principle (AP) content of different MAP species(Chatterjee, 2002).

Name of plant species Altitude (m) vs % of active agents

100 500 1000 1500

Datura innoxia 0.46 0.39 0.32 0.29

Atropa belladona 0.14 0.16 0.20 0.21

Catharanthus roseus 1.32 1.26 1.10 0.95

Rauvolfia serpentina 2.95 2.60 2.50 2.48

Cepecacuanha spp. 2.00 2.38 2.72 2.90

Hyoscyamus niger 0.63 0.66 0.70 0.82

Impact of Agroclimatic Factors on Plant

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Effect of Temperature

The temperature is one of the factors always of an important for cultivationof medicinal plants. Temperature strongly influences the metabolic activityand plant ontology, and high temperatures can induce premature leafsenescence. Carotenoids in Brassicaceae, including β-carotene, were foundto be slightly decreased after thermal treatments (Morison and Lawlor,1999). Its role on success of medicinal and aromatic plant cultivation canalso be well exemplified; like Pyrethrum growing in southern hills is favouredby lower minimum temperature increasing the yield of dry matter and totalpyrethrin contents. Whereas, increasing temperature up to a maximum (priorto physiological damage) favour increased secondary metabolite productionin many alkaloid and terpene producing medicinal plants. Composition ofsecondary metabolite may also be changed. Some to the important plantlisted here to shows that how this temperature affects the secondarymetabolites table-2.Table 2: Effect of temperature on production of secondary metabolites

Temperature Plant Species Effect on secondary metabolites

Nicotiana rustica At particular temperature i.e., meanoptimum temperature (28°C) thenicotine production is increases.(Trease, et, al., 1992).

Papaver sominiferum (Opium) Showed at low temperatureincreasing in morphine production inpoppy and decreases the totalprinciple content (Trease, et, al.,1992).

Panax quinquefolius Elevated temperatures increase leafsenescence and root secondarymetabolite concentrations in the herbPanax quinquefolius (Jochum, et, al.,2007).

Melastoma malabathricum reported that cell cultures incubatedat a lower temperature range (20 ±2°C) grew better and had higheranthocyanin production than thosegrown at 26 ± 2°C and 29 ± 2°C(Chan et, al., 2010).

Effect of Fertilizers

The secondary metabolites extracted from all parts of plants. Someof the plants are specific in nature only because only their leaves, flowers,

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latex, barks, seeds and roots etc. can be used for medicinal purposes. Astudy made by Faryabi and Ghazanchi, 200, shown that due to increasing Nand P fertilizers application rates increased leaf fresh weight and gel contentin Aloe vera plant. A similar study also reported that application of higherrates of nitrogen fertilizer enhanced the number of leaves, leaf weight, leafdiameter and leaf length of Aloe vera (Rodolfo, 2002). According to Mirzaet, al., (2008), the highest leaf yield, number of leaves, leaf freshweight and leaf area index of Aloe vera were obtained when 50%organic manure was mixed with 50% soil. The effect of different kindof fertilizes on important medicinal plant are shown in the table-3. Thetable-4 also reflected that how the application of NPK and othersmicronutrients influenced on active constituents of medicinal plants(Chatterjee, 2002).Table 3: The effect of different kind of fertilizes on important medicinal plant

Fertilizers Name of Plants Effect on Secondary metabolites

Catharanthus roseus Spraying foliar nutrients like Fe, Cu, Znand B, either individually or incombination at pre flowering stageincreases the total alkaloid content ofleaves, stems and roots (Mishra, 1992).

Cymbopogon winterianus The geranial and citronellal content ofthe Citronella Jawa oil is affected byNPK application. Geranial:Citronellalratio is highly effected by the Kapplication (Mishra, 1992).

Dioscorea spp. Apart from N, P and K application of S,Ca and Mg increase the productivity aswell as the diosgenin content (Mishra,1992).

Rosemarinus officinalis Iron application did not produce anysignificant increase in oil yield butappeared to cause a marked rise inverbenone concentration in the oil ofirrigated plants (Moretti, et, al., 1998).

Table 4: Effect of NPK fertilizers and micronutrients on active constituents of medicinalplants

Name of plants Active principles % increase (+) over control

NPK Mg Mn Fe

Ipecacuanha +35.50 +20.00 +18.60 +8.30

Impact of Agroclimatic Factors on Plant

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Rauvolfia +40.50 +9.50 +11.00 +35.20

Andrographis +15.50 +16.20 +12.50 +13.00

Dioscorea +42.00 +17.50 +18.50 +6.50

Cassia +2.60 +8.30 +6.25 +4.55

Mentha +50.20 +19.60 +22.55 +10.00

Palmarosa +42.60 +16.50 +20.00 +12.55

Effect of Diurnal Variation and Types of Radiation

Diurnal fluctuations observed in the composition and/or the yield of essentialoils, as well as changes in the composition with the development of theorgan, or of the plant, have been considered as normal metabolic turnover.While in the case of diurnal fluctuations, the terpene turnover depends onphotosynthesis and the utilization of photosynthates, in the changes relatedto the development, the monoterpene content decreases as a result of theturnover of the stored material (Figueiredo, et, al., 2008). The scents ofplants, together with nectar availability or pollen maturation, are thus inmost cases related to the activity of the pollinator. So, in plants with diurnalpollinators, volatiles emission attains its maximum during the day, whereasthose plants having night pollinators, such as bats, mice or nocturnal moths,show a maximum emission during night time. Several examples of diurnalor nocturnal rhythmic emission of volatiles can be found, e.g. Hoya carnosa,Stephanotis floribunda, Odontoglossum constrictum, Citrus medica,Melaleuca alternifolia, Nicotiana sylvestris, N. suavolens and Trifoliumrepens and also for cacti (Figueiredo, et, al., 2008; Schlumpberger, et, al.,2004). The following table-5 shows that how the application of Diurnalvariation and radiation influenced on secondary metabolites of medicinalplants.Table 5: Influence of diurnal variation and types of radiation on secondary metabolites ofmedicinal plantsDiurnal variation Name of Plants Effect on Secondary metabolitesand types ofradiation

Bryophyllum pinnatum A dark adopted plant contains morepolyphenols (Flavonoids) in leaves(Yogeeswaran, 2000).

Datura Stramonium var. tatula Long exposure to eintence lightresults in sharp increase in hyoscinecontent at time of flowring (Trease,et, al., 1992).

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Effect of Soil Moisture and pH

In India, the adequate soil moisture and moderate nutrient status generallymeet the requirements for growing of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants.However in some cases like Psyllium, Cassia, Catharanthus, Withania,Rauvolfia and Cymbopogon, the plantation can profitably thrive on lowfertility soils of warmer regions; but Pyrethrum, Solanum spp., Jasminiumand Ocimum spp. can be economically grown over medium fertility soils.While in case of Papaver, Dioscorea spp., Mentha spp. and Cymbopogonspp., high fertility soil and liberal irrigation will be necessary for successfulgrowth of plantation. According to Chatterjee, 2002, in India, the plant likeWithania, Cassia, Vetiveria and Eucalyptus citriodora are mostly calledas Rained cultivation. Medicinal and aromatic crops are generally adaptedto a wide range of soil texture and pH. Plantago, Cassia, Cymbopogongrowing over light soils become high yielding when grown over loam andclay loam (nearly 80% increase in yield in case of Plantago ovata). Theplants Vetiveria is unique for its tolerance to soil alkalinity and periodicflooding and water logging of fields; conditions however producing no adverseeffect on total oil yield and its composition. Cinchona, Cephalis and Coptishave preference for acidic soils having 5-6 pH; whereas species like Aloe,Pandanus, Urginea, Commiphora are grown in soils of higher pH (Table-6).Table 6: Effect of Soil moisture and pH on secondary metabolites of medicinal plants.

Soil moisture Name of Plants Effect on Secondary metabolitesand pH

Atropa belladonna Soil pH 6 and higher causes betteraccumulation of alkaloids in leaves(Mishra, 1992).

Curcuma longa Increasing the organic carbon, the soilhas less curcumin content (Sandeep, et,al., 2014).

Effect of Post Harvest Processing

The formers/cultivators looks every things like proper preparationof soil before plantation, maintaining its fertility, irrigation, removal of weeds,harvesting (raw materials) and processing to reach at commercial level.Although government introduced the good agricultural practices; but due tolacking of proper guidance of agricultural scientist and their scientificapproach is still creates the problems to cultivators to handling the postharvest materials. Thus, the management of harvesting processes and

Impact of Agroclimatic Factors on Plant

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handling of post-harvest products need to be taken very effectively at prioritylevel, to minimize the multiple problems of cultivators. Even some timesthey don’t know the harvesting time of their crops and they faced theproblems; in case of Artemissia annua gives maximum artemisinin contentif it will be harvested at 16 week (early flowering stage) otherwise declinesif harvest later (Farooki, et, al., 1996). Similarly, Alpinia galanga Willdmaximum amount 27.1% of cineole is found in oil at 42 months afterharvesting (Joy, et, al., 2000). According to Trease, et, al., (1992), khellinand visnagin contents are maximum in unripe fruits. The experiment madeby the scientists of CIMAP (Central Institute of Medicinal Aromatic Plants)from Lucknow showed that how the different kind of drying affects thecontents of essential oils with increasing the post harvest timing (Table 7).Table 7: Effects of shade drying and sun drying on contents of essential oils

Period of Shade drying Sun dryingDrying (Days)

% Moisture Oil % % Moisture Oil %

0 69.0 0.84 69.0 0.84

1 46.5 0.88 29.5 0.82

2 23.3 0.90 15.3 0.81

3 18.5 0.84 6.85 0.80

4 12.5 0.83 3.5 0.79

5 8.5 0.81 1.0 0.75

6 6.0 0.80 Nil 0.70

7 4.0 0.79 Nil 0.66

The Indian cultivators faced a lot while processing the raw materialsafter the harvesting the commercial crops. Sometimes they don’t know theright time to harvest their crops; and even due to lack of proper knowledgethat which parts of the plants have the secondary metabolites. The effectof plant parts used and percentage of post harvest losses has shown intable-8.

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Table 8: Effect of plant parts used and percentage of post harvest loss

Name of Plants Plant parts used Post-harvest loss %

Rauvolfia serpentina Roots 30-40% loss of indole alkaloid dueto imperfect drying, toxinaccumulation

Gymnema spp. Leaves 20-25% loss to morphologicaldistortion and conversion ofglycosides

Cassia spp. Leaves and pods 40-50% loss of glycosides duechanged pigmentation & brokenconsistency

Glycyrrhiza spp. Roots 20-25% loss of due to degradationof flavonoids

Ocimum spp. Leaves 20-25% deterioration of leaf textureand reduction of linalool.

Mentha spp. Aerial parts 20-25% deterioration of leaf;menthol quality affected.

American ginseng Root At 32°C-44°C reducesconcentration of malonyl-ginsenoides and increases theconcentration of gypenoside; whileginsengosides are not affected

Bacopa monnieri Pre treatments of Shoots Retain higher amount of bacoside-A in dreid material

Conservation Measures of MAPs and others Socio-economicImportant Plants Species

Before 1993 no professional directives on sustainable collection, regenerationand cultivation of Medicinal Aromatic Plants (MAPs) in many countries:over-exploitation from a wild led to the habitat loss and extinction orendangerness of MAP species. The guidelines on the conservation ofmedicinal plants given by WHO,1993; IUCN, and WWF); WHO guidelineson good agricultural and collection practices (GACP) for medicinal plants(WHO, 2003); where the significance of ecology, identification and traditionaluse of plants, as well as cultivation and conservation of plants both in situand ex situ are strongly emphasized. The guidelines offer the backgroundsupporting documents for many national and international initiatives, programsand frameworks, aimed at improving the knowledge on distribution,abundance, sustainable management and use of medicinal plants worldwide.

Impact of Agroclimatic Factors on Plant

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Discussion

Based on various literatures, exposure to stress is the major factor forproduction of Essential oils (Eos) in any plants. Some previous study showsthat, if the stress is higher than the chances for production of volatilecomponents are also higher to overcome environmental factors. It is notnecessary that, those plants which have been given full attention (fertilizers,pesticides, hyper care) gives higher yield of Essential oil because they donot have to fight with other factors of environment. Therefore, struggle orstress is most important factors for high yield of essential oils. On otherhand the factors like genetic, weather, soil, time of harvest, parts of harvestplays important role in yield quality and quantity. The synthesis of secondarymetabolites in aromatic plants is mainly controlled by genetic factors;however, numerous other factors can also significantly affect the yield andchemical composition (Wentzell, et, al., 2007). Sometimes it become verydifficult to distinguish these factors from each other as many areinterdependent and influence one another. In addition to various factors,diurnal variation (harvesting in day time/night: morning, noon, evening, night)is also an important factor which affects essential oil yield and chemicalcomposition significantly. Another study on Ocimum gratissimum andLantana camara are good examples of diurnal variation (Kpoviessi et, al.,2012; Silva et, al., 1999 and Sousa et, al., 2010). The factors that influencethe yield or composition of the essential oils such as environment (location,altitude, light, temperature, wind, rainfall etc.), genetic makeup of the plant(varieties, chemotypes, morphotypes etc.), physiology of the plant (plantparts, plant age, ontogeny of plant parts etc.), agronomic management(nutrients, pests and diseases, irrigation, pesticide application, harvestingheight. harvesting date etc.), post-harvest technology (drying biomass, cuttingbiomass into small pieces etc.), distillation (method, duration, processparameters etc.), storage (container, presence of air/water, storage periodetc.), transport and others. The weather and soil conditions, time of harvestand the drying technique can, over time, change the chemical profile ofessential oils. Thus, the chemical composition depends on all these factorsthat can direct the biosynthesis for certain terpene molecules depends onother components whose synthesis can be stopped (Kulkarni, et, al., 1996;Loziene and Venskutonis, 2004; Rao et, al., 1996; Boira and Blanquer,1997). A 2% yield of essential oil obtained from Thymus vulgaris leaves(cheurfa et, al., 2013), compared to that given by Dob et, al., 2006, obtainedfrom the stems and leaves of Thymus fontanesii (0.9%). According toWentzell, et, al., 2007, the natural genetic variation can cause quantitativevariation (how much of a given metabolite?) and qualitative variation (which

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chemical structure?) in plant secondary metabolism, but often both types ofvariation are intimately linked. A large proportion of quantitative variationin plant secondary metabolism is caused by differences in the transcriptabundance of the underlying genes.

Conclusion

The medicinal and aromatic plants are of natural origin and, thus, theirproducts are of variable composition. About 50 percent or more than this ofbotanical cultivators in India, particularly in humid regions, face challengesin short term as well as gradual drying processes and they generally take-up the process in a collective manner where other similar produces come.However, this maneuver also faces difficulties due to not so efficientcommunication system in village areas. In India, post harvest loss significantlyexists, particularly in rural areas where peoples still cultivating and processingthe raw material with their older knowledge. The Initiation of GAP & GACPby the government is need to be provide in that rural areas and implementas soon as possible to minimize the loss of cultivators. On other hand,various kinds of factors such as physiological, environmental, climatic andgeopolitical conditions may negatively affect the supplies and prices,rendering them instable. Sometimes these unsteadiness leads to the searchfor alternatives; and peoples move towards the use of synthetic products.But, all over the world, plants are the sources for providing the livelihood tovillagers and tribal peoples. They are peoples shows the mens vs plantsrelation through which different kinds of secondary metabolites reaches tourban areas to industry for making the vast products of food items andpharmaceutical drugs. Hence, many consumers still prefer natural productsand that, allied to their diversified uses and the population’s. Moreover, theuse of natural products also implies investing in quality, agricultural innovationand a combined effort of agriculture, industry and science for the control ofdiseases and pests, in the selection of the best cultivation sites, improvedplant varieties, determination of the right time for collection and sustainableuse of biodiversity.

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CHAPTER - 18

Vulnerability of River Gradient, LongitudinalProfile and Embankments Role in Extent andMagnitude of Flood: A Case Study of LowerBrahmaputra River Basin, Assam, IndiaB. W. Pandey* and Abhay Shankar Prasad*

Introduction

River basin is considered as the basic hydrologic unit for planning anddevelopment of water resources. Some time it supports livelihood of peopleand the human community and sometime causes massive floods due tounsustainable development of the resources. River basin management isunderstood to mean co-ordinate planning, development, agriculture and livelihoodmanagement and use of land, water and related natural resources withinhydrologic boundaries, in order to maximize the resultant economic and socialwelfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vitalecosystems. The term integrated river basin management refers to variousessential attributes to achieve a sustainable development in a riverine ecosystem(Mitchell, 1990 and Global Water Partnership, 2000).

Assam’s Brahmaputra valley represents one of the most acutelyhazard-prone regions in the country, having a total flood prone area of 3.2million hectare. The lower Brahmaputra basin, Assam has caused thehazards of annual floods and erosion, bringing misery to the people andshattering the fragile agro-economic base of the region. The region of lowerBrahmaputra River faces a number of problems including occasional floods

Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation (2015) : 253-263 Sati,V. P. et al. (Ed),Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002

ISBN: 81-8019-518-3 (India) ISBN: 1-55528-374-8 (USA)

*Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi, New Delhi-110007, E-mail:  [email protected]

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during monsoon, scarcity of water during lean seasons, huge sediment loadand pollution.

The high intensity of monsoonal rains and devastating landslidescoupled with easy erodible of rocks, steep slopes, and high seismicityconstitute the major natural causes of lower Brahmaputra floods. The floodproblem of the lower Brahmaputra River has become more serious due toother anthropogenic causes like large-scale human occupation of thefloodplains, destruction of wetlands, and the mismanaged embankmentnetwork. In recent years, the large-scale encroachment of the floodplainand the low-lying areas for habitation and cultivation has created acuteflood problem even during floods of moderate magnitude. With the rise ofpopulation, manmade structures such as roads, railways, houses, etc. arebeing constructed at a high rate. All these hinder free movement of runoffin the floodplain and cause artificial floods in many localities. Thus, theareas once considered as flood-free have now become flood-prone.Moreover, structural measures of flood control, especially poorly managedembankments often cause sudden floods. Floodwater coming across theembankment, as a result of overtopping or breaching, eventually remainsstagnant in a local area for days on end and causes gross damage. Duringthe time of the breach, catastrophic flash flooding takes place and extensiveareas are suddenly inundated.

The Study Area: The Lower Brahmaputra River Basin, Assam

The Assam plain or lower Brahmaputra plain is one of the major geologicalterritories of India. It is located between latitudes of 24°08’N and 27°59’Nand eastern longitudes of 89°42’E and 96°01’E.

Assam is the most populous state in the North-East India coveringan area of 78,523 sq. km. It is surrounded on three sides by hills andmountains with boundaries with Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur,Mizoram, Meghalaya, West Bengal, Bangladesh and Bhutan. The State ofAssam consists of 27 districts. The river Brahmaputra flows from east towest for about 700 km within the State and has great role in the landformation, hydrology, ecology, population distribution, culture and economyof the valley. Assam’s Brahmaputra valley represents one of the most acutelyhazard-prone regions in the country, having a total flood-prone area of 3.2million hectare and bringing misery to the people and shattering the fragileagro-economic base of the region. With 40 per cent of its land surface issusceptible to flood.

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Materials and Methods

The present study has focuses on the gradient of river profile andembankment role in extent and magnitude of flood and impact of floodon sustainable development in the lower Brahmaputra river basin. Forsuccessful completion of the work with documentation methodologyand primary survey has been used. It is based on both primary andsecondary data collection. Secondary data has been used for variousdimensions of the river basin issues as resource of the river basin, rainfall,deforestation, soil erosion, land use pattern etc. Primary data andsecondary data information has been collected from relevant organisationsduring research trips to the study area. Secondary data has been collectedfrom various governmental and local organisations from their publishedarticles, books, documents and reports.

To attain the useful data such as relief, drainage, geology, soil,climate, forests, surface condition, social and economic status has beencollected from several institutions as District Agriculture Handbook;Brahmaputra project (Government of India), Soil Survey Report and Map,Field survey, Revenue Report, District Statistical Office etc. has given abase for the research work.

Physiographic Profile

An extremely dominant monsoon interacting with unique physiographicsetting, fragile geological base and active seismo-tectonic instability togetherwith anthropogenic factors have moulded the Brahmaputra basin into oneof the world’s most intriguing gigantic fluvial system (Goswami, 1985; Ivesand Messerli, 1989). The Brahmaputra basin represents a uniquephysiographic setting vis-à-vis the Eastern Himalaya, a powerful monsoonrainfall regime under wet humid conditions, a fragile geologic base andactive seismicity. At its eastern end the river flows in a great loop aroundMount Namcha Barwa (7756 m), the highest peak in the Himalayas in thisregion and then turns to the south after cutting a gorge across the Himalayasknown as the ‘Great Bend’. At the Great Bend the river falls from about3000 m in Tibet to 500 m in India in a short stretch and enters the AssamValley west of Sadiya town (Mirza, 1998).

Lower Brahmaputra river basin, Assam has major physiographicunit. It is a narrow valley with an approximate east-west extension of about720 km and average width of 80 km. The 640 km long reach of theBrahmaputra and its 32 major north and south bank tributaries drain thevalley covers about 72 per cent of the total area of Assam. The valley as a

Vulnerability of River Gradient .... Brahmaputra River Basin

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whole gently slopes from north-east to south-west with a gradient of 13 cmper km. The Brahmaputra valley in its east-west direction has fair distinctphysiographic unit. The north and south bank plains formed by recent alluvialdeposits carried by the Brahmaputra. The Flood plain of Brahmaputra liesbetween the north and south bank plains (Dhar and Nandargi, 2000).

The alluvial soils are extensively distributed over the Brahmaputra.The younger alluvial soil occurs in an extensive belt of the north bank andsouth bank plains including the active flood plains of the Brahmaputra riverbasin. It is mostly composed of sandy to silty loams and slightly acidic innature. The old alluvial soil occurs in some patches of Kokrajhar, Barpeta,Nalbari, Kamrup, Darrang, Sonitpur, Lakhimpur and Dhemaji districtsbetween the northern piedmont soil belt and the southern new alluvial soilsof the Brahmaputra valley. In the south bank districts of the valley it occursin a narrow belt bounded by the southern hill soils and northern new alluvialsoils

The Assam state can be broadly divided into the followingphysiographic divisions:-

a) Brahmaputra Valley - The vast alluvial plains of Brahmaputra valleyoccupy most of the north Assam covering Goalpara, Kokrajhar, Dhubri,Kamrup, Nalbari, Barpeta, Nagaon, Darrang, Sonitpur, Sibsagar,Jorhat, Golaghat, Lakhimpur and Dibrugarh districts. TheBrahmaputra valley is bounded by Arunachal Himalaya in the northand north-east, Patkai – Naga - Lushai range of Nagaland and theShillong Plateau in the south and south-east.

b) Central Assam Hills -The Central Assam is a hilly terrain comprisedof Mikir Hill in Karbi Anglong and North Cachar Hill districts.

c) Barak Valley - The hilly and alluvial terrain in the south covering theCachar and Karimganj districts in the Barak (Surma) valley.

The Assam state can be divided into four distinct divisions on thebasis of attitude as under

1. Eastern plains with altitude and central plains having altitude in therange of 50-150 meters above mean sea level.

2. Cachar plains in the southern part of the state having altitude in therange of 50 meters above mean sea level

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3. Central and south central part of state comprising North Cachar Hillsand Rengma Hills with altitudes ranging between 300-600 metersabove mean sea level.

4. Western part of state comprising North and South Brahmaputra hills.Remaining part of the state in central and eastern are of the statemainly plains.

Ranging in average elevation from 50 to 150 metre above meansea level, the Brahmaputra valley represents a unique landscape about 800km long and 130 km wide valley separated from the comparatively lowlying Barak valley in the south by the Mikir Hills and Barail range in thecentral part (Figure 3). Assam region of north-eastern India experienced asevere earthquake, which altered the course and bed levels of many riversin this region. In the case of the lower Brahmaputra river basin, theearthquake caused a sudden rise of bed levels at Dibrugarh and manyother places by bringing down a large mass of debris, consequently changingthe river’s morphology.

Longitudinal Profile of Lower Brahmaputra River Basin, Assam

The Brahmaputra River originated from the Chema Yundung glacier ofTibet and flows through India and Bangladesh. The slope of the riverdecreases suddenly after crossing the Himalaya and results in the depositionof sediment to form a braided channel pattern. It flows through Assam,India, along a valley comprising its own recent alluvium. The gradient andslope of the Brahmaputra River is steep when it crosses the Himalaya asshown in the longitudinal profile of the river.

Two rivers, the Dibang and the Lohit, join the upper course of theBrahmaputra, known as the Dihang (or Siang) river, a little south of Pasighatand the combined flow, hereafter called the Brahmaputra river, flowswestward through Assam for about 640 km near Dhubri, abruptly turnssouth and enters Bangladesh. The slope of the river at different reachesare 1.63 m/km in Tibet, 4.3 m/km to 16.8 m/km across the Himalaya, 0.62m/km in plains up to Kobo, 0.27 m/km from Kobo to Dibrugarh, 0.17 m/kmfrom Dibrugarh to Nimatighat (near Bessamora), 0.15 m/km fromNimatighat to Tezpur, 0.14 m/km from Tezpur to Pandu (near Guwahati),0.11 m/km from Pandu to Jogighopa 0.094 m/km from Jogighopa to Dhubriand 0.079 m/km from Dhubri to the mouth. A sudden decrease in slope infront of the Himalaya near Pasighat results in a large amount of sedimentdeposition, which chokes up the channel and gives rise to development ofprominent braiding pattern. Flowing eastward for 1,625 km over the Tibetan

Vulnerability of River Gradient .... Brahmaputra River Basin

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plateau, the Brahmaputra river, known there as the Tsangpo, enters a deepnarrow gorge at PE (3,500 m) and continues southward across the east-west trending ranges of the Himalaya, viz. the Greater Himalaya, MiddleHimalaya and Sub-Himalaya before debouching onto the Assam plains nearPasighat. These different geo-ecological zones have a distinctive assemblageof topographical, geological, climatic and floral characteristics. The gradientof the Brahmaputra River is as steep as 4.3 to 16.8 m/km in the gorgesection upstream of Pasighat but near Guwahati it is as flat as 0.1m/km.The dramatic reduction in the slope of the Brahmaputra as it cascadesthrough one of the world’s deepest gorges in the Himalaya before flowingin to the Assam plains explains the sudden dissipation of the enormousenergy locked in it and the resultant unloading of large amounts of sedimentsin the valley downstream (Sarma, 2005).

Two geological factors are dominant in determining themorphological character of the Brahmaputra River in Assam. Firstly, theHimalayan ranges to the north are uplifting at a rate of 1 meter per century.Secondly, the whole region is subject to frequent seismic movements andperiodic major earthquakes. The Assam earthquakes of 1897 and 1950both with magnitude 8.7 on the Richter scale were among the largest withinhistorical experience anywhere in the world. Major earthquakes like that of1950 generate large quantities of sediment that enter the river system as aslug and disturb the normal regime over a period of several decades.

Basin Denudation

The catchments of the Brahmaputra and its tributaries show significantlyhigh rates of basin denudation especially after the great earthquake of 1950.The catchments of the Subansiri, Jia Bharali and the Manas along with theDihang (Siang) are estimated to have experienced an average denudationof 73-157 cm/1000 years over just 24 years (1955-79). The increasingamounts of sediment and water yields downstream indicate an increase insediment yield by a whopping 240 per cent accompanied by an equallysignificant rise of nearly 120 per cent in water yield during the period 1971-1979 between Tsela D’Zong (China) and Ranaghat (India). High rates ofdenudation of the Himalayan catchment of the Brahmaputra are probablyattributable to the rapid uplift of the mountain system, steep slopes, highsusceptibility to erosion, intensely powerful monsoon regime, recurringearthquakes and the adverse impact of anthropogenic factors (Goswami,1985). A denudation rate of about 3 cm/1000 years from the easternHimalayan basin of the Brahmaputra during the last two million years hasbeen estimated. This is lower by several orders of magnitude compared to

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the present rate of 115 cm/1000 years.

Vulnerability of Gradient of River Profile and Embankment inExtent and Magnitude of Flood

The problem of flood is a combination of several natural and anthropogenicfactors such as the unique geographic setting of the region, high potentmonsoon rainfall regime, easily erodible geological formations in the uppercatchments, seismic activity and accelerated rate of basin erosion. Rapidchannel aggradations, massive deforestation and intense land use pressureare some of the dominant factors that cause or intensify floods in Assam.The lower Brahmaputra river basin, Assam characterised by very steepgradients in the mountains and flow rapidly carrying heavy load of silt,while descending on the plains they flatten with sharp sagging of gradients,resulting in heavy siltation of river beds.

The Brahmaputra river basin has a mean gradient of only about1.5 meter per km over a distance of around 650 km between Kobo wherethe confluence is and Dhubri where it leaves Assam and enters Bangladesh.Its gradient:

1) Between Kobo and Dibrugarh at the bed slopes is 0.62m/km

2) Between Dibrugarh and Neamati at the bed slope is 0.17m/km

3) Between Neamati and Guwahati at the bed slope is 0.13m/km

4) Between Guwahati and Dhubri at the bed slope is 0.94m/km

The gradient of the Brahmaputra River is as steep as 4.3 to 16.8m/km in the gorge section upward of Pasighat, but near Guwahati it is asflat as 0.1 m per km This dramatic reduction in the slope of the Brahmaputrahas resulted in unloading of huge sediments in the valley downstream that itaccumulates during its passage through the hilly terrain (highly susceptibleto erosion). During the total course of its journey, numerous tributariesfeed it and it has been found that the north bank tributaries generally flowingin shallow braided channels have steep slopes, carry heavy silt and areflashy in character. The geo-physical character of the Brahmaputra and itstributaries has resulted in carrying of enormous quantity of sediments fromthe hills and on reaching the plains deposition of the same on their own bedsand on the flood plain. Its annual sediment load is estimated to be about 397million tonnes with a flow of 477 billion cubic metres during 1978- 2003, atPancharatna. Its tributaries also carry high sediment load, which is normallymore than 1,000 tonnes per square kilometres per year. The high sedimentload in the river leads to reduction in the carrying capacity of river and

Vulnerability of River Gradient .... Brahmaputra River Basin

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overtopping of banks and inundation of surrounding land and causing floodsin low land area of Barpeta, Dhubri, Hailakandi, Dibrugarh etc. Anassessment of the implication of climate change for hydrological regimesand water resources using scenarios developed from Hadley Centre ModelSimulations indicates, that by the year 2050, the average annual runoff inthe river Brahmaputra will decline by 14% (Singh, 1998)

The backwaters cover a large surface area and create a memberof ill-effects on the living environment. It creates the loss of forest which issubmerged under the back waters of the dam. It also affects the land undercultivation in the catchment area as the crops get submerged under water. Failure of embankments at different places have caused major destructionto thousands villages along with affecting livelihood of people. Districts ofDhemaji, Lakhimpur, Dibrugarh, Sonitpur, Nagoan, Morigaon, Nalbari andBarpeta are the worst affected by flood occurring. In general, embankmentsare constructed for temporary protection of villages near the banks of therivers. Flash flood created due to failure of embankments because of variousreasons such as age of embankments placed on the recent alluvium, qualityof embankments, position and alignment of embankments respective to thetruncation of rivers, lack of protection of embankments. In Assam,embankments failed because of above factors along with shallow depth ofthe rivers due to silt deposition on the river bed that have decreased thecapacity of water discharges of various tributaries. The floods in the Sunitpur,Lakhimpur and Dhemaji district are due to low carrying capacity of waterby the river because of deposition of huge siltation on the river bed. Assamis flood prone state due to its around 40.15 per cent land area being floodprone because of structural set up and around 4.85 per cent of land erodedalong with 4,056 kilometres of length of embankments.

Assam has a complex geological and physiographical set up withthe belt of ecologically wettest monsoon. The Brahmaputra is continuouslyshifting southward and in some places, may be migrating at rates as high as800 metre per year (Varma and Rao, 1996). The shifting of the river isdistinctly evident in the districts of Dibrugarh, Morigaon and Sonitpur, wherethe river has already shifted two to eight kilometres in the last ten years(Sharma, 2004). Lateral migration of the channel is always associated withlarge-scale bank erosion, aggradations and widening of the river channel.Most of the erosion occurs along the southern bank at Rohmoria,Disangmukh, Nimatighat, Morigaon, Palasbari and in many places of Dhubridistrict and induce to flood. Floods, flash floods and sand casting are themost serious water-induced stresses in the lower Brahmaputra basin inAssam where gradient and slope is flat is 0.1m/km.

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Karbi Analong, North Cacher, Barpeta, Hailakandi, Sibsagar, Dibrugarh,Hailakandi and Dhubri have inundated area due to low land, drainagecongestion and its physiographic characteristic such as gradient and slopeare responsible causes. Breaching of embankments has been a major causeof intensification of the flood hazard in present times. The undesirableconsequence of embankments, especially in aiding channel aggradation andoverbank flooding is clearly visible in Assam. Structural measures, mainlyembankments, have been used so far as the sole answer to tackling floods.Out of a total of 15,675 km. of embankments built in the entire country,Assam alone has as much as 5,027 km., about 32 per cent of the country’stotal. The state has experienced major floods in the years 1954, 1962, 1966,1972, 1977, 1984, 1986, 1988, 2002 and 2012. The recent waves of floodsin 2012 have left a trail of devastation in the entire Brahmaputra valley(Figure 1).

Figure 1: Inundation Area

Source: Flood Control Department, Guwahati, Assam, 2012

Conclusion

The Brahmaputra is one of the most highly flood causing large rivers of theworld, carrying an average annual flood of 47,608 m3s-1 with a recurrenceinterval of 2.56 years. The Brahmaputra River system is so vast and dynamicthat natural processes alone are adequate to account for its devastatingfloods. The high intensity of monsoonal rains and devastating landslides,coupled with easy erodible of rocks, steep slopes, and seismic activity,longitudinal profile, and breach embankment are responsible causes of flood.

Vulnerability of River Gradient .... Brahmaputra River Basin

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The gradient of Brahmaputra River is as steep as 4.3 to 16.8 m/km in gorgesection upstream of Pasighat. Near the Guwahati, it is flat as 0.1 m/km,resultant the high sediment load in the river leads to reduction in the carryingcapacity of river and overlapping of banks and inundation of surroundingland and causing flood in Dibrugarh, Barpeta, Hailakandi, Sonipat, Dhubrietc.

The great earthquake of 1950 which heavily disturbed thetopography and the drainage system of the Brahmaputra and its tributarieshad increased the frequency and intensity of floods. But in recent years,anthropogenic changes dominated by large-scale human occupation offloodplain, destruction of wetlands, and poorly managed flood controlmeasures, especially the embankment network, have considerablyaggravated the flood situation of the basin.

The existing flood management activities of a short-term and ad-hoc nature are not at all successful in withstanding the flood hazards of theriver. Management of the floodplain and reduction of flood hazards,therefore, need to be approached through properly planned, designed, andimplemented flood management activities that in turn may be the key factorin socioeconomic development of the Brahmaputra valley.

References:Dhar, O. N. & Nandargi, S. (2000) A Study of Floods in the Brahmaputra Basin in India.

International Journal of Climatology. 20: 777-781.

Global Water Partnership (2000) Integrated River Basin Management Technical AdvisoryCommittee (TAC). TAC Background Papers no. 4.

Goswami, D.C. (1985) Brahmaputra River, Assam, India: Physiography, Basin Denudation,and Channel Aggradations, Water Resource. Research, 21(7), 959-978.

Goswami, D.C. (1985) Brahmaputra River, Assam, India: Physiography, Basin Denudation,and Channel Aggradations, Water Resource. Research, 21(7), 959-978.

Goswami, D.C. & Das, P.J. (2003) The Brahmaputra River, Assam: A Hydro-geomorphological Appraisal. Landforms, Processes and Environment Management,Bandyopadhyaya S., et al. (eds), Prof. M.K. Bandyopadhyay Felicitation Volume,ACB Publishers, Kolkata.

Ives, J.D. & Messerli, B. (1989) The Himalayan Dilemma. Reconciling Development andConservation, Routledge , London and Newyork, 324-383

Mirza, M.M.Q. (1998) Modelling the Effects of Climate Change on Flooding in Bangladesh,D.Phil. Thesis, International Global Change Institute (IGCI), University of Waikato,Hamilton, New Zealand.

Mitchell, B. (1990) Integrated Water Management in Integrated Water Management,

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International Experiences and Perspectives. ed. by Bruce Mitchell, Bel-HavenPress, London

Sarma, J. N. (2005) Fluvial Process and Morphology of the Brahmaputra River in Assam,India. Department of Applied Geology, Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh 786 004,Assam, India. Geomorphology, 70, 226– 256

Sharma, J. N. (2004) Study of the Pattern of Erosion and Channel Migration of TheBrahmaputra River in Assam Using Remote Sensing Data. Final Technical ReportSubmitted to The Indian Space Research Organization. 189-198.

Singh, R. B. (1998) Towards Promoting PUB Monitoring Network and Predicating ErosionVulnerability in the Un-gauged Basin of the Indian Himalaya Using Remote Sensingand GIS

Varma, C.V.J. & Rao, A.R.G. (eds.). (1996) Aggradation in The Brahmaputra River inAssam, Central Board of Irrigation and Power, New Delhi, Publication No.252, 1-9.

WAPCOS (1993) Morphological Studies of River Brahmaputra, New Delhi

Vulnerability of River Gradient .... Brahmaputra River Basin

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CHAPTER - 19

Assessing the Impact of Mizoram’s New LandUse Policy on Biodiversity Conservation andLivelihoods SecurityVanlalchhawna*

Introduction

The way the community manages its land resources is critically linked withbiodiversity conservation, sustainable development and livelihood security.Biodiversity conservation and the provision of livelihood security are thetwo critical challenges while formulating socioeconomic developmentprogramme of the people especially for the community living in a fragilemountain ecosystem. Land is the basic resource available to the communityand the pattern of its use has far reaching consequences on farmer’s welfareand environment sustainability.Shifting cultivation, sometimes popularlyknown as ‘slash-and-burn agriculture’ has been the dominant land use amongthe Mizo community since time immemorial. In the past when populationdensity was low, shifting cultivation was a viable agriculture practice.However, with rapid demographic increase, the system is no longer viableand sustainable economically and environmentally. Productivity per hectareisvery low.Biodiversity loss, deforestation, soil and nutrient losses have beenfound to be substantial.

Mizoram is a part of the Indo-Burma Global BiodiversityHotspot.  The hotspot is one of the most biologically important regions ofthe planet in terms of species diversity and endemism. Due to high humanpopulation pressure, rapid economic development, and changing consumption

*Professor, Department of Economics, Mizoram University, Aizawl

Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation (2015) : 265-277 Sati,V. P. et al. (Ed),Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002

ISBN: 81-8019-518-3 (India) ISBN: 1-55528-374-8 (USA)

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patterns, the natural ecosystems of the hotspot are being placed underincreasing pressure. Shifting cultivation causes the rate of depletion ofecological resources relatively high in the hotspot. Consumption of naturalresources is also steadily increasing due to rapid population growth anddevelopment.Environmental protection and inclusivesocio-economicdevelopment arethe keys to sustainable development and livelihood security.These themes havebeen dominatingIndia’sEleventh Five Year Plan(2007-12) and Twelfth Five Year Plan (2012-17). The State Government ofMizoram is also concerned with achieving a sustainable and more inclusivegrowth. The State’s New Land Use Policy (NLUP)has been formulatedtoaddress these issues. This paper gives a brief overview of the relevanceand significance of the State’s New Land Use Policy on biodiversityconservation and household livelihood security in Mizoram.

Background of Study Area

Socio-Economic Profile

Mizoram is located in the North Eastern Region of India. It is a small statecovering only 21081 km2, which is 0.64% of the country’s total area.Thetotal population of the State is 1.09 million (Census 2011), constituting 0.09%of the country’s population. Rural population accounted for 48.49% andurban population 51.51%. The population density is 52 persons per km2.

The state has relatively high human development indicators butlow economic development indicators. The State’s literacy rate is 91.3%while its per capita income at Rs 54,689 is much lower than the nationalaverage of Rs 61,564 in 2011-12. The State economy is characterized by ahighly inflated service sector with a low primary and secondary sector.Primary sector accounted for only 19 per cent of GSDP, industrial sector20 percent and tertiary sector 61% of GSDP in 2011-12. Access to tapwater is available to 59 percent of households while as many as 92%households get access to latrine facility within their premises. Mizoram hashuge water resources to be tapped for generation of hydroelectricity whichcan also be used for drinking water supply, irrigation and for various watersports. The total identified capacity is 2196 MW while the capacity developedand under-construction is only 60 MW (2.7%) of the total potential.

Environmental Profile

Mizoramis a hilly region.The average altitude varies from 500 m to 800 m.Climatic condition ranged from moist tropical to moist sub-tropical. Thestate is under the influence of monsoon, raining heavily from May toSeptember, with annual average rainfall varying from 2160 mm to 3500

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mm. Forest covers 19117 km2, which is 90.68% of the state’s geographicalarea. The recorded forest area in the state is 16717 km2 which works outas 79.30% of its geographical area.Reserved forests constitute 47.31%,protected forests 21.34%, and Unclassed forests 31.35%. It has twoNational Parks and eight Wildlife Sanctuaries covering an area of 1241km2 which constitute 5.89% of the state’s geographical area.

The forest types include tropical semi evergreen forests (71.94%),tropical moist deciduous forest (27.40%), subtropical pine forests (0.62%)and subtropical broadleaved hill forests (0.04%). The state has 9245 km2

bamboo bearing area in the forests. The State is known to have as many as35 identified bamboo species.

A wide variety of flora and fauna has been found in the forest. Thestate is home to a large family of birds and insects-some of them comeunder endangered species. Some important species of mammals havebecome scarce. Mizoram has a wide range of floral species. In the absenceof any systematic study, the state’s vast floral resources remain unexplored.So far, over 150 species of orchids have been identified and more than 400medicinal plants of which 62 were recognized as new medicinal plants areavailable in the state.

Rural Land Use and Shifting Cultivation

Existing Rural Land Use Patternin Mizoram

Despite several anti-jhum schemes and policies introduced in the country,shifting/jhum cultivation continues to be the dominant land use and a sourceof livelihood for majority of rural population in Mizoram. The State’s NLUPManual 2009 indicated thatalmost 2 lakh acres of forest land are cut downand burnt for shifting cultivation annually and about one lakh families dependon it for their livelihoods. A recent survey of rural land use in 374 villagesshows that 52.48% of the total land use falls under communal land availablefor jhum cultivation (Table 1). Per farmer land availability is 5.77 ha. Out of74339 households, 66308 households (89.19%) engaged in agricultural relatedactivities.Recently, communitylands have been privatised for plantation andsettled cultivation under state-led development programme.Several villagesno longer maintain village safety forest reserves. Tenants shifting cultivatorsand big landowners have also emerged in some villages. Jhumcultivationhas become a subsidiary/secondary activity for a large number of householdsin rural areas. With the expansion of road networks and penetration ofcommercial activities, cash crops cultivation like ginger, chillies, sesamehave taken over traditional crops especially paddy cultivation. Paddy

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cultivation has dropped considerably in some villages.Table 1: Rural land use patterns in Mizoram, 2011

Land Use Total Area Percentage(Hectare)

Total Geographical Area covered in the survey 672544 100.00

Dense Forests 75371 11.21

Reserved forest 86241 12.82

Community Land 352981 52.48

WRC Areas 36958 5.50

Land based activities 60650 9.02

Uncultivable Land 35964 5.35

Habitation 24379 3.62

Source: Rural Land Use Plan for NLUP 2011.

State Policy towards Shifting Cultivation in Mizoram

Jhum control measures were rooted during the British rule. A land settlementscheme called Ramrilehkha was introduced in 1898 by which the boundaryfor each villagechief was demarcated. TheBritish rulers also encouragedcultivation of potatoes, orange and rubber plantation.They also introducedwet rice and terrace cultivation. Agricultural demonstration farms wereestablished and efforts were made to promote cottage industries to improvelivelihood.After independence, Mizoram, then known as Mizo hills, becameone of the sutonomous district councils under Assam. The Assamgovernment encouraged plantation crops, such as coffee, black pepper,cashewnutetc among the shifting cultivators. Land reclamation works forgrowing paddy and crops on permanent basis was also executed.CommitteeS and commissions have been appointed by central and stategovernments to examine issues relating to shifting cultivation in the country.Several schemes have been initiatedon the recommendations of thesecommittees/commissions. The major schemes implemented at the statelevel, from the colonial time to the present, are given in table 2.Table 2: Evolution of state policy relating to shifting cultivation

Schemes Targets

Land Settlement called ramrilehkha, 1898 (British) Boundary demarcation for Lushaichiefs

Wet Rice Cultivation 1898 (British) Rice cultivation in Champhai Valley

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The Mizo District (Jhuming) Regulation, 1954 Allocation of jhum land by VillageCouncil and other related matters

The Mizo District (Agricultural Land) Act, 1963 Allotment of agricultural land forfarm like cattle farm, poultry farm,fish farm,wet paddy cultivation andgarden for fruits, vegetables, trees,bamboos

Soil Conservation Programme1952 (Assam) Encourage plantation crops, suchas coffee, black pepper,cashewnutetc among the shiftingcultivators

Terrace Cultivation 1952 (Assam) Rice cultivation

Garden Colony 1977-79(NEC) Horticultural development

New Land Use Policy 1984-1987 (Mizoram) Plantation of teak, orange, rubberetc.

Jhum Control Project 1987-1991 (Mizoram) Single scheme/Mono scheme-onlyone trade allowed for thebeneficiary, end shifting cultivationin 1993 Aibawk Block; WRC,contour bunding, bench terracing,piggery, poultry, carpentry,tailoring, knitting, social forestry

New Land Use Policy 1989 (Mizoram) Agriculture & Allied Sector, AH&Vety and the Industries Sector

Watershed DevelopmentProject in Shifting a)protect hill slopes of Jhum areasCultivation Area (WDPSCA)1994-2011 through soil and water conservation(Gov’t. of India) measures onwatershed basis and to

reduce further land degradationb)encourage and assist Jhumiafamilies to develop Jhum land forproductive uses withimprovedcultivation and suitable package ofpractices leading to settledcultivation.c) improve socio-economic status of Jhumia familiesthrough household/landbasedactivitiesd) mitigate ill effectsof shifting cultivation byintroducing appropriate land use asper landcapability and improvedtechnologies

Mizoram Self-Sufficiency Project 2001(Mizoram) Settled cultivation and cash cropcultivation arecanut, cardamon,orange, bamboo, passion fruits etc

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Comprehensive and Integrated Socio-Economic Land ownership, access to linkDevelopment Project under the New Land Use roads, irrigation, water harvestingPolicy (NLUP), 2009 (Mizoram) and marketing facilities; livelihood

options include a mix of agri-horticultural activities, animalhusbandry, fisheries, agro-forestry,micro-enterprises etc.

Sources: 1. B.K. Roy Burman (1970); 2. Law Research institute, Eastern Region, GauhatiHigh Court, Gauhati (1990) & 3.Lianzela (1994), and 4. NLUP Manual, 2009

Right from the beginning of planning, jhum control and itsreplacement by settled cultivation was regarded as prerequisite not only fordevelopment of agricultural and overall economic development of the peoplebut also formaintenance and preservation of the environment.Rehabilatationof jhumias was an important component of tribal development programmestarted in Second Five Year Plan. A modest beginning was made in theThird Five Year Plan in which schemes for jhum control and rehabilitationof jhumiawere introduced. These have three distinct aspects-(i)rehabilitationof jhumia families (ii) development of their economy and (iii) provision ofhigh technology and capital investment. This was strengthened in the SixthFive Year Plan with the formulation of Integrated Tribal DevelopmentProgramme.These schemes were culminated into Watershed DevelopmentProject for Shifting Cultivation Areas (WDPSCA) introduced in EighthFive Year Plan which aimed at overall development of jhum areas onwatershed basis.

Broad Features of the New Land Use Policy 2009-2013

The Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs approved the projecton July 15, 2010and thetotal project cost amounted toRs 2873.13 crore.The Committee stipulated the following conditions: (a) The unit costs of theactivities would be worked out and approved by the Sector Specific TechnicalCommittee at the State level having a representative from the Ministryconcerned before the programme starts; (b) Requisite approvals andclearances would be obtained for individual components of the proposal asmay be required; (c) Provisions should be made for adequate capacitybuilding for obtaining technical expertise and for marketing and otherlinkages as well as for greater value addition; (d) Forest/environmentclearances for implementation of the project would be obtained wherenecessary; and (e) In the event of upward revision in the norms of CentralSponsored Schemes (CSSs)/Government funding or the Government ofMizoram leveraging more funds from other CSSs/Central Schemes, theshare for Additional Central Assistance (ACA)/State Plan Assitance (SPA)

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would be correspondingly reduced(PIB, 2010).

Objectives and Strategies

The objective of the policy is to improve the livelihood condition ofthe jhumia families in a sustainable manner through improved managementof their resource base by protecting and restoring the environment. It is aland-based livelihoods project. Jhum cultivators are encouraged to switchover to permanent livelihood having ownership of land, access to link roads,irrigation, water harvesting and marketing facilities to get remunerativeprices for their produces.The broad features of the Project are: (i) To keep60% of Mizoram total land area under rain forest; (ii) Activities are designedto be completed within three years; (iii) One hectare per beneficiaries inland based is allotted;(iv) Similar activities are to relocate in one compactarea- one village, one crop was canvassed; (v) Beneficiaries are allowedmultiple activities;(vi) Maximum assistance is fixed at Rs 1 lakh perbenificiary; (vii) Trade developed is not allowed to be transferred or soldwithout the consent of government; (viii) Defaulters are subject to penalty-barred from any other government schemes in future; and (ix) Participatoryapproach and convergence with on-going schemes will be adopted. Thebeneficiaries are offered activities under seven agri-horticulture sectorsand industries sector. Agri-horticulture activities accounted for more than50 percent of the total trade followed by animal husbandry and veterinarysectors.

Components and Funding Pattern of the Project

The project has management, development and infrastructuredevelopment components. Management part of the project involvesadministrative expenses by the line department, capacity building for thecommunity, beneficiaries as well as for participating agencies. Developmentcomponents of the project refer to assistance given to beneficiaries toagriculture, horticulture, sericulture, fisheries, soil, Animal Husbandry&Veterinary, micro-enterprises, handloom etc.Provision of irrigationfacilities, agri-link road, processing units, tissue culture laboratory, housingfor the poor, road networks, telecommunication, rural godowns, waterharvesting system, pig multiplication farm, feed plant etc. come underinfrastructure components.The component-wise funding pattern suggestedthat project management and capacity building component would be 2.5%of the total project cost while development and infrastructure componentshould be 56.38% and 41.09% respectively.

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Table 3: Component-wise funding of the project

Components Total Amount Percent(Rs in Crore)

Management & Capacity Building 72.21 2.51

Development 1620.15 56.38

Infrastructure 1180.78 41.09

Grand Total 2873.13 100

Source: PIB (2010)

The sources of funding include central sector scheme likeMNERGS, AIBP etc, Additional Central Assitance/Special Plan Assitanceand beneficiary contribution. Out of the total fund of 2873.13 crore, CSSwould account for 34.8%, ACA/SPA 53.1% and beneficiary 12%.

The project has a 4 tier management system to ensure proper implementationof the scheme. NLUP Apex Boardheaded by Chief Minister is the highestpolicy making authority having power to approve plan programme, allotmentof funds and also overall supervision of the implementation of theprogrammes. The NLUP Implementing Board earmarks funds to linedepartments and ensure implementation of the schemes. The Board monitorsprogress at regular intervals, commission teams for physical review of theprogress on the ground and take corrective measures on the basis of feedbacks received from lower formations. The thirds tier - the NLUP DistrictCommittee headed by the concerned Deputy Commissioner supervise andmonitor the project implementation, organize training and demonstrationetc. The fourth tier-Village Development Committee (VDC) consists of

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one representative each from Village Council, YMA and MHIP while strengthof other members depends on the number of households and compositionof the VDC.

The project envisaged state, district and village level monitoring cells. Thedistrict and village monitoring cells is supposed to function under the guidanceof the State Level Monitoring cell in the office of NLUP ImplementingBoard. The village level monitoring cellis responsible for the implementationof schemestaken up in the village. While district level monitoring cell makea visit to all worksite of prominent programmes and all the villages whileSLMC is responsible for monitoring district level performance.

Implications of the Policy on Biodiversity Conservation andLivelihood Security

The environmental impact of the project would be positive andsubstantial.Agro-forestry activities and reduction of jhum areas will contributeto restoration of the environment, a marked reduction in soilloss,augmentation of fuelwoods, timber, NTFP supply and enhancement ofwater sources. Land utilization target under NLUP project suggested that55% of the total geographical area of the State would become a denseforest which could be increased upto 68 percent if reserved forests arealso taken into account. Areas under settled cultivation would constitute23% of the total land area.

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Livelihood options include a mix of agri-horticultural activities, animalhusbandry, fisheries, agro-forestry, micro-enterprises etc., (Table 3).Investment in agriculture and allied sectors is going to enhance livelihoodactivities with higher economic returns. This would ensureboth increase inhousehold income as well as a more stable income. Investment in agri-linkroads and marketting facilities will strengthen rural economy. Permanentland tenure system for rural farmers would create incentive for investmentin agri-horticulture related activities. Mizoram has great potentials for settingup agro based industry, bamboo based industry and the traditional handloomhandicraft activities. The project’s bold and massive programme in agri-horticultural activities including aromatic/medicinal plants would generatecommercial production in these sectors.Increased production in agri-horticultural crops and spices like ginger, turmeric etc. could facilitate agro-based industries generating income and employment and thereby heraldingan era of economic development and prosperityTable 3: Livelihood options under NLUP

Sectors Options Number of household

Total Percent

Agriculture Wet Rice Cultivation, Hill Terracing, 31600 26.3sugar cane, red oil palm

Horticulture Passion fruits, grapes, mandarin orange 28800 24.0+banana, arecanut, squash, tung,pineapple

Fishery Pisciculture 3000 2.5

Sericulture Mulbery Silk Rearing 8500 7.1

Animal Husbandry Dairy Cow farming, pig rearing, hill 18860 15.7&Veterinery cattle/mithun rearing, goat/sheep rearing,

poultry farming

Soil & Water Rubber plantation, Coffee plantation, 9000 7.5Conservation Broom cultivation

Environment & Bamboo based activities 10740 9.0Forest

Industry Handloom &microenterprises 9500 7.9(25 activities)

Total 120000 100

Source: NLUP Manual, 2009

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Discussion and Conclusion

NABCONS (2012) midterm assessment of the project highlighted someinteresting achievements of the project. The project has given the treatmentgroup wide-ranging opportunity to opt for income generation activities andthe liberty to make a choice from a range of livelihoods options. The reportalso noted that the project has contributed to the state’s economy byincreasing annual food grain production, a reduction in Jhumcultivation areaand expansion in rural infrastructure. Beneficiary’s participation andcommitment to make the project a success is also remarkable. Improve inincome also reduced forest dependencies among the beneficiaries suggestingbetter scope for the preservation of natural forest in the state. Thesepreliminary findings suggest that the project is giving a new momentum inthe process of sustainable development of the state and livelihoodenhancement.

A recent impact analysis done by Department of Economics, MZU(June, 2015)on NLUP beneficiaries under industries sector revealed thatthe scheme improved the livelihood of some beneficiaries who made genuineeffort with their selected trade. This was evidenced by incease in incomeand declining dependence on daily labour and jhuming practice.Unfortunately, asmany as 43% beneficiaries did not take up initiatives inthe trades selected by them. More than half of the beneficiaries did notspend financial assistance on allocated trade. The study concluded thatmassive failures were caused by lack of adequate skill and experience intrade related activities, non-availability of supporting inputs such as enoughworking space, limited trade options and expertise facilitators etc.

Finally, the Project envisagesgrassroots level implementing andmonitoring agencies to play a significant role in the delivery of the schemes.The Government Press Release (PIB 2010) stated that the Village LevelCommittee would prepare land use plan, selection of beneficiaries, allotmentof land to beneficiaries, preparation of village level projection and actionplan. This would get incorporated in the district plans and the State Planwhich would be implemented by the line department concerned. However,due to political and other constraints, these grassroots agencies are sidelinedand bypassed. Nor they were given any role in the selection of thebeneficiaries. In several cases, people who areaffiliated with ruling politicalparties, rather than deserving beneficiaries, are selected. Politicaldecentralization and local initiatives, the two critical inputs for successfulimplementation of development planning at the grassroots level, are totallyabsent in the implementation and monitoring process.

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References:Department of Economics (2005), ‘Seminar on Vision NER-2020’, sponsored by NEC,

23&24 November, Mizoram University.

Department of Economics (2015), ‘Survey and Impact Analysis of NLUP BenificiariesMizoram, 2015 Industries Sector’ June, Mizoram University.

FAO (1957): ‘Shifting Cultivation’ Unasylva, Vol. II, No I (An International Review ofForestry and Forest Product), Rome.

Forest Survey of India, India State of Forest Report, 2011

Government of India (1976), National Commission on Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture

Government of India (1981): Report on Development of North-Eastern Region, NationalCommittee on the Development of Backward Areas, Planning Commission.

Government of India (1997), Transforming the North East, Tacking Backlogs in BasicMinimum Services and Infrastructural Needs, High Level Commission Report tothe Prime Minister, Planning Commission, New Delhi, March 7.

Government of India(1983): Task Force on Shifting Cultivation, Ministry of Agriculture

Government of India(1985): Report of the Working Group on Development of NorthEastern Region during the Seventh Five Year Plan, March

Government of India (2008), Report of the Inter-Ministerial National Task Force onRehabilitation of Shifting Cultivation Areas, Ministry of Environment & Forests.

Government of Mizoram (2014), Final Estimates of State Domestic Product2004-2005 to2011-2012, Mizoram, (Base year 2004-05), Directorate of Economics & Statistics,Planning &Programme Implementation Department

Lianzela (1994) : Economic Development of Mizoram, Spectrum Publications, Guwahati:Delhi

Mathur, S (1979): ‘Shifting Cultivation in North East- India’, Proceedings of the Agro-Forstry Seminar held at May 16-17, organised by ICAR.

NABCONS (2012): Mid Term Assessment (MTA) Report on New Land Use Policy ofGovernment of Mizoram (2012-2013), Mumbai

Ninan, K.N., (1992): ‘Economics of Shifting Cultivation in India’, Economic and PoliticalWeekly, March 28

NLUP Implementation Board (2009): NLUP Manual, Mizoram, Aizawl.

North East India Council for Social Science Research (1976): Shifting Cultivation in NorthEast India.

Ramakrishnan, P.S. (1992): Shifting Agriculture and Sustainable Development: AnInterdisciplinary Study for North-Eastern India, UNESCO, Paris and Parthenon,Carnforth, UK

Sharma, B.D. (1984) :Planning for Tribal Development,PrachiPrakashan, New Delhi.

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Singh, Daman (1996): The Last Frontier: People and Forests of Mizoram, TERI, NewDelhi

Thanga, James L.T (2011), Rural Land Use Plan for NLUP Mizoram, Department ofEconomics, Mizoram University, sponsored by NLUP Implementing Board,Government of Mizoram

Tisdell, Clem (1995): ‘Biodiversity, Conservation and Sustainable Development: Challengesfor North East India in Context’, Keynote address at international seminar onEnvironment, Biodiversity and Sustainable Development in North East India, heldat NEHU, Mizoram Campus, Aizawl, Mizoram, India on 26th and 27th September,1995.

World Bank (2007):Strategy Report, Development and Growth in North East India-TheNatural Resources, Water, and Environment Nexus, Report No 36397-IN, SouthAsia Region, June.

Assessing the Impact of Mizoram’s New Land Use Policy

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CHAPTER - 20

A Study of Yak Population of ArunachalPradesh with Special Reference to Agro-Climatic ChangesN. Kar* and Pema Thungon**

Introduction

Arunachal Pradesh which is situated on the extreme north-eastern part ofIndian Trans-Himalayan region between the latitude 26°30’N and 29°30’Nand longitude 91°30’E and 97°30’E. Its spread an area of 83,743sq.km.The land is mostly mountainous with Himalayan ranges along the northernborders criss-crossed with mountain ranges running north-south. It stretchesfrom snow-capped mountains in the north to the plains of Brahmaputravalley in south. Average elevation of Arunachal Pradesh is approx. 500m atfoot hill and 8000m at high altitude. Due to variation in altitude the climatefound in Arunachal ranges from sub-tropical to temperate. At high altitudesalpine type of climate are found, this regions witness’s snowfall duringwinter. The snowfall and the alpine climate largely draw the practice ofpastoralist in this area. Practicing of agriculture is not that much fruitful inthis region, so mainly they are depending on livestock product like milk,meat, fur, milk product (chura,ghee,churpi etc.) which are widely use indomestic as well as for selling in market. Yak play a vital role for highattitude human habited in Arunachal. The area like Tawang district4170m(13,700ft), West Kameng district 2,217m(7,274ft) and northern partof Mechuka that is west siang district (1,932m), where rearing of Yak ispractice. The Yak which are in western part of Arunachal that is in Tawang

*Professor, **M. Phil. Department of Geography Rajiv Gandhi University, Itanagar,[email protected]

Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation (2015) : 279-292 Sati,V. P. et al. (Ed),Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002

ISBN: 81-8019-518-3 (India) ISBN: 1-55528-374-8 (USA)

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and West kameng district they possess trans-human pastoralist method.The Yak rearers are called Brokapas. In summer they shifts in high altitudefor favourable and surivivality of Yak, because in low altitude the temperatureincrease which is not suited for Yak, if they are survive in low aptitude alsothey are unable to produce good quality milk besides its leads to death incertain cases. But during winter, the lower attitude has favourable climaticcondition for Yak habitants hence, the Brokpas migrate from the higher tothe lower atitude. So this type of seasonal migration which is practice inhigh altitude by Yak rearer in westerns side of Arunachal is carried out bythe Brokpas.

Materials and Methods

Different approaches have been used to evaluate the sustainability ofBrokpas in West Kameng district of Trans human region at high altitude. Acommonly used tool is the carrying capacity, which tries to balance Yakpopulation and production with special reference to their environment. Thesestudies assume livestock production to be the sole objective of Trans- Humanregion. Despite much information on the effects of pastoralism, only few ofthem resulted in direct conservation action. Recent studies have attemptedto correlate the population of Yak with climate change, including the impactof socio-economic structure changing. Here comparision techniques,including consulations with traditional resource uses, extensive field surveys,secondary data, to assess recent effect/affect of livestock population.

The study area was the sub-alpine zone of West Kameng, whichbroadly includes the area between 2700m and 2750m elevation. The datawere collected from 2014 to2015 with field surveys during winter and villageconsolation in summer.

Village Consultation

Information from Brokpas, villagers (non- Brokpa), herders and otherresource users was collected using participatory questioners tools, such ashousehold survey. Consultations were conducted in two villages in Dirangcircle, and three villages in Kalaktang circle of West Kameng district. Eachof village had between fifty to hundred household. There recordedinformation on pastoral system related to historical and current populationtrends, ownerships pattern, migration routes, ecological impact and incomes.Livestock composition and population data for the years 1991 to 2011 werecollected in this manner village wise and were then consolidated. Cross-checked this information using field censuses. The number of householdsbenefiting from a pastoral system was used as a measure of its equity. The

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interpretation tries to capture how broad based the livelihood and extent ofsociety profiting or dependent on it and how their pattern is changing inother primary activities due to decreases the number of pastoralist as wellas Yak population.

Results

Changing Pattern of Pastoralism

The livestock of Yak population in Arunachal have been rapidly decreasingover the last three to four decades (Table 1). Livestock of Yak population isaround 7750 in 1988 (14th Quinquennial livestock census). In 2007 its records5975(18th Quinquennial livestock census), there is 1775 Yak have beenreduced in 20 years i.e approx 20% of deline. This challenges declining ofYak population is due to non-availability of highland pasture, heavy grazingtax, winter feed crises, threat of transboundary diseases and climate change.Table1: Yak population

Base Year Yak population

1988-89 7750

1992-93 9675

1997-98 8921

2002-03 7935

2007-08 5975

Source: Govt. of Arunachal Pradesh, Dept. of animal husbandry and Veterinary, Nirjuli.

Climate change in recent decades observed everywhere, as in thecase of mountainous region, the affect of global warming changing thepattern of their livelihood. A stressed towards the pastoralist, who are Yakrarer (Brokpa) also found less beneficial from their livestock as comparedto early decades. They have cited that their livestock has producing lesseconomic products. The Brokpas also challenges in terms of absence ofnon-availability of highland pasture, heavy grazing tax, and winter feedcrisis. The recent change in climate can be estimate from last two decadestemperature records which have been increase by 1°C to 2°C, the climateover twenty(20) years recorded that there is 1°C-2°C of temperatureincreases this change leads to shows the change in Yak population. Therainfall recorded over twenty (20) years also shows the great change inYak population. In summer low altitude of Trans-human region where Yakis habited can’t produces milk, if they give birth to new calf then also theydid not give milk, so the Brokpas migrated towards higher altitude where

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the climate is favorable to Yak. Lobsang Dorjee one of the Brokpa said-now a days at high altitude also milching become very low as compared toearly, and Yak are frequently affected by diseases and they may die. Themaximum mortality of Yak was recorded during summer season followedby autumn, winter and spring. Amongst the identified causes of mortality,calf mortality is highest because due to absence of milk feeding by theirmother followed by digestive disorders due to less availability of fodderthey intake poisonous plant (senecio crysanthomoides) which contain highalkaloid which is having fatal effect on Yak. The disease status of Yak isalso correlate with seasonal prevalence.

Figure 1: Yak population and temperature change

Here in above average temperature have been taken from fiveyears of average annual temperature i.e. from 1985-90 the averagetemperature is 19.35°C and Yak population is 7,750, as in next five yearsthe temperature is slightly decreases the Yak population is increased ascompared to early, but after that there is increased of temperature incontinuous three quinquennial period and it was observed that there iscontentious decline of Yak population.

Rainfall Data

In summer due high temperature and high rainfall most of the Yak wasaffected by diseases which result in death. In the month of June to Augustthe rainfall touches 400mm to 500mm and consider as the highest mortalityrate that is around 48%, and lowest rainfall in the season of winter that isaround 12mm in which only 8% of mortality rate is found. As the datawhich is observed over ten years also shows that in the month of June to

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August the rainfall is not less than 400mm, so in this season’s most of themortality rate take place over this decades. In winter rainfall is less than10mm which results that in this season’s there is less mortality rate. So highmortality rate of Yak can be observed in summer season due to high rainfalland high temperature. Rainfalls also play a vital role to check the Yakpopulation.

The average rainfall for the months of June to August over tenyears is 419.1701mm which is converted into inches will be 16.502inch; forthe months of Sept.-Nov. it will be 5.269inch; and for the month of Dec.-Feb. it will be 0.5inch. The mortality rate is 48% in June-August, 44% inthe month of Sept-Nov, 8% in month of Dec-Feb.

Figure 2: Seasonal rainfall variability and yak mortality rate

From study area it is traced out that how the temperature affectsthe milching and body weight of the Yak. By taking the sample of ten Yak itcan be observed that the production of milk in summer is lower than that ofwinter. As the temperature increases the milk production is decreases.This result that from last decades the rising of temperature which is affectingthe production of milk which slow down the economic status of Yak rarer(Brokpas) as well as less feeding to calf result in high mortality rate of calf.Below data shows that how the seasonal variation of milk production willvaries in summer and winter through which we concludes that in summerdue to high temperature Yak will produces less amount of milk as comparedto winter where the temperature is low and favorable to Yak habited.

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Table 2: Milk in liter (Difference in milk production in summer and winter)

Sl.No. Name of Female Yak Summer (milk in ltr.) Winter (milk in ltr.)

1. Ngomu 70.11 395

2. Tuimu 100 165

3. Kyamu 105.42 346

4. Dawa dema 153.44 274

5. Tinkar Ngima 167.3 221

6. Kyanjey 184.46 350

7. Pramu 205.52 280

8. Khasimu 238.36 280

9. Namu 245.19 260

10. Langa Rokmu 371.97 415

Now how the body weight will be affected through change intemperature. As taking summer body weight and winter body weight thecomparison between them will made, and find how the body weight willloss or gain by changing temperature. In summer the body weight of Yak ismostly losing as compared to winter body weight. In summer due totemperature high their rectal temperature is 37°C approximately, due tohigh temperature they lose energy, which result in difference of weight innegative way. Some time mostly due to affects of diseases in summer theYak lost their weight upto twenty to twenty eight, which result may bedeath also. But in winter the rectal temperature of Yak is approximately38°C this 1% of increase in rectal temperature in their body maintainwarmness of body from cold, which may lead to increased in body weight.Table 3: In winter bodyweight of yak (Dec.)

Sl.No. Name of Yak Body wt. Rectal Temp. Previous Difference(kg) (°c) month (kg) (kg)

1. Jukarmu 265 37.8 258 7

2. Sekarmu 270 37.6 268 2

3. Nima 305 37.7 294 11

4. Kyanzangmu 299 37.4 286 13

5. Kyapsomu 310 37.8 295 15

6. Tsomu 237 37.7 220 17

7. Wookpa 279 37.8 265 14

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Table 4: Difference of Body weight in summer (Aug.)

Sl.No. Name of Yak Body wt. Rectal Temp. Previous Difference(kg) (°c) month (kg) (kg)

1. Jukarmu 214 38.44 219 -5

2. Sekarmu 244 38 245 -1

3. Nima 275 38.3 281 -6

4. Kyanzangmu 293 38.44 294 -1

5. Kyapsomu 310 38.5 318 -8

6. Tsomu 246 38.6 248 -2

7. Wookpa 270 38.5 277 -7

8. Dawa 373 38 375 -2

The type of fodder cover in various alpine landscape are:- Juniperscrub, Rhododendron scrub, Marsh meadow, and Sedge meadow. InRhododendron scrub habitats, species richness increases substantially withdisturbance. This vegetation in an undisturbed state is largely unpalatable,but with disturbance mostly in the form of burning and grazing, the foddercover increases significantly due to the presence of palatable species. TheBrokpas clear this shrub habitat and burn it out to increase the fodderavailability. However, during winter the alpine vegetation are not availableto livestock due to snowfall. In an undisturbed state, these meadow have ahigh fodder cover, but with grazing due to the spread of unpatable plants,the fodder availability reduces. Most of these plants are annual or biannual;tall; palatable; and, according to the herders, nutrients rich. The totalgeographical area is 83,74,000 hectares, out of which permanent pasturesand other grazing lands is 18,000 hectare.

Economy of Brokpa Environment

The Brokpas are small community of schedule tribe people residing in thehigh altitude of district like Tawang and West Kameng of Arunachal. Theyare thought to be the descendants of the ancient Mogoloids. This particulartype of community from early decades practicing trans-human method fortheir livelihood. The rears Yak become their economic activities from whichthey sustain their life.

Nyukmadung is a village situated in Dirang circle of West Kamengwhich is 31 km away from Dirang, at 2750m above mean sea level. Thepeople of village particularly engaged in rearing of Yak. Every house hold

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having Yak which are engaged to look by own or sometime engaged someother person to look after. The particular person who is engaged in thiswork will not stay in village they will stay at hill top where Yak is inhabited.They migrated from one hill to another with changing season. This type ofmigration with some groups of people is known by Brokpas.

Nykmadung and Dirme are two villages situated in opposite hilltop. The people of Nyukmadung speak Brokpa dialect form of the Monpalanguage. They are originally said to have come from Mongoloid and settledin area generation ago. They are predominantly Caucasoid in contrast tothe Monpa tribes inhabitants of most of West Kameng district. They arenormally Buddhist, rituals still survive.

Figure 3: A view of Nykmadung village

‘Brokpas’ is the name given by the Monpas person, which iscombination of two words ‘Brok’ means where the Yak are inhabited, and‘pa’ means the ‘peoples’.

The traditional Brokpas diet based on locally grown foods such aswheat, rice(red in colour), barley etc. wheat, barley are prepared mostoften as ‘pa’/bokpe (flour). It takes in different ways. Other importantfoods includes, potatoes, pumpkin, chilly,chaja (salt tea), a tea made of Yakghee, churpi, chura, and chang (local wine). Brokpas wake up early inmorning at around 3:30 to 4 a.m and take chaja(tea made of adding salt,ghee and milk),they takes three times meals a day ‘Yo tobche (Breakfast);‘Zara’ (Lunch); and ‘Go topche’( Dinner). Brokpas are rarely take milk,the Yak milk are making different milk products like Churpi (loose cheese),Churkam(milk candy), chura (decomposed cheese), Ghee which are widelyuses. Brokpas take meat of in huge amount which are dry and kept in

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stored. Household’s economic position decides the total number of Yakpresent in each Brokpas household.

The sale of Yak will be done according to the age of Yak; if there isnew calf born it will sell around the price of 1000 to 2000 rupees. The pricemay increase according to the age of Yak will increase. The price maytouch upto 35,000 thousands in its matured stage. The price of Yak maleand Female Yak are differ, because the Female Yak is productive in case ofmilk and calf its cost higher price as compare to male Yak. The below tableis showing the price of Yak according to its age as well as its shows thevariation of price of Female Yak and Male Yak.

Table 5: Age and price of male and female yak

Age of Yak in months Price of Male Yak Price of Female Yak

0-1 1,300 1,700

1-2 1,900 2,400

2-3 2,500 3,100

3-5 3,200 4000

5-7 4,000 4,400

7-9 4,800 5,300

9-12 5,600 6,900

12-15 6,900 7,500

15-18 7,900 8,700

18-21 8,900 10,900

21-24 9,800 11,500

24-27 12,000 12,600

27-30 12,200 13,200

30-33 12,900 13,600

33-36 13,500 14,800

36-39 14,500 16,000

39-42 15,800 16,800,

Through the study it was also traced out that the Yak price can bedetermined according to its weight body, like if the weight range between

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300-500kg its cost around 30,000 to 35,000. This below table shows theweight of Yak from new born calf upto its matured stage.Table 6: Age and weight of yak

Age of Yak in months Body weight of Yak (kg) Price (Yak accordingto weight)

1 month 19 1,800

5 months 72 6,700

7 months 85 7,600

10 months 105 9,900

17 months 160 14,800

18 months 191 16,000

20 months 244 19,200

26 months 240 20,900

30 months 225 21,000

31 months 265 22,000

34 months 297 26,700

43 months 365 29,100

54 months 376 30,000

56 months 483 32,000

60 months 500 35,200

Other then the selling of Yak; Brokpa also sale the Yak products,like (chura, chukam, chupi, ghee), meat, fur, fibre, hide and dung at placeswhere arable farming, Yak also used as pack animals to transport goods indifficult terrain of the hills. The annual income is below poverty line, whichleads them to insufficient income in their life, through which they can’tfulfilled their basic needs, and their children are leaving as uneducatedwhich result in low literacy rate.

These milk products are selling in market at very high price. Thechura 1 plastics package price 400, and the Ghee 1 plastic package price350, and the above each small candy price 5. This Yak milk product costvery high due to less productivity and high demands in markets. The Brokpanot directly sale the product to market, this product are sale by middle menwho get most of the profit. The Brokpa who are the main rears of Yakdidn’t get much profit because from them the middle man parches in low

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cost and sale it in the market at high cost.

Fur are the another product of Yak through this different productsare made like carpet, foot mat, caps, rope/belt and mats. These productsare also sale in market as well as it used for domestic purposes.

For making this valuable product the fur are prepared from Yakouter hair and inner fine wool using local tools like Tha, Thong, Dichung,Chaksi, Yukur, Fiang, Changtha, Jamsi etc. Yak tail are directly sold tomarket, white colour tail cost Rs.1500 and black colour cost for Rs.1000.

At present context it is find that the economy of Brokpa is changingfrom pastoralism to other primary activities like cultivation of dry rice andvegetables, fire wood supply, lodging, due to less beneficial from theirlivestock, they have adopted other economic activity. “Along with thedeclining Yak population, the number of Yak farmers, known as Brokpas,are also decreasing,(Dr. Baruah director of NRCY) said.

The Brokpa in Nykmadung mostly now a day depends on cultivationwhich is giving them more beneficial as compare to their livestock. As thetotal population of Nykmadung village is 551 out of which 500 populationsare engaged in Yak rearing or they are having Yak. But in recent decade itwas decreases to 338, decreased by 67.6%.

Discussion

It was found that there is recent continuous decline of Yak populationin Arunachal, there are many factors among which climate change is onefactor which is also play a very vital role in declining of Yak population.Like the temperature increase the rectal temperature of Yak body alsoincrease which affect in loss of weight, result in frequently affected by thediseases, and leads to die. If the temperature increases the milching alsodecline. Rainfall also affects the ability of fodder in particular trans-humanregion which result less avaibility of grazing land. If the grazing landdecreases the land holder of particular grazing land charges more tax uponBrokpa which can’t be payable by Brokpa and leads them to sale theirYaks and engaged into other primary economic activities.

But in 19th livestock census (2012) the Yak population has beenincrease by 42.49%, the increase of Yak population is due to establishingthe National Research Centre of Yak (NRC-Yak) at Dirang West Kamengdistrict of Arunachal Pradesh in 1989 to study on traditional Yak rearingand to formulate future plans, strategies and programs for overallimprovement and sustainable development of Yak husbandry. In 1995, this

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institute got its own campus and started its activity. In 2009 laboratory-cum-office building of NRC-Yak was inaugurated and presently full fledgedactivity has been initiated.

The experimental Yak farm was established at Nyukmadung whichis 31km away from Dirang at 2750 meter above mean sea level, becomefunctional and most of the Brokpa benefited from it. This NRC-Yak providingtraining programme to Brokpas, also provides Hybrids to Brokpas whichhelp lot to Brokpa to increase their Yak population. These hybrids are issueto Brokpas so that they can hybrid their livestock to that hybrid one andproduces more productive through their traditional livestock. This type ofhybriding results in more productive to that of traditional one.

Here in above table we can observe that the increase number ofYak is mostly contributed from West kameng district, as Tawang isconcerned there stable of Yak population after 10 years also that is around7000. But as compared to West Kameng there is vast increase in Yakpopulation after 10 years. That is from 800 to 4000. The increase in Yakpopulation is due to established of NCR-Yak in West- Kameng. This resultin maintaining the sustainable development of Yak farmers (Brokpa) aswell as the Yak livestock.

The Yak farm which is situated in Nyukmadung also providelivelihood to the villagers, total 100% of the workers in farm are local people,total number of workers are 52 out of which 31 are male and 21 are female.These workers are engaged in works like supervisor, Yak feeding, feedmiliching, milking, chalf cutter/fodder field, treatment and lab- assistant,and night guards.

Overall at present the Yak population of Arunachal has beencontributed 18.34 %( census 2012) to the total national Yak population. Itwas traced out that in 2007 census there was 83,000 of Yak in country, butin recent 2012 census it has been come down to 77,000. Here 7% of declineof Yak population in national level. As the Yak population of Arunachal hasbeen increase in recent census but at the national level there is a decline ofYak population. The increased of Yak population in Arunachal mostly in theWest. Kameng district is due to set up of Yak farm in this district. Thescientific methods for Yak rearing techniques as well as followings themethods which was trained by the experts/scientist of the Yak farm willgiving much beneficial to the Yak farmers. They organized programs liketraining (scientific management), Yak mela, extension-cum-awarenessprogrammed etc.

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So decline of Yak population can be check through scientificmethods, by setting up National Research Centre on Yak (NRC-Yak). Thisinstitute provides explicit connections with the nomad Yak farmers fordevelopment of Yak husbandry in India.

References:Bora L, Bam J, Paul V, & Maiti S. (2014) Traditional milk, meat processing and preservation

techniques of Yak pastoralists of Arunachal Pradesh. Indian Journal of TraditionalKnowledge. 13(1): 216-221.

Bora L, Paul V, Bam J, Saikia A and Hazarika D. (2013) Handicraft skills of Yak Pastoralistsin Arunachal Pradesh. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge. 12(4): 718-724.

Chakravartry P, Hussain M, Soren S, Bhuyan S, Baishya D, Jatiana B, Dutta Dj, Paul Vand Deori S. (2014). Comparative study on recovery rate of Yak and cattle oocytesby aspiration and post aspiration slicing technique. Indian Veterinary Journal.91(03): 11-13.

Chakravarty P. (2013) First test tube Yak calf born at NRC on Yak. Indian VeterinaryJournal.90 (9): 72.

Deori S, Bam J, Paul V and Baruah KK. (2013) Epidemiology of abortion in Yaks (Poephagusgrunnies) under farm conditions. Indian Journal Animal Research. 47(2): 178-180.

Department of Animal Husbandary, Livestock, (2012) (17th, 18th, 19th, Quinquennial livestockcensus Arunachal Pradesh. Government of Arunachal, Itanagar.

Hanah SS, Chouhan VS and Krishnan G. (2013) M anagement of Yak power: A welfare andhealth perspective in Yak FOR HIGHLANDER. In Training manual on “Scientificmanagement of high altitude animal during winter”, (Eds) Medhi D, Das PJ, KrishnanG and Maiti S. National Research centre on Yak, Dirang, Arunachal Pradesh, India.Pp 62-71.

Jeeva K, Chatterjee N, Bera AK, Maiti S. and Bhattacharya D. (2014) Incidence of PrasiticDisease in Yaks and its Control. In Training manual on “Scientific management ofhigh altitude animal during winter”, (Eds.)Medhi S. National Research centre onYak, Dirang, Arunachal Pradesh, India. Pp 62-71.

Krishnan G, Hanah SS, Chouhan VS, Biswas TK, Das PJ and Chakravarty P. (2013)Effects of global warming on Yak production at high altitude In Training manual on“Yak welfare in transhumance rearing system”, (Eds.) Bhattacharya D, Bera AKand Maiti S. National Research centre on Yak, Dirang, Arunachal Pradesh, India.Pp. 114-124.

Maiti S, Bera AK, Biswas TK, Bam J, Chouhan VS, Paul V, Bhattacharya D, ChakravartyP and Deb SM. (2013) Value Addition and IPR Issues of Yak Products. In Trainingmanual on “Yak welfare in transhumance rearing system”, (Eds.) Bhattacharya D,Bera AK and Maiti S. National Research centre on Yak, Dirang, Arunachal Pradesh,India. Pp 91-96.

Maiti S, Bera AK, Biswas TK, Doley J,Chouhan VS, Paul V, Bhattacharya D, ChakravartyP and Deb SM. (2013) Traditional Yak rearing system in Arunachal Pradesh. In

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Training manual on “Yak welfare in transhumance rearing system”,(Eds.)Bhattacharya D, Bera Ak and Maiti S. National Research centre on Yak, Dirang,Arunachal Pradesh, India. Pp36-42.

Maiti S, Paul V, Medhi D, and Bera AK. (2014) Management of high altitude pastures andgrasslands. In Traning manual on “Scientific management of high altitude animalduring winter”,(Eds.) Medhi D, Das PJ, Krishnan G and Maiti S. National Researchcentre on Yak, Dirang, Arunachal Pradesh, India. Pp 19-22.

Maiti S, Paul V, Medhi D, and Bera AK. (2014) Round the year fodder Productin forsustainable Yak farming. In Training manual on “Scientific management of highaltitude animal during winter”, (Eds.) Medhi D, Das PJ, Krishnan G and Maiti S.National Research centre on Yak, Dirang, Arunachal Pradesh, India. Pp 56-58.

Medhi D, Changmai A, Sarmah PP, Ali E, Doley J and Das PJ. (2013) Scientific feeding ofhigh altitude dairy animals. In Training manual on “Scientific management of highaltitude animal during winter”, (Eds.) Medhi D, Das PJ, Krishnan G and Maiti S.National Research centre on Yak, Dirang, Arunachal Pradesh, India. Pp- 1-12.

Medhi D and Deori S. (2014) Care and Management of Pregnant Yaks. In Training manualon “Scientific management of high altitude animal during winter”. (Eds.) Medhi D,National Research centre on Yak, Dirang, Arunachal Pradesh, India. Pp- 59-61.

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CHAPTER - 21

Impact of Flood on Settlement Displacementand Agricultural Productivity in Lower DikrongBasin of AssamDr. Gajen Bhuyan*

Introduction

Though India is a land of rivers, having predominantly agricultural basedeconomy, development of river valley projects have become a lifeline ofprogress and prosperity of the nation. However, such projects are made atthe cost of huge environmental loss. Most of the river valley projects havebeen severely criticized and most of time the issues coming out of it arecontroversial. One of the arguments for construction of large dams in theeastern Himalayas is as a flood-control measure. Widespread floods are anannual feature in the Brahmaputra basin, particularly in Assam, where theyare caused by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors. Flood-control, embankments constructed in Assam have been responsible for theshrinkage of feeding and spawning grounds of many prized fish speciesand the disappearance of many spawns collection centers. The breachingof embankments has been a major cause for the intensification of the floodhazard in recent times. The undesirable consequences of embankments,especially in aiding channel aggradation and overbank flooding are clearlyvisible in Assam.

The important issues of downstream ecological impact on the riversand the Beels (wetlands) in the Brahmaputra plains that may be caused byproposed dams in the eastern Himalayas have got very little attention. The

*Kherajkhat Junior College, Deotola, Pin-787033, District: Lakhimpur, Assam

Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation (2015) : 293-311 Sati,V. P. et al. (Ed),Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002

ISBN: 81-8019-518-3 (India) ISBN: 1-55528-374-8 (USA)

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294 Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation

seasonal inundation of Beels by rivers is essential to the nutrient cycle oflocal aquatic ecosystems and is crucial for fisheries. This is likely to beadversely affected by dams. The profuse pre-Monsoon growth of aquaticweeds will also not be ‘flushed out’ by the flood waters (Boruah et.al 2000).In the process of development of hydro-electric projects, valuable forestsare destroyed, resulting to a different ecosystem. Besides, most inhabitantsevicted such areas are made to fend for themselves.

Ranganadi Hydel Project, the first major project in ArunachalPradesh, had been commissioned in 2002. This area has been receiving anaverage annual precipitation about 3311.18 mm. during the last 22 years. Italso shows the seasonal variation of rainfall in both upper and lower part ofthe basin which was shown in the table.

Annual discharge rates of Dikrong and Ranganadi (1991) reach amaximum of 263.69 m³/s and 844.19 m³/s respectively and the minimumdischarge rates are recorded 7.46 m³/s and 36.27m³/s at the same periodof time. After commissioning of the project, diversion of water fromRanganadi to Dikrong River through a 10 km. long head race tunnel of 6.8metre in diameter channels is about 160 m3/s. This diversion of water fromRanganadi to Dikrong seems to create more floods, siltation, soil erosionand displacement of people in lower portion of Dikrong Basin speciallyduring the peak discharge period (in summer). Around 33553 ha. ofagricultural land is severely affected by flood in downstream areas ofDikrong River during 2002-2013.

The importance of environmental management cannot be ignoredin any developmental activity. Therefore construction of hydro-electricproject calls for a complete understanding of the entire area before it isused as a resource.

Statement of Problems

The Brahmaputra valley of Assam is being drained by a number of tributaries.The tributaries, especially the northern ones are characterized by rapidflows, large sediment load, shifting of river course and frequent flood ofhigh magnitude. Many north bank tributaries have developed their courseson southern part of Arunachal Himalaya which represent a domain of highmonsoonal rainfall and the zone of relatively soft rock, steep slopes andfrequent occurrence of landslides.

The proposed research is much different from earlier studies. TheRanganadi Project had already been commissioned in 2002 and the watertransfer from Ranagnadi to Dikrong is about 160 m3/s /day. This diversion

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295

Tabl

e 1:

Sea

sona

l dist

ribut

ion

of r

ainf

all i

n do

imuk

h an

d ha

rmut

ty te

a Es

tate

rai

ngau

ge s

tatio

n

Rai

ngau

ge s

tatio

nPe

riod

Win

ter

Pre

Mon

soon

Mon

soon

Post

Mon

soon

Tota

l ra

infa

llAv

erag

e

(Dec

to

Feb)

(Mar

ch to

May

)(J

une

to S

ept)

(Oct

to N

ov)

(in m

m)

Doi

muk

h

1988

-200

419

48 m

m.

1430

0.2

mm

.39

716.

09 m

m.

3938

.8 m

m.

5990

3.09

mm

.35

23.7

1 m

m.

Perc

enta

ge3.

25%

23.8

7%66

.30%

6.58

%

Har

mut

ty

1987

-200

826

20.7

5 m

m.

1747

0 m

m.

4829

3.5

4459

.75

7284

6.09

3311

.18

Perc

enta

ge3.

60%

23.9

8%66

.30%

6.12

%

Sour

ce: H

arm

utty

Tea

Est

ate

& R

ural

Wor

ks D

epar

tmen

t of A

runa

chal

Pra

desh

, 200

9

Impact of Flood on Settlement Displacement and Agricultural Productivity

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296 Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation

of water increases the problems in the downstream areas of the DikrongRiver which are not free from floods in summer. The effect is mostly onthe agricultural lands and settlements which have been heavily silted. Thepresent work aims at understanding floods in a flood prone area and howthe additional amount of water transferred to it from another basin haveaffected large tracts of productive agricultural land and also displaced anumber of people.

Objectives

The following broad objectives are identified for research:-

(a) to study the discharge rates and flow of the Dikrong river;

(b) to identify the changing spatial pattern of flood affected areas(before and after the construction of the project) and

(c) to assess the flood affected areas and the impact of the project onthe human population.

Research Question

The following research questions will be taken up for investigation:

(a) Diversion of water from Ranganadi to Dikrong River must haveserious geomorphological consequences. How changes haveoccurred, the nature of changes and their pattern may jeopardizethe natural fluvial system.

(b) Effect of the changes that occur beyond the meeting point of thediverted water in Dikrong river cause lot problems to humanpopulation. The problems may be more acute as time passes; hence,what are the human responses and adaptation.

Study Area

The Dikrong and Ranganadi rivers are two major north bank tributaries ofthe Brahmaputra River. Both these rivers are rain fed.

The Dikrong basin lies between latitudes 260 55´N and 270 22´Nand longitudes 93o13´E and 94oE. It drains the area covering a part of thelower hills of Arunachal Pradesh and the Lakhimpur district of Assam. Theriver originates at an elevation of 2840 metres above sea level (m.a.s.l.)near the border of Lower Subansiri and East Kameng districts of ArunachalPradesh. The catchment area of this river system is about 1,557 sq km. ofwhich about 253 sq. km. lies in Assam and remaining part lies in Arunachal

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297

Pradesh. The downstream portion of the basin suffered from floods eachyear. Besides this, an additional 160 m3/s/day of water is released from theRanganadi to Dikrong for electricity generation which thought to haveincreased to the floods in this area.

Literature Review

The review of literature pertaining to the study of flow characteristics,flood frequency analysis and damage assessment of flood in the Dikrongriver basin is an attempt to survey the work so far in this line. Howevermany researchers have been done in this line which make it quite impossibleto incorporate all of them in this review.

Many studies have been done on the human adaptation to similarconditions; however the present work tries to understand the impact offlood arising out of physical and anthropogenic factors like high rainfall,landslides, and anthropogenic factors like deforestation, inter basin transferof water, construction of river valley project etc.

Kharshïng (1994) studied thoroughly about the impact of UmiamHydel Project on society and economy of the region. It was of a small sizedam and located in the hilly region of Meghalaya. A few socio-economicindicators were taken to understand the impact of the dam. These indicatorsinclude changes in the population size, growth rates, sex-ratio, proportion ofworkers and ethnic composition. The assessment of each indicator wasdone through simple correlation to indicate association between distance ofvillages from the project site and the changes with respect to the indicatorsreferring to the state averages and the regions considered. Thaukral (1994)also severely criticized about displacement of people due to construction ofVadgam Dam. Roy (1999) commented that ‘Big dams are to a nation’s‘development’ what nuclear bombs are to its military arsenal. They areboth the weapons of mass destruction’.

According to the renowned irrigation expert Datye (2000), acomprehensive review of the yield of the land, taking into account the water,energy and biomass availability is required. Another activist, Thakkar (2003)while commenting on the Tehri Project, acknowledged that India needs tosolve its water problems, but he maintains that the issue is mostly of resourcemismanagement. Imama (2004) also discussed thoroughly about the negativeand positive impacts of Indira Gandhi Canal.

Many geographers and field scientist have been trying to evaluatethe relationship of the sociological and human variables with the physicalvariables of floods. Among the researchers who have done remarkable

Impact of Flood on Settlement Displacement and Agricultural Productivity

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298 Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation

work in the estimation of flood damage and reduction of flood hazards,were Parker (1973), Dixon(1964), Penning Rosewell (1972), Burton(1969),Goswami (1989) and Kar (1994).

Another newly developed field of study is the watershedmanagement which attracts many field scientists focusing their researcheson direct control of floods for the welfare of human beings. Flood plainswere studied by various authors from different points of view. Studies aboutflood plain settlement have been done from the historical point of view byauthors like Hartshorne (1939), Willey (1953), Forbes (1965), Smith (1969)and Bruhnes (1920). The study of flood plains from hydrological point ofview has been made by several authors like Hayte et.al, Chow (1956),Horton (1970), Wolman et al (1957), Goswami (1985).

Study of hydrological parameters in downstream part of a drainagebasin is found to be always important as they have manipulating effects onthe characters of river environment. In these respect studies of Leopoldand Maddock (1953), Leopold and Wolman (1957) may be mentioned. Someof the outstanding among the studies were of Kates et.al. (1961), Kates(1962), White (1964), Sewell (1969) and Rune (1971).

Similarly a large number of researches have examined the problemof flood plain management arising out of Hydro Electric Project in thedownstream areas of rivers. Mention may be made of Jarvis (1942), Colman(1953), Murphy (1958), White (1963), Burton et.al (1964a), Miller (1966),Issac (1967), Burton (1969), Sewell (1969), Rowsell et.al. (1972), Schendal(1974) and Erickson (1979). In India contribution to this field of study hasbeen made by only few researchers, mention may be made of Chakravarty(1958), Kumar (1969), Ramachandan et. al. (1974), Kayastha et. al. (1977),Viswanathan and Chakravarty (1977), Kumar (1993), Bandopadhyay andGyawali (1994) and Goel (2000).

Although Assam is one of the most severely flood and erosionaffected states of India but much academic research regarding this problemis scanty. Some geomorphological accounts of the valley includingsedimentation, river channel shifting and its impact on the flood plain and itsmanagement are available in some reports.

Materials and Methods

The present research work focuses on the flood affected areasdownstream of the Dikrong River below the dam site. It covers an area of253 sq. km. This work will be based on the information available for threemajor phases:

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299

I. The period till the project was constructed (1986 –2001).

II. The conditions after the project was constructed (2002 -2008).

III. Field data collection for assessment of flood affected areas.

Phase - I

The basic objective during this phase is the collection of alreadypublished data. There is a need to understand different parameters in theperiod before the dam construction started. The information for the period1986 – 2001 would pay attention to information on topography, geologicalformation, vegetation cover, rainfall pattern, discharge and flood levels,siltation and also the human population residing in the study area.

Relevant toposheets of 1:50,000 scale and other available mapswas used to extract information for the present purpose. Remote Sensingdata was also used to understand the flood affected area. Physiographicunits of the study area are identified and mapped using methods availablefrom existing literature (Pandey.et.al., 2008; Joshi et.al. 2004; and Taher,1986). Morphometric techniques were used for understanding the basinsgeneral configuration and drainage network channel characteristics in termsof pattern of channel changes, bank erosion and flood have been taken asthe basis for understanding the nature of shifting of the river courses overtime and space have been related to displacement of settlement take place.Other quantitative methods like stream order, stream number, stream length,drainage density, bifurcation ratio, sinuosity index, relationship betweenstream order, number and length etc. were analyzed and different mapswere prepared.

Phase - II

The basic objective during this phase is the collection of already publisheddata from different sources. There is a need to understand similar parametersas considered in Phase I for the period after the project was commissioned.Relevant information from government sources like Revenue Circle Officer,Brahmaputra Board, Water resource and Agriculture were collected.

Phase - III

In this phase, relevant data through questionnaires was collected pertainingto socio-economic conditions of flood affected villages, human responsesto floods and efforts of the government to mitigate effects of floods wereconsidered. Methods used for deriving relevant maps and figures:-

Impact of Flood on Settlement Displacement and Agricultural Productivity

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300 Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation

(i) Toposheets of (83E/3, 83E/4, 83E/7, 83E/8, 83E/11, 83I/4and 83J/1) atRF. 1:50,000 were used to carve out the AOI (Area of Interest)

(ii) Satellite imageries of the years 1973, 1987, 1999 and 2008 weredownloaded from NASA, Global Land Cover Facility, Earth ScienceData Interface and NRSA (National Remote Sensing Agency) to findout channel shifting and landuse pattern for different time period.

(iii)Methods proposed by R.E. Horton, (1932, and 1945) were used toanalyze stream ordering, bifurcation ratio and relationship betweenstream order, number and length. The formula used for this purposementioned below.

(a) Bifurcation ratio is calculated following the formula Nu/Nu+1where, the number of stream segment of a given order (Nu)to thenumber of stream of next higher order (Nu+1).

(b) Stream length ratio has been calculated according to the followingequation.

RL = Lu / Lu-1

Where Lu = “Lu /Nu

Here Lu is the mean length of all stream segments of a givenorder (u),

“Lu is the sum of lengths of all stream segments of a given orderand

Nu is the number of stream segments of a given order.

(iv) MS Excel (2007) was used to derive the graph of average rainfall anddischarge, deviation diagram of rainfall and discharge, hydrographs,maximum and minimum water level, correlation between rainfall anddischarge and rainfall, discharge and flood affected villages relationship.

(iv) Arc GIS 9.3software are used to represent the average slope patternof the study area by preparing of DEM, several other figures likephysiographic divisions, land use pattern and channel shifting patternin different time periods, area affected by flood, embankment mapetc were also prepared under Arc GIS9.3 environment.

(v) Erdas Imagine 9.2 software used to find out the maximum and minimumheight of the basin from the sea level and different elevation zones.

(vi) Relationship between stream order, number and length was analyzedaccording to Horton’s law of stream lengths as co- efficient ofcorrelation and a regression line has been prepared in MS Excel 2007.

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301

(vii) The analysis of remotely sensed data was done by using the ‘DigitalImage Processing’ technique. This image processing includes threegeneral steps, namely (i) Pre-processing (ii) Display and enhancementand (iii) Information extraction.

(viii) GARMIN GPS -76 was utilized during ground truth data collection.‘Kappa Coefficient’ method was also employed for ascertaining itsaccuracy levels.

The methodology in a nutshell can be depicted in the followingdiagram:-

Displacement of Settlements

Flood and erosion are the main geomorphic problems faced by the peopleliving in the flood plains. Different human communities are found to responddifferently to these problems. The Dikrong River valley is one of the floodand erosion prone areas of Assam, and because of its devastating erosionand flood hazards it causes huge loss to state’s economy. After theearthquake in 1950, the problem of erosion and flooding has become aregular feature in the region. The study area is one of the extremely floodprone zone of the north bank of the Brahmaputra valley. The furious floodand erosion every year affect the activities of the flood plain dwellersresulting to marked changes to the ecology of the areas. As a result of theadverse impact of these natural events on the physical and cultural landscapeand the population is exposed to many hazards. The loss of property isincreasing at an alarming rate in the study area. The valley is already denselypopulated (1, 35,425 as per 2011 census) and therefore people have nooption to inhabit, But encroach into the flood plains. The historical backgrounddiscussed in earlier chapters would help in the understanding of the humanperception to flood and the response to it. Some people of the affectedvillages have long experiences about flood and they know how to live withit. But in recent years, attraction to modern life and culture tends to makethe people insensitive to their own indigenous techniques which were mostessential for survival in these riverine areas. Besides, new areas are seento be under floods creating a problem for people to adjust with flood. Thenew generation seems to have forgotten utility ‘Chang ghar’ in times offlood and started to live in the modern ‘pucca house’ in low lying floodplains. Thus, day by day, flood hazard is increasing with the growth ofpopulation.

Though floods in Dikrong basin are a regular phenomenon, thecurrent spate of flood has unprecedented intensity and scale as compared

Impact of Flood on Settlement Displacement and Agricultural Productivity

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302 Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation

to previous few decades. The area has been variably inundated by thefloods of Dikrong, Beguli and Kachikata caused by the heavy rain duringmonsoon months. Besides this, 160 m3/s of additional water released fromRanganadi Hydel Project through diversion tunnel is added daily to themain channel of Dikrong. The water discharge in the river thus rises rapidlyand overflows the banks inundating large areas in the summer. The suddenfall of the gradient of the river from hills to plain at the same time reduceswater movement leading to spread of water over the flood plain during highflows.

During the period of 1957- 1990 breaching of the Dikrongembankments took place several times and affected the flood plain dwellers.Historically, data proves that this river had been a misery to the peopleliving downstream. From 1957 onwards, the floods in this area havedevastated large tracts of land. One important event before the dam wasconstructed took place in 1990. After the dam was constructed, the fewnotable events were in the year 2004 and two major events in 2008. Giventhe rising trends of the river bed, as discussed earlier, the villages in theflood plain receives recurring floods of various orders. New areas are alsoseriously affected and suddenness of flood leaves little time for managementand mitigation. The flood affected areas have increased in the post-projectperiod adding more woes to the population in the downstream of the Dikrong.

Socio-Economic Impact of Floods

Floods cause enormous hardship to people. Food stocks saved fromlast harvest would have been swept away causing food insecurity to therural poor for a long span of time to come. Flooding after transplantationdestroys standing crops and people have no way to replant them. Thisleads to longer food insecurity of the large population of subsistence levelfarmers and poor agricultural wage laborers.

Flood initiates river bank erosion and large scale displacement ofpeople due to bank line recession is taking place in the area. From 2005 to2008 as many as 13 nos. of villages have been under erosion and somevillages have been under the threat of complete erosion. The large scaleand severe erosion in the area particularly in the western part in No. 80Grant, No.65/68 Grant, Pithaguri, Kapichala, Merbil, Ahom Gaon, MornoiGrazing, Dahgharia and Badati Mirigaon area had forced thousands ofpeople to move out of the area. The most recent trend of bank line migrationis posing a much bigger threat to these areas. It was found that during thisperiod, nearly 2 to 4 km. of banks have been eroded away in the above

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303

Tabl

e 2:

Sho

win

g th

e br

each

ing

of e

©m

bank

men

t (19

57-2

008)

Sl.N

oD

ate

and

year

Nam

e of

em

bank

men

tL

ocat

ion

of b

reac

hL

engt

h of

Cau

se o

f br

each

Are

a af

fect

ed (h

a)fr

om H

arm

utty

brea

ch (

m)

119

57D

ikro

ng L

/B(i)

At 1

1th &

27th k

m.

18.3

&9.

15O

vert

oppi

ng12

95.0

emba

nkm

ent

219

63D

o(i)

At 1

6& 2

8th k

m.

183

&15

2.4

Eros

ion

1295

.0

319

th J

une

1968

Do

At 2

3rd k

m.

120

1036

.0

427

th J

uly

1972

Do

At 2

3rd &

24th

km

.50

&19

0O

vert

oppi

ng12

95.0

511

th J

une

1977

Do

At 1

4th k

m.

268

Eros

ion

NA

613

th A

ugus

t 198

7D

o10

nos

of b

reac

hes

212

Seep

age,

pip

ing,

2800

.0at

28th

km

.sli

ding

etc

.

724

th J

une

1990

Do

At 1

2th k

m.

104

Eros

ion

NA

8N

ovem

ber 2

004

Rig

ht b

ank

At 2

8th k

m.

700

Eros

ion

NA

914

th J

une

2008

Left

bank

At 1

9th k

m.

70O

vert

oppi

ngN

A

1014

th J

une

2008

Left

bank

At 2

3rd k

m.

10O

vert

oppi

ng30

00.0

115th

Jul

y 20

08R

ight

ban

kB

etw

een

19th to

20th

km

.43

Eros

ion

800.

0

Sour

ce: E

mba

nkm

ent &

Dra

inag

e D

ivisi

on B

ihpu

ria.

Impact of Flood on Settlement Displacement and Agricultural Productivity

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304 Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation

areas. As a result, acute shortage of food and diseases often grip this regioncausing untold misery to the people of the area. Although it is not easy toassess the damages due to flood and erosion in a realistic way, the dataavailable from government sources and additional assessment of thedisplaced families and public institutions had been carried out through fieldsurvey for the period of 2005 to 2008 have helped in the understanding ofaffected villages and losses.

It is very important to estimate the damage for relief operation inthe affected area as well as to estimate the loss of the economy of thecountry or region suffers from the disaster. In this connection few villageswere selected for assessment to understand their conditions during floodthrough field survey in 2007. For the assessment of erosion the damagedata are collected under the heads of (i) amount of area affected (ii) numberof village affected (iii) number of families affected (iv) values in terms ofrupees.

Case Study of Some Selected Flood Affected Villages

To understand the extent and magnitude of flood damage and thenature of people’s adjustment to flood, eleven (11) severe affected villageshave been selected in the Dikrong basin. Out of these villages selected forsurvey, three from Narayanpur Revenue Circle and eight from BihpuriaRevenue Circle which were severely affected during 2005 to 2008. Amongthese villages, nine villages located in right the bank and two villages arelocated in the left bank. The people inhabiting these villages are HinduBengalis, Adivasi (tea garden labourers), Missings, Nepalis, Muslims andsome Assamese people. They mostly cultivate ‘Ahu’ and ‘Rabi’ crops.

As revealed from the field survey, No. 65/68. Grant, No.80 Grant,No. 2 Pithaguri and Ahom Gaon have been severally affected by flood.These three villages are located in upper part of the lower reach of DikrongRiver and out of this No. 65/68. Grant and No.80 Grant was almostcompletely eroded by the river during 2005 to 2008 and more than 100families were displaced from their original location and most of the peopletook shelter in the P.W.D. roads, hospitals etc. and some of them migratedout of the area.

In Merbil and Kapichala near about 109 families were displaceddue to erosion and are now living in another char area of Dikrong River.The people have migrated to some other places so the detail informationabout the populace is not available.

From the observation, it was found that poor families are

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305

Tabl

e 3:

Soc

io e

cono

mic

sta

tus

of th

e su

rvey

ed h

ouse

hold

s af

fect

ed d

ue to

flo

od

Sl N

o.N

ame

of t

he v

illag

esN

o. o

f A.P

.L.

No.

of B

.P.L

.N

o. o

fN

o. o

fA

ssam

typ

ePe

rcen

tage

Perc

enta

ge o

ffa

mil

ies

fam

ilie

sel

ectr

ifie

dtr

aditi

onal

hous

eof

cul

tivat

edbu

ilt-u

p la

ndho

use

hous

ela

nd in

ha.

in h

a.

11

No.

Dah

ghar

ia5

10N

il10

585

.29

13.1

8

2N

o.2

Dah

ghar

ia3

14N

il9

884

.16

14.2

5

3A

hom

Gao

n22

1510

2512

57.8

742

.12

4M

orno

i Gra

zing

2017

537

Nil

80.6

818

.82

5N

o.1P

ithag

uri

218

1314

680

.41

17.9

2

6N

o.2

Pith

guri

1314

1220

782

.12

16.8

5

7N

o. 1

Dik

rong

Cha

pori

114

Nil

141

77.6

517

.92

8So

nari

Gao

n10

4N

il14

Nil

73.1

323

.86

9N

o. 8

0 G

rant

2752

4132

4788

.91

11.0

8

10N

o.65

/68

Gra

nt12

3514

3314

85.8

214

.17

11Bu

ngo

221

Nil

23N

il76

.71

21.6

8

Tota

l11

721

477

238

93

Sour

ce: D

ata

colle

cted

and

com

pute

d by

rese

arch

er-2

011

Impact of Flood on Settlement Displacement and Agricultural Productivity

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306 Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation

economically affected by the floods and erosion. The service holders andbusiness persons occupy the relatively safer and better locations as theyhave managed to occupy better places which are relatively free of flooddamage. It is also to be noted that the environmental impact assessment ofthe project did not address downstream impact which were evident in theearly stages of the project itself.

Response to Flood through Land Use

Land use refers to ‘man’s activities on land’ which are related toman .Land use and land cover maps describe the landscape of a particulararea by assigning each land unit to a specific category or class, such aswater bodies, dense forest, moderately dense forest, agricultural land, openforest area, abundant land, sandy patches and built up area. As per theSurvey of India topographical sheets and satellite imageries of 1973, 1987,1999 and 2008 the land use and land cover of the Dikrong river basin havebeen identified considering eight categories of land use. G I S techniquesare used to identify and demarcate the land use change.

‘Bao’ rice is cultivated mainly in the southern part and drainagecongestion areas of Mora Dikrong channel where there are plenty of marshylands or beels which are now converted into ‘Boro’ cultivated area. Theother important rabi crops, besides ‘Boro’ and ‘Ahu’ rice, are mustard,pulses, wheat and varieties of vegetable are cultivated into a considerableextent in the south and south eastern part of the basin. The production ofoilseeds and pulses is also confined mainly south eastern part where richalluvial soils are found. Besides these crops, various types of vegetables,spices and fruits are grown throughout the year. In recent years the areawas affected by frequent floods and erosion almost every year and 11villages were almost eroded and some were partly eroded which results ina lack of habitable land and increases population pressure on land. It wasalso observed from the field that the areas under cultivation beforecommissioning the dam now gradually decrease and becomes fallow dueto heavy siltation. After 2008 devastating flood, the percentage of fallowland found to be increased according to the victims which are shown in thetable. Therefore, some varieties of crops such as jute, sugarcane, oilseedsand potatoes are decreasing day by day and forest areas also decreaserapidly. From the analysis of personal interviews it was found that cultivationof Boro rice has reduced significantly due to reduction of marsh land as aresult of siltation.

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Table 4: Land use pattern of dikrong basin during 1973 to 2008

Landuse types 2008 1999 1987 1973(Area in ha) (Area in ha) (Area in ha) (Area in ha)

Dense forest 63249.5 63396.8 77413.9 92669.9

Open forest 51333.3 54371.8 35356 27595

Agricultural land 21106.9 14391.9 18442.4 8617.58

Abandoned land/fallow 5812.98 10793.7 5994.89 12062.8

Grass land 1911.76 2940.68 8627.49 8641.54

Builtup land 9647.28 6335.63 3597.7 783.01

Sandy patches 1359.14 996.424 4635.79 3580.12

Water bodies 1288.93 2549.69 1708.57 1826.94

Source: Satellite imageries (Landsat-TM and RS-LISS-III)

Thus the flood and erosion hazard has become a principal factorcontrolling the land use pattern in the study area. It has given rise to a newpattern of land use in the region where agricultural land have been relocatedin areas west of the Dikrong River especially towards Narayanpur. It alsoappears that forest areas have been converted to agricultural lands.Table 5: Changing pattern of land use in pre/post project period

Land use types Pre-Project Post-Project Change (%)

Dense forest 63396.8 63249.5 -0.093395

Open forest 54371.8 51333.3 -1.926542

Agricultural land 14391.9 21106.9 4.257605

Abandoned land/fallow 10793.7 5812.98 -3.157995

Grass land 2940.68 1911.76 -0.65238

Builtup land 6335.63 9647.28 2.099731

Sandy patches 996.424 1359.14 0.229974

Water bodies 2549.69 1288.93 -0.799377

Source: Satellite imageries (Landsat-TM and RS-LISS-III)

Flood and Erosion Affected People of Dikrong Basin

The frequent occurrence of flood and erosion has rendered large numberof people homeless and forced them to move out of the area in search ofsufficient habitable land. The people migrated out of the area andrehabilitated themselves in different parts under the rehabilitation programme

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of the state government or on their own initiatives. As discussed in the lastchapter floods and erosion occurs almost every year but, from 2003 itsfrequency had increased and in 2007 and 2008 its intensity was quite severeand some villages were partially eroded away within a short span of time.The affected people have to wait a long time for rehabilitation, occupyingtemporary shelters besides the existing embankments, school fields, hospitalsand P.W.D. Roads etc.Table 6: No. of families displaced in different villages & their current status

Village Families displaced Current status

Year 1998 2005 2007 2008

Ahomgaon > 24 24 13 Now living in ReservedForest

No. 1 & 2 Pithaguri 14 33 28 families in Assam-Arunachal border

No. 65/68 Grant 21 11 15 PWD Roads & Vety.Hospital; some relocatedthemselves; 30 familiesreceived compensation ofRs.10,000/-

No. 80 Grant 32 28 19 PWD Roads & Schoolfield; some relocatedthemselves; 64 familiesreceived compensation ofRs.10,000/-

Mornoi Grazing 18 19 Compensation of Rs.10,000/- received; Livingon protection bund;others migrated to leftbank

Bungo 23 EmbankmentNo. 1 & 2 Dahgharia 14 18 Compensation of Rs.

10,000/- received & livingin nearby areas

No.1Dikrong Chapori 15 Within 600-700 awayfrom river

Sonarigaon 14 Compensation ofRs.10,000/- received

Source: Field Survey, 2010-11

Generally, people do not want to change their original place ofsettlement. They try to resettle themselves within the locality after beingdisplaced, but this is no longer possible now due to high density of population.During field survey it was observed that displaced families first try to settlein the same village with a hope that there will be no erosion again. However,in reality it is different and some families even have to change their residential

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location several times.

From the above table, it is evident that the displaced people havereceived due compensation from the government sources to partially covertheir losses. However, their rehabilitation is still a question to be answered.Some of them are living in temporary shelters and are yet to be resettled.

While trying to understand the ways how people are managingwith floods in the lower reaches of Dikrong River, it could be concludedthat the people remain to suffer a lot from floods in this area. As a responseto flood the local population of flood prone areas either individually orcollectively makes efforts to stay away from such events in the best possiblemanner they could. They are very much aware of impending floods; however,they are not in position to know the probable magnitude. After discussingabout the study area, the nature of conditions giving rise to floods and theresponses to floods by the population of the study area including the possibleadaptation methods, the next chapter will draw out conclusions in a holisticmanner so as to arrive at the complete understanding of floods and itsconsequences.

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Special Reference to the Brahmaputra River. Ecol.vol. 16:pp. 39-50.

Datye, K.R. (2000): A Comprehensive Review of the yield of the land w.w.w.narmada.org/Sardar Sarovar/ecotimes.alternatives.html), (02.09.2004).

Kharshïng, S. (1994): “Impact of Umiam Hydel Project on Society and Economy of theRegion”, Unpublished M.Phil Dissertation, North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong,pp.59-82.

Thaukral, E. G. (1994): “Displacement and Rehabilitation of Project Displaced Persons”,Mainstream, Vol. 32, No. 38, pp. 31-33.

Imama, S. (2004): “Problem of Water Logging in Indira Gandhi Canal Command Area ofWestern Rajasthan”, Indian Journal of Regional Science, Vol. 36, No. 2, pp. 106-113.

Dixon, J.W. (1964): Water Resource, part I, Planning and Development. Hand book ofApplied Hydrology (ed, Chow, V.T.) Mc Graw Hill, New York.

Penning, Rowsell, E.C. and Underwood, L. (1972): Flood Hazard and flood plainManagement, Survey of Existing Studies, Middlesex Polytechniques, Flood HazardResearch project, Progress Report 2.pp. 198-201.

Burton, I. (1969): Flood Damage reduction in Canada, (eds) Nelson, J.G. and Chambers,(M.J.), Mathuen, Tornato, pp. 77-108.

Goswami, D.C. (1982): Brahmaputra River, Assam, India’. Suspended Sediment Transport,

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valley Aggradation and Basin Denudation, Ph.D. Thesis, The John HopkinsUniversity. Baltimore, U.S.A.

Kar, M. (1994): Flood Hazard on Nagaon and Morigaon Districts of Assam: A GeographicalPerspectives,Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis in Geography. Gauhati University. pp 89-92.

Brunhes, J. (1920): Geographic Humanie de la France, Bonotaun,6, Editor, Historie, de laFrance, vol- 1(paris)p.493.

Willey, G.R. (1953): Prehistoric Settlement Pattern in the River Valley, Bureau of AmericanEthnology, Smithsonian Institute Bulletin, pp.155-453.

Smith, C.T. (1969): The Drainage Basin as a Historical Basis for Human Activity, inChorley R.J. (ed). Introduction to Geographical Hydrology, Methuen and co.,London, pp, 20-29.

Horton, R.E. (1932): Drainage Basin Characteristics, Trans. American. Geophysics. Union.Vol.14, pp.350-61.

Hayt, W.A. and Langbein, W.B. 1955: Floods, The Ronald Press, Newyork, p.468.

Goswami D.C. (1989): Floods and their Impact on Agriculture of Assam, Agriculture inAssam (ed .p. Goswami, p.c. Institute of Development studies, pp. 191- 207.

Leopold, L.B., and Wolman, M.G. (1957): River Channel Patterns; Braided, Meanderingand Straight: U.S. Geological. Survey Prof. Paper 282-B.

Leopold, L.B., and Langbein, W.B. (1962): The Concept of Entropy in Landscape Evolution:U.S. Geological. Survey Prof. Paper 500-A.

Kates, R.W. (1962): Hazard and Choice Perception in Flood plain Management, Universityof Chicago, Department of Geography, Research paper No.78, pp. 157.

Kates, R.W. (1965): Industrial flood losses, Damage Estimation in the Lehigh valley, Univ.of Chicago, Department of Geography, Research paper, No.98.

Sewel, W.R.D. (1965): Water Management and Flood in the Frasar River Basin, Universityof Chicago, Department of Geography, Research paper No.100, pp.132-140.

White G.F. (1963): Contributions of Geographical Analysis to River Basin Development,Geographical Journal, 129, pp.412-436.

Jarvis, C.S. (1942): Flood in Meinger O.E. (ed) Hydrology, McGraw Hill, New York, p.56.

Coleman, E.A. (1953): Vegetation and Watershed Management, Ronald, Newyork, pp.122-123.

Murphy, F.C. (1958): Regulating Flood plain Development, University of Chicago,Department of Geography, Research paper No.56, p.204.

White, G.F. (1964): Choice of Adjustment to Flood, Research paper, No, 93, Dept. ofGeography, Chicago, University, and pp.196-202.

Miller, D.H. (1966): Cultural Hydrology: A Review, Economic Geography, 42F, pp85-89.

Burton, I. (1969): Flood Damage reduction in Canada, (eds) Nelson, J.G. and Chambers,

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(M.J.), Mathuen, Tornato, pp. 77-108.

Issac, P.C.G. (ed.) (1967): River Management, Mclaven London, pp.258.

Burton, I., and R.W. Kates. (1964): The Floodplain and the Seashore; a comparativeAnalysis of Hazard zone Occupance, Geographical. Review. 54: pp.366-385.

Sewel, W.R.D. (1969): Human Response to flood, in Chorley R.J. (ed). IntroductionGeographical Hydrology, Methuen and co., Ltd. pp. 121-141.

Schendal, U. (1974): The Problem of Water Economy, Soil Erosion and Irrigation in WarmClimate Zones, Applied Sciences and Development, A- bi- annual collection ofRecent German Contribution, Concerning development through Applied Sciences,vol.4, A series Issued by the Institute for Scientific Co- Operation, pp. 17-31.

Chakravarty, A.K. (1958): Floods in the Himalayan Rivers of the Ganga plain; cause andcontrols. National Geographers, vol, II, spl. No. Allahabad University, SeventeenthAnniversary Souvenir, Singh, L.P(ed), Reprinted by Allahabad Geographical Society(Regd), Dept of Geography, University of Allahabad: pp. 47-52.

Kumar, P.N. (1968): Floods Protection Methods in India, Geographical Review of India,Vol.30, No.4, pp.45-54.

Ramachandran, R. and Thakur, S.C. (1974): Indian and Ganga Flood Plains, in white, G.F.(ed), Natural hazards, Local, National and Global, Oxford University Press,Newyork. pp.36-37.

Kayastha, S.L. and Yadav R.P. (1977): Human Perception and Adjustment to EnvironmentalHazrds – A Case Study of three villages of the Ganga Flood plain(Chandali Tahsil)U.P.,in Edit et al.(ed) Man, Culture and Settlement, Kalyani Publications, NewDelhi,pp.404-414.

Viswanathan, T.V. and Chakravarty, C. (1977): Fluvial Processes, Geomorphology andGeology. Contributions of Geomorphology and Geohydrology of the Brahmaputravalley, Misc.publ.30

Kumar, P.N. (1969): Flood, Protection Methods in India, Geological Society of India,Calcutta.19.vol 30.No.4 pp.45-47.

Bandopadhyay, J and Gyawali. (1994): Himalayan water Resources: Ecological and PoliticalAspects of Management, Mountain Research and development, vol, 14, No.1,publ. by university of California press pp.1-21.

Goel, R.S. (2000): Environmental Impact Assessment of Water Resource Project. Rivervalley project and Environment; Concerns and Management. pp 71-87.

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CHAPTER - 22

Climate Change and Indian Horticulture:Opportunities for Adaptation and MitigationStrategiesT. K. Hazarika*

Introduction

Climate change is one of the serious global environmental issues havingimpact on all forms of life. The impact of climate change at the global levelhas become a major concern today. It has direct impact on agriculture andhorticulture. Climate change has contributed to unpredictable or erraticrainfall pattern, drying up of local springs and streams, species migration tohigher elevations, shift of sowing and harvesting period of crops, emergenceof invasive species and incidence of diseases/pests in crops as well as infodder species. It increases the green house gases like carbon dioxide,nitrous oxide, ozone and methane which may cause impact in terms ofincreased temperature, more demand for water and increase in biotic andabiotic stresses. The third assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panelon Climate Change has reported the projected rise in temperature (1.4° Cby 2020 and 3.8° C by 2080s) and precipitation (3% by 2020 and 11% by2080) over the Indian region resulting into flash floods, droughts, cyclonesand forest fires (IPCC 2001). In the north Indian floodplains the seasonaltemperature has increased by 0.94 °C per 100 years for the post monsoonseason and by 1.1 °C per 100 years for the winter season (Arora et al.,2005).

*Depatment of Horticulture, Aromatic and Medicinal Plants, School of Earth Sciences andNatural Resources Management, Mizoram University, Aizawl, Mizoram,E-mail:[email protected]

Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation (2015) : 313-325 Sati,V. P. et al. (Ed),Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002

ISBN: 81-8019-518-3 (India) ISBN: 1-55528-374-8 (USA)

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Impact of Climate Change on Horticulture Crops

Any change in the climate system will drive unexpected responses fromagricultural systems. Not only crops will be responding to changes in differentclimate variables, but also farmers and local agricultural researchers willbe generating short and mid-term responses to cope with the likely losses inyields. In order to better manage these processes, impacts need to be properlyassessed and improved adaptation strategies need to be tested, targetedand implemented. In order to assess impacts of future climate on cropproduction, researchers have developed so-called “crop models”. Crop modelsuse available information regarding the ecology, growth and physiologicaldevelopment of a crop, the local weather, the management practices, thesoil characteristics, among others, to simulate part of the processes that arecarried out in the field at different levels in order to predict the attainableyield of a particular growing season for a particular crop in a particularplace.

Currently, more than two dozen crop models exist and all of themallow in one way or the other to assess the responses of crops to climatechange, all of them mostly agreeing in the direction but not in the extent ofthe changes. Most of these approaches are developed for annual crops orhave only been extensively applied and tested on a limited number of crops(Hoogenboom et al. 2010; Challinor et al. 2004; Aggarwal et al. 2006;Steduto et al. 2009; Williams et al. 1989; Diepen et al. 1989), and in mostcases these do not include any horticultural crop. However, horticulturalcrops might be highly sensitive to changes in climate and climatic variabilityas they heavily rely on adequate water supply and on a proper amount ofdaily energy (temperature, solar radiation) in order properly grow. Therefore,even slight variations can cause crop failures (Mathur et al., 2012).

Due to climate change, low production of horticultural crops isfeatured. Horticultural crops suffer a yield loss of 10-100 % due to severecold wave, depending upon crop and variety. Production of apple in HimachalPradesh in last two decades showed a decreasing trend. The global warminghas caused loss of vigour, fruit bearing ability, reduction in size of fruits, lessjuice content, low colour, reduced shelf life and increasing attack of pestsresulting low production and quality of apples. In mango, unusual or veryearly flowering is experienced. However, there was no fruit set due to thisflowering. Leaf scorching, twig dying are common symptoms of heat strokein bearing and non-bearing mango plants. In guava, there is severe increasein pests and diseases due to climate change. Fruit fly in guava is becomingalarming due to hot and humid conditions. The crops like peach, plum, which

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requires low chilling temperature also showing sign of decline in productivity.Abnormal high temperature during winter cause poor flowering, irregularityin flowering duration, pattern of flowering and poor yield in pear due tonon-availability of sufficient chilling hours during winter months. Thehorticulturists will have to play a significant role in the climate changescenario and proper strategies have to be envisaged for saving horticulturalcrops for further turmoil. Developing of new cultivars tolerant to hightemperature and producing good yield under stress conditions will be themain strategies to meet these challenges.Table 1: Symptoms of heat and solar injury of fruit and vegetable crops

Crop Symptoms

Snap Bean Brown and redish spots on the pod,

Cabbage Bleached, papery appearance in outer leaves

Lettuce Papery leaf, tip burn, soft rot during post harvest

Muskmelon Characteristic sunburn symptoms, dry and sunken areas, green colourand brown spots on rind

Bell Pepper Sunburn, yellowing and in some cases slight wilting

Potato Black heart, occur during excessively hot weather in saturated soils,

Tomato Sunburn, disruption of lycopene synthesis, appearance of yellowareas in affected tissues

Apple Skin discolouration, pigment breakdown and water soaked areas

Avocado Skin and flesh browning, increased decay susceptibility

Lime Juice vesicle ruptures, formation of brown spots on fruit surface

Pineapple Scattered water soaked areas on flesh, translucent fruit flesh

Source: Wolf and Ferguson (2000), Sagent and Moretti (2002)

Climate Change and Fruit Production

India is the second largest producer of Fruits after China, with a productionof 81285 thousand metric tonnes of fruits from an area of 6982 thousandhectares and a productivity of 11.6 MT/ha. A large variety of fruits aregrown in India, of which mango, banana, citrus, guava, grape, pineappleand apple are the major ones.

Climate change will have both positive and negative impacts onfruits in tropical regions. In regions where the prevailing temperatures arealready high, further increases in temperature will adversely affect theyield and quality of fruits. In regions where cold temperatures are one of

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the primary factors limiting crop production, temperature increases will bebeneficial. Perennial fruit trees like mango, guava, jackfruit, grapes aresubjected to various climatic changes depending on where they grow. Fruitcrops have a longer period of flowering so the temperature regime in thesoil as well as the outside temperature determine the fruit set. Temperaturebrings about changes in the level of different hormones necessary for growthand development of the trees.Table 2: List of some fruits and their variety tolerant to abiotic stress

Sl. No. Crop Variety Tolerant

1. Pomegrante Ruby Drought tolerant

2. Annona Arka Sahan Drought tolerant

3. Fig Deanna and Excel Drought tolerant

4. Grape (rootstock) Dogridge Salinity tolerant

5. Mango Bappaka Salinity tolerant

6. Lime Rangpur lime and Salinity tolerantCleopatra mandarin

Source: Adapted from: Bose and Mitra (1996)

Mango trees can tolerate temperatures up to 48°C for short periods(Mukherjee, 1953) and have limited tolerance to cold. Monoembryonicmango cultivars tend to be more cold tolerant than polyembryonic cultivars,probably due to their origin of evolution (Schaffer et al. 2009). In mango,under the influence of climate shift, early and delayed flowering will be acharacteristic feature. As a result of variations in temperature, unseasonalrains and higher humidity, fruit trees show altered flowering trends. Delaysin panicle emergence and fruit set have been noticed. Fruit set and availabilityof hermaphrodite flowers for pollination have an effect on yield due topollen and stigmatic sterility. If panicle development coincides with anunusual cold spell, mango production will face several problems. An earlyflowering under the sub-tropics may result in low fruit set because of severalabnormalities caused due to low night temperatures. Late flowering alsoreduces the fruit set because of pseudo-setting leading to clustering disorder.In addition, high temperatures during panicle development cause quickgrowth and reduce the number of days when hermaphrodite flowers areavailable for effective pollination, which may lead to a satisfactory crop.Rising temperatures cause desiccation of pollen and poor pollinator activityresulting into low fruit set (Bhriguvanshi 2010).

Citrus species can thrive in a wide range of soil and climatic

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conditions. Citrus is grown from sea level up to an altitude of 2100 m butfor optimal growth a temperature range from 2° to 30°C is ideal. Longperiods below 0°C are injurious to the trees and growth diminishes below13°C. Amongst citrus species, pummelo (C. grandis (L.) Osbeck) is awarm climate crop that requires sufficient water throughout the year withwell drained sandy clay loam soils. However, individual species and varietiesdecrease in susceptibility to low temperatures in the following sequence:grapefruit, sweet orange, mandarin, lemon/lime and trifoliate orange. Incitrus, the most limiting factor restricting citrus geographical distribution islow temperatures: frost and freezing damages the fruits and if it persistslong enough may kill the tree. Even at mild, non- damaging range,temperatures present major limitations for vegetative growth as well asfruit development and maturation, and temperatures below 13°C duringcold periods delay initiation of flowering. In contrast, temperatures above37°C may cause serious damage to tender fruitlets, and between 44-45°Ccan slow down fruit growth and cause excessive fruit abscission (Huchcheet al. 2010).

Banana production is most limited by high temperatures and drought.The decreases in global banana production se changes might be especiallycaused by the sensitivity of the crop to high temperatures and droughtduring the flowering and the fruit filling periods. However, this might bringopportunities for cropping in areas currently limited by low temperatures,although these positive impacts could be reduced by changes in rainfallseasonality, a key driver of banana production. Changes are far less drasticby the 2020s, but these trends are very likely to continue towards the secondhalf and the end of the 21st century (Ramirez et al. 2011).

In papaya, higher temperatures have resulted in flower drops infemale and hermaphrodite plants as well sex changes in hermaphrodite andmale plants. The promotion of stigma and stamen sterility in papaya ismainly because of higher temperatures. It has also been noticed that ifflowering takes place under extremely low temperature conditions, flowerdrop is quite common in most fruit crops like mango, papaya, guava andother fruits (Dinesh and Reddy, 2012).

In grapes, degree-days are important in determining the timing ofvarious phenological events where, temperatures between 28-32°C aremost congenial. Variations in temperature cause alterations in thedevelopmental stages and ultimately the ripening time. Under a highertemperature regime, the number of clusters per shoot was greater and thenumber of flowers per cluster was reduced (Pouget 1981). In the case of

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the variety Cabernet Sauvignon, maximum fruit set was observed at 20/15°C with no fruit set at 14/9°C or 38/33°C. Kliewer (1977) demonstratedthe loss of ovule viability in the varieties Pinot Noir and Carignane at 35°Cand 40°C as compared to 25°C.

In apple, changes in climate can cause poor harvests or even cropfailures. Excess of water and decreased snowfall during winter causes lowchilling hours in cropping areas, and this could pose serious threats to appleproduction worldwide, particularly in India (Singh et al. 2010). In India andNepal, traditional apple cultivation area is moving further up in elevationbecause of the warmer climate. Frequent exposure of apple fruit to hightemperatures, such as 40°C, can result in sunburn, development of watercore and loss of texture (Ferguson et al., 1994). Moreover, exposure tohigh temperatures on the tree, notably close to or at harvest, may inducetolerance to low-temperatures in postharvest storage.

Avocado fruit exposed to direct sunlight had pulp temperatures atharvest that frequently exceeded 35°C (Woolf et al., 1999). Duringsubsequent storage at 0°C (below the recommended temperature), thesefruit had lower incidences of chilling injury than fruit harvested from shadedparts of the tree.

Mangosteen requires high rainfall, high humidity and hightemperature. It does not tolerate low temperature at all and therefore islimited to humid tropics. Temperatures below 20°C reportedly slow theoverall growth of the mangosteen tree whereas high temperatures above35°C cause some stresses on the trees (Rejab et al. 2008).

Lychee require a warm sub-tropical to tropical climate that is coolbut also frost-free or with only very slight winter frosts not below -4°C, andwith high summer heat, rainfall, and humidity. Like the lychee, longan isadapted to a sub-tropical environment with warm, humid summers andcool, dry winters. Nevertheless, it does not tolerate temperatures below0°C, and temperatures of -2 to -3°C can cause severe damage or death toyoung trees.

Rambutan is adapted to warm tropical climates, around 22–30°C,and is sensitive to temperatures below 10°C (Tindal 1994). It is growncommercially within 12–15° latitude of the equator.

Climate Change and Vegetable Production

India is the second largest producer of vegetables in the world (ranks nextto China) and accounts for about 15% of the world’s production of

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vegetables. The current production level is 162186.6 thousand tonnes andthe total area under vegetable cultivation is around 9205.2 thousand hectareswith a productivity of 17.6 MT/ha.

Climatic changes will influence the severity of environmental stressimposed on vegetable crops. Vegetables are generally sensitive toenvironmental extremes, and thus high temperatures and limited soil moistureare the major causes of low yields. Increasing temperatures, reducedirrigation water availability, flooding, and salinity are major limiting factorsin sustaining and increasing vegetable productivity. Extreme climaticconditions have also negative impact soil fertility and increase soil erosion.Thus, additional fertilizer application or improved nutrient-use efficiency ofcrops will be needed to maintain productivity or harness the potential forenhanced crop growth due to increased atmospheric CO2. It has beenreported that the increased temperature beyond optimum range causeddelayed curd initiation in cauliflower. Temperature above 30°C inducedmaximum flower and fruit drop and high temperatures after pollen releasedecreased fruit set and fruit yield in tomato. Temperature above 40°C reducedthe bulb size in onion. In beans, high temperature delays flowering becauseof the enhanced short day photoperiod.

High temperature stress disrupts the biochemical reactionsfundamental for normal cell function in plants. It primarily affects thephotosynthetic functions of higher plants. High temperatures can causesignificant losses in tomato productivity due to reduced fruit set, and smallerand lower quality fruits. Pre-anthesis temperature stress is associated withdevelopmental changes in the anthers, particularly irregularities in theepidermis and endothesium, lack of opening of the stromium, and poor pollenformation. In pepper, high temperature exposure at the pre-anthesis stagedid not affect pistil or stamen viability, but high post-pollination temperaturesinhibited fruit set, suggesting that fertilization is sensitive to high temperaturestress. Symptoms causing fruit set failure at high temperatures in tomato;includes bud drop, abnormal flower development, poor pollen production,dehiscence, and viability, ovule abortion and poor viability, reducedcarbohydrate availability, and other reproductive abnormalities. In addition,significant inhibition of photosynthesis occurs at temperatures aboveoptimum, resulting in considerable loss of potential productivity (Bhardwaj,2012).

Low temperatures during extreme winters also influence vegetablecrop production. In cucumber sex expression is affected with lowtemperatures leading to more female flowers and high temperatures lead

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to more male flowers.

Vegetable production is threatened by increasing soil salinityparticularly in irrigated croplands which provide 40% of the world’s food.Excessive soil salinity reduces productivity of many agricultural crops,including most vegetables which are particularly sensitive throughout theontogeny of the plant. According to the United States Department ofAgriculture (USDA), onions are sensitive to saline soils, while cucumbers,eggplants, peppers, and tomatoes, amongst the main crops moderatelysensitive. Plant sensitivity to salt stress is reflected in loss of turgor, growthreduction, wilting, leaf curling and epinasty, leaf abscission, decreasedphotosynthesis, respiratory changes, loss of cellular integrity, tissue necrosis,and potentially death of the plant.

Tomatoes are strongly modified by temperature alone or inconjunction with other environmental factors (Abdalla & Verkerk 1968).High temperatures can cause significant losses in tomato productivity dueto reduced fruit set, and smaller and lower quality fruits. Pre-anthesistemperature stress is associated with developmental changes in the anthers,particularly irregularities in the epidermis and endothesium, lack of openingof the stromium, and poor pollen formation.Table 3: List of some abiotic stresses vegetable crops

Tolerant Crop

Drought tolerant Chilli, melons, tomato, onion

Heat tolerant Peas, tomato, beans, Capsicum

Salinity tolerant melons, peas, onion

Flooding/ excess moisture tolerant tomato, onion, chilli

Source: Rai and Yadav (2005)

Exposure of tomato fruits to temperatures above 30°C suppressesmany of the parameters of normal fruit ripening including color development,softening, respiration rate and ethylene production (Hicks et al., 1983). It isalso well known that exposure of fruit to temperature extremes approaching40°C can induce metabolic disorders and facilitate fungal and bacterialinvasion. Although symptoms of heat injury and disease incidence are easilyobserved at the end of storage, the incipient incidence of these disorders isoften not recognized in time to effect corrective treatment. In general,visible evidence of heat injury on tomatoes appears as yellowish-whitepatches on the side of fruits (Mohammed et al., 1996).

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In capsicum, due to climate change, there will be increase inpollination failures under higher temperature during flowering, floral abortionwill occur under higher temperature, increased heat stress will adverselyaffect fruit size and quality of the fruit, increased incidence of physiologicaldisorders like blossom end rot and sun scald, increased incidence of insectpests under higher temperature, increased risk of spread and proliferationof soil borne diseases like leaf blight and fruit rot, as a result of more intenserainfall events coupled with warmer temperatures. In pepper, hightemperature exposure at the pre-anthesis stage did not affect pistil or stamenviability, but high post-pollination temperatures inhibited fruit set. Symptomscausing fruit set failure at high temperatures in tomato; includes bud drop,abnormal flower development, poor pollen production, dehiscence, andviability, ovule abortion and poor viability, reduced carbohydrate availability,and other reproductive abnormalities. In addition, significant inhibition ofphotosynthesis occurs at temperatures above optimum, resulting inconsiderable loss of potential productivity.Table 4: List of vegetables and their advanced lines tolerant to abiotic stress

Sl. No. Tolerant Crop Variety Advanced line

1 Drought/rainfed Tomato Arka Vikas RF- 4A

Onion Arka Kalyan MST-42 and MST-46

Chilli Arka Lohit IIHR Sel.-132

2 Photo insensitive Dolichos Arka Jay, ArkaVijay,arka Sambram,ArkaAmogh, ArkaSoumya

Cow pea Arka garima,ArkaSuman, ArkaSamrudhi

3. High temperature Capsicum IIHR Sel.-3

French bean IIHR-19-1

Peas IIHR-1 and IIHR-8

Cauliflower IIHR 316-1 andIIHR-371-1

Source: Adapted from : Hazra and Som (1999) and Rai and Yadav (2005)

Impact of Climate Change on Lower Production

Commercial production of flowers particularly grown under open field

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conditions will be severely affected leading to poor flowering, improperfloral development and colour besides reduction in flower size and shortblooming period. Melting of ice cap in the Himalayan regions will reducechilling required for the flowering of many of the ornamental plants likeRhododendron, Orchid, Tulips, Alstromerea, Magnolia, Saussurea, Impatiens,Narcissus etc. Some of them will fail to bloom or flower with less abundancewhile others will be threatened. Indigenous species in the natural habitatwill be under threat for not getting favourable agro-climatic conditions fortheir proliferation. Western Ghats and surrounding regions may be deprivedof normal precipitation due to abnormal monsoon. Plant species requiringhigh humidity and water may find them under difficult conditions for survival.Plains of India will also have similar kind of problems and will be affectedeither by drought or excessive rains, floods and seasonal variations.Chrysanthemum is a short day plant. So flowering round the year in openfield condition is not possible. Low temperatures shut down flowering inJasmine (<19°C) and lead to reduction in flower size. Flowers do not openup fully in tropical orchids wherever temperatures below 15°C. Hightemperature leads to flower bud drop and unmarketable spikes in tropicalorchids when temperature remains > 35°C (Datta, 2013).

Conclusion

Rising levels of carbon dioxide also contribute to global warming, byentrapping heat in the atmosphere. Understanding how climate changeswill impact mankind in the decades to come is of paramount importance forour survival. Temperature, carbon dioxide and ozone directly and indirectlyaffect the production and quality of fruit and vegetable crops grown indifferent climates around the world. Temperature variation can directlyaffect crop photosynthesis, and a rise in global temperatures can be expectedto have significant impact on pre and postharvest quality by altering importantquality parameters such as synthesis of sugars, organic acids, antioxidantcompounds and firmness. Increased levels of ozone in the atmosphere canlead to detrimental effects on postharvest quality of fruit and vegetablecrops. Elevated levels of ozone can induce visual injury and physiologicaldisorders in different species, as well as significant changes in dry matter,reducing sugars, citric and malic acid, among other important qualityparameters.

Horticulturists will have to play a significant role in the climatechange scenario and proper strategies have to be envisaged for savinghorticulture from future turmoil. The most effective way to address climatechange is to adopt a sustainable development pathway, besides using

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renewable energy, forest and water conservation, reforestation etc.Awareness and educational programmes for the growers, modification ofpresent horticultural practices and greater use of green house technologyare some of the solutions to minimize the effect of climate change. Hi-techhorticulture is to be adopted in an intensive way. It is necessary that selectionof plant species/cultivars is to be considered keeping in view the effects ofclimate change. Development of new cultivars of horticultural crops tolerantto high temperature, resistant to pests and diseases, short duration andproducing good yield under stress conditions, will be the main strategies tomeet this challenge.

References:Abdalla A.A. and Verderk K. (1968) Growth, flowering and fruit set of tomato at high

temperature. The Neth J Agric Sci. 16:71-76.

Aggarwal PK, Kalra N, Chander S, Pathak H. (2006). InfoCrop: a dynamic simulationmodel for the assessment of crop yields, losses due to pests, and environmentalimpact of agro-ecosystems in tropical environments. I. Model description.Agricultural Systems 89: 1-25. Doi:10.1016/j. agsy.2005.08.001.

Arora M, Goel N.K. and Singh P. (2005) Evaluation of temperature trends over India.Hydrological Science Journal, 50: 81-93

Bhardwaj, M.L. (2012) Effect of Climate Change on Vegetable Production in India. In:vegetable production under Changing climate scenario, Dept. of Vegetable Science,Dr. Y.S. Parmer University of Horticulture and Forestry, Solan, India. Pp. 1-12.

Bhriguvanshi SR. (2010) Impact of climate change on mango and tropical fruits. In: SinghHP, Singh JP, Lal SS, editors. Challenges of Climate Change- Indian Horticulture.Westville Publishing House, New Delhi, India. pp. 224.

Bose T.K. and Mitra S.K. (1996) Fruits: Tropical and Subtropical. Nayaprakash, Kolkata,India.

Challinor AJ, Wheeler TR, Craufurd PQ, Grimes DIF. 2004. Design and optimisation of alarge-area process-based model for annual crops. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology124: 99-120.

Datta, S. (2013) Impact Of Climate Change In Indian Horticulture - A Review. InternationalJournal of Science, Environment. and Technology, 2:661– 671.

Diepen CA, Wolf J, Keulen H, Rappoldt C. (1989) WOFOST: a simulation model of cropproduction. Soil Use and Management. 1: 16-24. Doi:10.1111/j.1475-2743.1989.tb00755.x.

Dinesh M.R. and Reddy B.M.C. (2012) Physiological Basis of Growth and Fruit YieldCharacteristics of Tropical and Sub-tropical Fruits to Temperature. In: Sthapit BR,Ramanatha Rao V, Sthapit SR. (Ed.) Tropical Fruit Tree Species and ClimateChange. Bioversity International, New Delhi, India.

Ferguson, I. B., Lurie, S., & Bowen, J. H. (1994) Protein synthesis and breakdown during

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heat shock of cultured pear (Pyrus communis L.) cells. Plant Physiology, 104,1429–1437.

Hazra P. and Som M.G. (1999) Technology for Vegetable Production and Improvement.Naya Prokash, Kolkata, India

Hicks, J. R., Manzano-Mendez, J., & Masters, J. F. (1983) Temperature extremes andtomato ripening. Proceedings Fourth Tomato Quality Workshop, 4:38–51.

Hoogenboom G, Jones JW, Wilkens PW, Porter CH, Boote KJ, et al. (2010) Decisionsupport system for agrotechnology transfer version 4.5 [CD-ROM]. UniversityofHawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii.

Huchche AD, Panigrahi P, Shivankar VJ. (2010) Impact of climate change on citrus in India.In: Singh HP, Singh JP, Lal SS, editors. Challenges of Climate Change – IndianHorticulture. Westville Publishing House, New Delhi, India. p 224.

IPCC. (2001) Climate Change 2001. Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability.Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Cambridge University Press,Cambridge.

Kliewer WM. (1977) Effect of high temperature during the bloom-set period on fruit-set,ovule fertility, and berry growth of several grape cultivars. American Journal ofEnology and Viticulture 28:215-221.

Mathur, P. N., Ramirez-Villegas J.,and Jarvis, A. (2012) The Impacts of Climate Change onTropical and Sub-tropical Horticultural Production. In: Sthapit BR, RamanathaRao V, Sthapit SR. (Ed.) Tropical Fruit Tree Species and Climate Change. BioversityInternational, New Delhi, India.

Mohammed, M., Wilson, L. A., & Gomes, P. I. (1996) Influence of high temperature stresson postharvest quality of processing and non-processing tomato cultivars. Journalof Food Quality, 19:41–55.

Mukherjee SK. (1953) The mango-its botany, cultivation, uses and future improvement,especially observed in India. Economic Botany 7:130-162.

Pouget R. (1981) Action de la temperature sur la differenciaction des inflorescences et dusfleurs durant les phases de pre debourrement et de post debourrement des bourgeonslatents de la Vigne. Conn. vigne vin 15:65-79.

Rai N. and Yadav D. S. (2005) Advances in Vegetable production. Researchco Book centre,New Delhi, India

Ramirez-Villegas J, Jarvis A, Läderach P. (2011) Empirical approaches for assessing impactsof climate change on agriculture: the EcoCrop model and a case study with grainsorghum. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology. Doi: http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2011.09.005..

Rejab M, Teck CS, Zain KM, Muhamad M. (2008) Mangosteen. In: Kwok CY, Lian TS,Jamaluddin SH, eds. Breeding Horticultural Crops. MARDI, Malaysia. pp. 155-174.

Sargent, S. A., & Moretti, C. L. (2002) Tomato. <http://www.ba.ars.usda.gov/hb66/138tomato.pdf> Accessed 22.03.09.

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Schaffer B, Urban L, Lu P, Whiley AW. (2009) Ecophysiology. In: Litz RE, editor. TheMango Botany, Production and Uses. CABI, UK.

Singh HP, Singh JP, Lal SS. (2010) Challenges of Climate Change – Indian Horticulture.Westville Publishing House, New Delhi, India. p. 224.

Steduto P, Hsiao TC, Raes D, Fereres E. (2009) AquaCrop—The FAO crop model tosimulate yield response to water: I. Concepts and Underlying Principles. AgronomyJournal 101: 426. Doi:10.2134/agronj2008.0139s.

Tindall HD. (1994) Rambutan Cultivation. Food and Agriculture Organization of theUnited Nations. ISBN 9789251033258.

Williams JR, Jones CA, Kiniri JR, Spanel DA. (1989) The EPIC crop growth model.Transactions of the ASAE 32, no. 2: 497-511.

Woolf, A. B., & Ferguson, I. B. (2000) Postharvest responses to high fruit temperatures inthe field. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 21:7–20.

Woolf, A. B., Bowen, J. H., & Ferguson, I. B. (1999) Preharvest exposure to the suninfluences postharvest responses of ‘Hass’ avocado fruit. Postharvest Biology andTechnology, 15, 143–153.

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CHAPTER - 23

Climate Change and Land UsePrabhat Kumar Rai*, S. Priyokumar Singh* and M. Muni Singh*

Introduction

Historic changes in land use have altered the land surface significantly. Forexample, since the early 19th century, there has been a substantial increasein the area of cropland in the middle latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere.The pronounced tropical deforestation during the 20th century has paralleledthe large-scale development of urban settlements and irrigated agriculture.The land use changes have resulted in a number of alterations in the regionaland global climate system, primarily by: Changing the surface albedo,Changing the surface evapotranspiration, Modifying winds, heat waveresilience, vulnerability to floods and other such factors in the proximity ofhuman settlements and Modifying atmospheric CO2 uptake (Bart van denHurk, 2012).

Land use and land use changes can significantly contribute to overallclimate change. Vegetation and soils typically act as a carbon sink, storingcarbon dioxide that is absorbed through photosynthesis. When the land isdisturbed, the stored carbon dioxide along with methane and nitrous oxideis emitted, re-entering the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrousoxide are greenhouse gases, which contribute to global warming. Theclearing of land can result in soil degradation, erosion, and the leaching ofnutrients, which can also possibly reduce its ability to act as a carbon sink.This reduction in the ability to store carbon can result in additional carbondioxide remaining in the atmosphere, thereby increasing the total amount of

*Department of Environmental Science, Mizoram University, Tanhril, Aizawl-796004,Mizoram, India, Corresponding Author E-mail address:[email protected]

Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation (2015) : 327-334 Sati,V. P. et al. (Ed),Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002

ISBN: 81-8019-518-3 (India) ISBN: 1-55528-374-8 (USA)

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greenhouse gases (Environmental Literacy Council, 2008).

The steadily increasing level of greenhouse gas emissions over thepast century has led to a gradually increasing stock of greenhouse gases inthe atmosphere (IPCC, 2007b). Climate scientists anticipate that if thesegases continue to accumulate, they will increasingly warm the planet (IPCC,2007b).

Land Use Relationships with Climate Change

Land-use effects on climate change include both implications of land-usechange on atmospheric flux of CO2 and its subsequent impact on climateand the alteration of climate-change impacts through land management.Effects of climate change on land use refers to both how land use might bealtered by climate change and what land management strategies wouldmitigate the negative effects of climate change (Virginia, 1997).

Impact of Land Use on Climate Change

Human activities influence climate change by altering the distribution ofecosystems and their associated fluxes of energy e.g., latent and sensibleheat and radiative exchanges and mass (e.g., water vapor, trace gases andparticulates) (Virginia, 1997). At the landscape scale, changes in land-usepatterns can directly impact energy and mass fluxes. For example, whenlarge areas of forests are cleared, reduced transpiration results in less cloudformation, less rainfall, and increased drying. Simulations of the de-forestation of Amazonia indicate that evapotranspiration and forests wouldbe replaced by either desert or pasture (Dickinson, 1991). Increased albedoand its subsequent effects on climate also result from changes in land-surface characteristics (Dickinson, 1991; Sagan et al., 1979).

NASA reports that between one-third and one-half of our planet’sland surfaces have been transformed by human development. Accordingto Roger Pielke Sr., a leading authority on land-use change, “change andvariability in land use by humans and the resulting alterations in surfacefeatures are major but poorly recognized drivers of long-term global climatepatterns …these spatially heterogeneous land use effects may be at leastas important in altering the weather as changes in climate patterns associatedwith greenhouse gases.”(Pielke, 2005).

Increased atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases resultsin global climate change (Ramanathan, 1988). At the global scale, humanactivities influence the greenhouse effect by releasing greenhouse gasesinto the atmosphere and by changing the-patterns of carbon storage through

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land-use activities. Deforestation and the associated agricultural expansionare particularly important because clearing induces carbon losses from thesoil and vegetation, and forests contain 90% of the carbon stored in globalvegetation (calculated from the estimated biomass in forests compared tothat in all vegetation using data in Whittaker and Likens, 1973).

Carbon Dioxide

The role of land use in the global carbon cycle involves both CO2 sources(e.g., as forest land is converted to agricultural uses) and CO2 sinks (asvegetation regrows following land disturbance). While land-use changecontributions to the carbon cycle have been mainly evaluated using netemissions of CO2 (Daniel deB Richter, 2011).The anthropogenic release ofCO2 has increased greatly since the industrial age began and fossil fuelsbegan being intensively used as an energy source. Currently, 61 % of theanthropogenic greenhouse forcing can be attributed to CO2 increases (Shineet al., 1990).During the past century (1850 to 1980), fossil fuels accountedfor the release of 150-190 Pg of carbon (PgC) (Rotty, 1987), and land-usechange accounted for the release of 90-120 PgC (Houghton and Skole,1990) with land-use changes making the greater contribution prior to about1910.

Methane

Methane is a chemically active trace gas produced by anaerobicprocesses. Since the industrial age began, methane has grown to comprise17% of the anthropogenic greenhouse forcing (Shine et al., 1990). Methaneis a very powerful greenhouse gas with a radiative effectiveness that isabout 9 times that (see review by Harris et al., 1993). Any activity thatdisturbs the soils of these wetlands (e.g., drainage for agriculture or forestryuse) can affect anaerobic processes. Rice paddies are another major sourceof methane, with the amount being released depending on agriculturalpractices (fertilization, mulching, water management, plant density androtations), soil characteristics and season (Neue, 1993).

Nitrous Oxide

Nitrous oxide is produced from a diversity of biological sources in soils andwater. Nitrous oxides comprise 4% of the anthropogenic greenhouse forcingover the past five centuries, but their contribution has increased with thespread of human activity (Shine et al., 1990). Nitrous oxide is 190 timesmore effective radiatively than CO2. The major background source of nitrousoxide (prior to human activities) was tropical forests oils (Matson andVitousek, 1987, 1990). Oceanic release of N2O occurs through both

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nitrificationin near-surface waters and denitrification in oxygen-deficientdeep waters (Joye and Paerl, 1993).

Impact of Climate Change on Land Use

Although the precise magnitude of the warming is not known, globaltemperatures are expected to rise by 2–6°C (34–41°F) by 2100. Thiswarming will in turn affect precipitation patterns, sea levels, and extremeweather events (IPCC 2007b). Early studies suggested that doubling theamount of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere could lead to globaldamages ranging from 1.4 to 1.9 percent of gross world product (GWP)(Pearce et al., 1996). Without global mitigation, CO2 concentrations coulddouble as early as 2040, although it would take global temperatures another30 years to reach their equilibrium values (IPCC, 2007b). Early analysts ofclimate impacts identified five sectors of the economy that are sensitive toclimate change: agriculture, forestry, water, coastal, and energy (Pearce etal., 1996).

Agriculture

The largest climate-sensitive sector is agriculture. Both natural scienceexperiments and economic analyses suggest that crop yields have a hill-shaped relationship with temperature and precipitation. There is an idealtemperature and precipitation level for every crop. Locations that are eithercooler or warmer than the ideal, or drier or wetter, have lower productivity.Some crops are more valuable than others. The temperature and precipitationlevels that produce the most valuable crop lead to the most net revenue. Ifa farm is either cooler or warmer than that ideal or drier or wetter, it maybe forced to grow a lower-valued crop. Consequently, net revenue also hasa hill-shaped relationship with temperature and precipitation (Mendelsohn,Nordhaus, and Shaw, 1994). Climate change have very different impactson low-latitude (hot), mid-latitude (optimal), and high-latitude (cool) farms(IPCC, 2007a; Mendelsohn and Dinar, 2009). In addition, there may bevery different effects depending on whether an area is arid, of averagerainfall, or wet and whether that area receives more rainfall or less. Theresult is that warming can lead to myriad effects across a landscape.

As warming continues, farms will continue to change their positionalong the climate gradient. Eventually, there will be no more benefits forthe farm that was originally too cool. Similarly, the farm that was originallyoptimal will start incurring more damages. The farm that was originally toohot may eventually be driven out of agriculture (Robert Mendelsohn, 2011).Agronomic studies of climate change suggest that warming scenarios will

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be especially harmful in low-latitude areas (Iglesias and Minguez, 1996;IPCC, 2007a; Rosenzweig and Parry, 1994).

Agriculture is vulnerable to more than just changes in the annualmean of temperature and precipitation. It is also vulnerable to how thosechanges are spread across seasons. For example, higher temperatures inthe spring and fall can extend growing seasons, but higher temperatures inthe summer can lead to crop stress (Mendelsohn, Nordhaus, and Shaw,1994; Schlenker, Hanemann, and Fisher, 2006).

Finally, agriculture will be directly affected by rising CO2 levels inthe atmosphere. Plants can reduce the opening of their stomata in higher-CO2 settings, which can in turn reduce their vulnerability to water andincrease their productivity.

Water

Rising temperatures are expected to increase the hydrological cycle, leadingto more evaporation and more rain (IPCC, 2007b). Where that rain will fallis not clear. Many studies suggest that warmer temperatures also mayreduce runoff (IPCC, 2007b), which will result in lower water supplies(IPCC, 2007a). In addition, these studies suggest that the demand for waterwill increase with higher temperatures (IPCC, 2007a). Combining decreasedsupply with increased demand, researchers predict that water will becomescarcer (Hurd et al., 1999; IPCC, 2007a; Lund et al., 2006).

Forestry

The combination of rising temperatures and higher CO2 levels is expectedto have several major effects on trees. First, ecosystems are expected toshift poleward and toward higher elevations. This will cause someecosystems, and therefore some timber types, to expand and others tocontract. Second, this dynamic process is expected to cause dieback insome places and the disappearance of entire forests in others. There is ageneral expectation of a large expansion of boreal forests into the tundra inthe far north, as well as losses of tropical and temperate forests to savanna.Third, forests are expected to increase in productivity. Overall, the ecologicalexpectation is that natural forest land will expand and be more productivein most climate scenarios for the next century (Robert Mendelsohn, 2011).

Coastal

Sea level is expected to rise for two reasons. First, global warming willexpand seawater, which is expected to result in a sea-level rise of 0.3–1 m(1–3.3 ft.) by 2100 (IPCC, 2007b). Second, warming will cause land-based

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glaciers to melt, which will release water into the oceans. Of course, morewater is also expected to be held in the atmosphere, so that not every cubicmeter of melt water will end up in the ocean. Nonetheless, very long-termmodels of Greenland suggest that the ice sheet could disappear completelyafter several centuries of warming, which could lead to a staggering increasein sea level of 7 m (23 ft.) (IPCC, 2007b).

Conclusion

There are two aspects to considering impacts of land use: effects of landuse on climate change and the effects of human-induced climate changeon land use. The direct ecological effects of the land-use and climate changeare dominated by the land-use change effects, at least over the period of afew decades. Because climate-change effects are largely determined byland-cover patterns, land-use practices set the stage on which climatealterations can act. Accumulating greenhouse gases could have widespreadeffects on land across the planet. In fact, most of the impacts of climatechange can be viewed as impacts on land. Agriculture and forestry are twoeconomic activities that are both land intensive and climate sensitive, makingthem vulnerable to climate change. Coastal areas will be vulnerable to sea-level rise and extreme events such as tropical cyclones. The water sectorwill be affected by both reductions in supply and increases in demand. Thiswill in turn affect agriculture.

References:Bart van den Hurk, Seneviratne, S.I. and Batlle-Bayer, L.,( 2012) Land cover change - To

what degree do human land cover dynamics affect climate change? PAGES news •Vol 20 • No 1.

Environmental literacy council (2008) http://enviroliteracy.org/article.php/1346.html

Pielke, R., (2005) Land use and Climate Change. Science, 310.

Daniel deB Richter and Houghton, R.A., (2011) Gross CO2 fluxes from land-use change:implications for reducing global emissions and increasing sinks. Carbon Management,2(1), 41–47.

Robert Mendelsohn (2010) Climate change and Land Policies

Hurd, B., Callaway, J.M. , Smith, J.B. and Kirshen, P., (1999) Economic effects of climatechange on U.S. water resources. In the impact of climate change on the UnitedStates economy, ed. R. Mendelsohn and J. E. Neumann. Cambridge, U.K.: CambridgeUniversity Press.

Iglesias, A., and Minguez, M.I., (1996) Modeling crop-climate interactions in Spain:Vulnerability and adaptation of different agricultural systems to climate change.Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 1, 273–288.

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IPCC (2007a) Climate change 2007: Impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability, ed. M. L.Parry, O. F. Canziani, J. P. Palutikof, P. J. van der Linden, and C. E. Hanson.Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.

IPCC (2007b) Climate change 2007: The physical science basis, ed. S. Solomon, D. Qin,M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K. B. Averyt, M. Tignor, and H. L. Miller.Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.

Lund, J. R., Zhu, T.,Tanaka, S.K. and Jenkins, M.J., (2006) Water resources impacts. InThe impact of climate change on regional systems: A comprehensive analysis ofCalifornia, ed. J. B. Smith and R. Mendelsohn, 165–187. Cheltenham, U.K.: EdwardElgar.

Mendelsohn, R., (2006) The role of markets and governments in helping society adapt toa changing climate. In Climate, economy, and society: From adaptation to adaptivemanagement climate, special issue. Climatic Change 78, 203–215.

Mendelsohn, R., and Dinar, A., (2009) Climate change and agriculture: An economic analysisof global impacts, adaptation, and distributional effects. Cheltenham, U.K. andNorthhampton, MA, U.S.: Edward Elgar.

Mendelsohn, R., Nordhaus, W. and Shaw, D., (1994) Measuring the impact of globalwarming on agriculture. American Economic Review, 84, 753–771.

Mendelsohn, R., (2011) Impact of Climate Change on Land use.

Rosenzweig, C., and Parry, M.L., (1994) Potential impact of climate change on world foodsupply. Nature, 367, 133–138.

Schlenker, W., Hanemann, W.M. and Fisher, A.C., (2006) The impact of global warming onU.S. agriculture: An econometric analysis of optimal growing conditions. Reviewof Economics and Statistics, 81, 113–125.

Pearce, D. W., Cline, W.R., Achanta, A.N., Fankhauser, S., Pachauri, R.K., Tol, R.S.J. andP. Vellinga, P., (1996) The social costs of climate change: Greenhouse damage andthe benefits of control. In Climate change 1995: Economic and social dimensions,ed. J. Bruce, H. Lee, and E. Haites, 179–224. Cambridge, U.K.: CambridgeUniversity Press.

Dickinson, R. E., (1991) Global change and terrestrial hydrology: a review. Tellus 43AB,176-181.

Harris, R ., Bartlett, K., Frolking, S. and Crill, P., (1993) Methane emissions from northernhigh-latitude wetlands. P ages 449-486 in R. S. Oremland, editor. Biogeochemistryof global change: radiatively active trace gases. Chapman & Hall, New York, NewYork, USA.

Houghton, R.A. and D. Skole, D., (1990) Changes in the global carbon cycle between 1700and 1985. Pages 393-408 in B. L. Turner, editor. The earth transformed by humanaction. Cambridge University Press, New York, New York, USA.

Joye, S. B., and H. W. Paerl, H.W., (1993) Nitrogen fixation and denitrification in theintertidal and subtidal environments of Tomales Bay, California. Pages 633-653 inR. S. Oremland, editor. Biogeochemistry of global change: radiatively active tracegases. Chapman & Hall, New York, New York, USA.

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Matson, P. A., and Vitousek, P.M., (1987) Cross-system comparison of soil nitrogentransformations and nitrous oxide flux in tropical forest ecosystems. GlobalBiogeochemical Cycles, 1, 163-170.

Matson, P. A., and Vitousek, P.M., (1990) Ecosystem approaches for the development ofa global nitrous oxide budget. BioScience, 40:667-672.

Neue, H.U., (1993) Methane emission from rice fields. BioScience, 43,466-474.

Rotty, R.M., (1987) Estimates of seasonal variation in fossil fuel CO2 emissions. Tellus39B,184-202.

Shine, K. P., Derwent, R.G., Wuebbles, D.J. and Mor-crette, J.J., (1990) Radiative forcingof climate. Pages 40-68 in J. T. Houghton, G . J. Jenkins and J. J. Ephraums,editors. Climate change: the I PCC scientific assessment. Cambridge UniversityPress, New York, New York, USA.

Dale (1997) The Relationship Between Land-Use Change And Climate Change. EcologicalApplications, 7(3), pp. 753-769.

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CHAPTER - 24

Potential Impacts of Climate Change onBiodiversityPrabhat Kumar Rai*, S. Priyokumar Singh* and M. Muni Singh*

Introduction

Climate change poses major new challenges to biodiversity conservation.As atmospheric CO2 increases over the next century, it is expected tobecome the first or second greatest driver of global biodiversity loss (Salaet al., 2000; Thomas et al., 2004). Global average temperatures haveincreased 0.2°C per decade since the 1970s, and global average precipitationincreased 2% in the last 100 years (IPCC, 2007a). Moreover, climatechanges are spatially heterogeneous. Some locations, such as the Arctic,experience much larger changes than global means, while others areexposed to secondary effects like sea level rise (IPCC, 2007a). Climatechange may have already resulted in several recent species extinctions(McLaughlin et al., 2002; Pounds et al., 2006). In comparison to threats byother human-induced environmental changes (e.g., changes in land coverand use (Dale, 1997), pollution, effects of increased concentrations ofgreenhouse gases), direct effects of recent climate change on biodiversitywill be slow and difficult to measure, but the processes are global andpractically irreversible.

Predictions play an important role in alerting scientists and decisionmakers to potential future risks, provide a means to bolster attribution ofbiological changes to climate change and can support the development ofproactive strategies to reduce climate change impacts on biodiversity (Pereira

*Department of Environmental Science, Mizoram University, Tanhril, Aizawl-796004,Mizoram, India, Corresponding Author E-mail address:[email protected]

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et al., 2010; Parmesan et al., 2011). Predicting the response of biodiversityto climate change has become an extremely active field of research (e.g.Dillon et al., 2010; Gilman et al., 2010; Pereira et al., 2010; Salamin et al.,2010; Beaumont et al., 2011; Dawson et al., 2011; McMahon et al., 2011).Although there is relatively limited evidence of current extinctions causedby climate change, studies suggest that climate change could surpass habitatdestruction as the greatest global threat to biodiversity over the next fewdecades (Leadley et al., 2010).

The phenology of terrestrial vegetation is highly sensitive to climatevariability and change (Rosenzweig et al., 2007; Migliavacca et al., 2012).In the context of climate change, phenology is important because it mediatesmany of the feedbacks between terrestrial vegetation and the climate system(Richardson et al., 2013a). From an ecological perspective, phenology playsan important role in both competitive interactions and trophic dynamics, aswell as in reproductive biology, primary production, and nutrient cycling(Morisette et al., 2009).Satellite remote sensing can provide global coverageof vegetation phenology, but suffers from tradeoffs between spatial andtemporal resolution (Zhang et al., 2006; White et al., 2009). Thus, over thelast decade, there has been great enthusiasm for increased on-the-groundmonitoring of phenology (Betancourt et al., 2005; Morisette et al., 2009;Polgar and Primack, 2011). In Indian Perspective, further researches arerequired in order to fill up the gap of knowledge of impact of biodiversityon climate change particularly in North East India (a biodiversity rich Indo-Burma hot spot) as there are scanty researches in this aspect of globalrelevance.

Global Climate Change

Global climate change is one of the most contentious topics inenvironmentalism, ecology and politics (Houghton et al., 1990, 1992,1996;Watson et al., 1996; Zwerver et al., 1995; Rai and Rai, 2013a, b).Human-induced increases of atmospheric concentrations of gases such ascarbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)may result in unparalleled increases in global temperature (Houghton, 1995;Bush, 1997). This would happen through an intensification of the so-called‘greenhouse effect’ i.e. the absorption of infrared radiation by gases and itsre-radiation back toward the surface of the earth. Major threats tobiodiversity include habitat alteration and loss, over-harvesting,chemicalpollution, invasive species and increasing population pressure. Climatechangemay modify and enhance local anthropogenic disturbances.

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Climate Change Effects on Biodiversity

The multiple components of climate change are anticipated to affect all thelevels of biodiversity, from organism to biome levels. They primarily concernvarious strengths and forms of fitness decrease, which are expressed atdifferent levels, and have effects on individuals, populations, species,ecological networks and ecosystems. At the most basic level of biodiversity,climate change is able to decrease genetic diversity of populations due todirectional selection and rapid migration, which could in turn affectecosystem functioning and resilience (Botkin et al., 2007 but, see Meyersand Bull, 2002). However, most studies are centered on impacts at higherorganizational levels, and genetic effects of climate change have beenexplored only for a very small number of species. Beyond this, the variouseffects on populations are likely to modify the web of interactions at thecommunity level (Gilman et al., 2010; Walther, 2010). In essence, theresponse of some species to climate change may constitute an climatechange may be mediated through effects on synchrony with species foodand habitat requirements. At a higher level of biodiversity, climate can inducechanges in vegetation communities that are predicted to be large enough toaffect biome integrity. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment forecastsshifts for 5–20% of Earths terrestrial ecosystems, in particular cool coniferforests, tundra, scrubland, savannahs and boreal forest (Sala et al., 2005).Of particular concern are tipping points where ecosystem thresholds canlead to irreversible shifts in biomes (Leadley et al., 2010).

Climate Change: Vegetation Zones or Biomes

Climate plays an important role in the way the land areas of the Earthdevelop. The land (terrestrial) portion of the Earth is divided into four mainclimatic regions: polar, sub-polar, temperate, and tropical. Biomes are avery large area within a region in which the soil types, plants (vegetation),and animals are all very similar. Climate and vegetation vary with distancefrom the equator (latitude) and by altitude (elevation). A biome is identifiedmainly by the type of vegetation that grows there; its climate, especiallytemperature and precipitation, determines the type of vegetation that maygrow in a particular area. Changes in global vegetation cover and in theboundaries of the world’s biomes areexpected to occur in response to globalclimate change (McNeely et al., 1990; Petersand Lovejoy, 1992; Heywoodand Watson, 1995). As the earth warms, species are generally expected toshift to higher latitudes (poles) and altitudes (peaks). For example, the timberline in Finland would rise about 200 m higher into areas where it used to beduring the Atlantic thermal period about 4,500 to 7,500 years ago (Kellomäki,

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1996). Under projected future global warming conditions, certain areas ofendemic and species-rich tropic alpine vegetation may be fully replaced bymontane cloud forests presently found at lower altitudes (Halpin, 1994).

Climate Change: Species and Composition of Species

With climate change, it is predicted that the margins of species ranges orboundaries of biomes may become adjusted (e.g. Huntley et al., 1995; Sykeset al., 1996; Iverson and Prasad, 1998). Indeed, there is evidence that climatechange has already induced biome shifts (see Klötzli et al., 1996; Penuelasand Boada, 2003). Changes in climate may affect the physiology, phenologyand interspecific interactions between individual species, and as aconsequence, shifts in geographic distributions may occur. For example,range changes observed for several butterflies in 1389 Britain are ascribedto small temperature increases (less than one degree) during this century(Ford, 1982). Similarly, the northward expansion of birch into the Swedishtundra is attributed to warming during the first half of this century (Kullman,1983). However, if affected species are not able to adjust their geographicdistribution, their survival chances will be strongly reduced.

Shifts in phenology and distribution of a large sample ofMicrolepidoptera in the Netherlands are also related to climate change(Ellis et al., 1997a, 1997b). During the period from 1975 to 1994, the flightpeak shifted on an average to a date 11.6 days earlier, presumably due tothe rise in spring temperatures. More than 50% of the species examinedhad undergone a significant change in distribution over the same period.

Shifts in geographic distributions of individual species and in thecomposition of species assemblages can be identified by long-termmonitoring studies, using, e.g., Geographic Information Systems (GIS) (Heiland Van Deursen, 1996). Natural eco-climatic transitions or ecotones maybe especially suitable for monitoring effects of climate change, becausethey are likely to be especially sensitive to climate change.Examples ofmonitoring studies in marine environments are the studies on tropical coralreefs by Bak and Nieuwland (1995), and that on sub-littoral communities inthe North Sea by De Kluijver (1997). Bak and Nieuwland (1995) monitoredpermanent quadrates for over two decades and showed a significantdecrease in coral colonies, particularly at disturbed shallower reefs. Whereasmost of the degradation processes are directly related to human influence,a rise in the temperature of ocean waters will lead to drastic reef degradationin the long run. De Kluijver (1997) characterizes the 1390 structure,composition and synecology of a series of sub-littoral communities. Thesecommunities are expected to change as a consequence of climate change,

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resulting in a sea level rise, warming of seawater, shifts in seasonalfluctuations and a rise in carbon concentrations.

Climate Change: Habitat Fragmentation

Climate change and habitat fragmentation are considered key pressures onbiodiversity. Over the past decades, destruction and fragmentation of habitatshas led to biodiversity depletion on local, regional and global scales (Harris,1984; Myers, 1989). Habitat fragmentation in conjunction with climatechange sets the stage for an even larger wave of extinction than previouslyimagined, based on consideration of human encroachment alone (Myers,1989; Peters and Lovejoy, 1992). Habitat fragmentation results in isolationof species populations and may locally lead to a reduction of genetic variation.Fragmentation may also prevent species migration and dispersal towardsmore suitable habitats in response to climate change (MacArthur andWilson,1967; Peters and Lovejoy, 1992; Bierregaard et al., 1997).

Climate Change: Ecosystem

The biogeochemical functioning of an ecosystem depends on the summed,interrelated activities of its organisms, i.e. the ways and rates at which theycarry out ecosystem processes (e.g., respiration, carbon dioxide fixation,nitrification, litter decomposition). Climate change may influence ecosystemfunctioning if the physiology 1391 of species is affected, e.g., by changes intemperature ormoisture availability. Changes in climate factors may alsoexceed the physiological tolerance of species and/or disturb their functionalrelationships with others, causing species to become extinct or migrate toother sites, and probably reducing the ecosystem’s biodiversity. Currentlosses in biodiversity by human-induced environmental changes has renewedinterest in research on the significance of biodiversity for ecosystemfunctioning and resilience with respect to stress and disturbance (Naeemet al., 1994; De Ruiter et al., 1995; Folke et al., 1996; Mooney et al., 1996;Brussaard et al., 1997; Chapin et al., 1997; Díaz and Cabido, 1997; Hooperand Vitousek, 1997; Tilman et al., 1996, 1997;Wardle et al., 1997). In hiscommentary on recent outcomes of field experiments (Hooper and Vitousek,1997; Tilman et al., 1997; Wardle et al., 1997), Grime (1997) concludes thatthere is currently no convincing evidence that ecosystem processes arecrucially dependent on higher biodiversity. Rather, the functionalcharacteristics of the dominant plant species would be important incontrolling ecosystem processes.

The changes are not just in terrestrial ecosystems but in aquaticones as well. In marine environments, plankton species have been shifting

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geographically and so have fish species. In America’s great estuary theChesapeake Bay, the southern boundary of the eel grass (Zostera marina)community, an important element in the ecology and productivity of the bay,has been moving steadily northward. Eel grass has a distinct uppertemperature limit and as the bay has warmed the area in which it growshas decreased by 25% as a consequence (Lovejoy, 2008).

Biodiversity Responses to Climate Change

Because of climate changes, species may no longer be adapted to the setof environmental conditions in a given region and could therefore fall outsideits climatic niche. As other components of the ecologicalniche of speciesare not supposed to change directly, we will hereafter refer only to climaticniches of species (i.e. the climatic components of the n-dimensional hyper-volumesensu Hutchinson). One of the crucial questions in the debate onecological effects of climate change is whether or not species will be ableto adapt fast enough to keep up with the rapid pace of changing climate(Lavergne et al., 2010; Salamin et al., 2010). Whatever the type of adaptiveresponses, underlying mechanisms are either due to micro-evolution (i.e.species can genetically adapt to new conditions through mutations orselection of existing genotypes Salamin et al., 2010) or plasticity, whichprovides a means of very short-term response (within individuals lifetimes,Charmantier et al., 2008). It may involve intraspecific variation inmorphological, physiological or behavioural traits, which can occur ondifferent time scales within the population’s spatial range (Botkin et al.,2007; Chevin et al., 2010).

Species can track appropriate conditions in space and follow them.This is typically done through dispersion, but spatial changes are not limitedto this: shifts to a different habitat at the local or micro-habitat levels arealso relevant. Latitudinal and altitudinal range shifts have already beenobserved in more than 1000 species especially those with high dispersalcapacities like birds, insects and marine invertebrates (Parmesan, 2006),leading to a reduction in range size particularly in polar and mountaintopspecies (Forero-Medina et al., 2010).

Phenology, i.e. the timing of life cycle events such as flowering,fruiting and seasonal migrations, is one of the most ubiquitous responses to20th century climate warming. It has already been documented in manyspecies (Parmesan, 2006; Charmantier et al., 2008). Flowering has advancedby more than 10 days per decade in some species (Parmesan, 2006). Thesephenological changes can help species keep synchrony with cyclical abioticfactors. Yet, they can also bedisruptive, by increasing asynchrony in predator-

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prey and insect-plant systems (Parmesan, 2006), which may lead to speciesextinction.

Last, species can cope with changing climatic conditions byadaptingthemselves to the new conditions in their local range, rather than by trackingtheir current optimal conditions in space or time. For lack of a better term,we refer to these in situ changes that are not related to spatial or temporalchanges, as changes in self. Failing to adapt along with change in climaticcondition, population or species will go extinct locally or globally. There isthus a multitude of possible responses for species to cope with climatechange, and in fact relatively few taxa went extinct following climate changeduring the Quaternary period (Botkin et al., 2007).

Conclusion

Widespread calls exist for immediate action to adapt conservation practiceto ongoing climate change in order to ensure the persistence of many speciesand related ecosystem services. Ecologists are developing a betterunderstanding of the mechanismsby which species and ecosystems can beimpacted by climate change.The timing of species life cycle events isexpected to be furtheraltered, species distributions will change radically,trophic networkswill be affected and ecosystem functioning may be severelyimpaired,leading in the worst cases to countless species extinctions. Overthepast decades, some of this understanding has been effectivelytranslatedinto mathematical models that can be used to forecastclimate change impactson species distributions, abundance andextinctions. In Indian Perspective,further researches are required in order to fill up the gap of knowledge ofimpact of biodiversity on climate change particularly in North East India (abiodiversity rich Indo-Burma hot spot) as there are scanty researches inthis aspect of global relevance.

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Watson, R.T., Zinyowera, M.C., Moss, R.H. and Dokken, D.J. (eds) (1996) ClimateChange 1995, Impacts, Adaptations and Mitigation of Climate Change: Scientific–Technical Analyses. IPCC. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK

Webb, T. (1992) Past changes in vegetation and climate: Lessons for the future. In: Peters,R.L. and Lovejoy, T.E. (eds) Global Warming and Biological Diversity, pp 59–75.Yale University Press, New Haven, CT

White, M.A., de Beurs, K.M., Didan, K., Inouye, D.W., Richardson, A.D., Jensen,O.P.,O’Keefe, J., Zhang, G., Nemani, R.R., van Leeuwen, W.J.D., Brown, J.F., deWit,A., Schaepman, M., Lin, X., Dettinger, M., Bailey, A.S., Kimball, J., Schwartz,M.D.,Baldocchi, D.D., Lee, J.T., Lauenroth, W.K., 2009. Intercomparison,interpretation and assessment of spring phenology in North America estimatedfrom remote sensing for 1982–2006. Global Change Biol., 15, 2335–2359.

Zhang, X., Friedl, M.A., Schaaf, C.B.(2006) Global vegetation phenology from mod-erateresolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS): evaluation of globalpatterns andcomparison with in situ measurements. J. Geophys. Res. Biogeosci.111, Art. No.G04017.

Zwerver, S., Van Rompaey, R.S.A.R., Kok, M.T.J. and Berk, M.M. (1995) Climate ChangeResearch: Evaluationand Policy Implications.Studies in Environmental Science 65(B). Elsevier, Amsterdam.

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CHAPTER - 25

Climate Change: Cause and Impact to theWater Borne Disease and HealthPrabhat Kumar Rai*, S. Priyokumar Singh* and M. Muni Singh*

Introduction

Despite considerable research activity over a number of years, it must beadmitted that the actual impacts of climate change on public health are stillfar from clear. In part, this uncertainty reflects difficulties in predicting thelocal effects of global changes in climate. Infectious water borne diseasesdistribution involves complex social and demographic factors. Assumingcurrent trends continue, significant global warming via the greenhouse effectseems-inevitable; disequilibrium in physical and biological ecosystems willensue, and the faster the changes occur the less likely it is that human (andother) societies will be able to adapt without serious resultant consequences.

Prime Causes

Therecent resurgence of infectious diseases include human populationdensity, urbanization, immigration, and behavior, housing type and location,changes in land use, irrigation systems, availability, agricultural practices,deforestation, international travel, breakdown in public health serviceswatersupply, sewage and waste management systems, use of vector controlprograms, access to health care, and general environmental hygiene.Meteorological factors that influence transmission intensity of infectiousdiseases especially water borne diseases include temperature, humidity,and rainfall patterns. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change noted

*Department of Environmental Science, Mizoram University, Tanhril, Aizawl-796004,Mizoram, India, Corresponding Author E-mail address:[email protected]

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in its 2007 report that climate change may contribute to expanding riskareas for infectious diseases such as dengue and may increase the burdenof diarrhoeal diseases, putting more people at risk. Global surfacetemperatures increased by approximately 0.3- 0.6°C during the 20th century(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2001; Watson et al., 1995).There is evidence that this increase has anthropogenic causes (Barnett etal., 2001; Levituset al., 2001). Land and sea surface temperatures on theone hand and atmospheric pressure gradients on the other hand drive windsand weather. Global warming and the attending changes of weather patternsmay have considerable impact on the hydrological cycle (heavy rainfalls,floods, mega storms, heat waves, droughts, freshwater shortages) and thevulnerable biosphere (deforestation, desertification, coral bleaching). Theseconsequences to the arising of infectious diseases especially water bornediseases at rapid pace.

Natural climatic changes in the past have occurred over, thousandsor millions of years. Global warming of 5000 to 15000 years ago completelychanged the face of the planet. This was, however, insidious unlike therapid change which man-made ‘global-warming’ will precipitate(Cook,1992;Leaf, 1989;Schneider, 1990 and WHO, 2010; Rai and Rai, 2013a; b).Disturbance of habitats due to alterations in land cover or climaticchange isconsidered to be the largest factor altering the risk ofinfectious diseases—for example, by affecting breeding sites ofdisease vectors or the biodiversityof vectors or reservoir hosts (Epstein et al., 2003;Walsh et. al.,1993andPascual, 2005).Special attention focused on the effects on biodiversity,human health and the distribution of infectious diseases (Harvellet al., 1999,2002; Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 1995, 2001). One threatis the increased exposure of man to vector- and water-borne diseases. Asthe global temperatures further increase, tropical insects may spread theirhabitats into more northern or southern latitudes and higher elevationsfollowed by pathogen transmission. This intriguing idea was first suggestedby Robert Shope (1991) and was taken further by several authors (Haines,1991; Epsteinet al., 1993; Colwell, 1996; Patzet al., 1996, 2005).

Many infectious diseases of humans are transmitted by insectvectors, thus typically cannot be transmitted directly from person to person,hence result in a wide range of clinical illness (Shuman, 2011). Many vector-borne diseases such as malaria (which is a vector-borne disease), are alsoconsidered to be water-borne since transmission is associated with factorssuch as rainfall. The global health impact of vector-borne diseases,particularly malaria and dengue fever, is tremendous with Current estimateof about 300–500 million people worldwide developing malaria annually, of

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whom one million die(Schneider, 1990). Ninety percent of the deaths occurin Sub-Saharan Africa, and causes one out of every five childhood deathsin Africa. While malaria is an ancient human disease, dengue fever becamewidespread only in the middle of the last century(Hambrey, 1992).On theother hand around 50–100 million people are reported to be affected bydengue fever annually, with 500 000 developing the most severe form ofthe disease—dengue hemorrhagic fever. There are 22 000 deaths annuallydue to dengue fever, most of which occur in children. Many infectiousdiseases are transmitted by ingestion, inhalation, or contact with contaminatedwater (Gillett, 1981).

General Impact of Climate Change on Water Borne Diseases

Human exposure to water-borne infections can occur as a result of contactwithcontaminated drinking water, recreational water, coastal water, or food.Exposuremay be a consequence of human processes (improper disposal ofsewage wastes) or weather events. Rainfall patterns can influence thetransport and dissemination of infectious agents while temperature can affecttheir growth and survival (Hall and Fauci, 2009;Rose, 2001). Most observedassociations between climate and water-borne diseases are based on indirectevidence of seasonal variations. However, several studies providequantitative evidence of water-borne diseases’ links to climatic factors suchasprecipitation and ambient air temperature.

Increasing temperatures may lengthen the seasonality or alter thegeographicaldistribution of water-borne diseases;in the marine environment,warm temperatures create favorable conditions for red tides (blooms oftoxic algae) which can increase the incidence of shellfish poisoning (Epstein,1993). Increasing sea surface temperatures can indirectly influence theviability of enteric pathogens such as Vibrio cholera by increasing theirreservoir’s food supply (Colwell, 1996). Ambient air temperatures also havebeen linked to hospital admissions of Peruvian children with diarrhoealdisease (Checklyet al.,2000).

Heavy rains can contaminate watersheds by transporting humanand animalfaecal products and other wastes. Evidence of watercontaminationfollowing heavy rains has been documented forcryptosporidium, giardia and E.coli(Atherholt, 1998; Parmenter, 1999). Thistype of event may be increased in conditions ofhigh soil saturation due tomore efficient microbial transport (Rose, 2001). At the otherextreme, watershortages in developing countries have been associated with increases indiarrhoeal disease outbreaks that are likely attributed to improperhygiene(WHO, 1999).

Climate Change: Cause and Impact

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Climate Change and Health

Climate change affects the fundamental requirements for health safedrinking water, clean air, sufficient food and secure shelter, andhas manydirect and indirect adverse health impacts (Parry et al., 2010). The impacton health results directly from extreme weather events (e.g. heat wavesand floods) and indirectly from sociallymediated risks (e.g.displacement,conflict, damaged infrastructure, crop failure) and/or ecologically mediatedrisks (e.g. food, water, vectors) (McMichael, 2010) . The World HealthOrganization (WHO) has estimated the global burden of disease attributableto climate change risk factors at 2000 (relative tothe 1961- 1990 averagebase climate) as 160 000 premature deaths andthe loss of 5 500 000 disability-adjusted life years based on climatesensitiveconditions such as malaria,malnutrition, diarrhoeal disease, heat waves and floods (Campbell-Lendrum,Woodruff , 2006; McMichael, 2010).

A warmer climate could cause water-borne diseases to becomemore frequent, including cholera and diarrhoeal diseases such as giardiasis,salmonellosis, and cryptosporidiosis. Diarrhoeal diseases are already a majorcause of morbidity and mortality in South Asia, particularly among children.It is usually asymptom of gastrointestinal infection, which can be caused bya variety of bacterial, viral and parasiticorganisms. Infection is spread throughcontaminated food or drinking-water, or from person to person as a resultof poor hygiene. As rising ambient temperatures increase, bacterial survivaltime and proliferation and thus the incidence of diarrhoeal diseases mightfurther increase. Cholera is a well-known water-borne diarrhoeal diseasethat has afflicted humankind since ancient times. Molecular techniqueshave shown that bacteria are now recognized as naturally occurring inaquatic environments, with bacterial population peaks in spring and fall inassociation with plankton blooms. A relationship has been observed betweenincrease in sea-surface temperature and the onset of cholera epidemics,with the cholera outbreaks following the seasonal rise and fall in sea-surfaceheight and temperature. Malaria is one of the most serious and complexpublic health problems. About 400-500 million cases of malaria and morethan 1 million malaria-related deaths occur globally each year.

Waterborne enteric diseases are affected by changes in rainfallpatterns which affect river flows, flooding, sanitary conditions andthe spreadof diarrhoeal diseases, including cholera, as well as otherenteric diseasescaused by enteroviruses, and hepatitis A and E. Heavyrunoff after severerainfall can contaminate recreational waters andincrease the risk of humanillness through higher bacterial counts.Severe diarrhea leads to fluid loss

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and may be life-threatening, particularly in young children and people whoare malnourished or have impaired immunity. Globally, it is the second-leading cause of mortality in young children (Shea and Committee onEnvironmental Health, 2007).This is only expected to worsen with climatechange, driven by factors including increased temperatures,flooding, andother changes in the water cycle (St. Louis and Hess,2008). Cholera is adiarrheal disease caused by bacteria that occur naturally in rivers, estuaries,and coastalwaters. Scientists have observed a relationship between theincrease in sea-surface temperature and the onset of cholera epidemics.Strong El Nino cycles and other climate variables provide a predictivecapacity for cholera epidemics (Colwell,2006).

Conclusion

A public health approach to climate change considersmultileveldeterminants of health outcomes and thereby outlines a rich fieldof study for determining overall and specific risks for adverseoutcomes. Further  quantification  of  the  effects  of  climate  change  onchildren’s health is needed globally and also at regional and local levelsthrough enhanced monitoring of children’s environmental health and bytracking selected indicators. Climate change preparedness strategies needto be incorporated into public health programs.

References:Ahmad, M.M., et al., (2014) Impact of climate change on the distribution of tropical

parasitic and other infectious diseases. Journal of Environmental science, Toxicologyand Food Technology, 8(6),19-26.

Atherholt, T.B. et al., (1998) Effects of rainfall on Giardia and Cryptosporidium. Journalof the American Water Works Association, 90(9), 66–80.

Campbell-Lendrum, D., Woodruff R., (2006). Comparative risk assessment of the burdenof disease from climate change. Environ Health Perspect. 114(12):1935-1941.

Checkley, W., Epstein, L.D., Gilman, R.H.et al., (2000) Effects of El Niño and ambienttemperature on hospital admissions for diarrhoeal diseases in Peruvian children.Lancet.,355,442–50.

Colwell, R. (2006) “Global Climate and Health: Predicting Infectious Disease Outbreaks.”Innovations. Summer Vol. 1, No. 3, Pages 19-23. Accessed online at http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/itgg.2006.1.3.19?cookieSet=1

Colwell, R.R. (1996)Global climate and infectious disease: the cholera paradigm. Science,274, 2025–31.

Colwell, R.R., (1996)Global climate and infectious disease: the cholera paradigm. Science,274: 2025–31.

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Cook, G.C., (1992) Effect of global warming on the distribution of parasitic and otherinfectious diseases: Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, Volume 85.

Epstein, P.R.(1993)Algal blooms in the spread and persistence of cholera. Biosystems.31(2–3), 209–221.

Epstein, P.R., Chivian,E. and Frith,K., (2003)Emerging diseases threaten conservation.Environmental Health Perspectives, Volume 111, Number 10, A506-A507.

Epstein, P.R.,(1993)Algal blooms in the spread and persistence of cholera. Biosystems.,31(2–3), 209–221 .

Gillett, J.D., (1981)Increased atmospheric carbon dioxide and the spread of parasiticdisease. In: Canning EU, ed. Parasitological topics: a presentation volume to P CCGarnham FRS, on the occasion of his 80th birthday. Lawrence, Kansas: Societyof Protozoologists,106-11.

Hall, B.F. andFauci, A.S., (2009)Malaria control, elimination, and eradication: the role ofthe evolving biomedical research agenda. J. Infect. Dis.200,1639-43.

Hunter, P.R., (2003) Climate change and waterborne and vector-borne disease.Journal ofApplied Microbiology, 94, 37S–46.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate change (2001): The scientific basis. Contributionofworking group I to the third assessment report of theIntergovernmental Panel onClimate Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Leaf, A., (1989)Potential health effects of global climatic and environmental changes. N.Engl. J. Med.,321:1577-83.

McMichael, A.J., (2010)Climate Change, Global Environmental Change, and Health.Context, Concepts and Research Tasks for Epidemiologists. Canberra: EuropeanEducational Programme in Epidemiology

Parmenter, R.R. et al. (1999)Incidence of plague associated with increased winter-springprecipitation in New Mexico. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene.61(5), 814–821.

Parry, M.,Canziani, O., Palutokof, J., et al., eds. (2010)Impacts, Adaptation andVulnerability. Contribution of Working Group 2 to Fourth Assessment Report ofIPCC.Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress,2007(Health,chapter8).http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/contents.html.

Pascual, M. and Dobson, A., (2005)Seasonal patterns of infectious diseases.PLoS. Med.,2: e5.

Patz, J.A.,(2005)Climate change. In: Frumkin H, ed. Environmental Health. San Francisco:Josey-Bass, 238-68.

Rai, P.K. andRai, P.K. 2013a. Paradigms of global climate change and sustainabledevelopment: Issues and related policies. Environmental Skeptics and Critics,(International Academy of Ecology & Environmental Sciences, Hong Kong) 2(2),30-45.

Rai, P.K. andRai, P.K. 2013b. Environmental and socio-economic impacts of global climatechange: An overview on mitigation approaches. Environmental Skeptics and Critics,

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2(4), 126-148.

RamanaDhara, V. et al., (2013) Climate change and infectious diseases in India: Implicationsfor health care providers. Indian J. Med. Res., 138, pp 847-852.

Rose, J.B., Epstein, P.R., Lipp, E.K., Sherman, B.H., Bernard, S.M. andPatz, J.A.,(2001)Climate variability and change in the United States: potential impacts onwater and foodborne diseases caused by microbiologic agents. Environ HealthPerspect; 109 (2),211–21.

Schneider, S.H., (1990)Global warming. Cambridge: The Lutterworth Press, 343.

Shea, K. and Committee on Environmental Health (2007) “Global Climate Change andChildren’s Health.” PEDIATRICS Volume 120, Number 5.

Shope, R.E., (1991)Global climate change and infectious diseases: Environmental HealthPerspectives, 96: 171–174.

Shuman, E.K., (2011) Global Climate Change and Infectious Diseases. International Journalof Environment and Medicine.Vol 2 Number 1.

St. Louis, M. and Hess J., (2008) “Climate Change: Impacts on and Implications forGlobal Health”. Am. J. Prev. Med.,35(5).

Walsh, J.F.,Molyneux, D.H. andBirley, M.H., (1993) Deforestation: effects on vector-borne disease. Parasitology,106, S55–75.

Watson, R.T. et al., eds. (1995) Impacts,adaptations and mitigation of climate change:scientific-technicalanalysis; Contribution of Working Group II to theSecondAssessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate.

World Health Organization(2010) Climate change. 2010. Available fromwww.who.int/topics/climate/en (Accessed October 11, 2010).

World Health Organization(2010) Climate change. 2010. Available from www.who.int/topics/climate/en (Accessed October 11, 2010).

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CHAPTER - 26

Temporal and Spatial Distribution of As, Fe,and Mn in the Groundwater Aquifer at SilcharTown, South Assam and their Variation withDepth and pHTushar Deb Kanungo* and Abhik Gupta**

Introduction

Environmental pollution due to heavy metal ions is one of the major concernsaround the world. Heavy metals are stable and persistent environmentalcontaminants since they can neither be degraded nor destroyed (Sevgi etal., 2009). They produce adverse effects on health of human and otherliving beings in terrestrial and aquatic environment and also affect the foodchain. Arsenic (As), long recognized as a toxic element, is also a carcinogen(USEPA, 2001). Arsenic occurs naturally in the Earth’s crust and its releasefrom geologic materials has caused contamination of groundwater used asa drinking source in many countries, including Argentina, Bangladesh,Cambodia, Chile, China, Hungary, India, Japan, Vietnam, and the USA(Welch et al. , 1988; Kondo et al. , 1999). Rock composition is only one ofmany related geologic factors; other geologic factors, such as nature ofminerals, texture, porosity, and regional structure, can affect the compositionof waters (Robinson, 1997).

Heavy metals are elements having atomic weights between 63.546and 200.590 and a specific gravity greater than 4.0 i.e. at least 5 times that

*Department of Chemistry, G. C. College, Silchar, Assam 788004, India e-mail:[email protected]

**Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Assam University

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of water. They exist in water in colloidal, particulate and dissolved phases(Adepoju-Bello et al., 2009) with their occurrence in water bodies beingeither of natural or anthropogenic origin (Marcovecchio et al., 2007). Someof the metals are essential to sustain life-calcium, magnesium, potassiumand sodium must be present fornormal body functions. Also, cobalt, copper,iron, manganese, molybdenum and zinc are needed at low levels as catalystfor enzyme activities (Adepoju-Bello et al., 2009); however, excess exposureto heavy metals can result in toxicity.

The most common heavy metals that humans are exposed to areAluminium, Arsenic, Cadmium, Lead and Mercury. Aluminium has beenassociated with Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease, senility and preseniledementia. Arsenic exposure can cause among other illness or symptomscancer, abdominal pain and skin lesions. Cadmium exposure produces kidneydamage and hypertension. Lead is a commutative poison and a possiblehuman carcinogen (Bakare-Odunola, 2005) while for Mercury, toxicityresults in mental disturbance and impairment of speech, hearing, vision andmovement (Hammer and Hammer Jr., 2004). In addition, Lead and Mercurymay cause the development of autoimmunity in which a person’s immunesystem attacks its own cells. This can lead to joint diseases and ailment ofthe kidneys, circulatory system and neurons. At higher concentrations, Leadand Mercury can cause irreversible brain damage.

Due to inadequate supply of PHE water from R. Barak, the electricpumps are domestically used to liftthe groundwater through boreholes tomeet the ever increasing water demand. There is thus the need to assessthe quality of ground water sources. The World Health Organisation hasspecified Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) for the presence of heavymetals in water (Table 2). The aim of this study is to assess the quality ofground water sources at Silchar, South Assam. With the aid of AtomicAbsorption Spectrophotometer the presence and concentration of threeheavy metals (Arsenic, Iron and Manganese) were determined and theresults compared to the MCL specified by the World Health Organisation.

Materials and Methods

Study Area

Silchar Town is situated at an average elevation of 22 m (72 feet) abovemean sea level (MSL) and is the district head quarter of Cachar, Assam.This urban centre has coordinates 24.84° N and 92.78° E with an area of15.75 km2 . It is 343 kms south east of Guwahati and is the second-largestcity of the state in terms of population and municipal area. This area is

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commercially very important as it is the economic doorway to Manipur,Mizoram and Tripura. Silchar is situated by the banks of the Barak River inan area which is popularly known as Barak Valley. It is a trade andprocessing centre for tea, rice and other agricultural products. Silchar isinundated frequently due to excessive rainfall and floods by the River Barak.In the last three decades, Silchar and the Barak Valley have been ravagedby four major floods- one in 1986, followed by the ones in 1991, 2004 and2007.

The present study on heavy metal concentrations in ground waterof Silchar area is necessitated because of increased demand on groundwaterdue to an influx of people from nearby States and other places. Largenumber of motor vehicles may also contribute to the release of heavy metalsinto the surrounding environment. In this region heavy rain fall occurs duringJune to September, so there is possibility that heavy metals present in theatmosphere may also contaminate shallow ground water resources. Henceit is extremely important to assess the groundwater quality in respect ofheavy metals.

Sample Collection and Locations

Ground water samples were randomly collected from 15 sampling sitesfrom different areas of Silchar Town in Assam, India. These areas include;Malugram, Itkhola, Kalimohan Rd, Central Rd, Link Rd-11, 9, NationalHighway, Shymananda Ln, Tarani Road, Azad Hind Rd, Sarat Pally,Graveyard Rd, Vivekananda Rd, Ramnagar Dev. Council and ChirukandiRoad. The range of heavy metals concentrations of various samples collectedfrom 15 different sites is shown in Table 1. The samples were collectedand analysed during 2014.

Methods

Water samples were collected in acid pre-washed 10 ml polythene bottles.The bottles were kept overnight in dilute laboratory grade nitric acid (1:1)and finally washed with distilled water and dried. Immediately after collection,1 drop of dilute nitric acid (1:1) GR Grade was added as preservative.Metal concentrations in the water samples were determined using the AtomicAbsorption Spectrophotometer (Avanta) for major heavy metals such asArsenic (As), Iron (Fe), Manganese (Mn) as per the standard procedureprescribed by APHA (2005) and the results were compared with the WHO(2004) for potable water.

Temporal and Spatial Distribution of As, Fe and Mn

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Total arsenic in water was determined by flow-injection hydride generationatomic absorption spectrometry (FIHG- AAS) and iron bySpectrophotometer at SOES, Jadavpur University(Chatterjee et al.1995;Samanta et al. 1999). While total Manganese in water was determined byAAS (Model AA 240 Varian Inc) at IIT, Guwahati. The pH was measuredby using Digital pH meter which was calibrated with standards buffers ofpH 4, 7 and 10.

Result and Discussion

Physiographically, the Silchar Town is largely plain and is on the southernbank of R. Barak. The area bordering the east, south and north of thedistrict is hilly terrain. Groundwater in the area occurs under phreaticcondition in the shallow aquifer zone and under semi-confined condition inthe deeper aquifer. Rainfall is the main source of ground waterrecharge.Tables 1 present the summary of heavy metal and trace elementconcentrations in groundwater samples collected in 2014.Table 1: Mean distribution of heavy metals in different locations during 2014

Sl No. Coordinates pH Depth Mean Mean Mean Mn(m) As(mg Fe (mg (mgl-1)

l-1 ) l-1)

S1 N 240 50.686/, E 0920 48.693/ 6. 24 45 10 10.4 1. 5460

S2 N 240 50.112 /, E 0920 48.174 / 6. 43 80 14 8. 8 1. 5530

S3 N 240 49.711/,E 0920 47.171/ 6. 85 60 BDL 0.19 BDL

S4 N 240 49. 557/,E 0920 48. 112/ 6. 79 60 BDL 0.96 BDL

S5 N 240 47.942/, E 0920 48.028/ 6. 63 50 9 4. 94 0. 3514

S6 N 240 48.205/, E 0920 48.009 / 6. 74 60 17 3. 42 0. 3470

S7 N 24048.634/, E 0920 46.980/ 7. 11 60 9 3. 26 BDL

S8 N 24048.749/, E 0920 48.210/ 6. 97 30 65 4. 56 1. 4760

S9 N 240 48.729/, E 0920 47. 674/ 6. 74 40 46 6. 45 BDL

S10 N 240 48.937/, E 0920 47. 279/ 7. 49 55 BDL 3. 86 0. 0390

S11 N 240 49.115/, E 0920 46.537/ 7. 70 34 BDL 3. 74 0. 0990

S12 N 24049.181/, E 0920 48.268/ 7. 54 50 41 3. 75 0. 8970

S13 N 240 49.089/ ,E 0920 46.278/ 8. 05 38 11 3. 74 0. 2720

S14 N 240 50.108/, E 0920 46.294/ 7. 5 50 54 17. 22 0. 6453

S15 N 240 49.925/, E 0920 46.464/ 6. 51 27 BDL 0.96 0. 7480

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Heavy metals contamination of the groundwater at Silchar Town,South Assam, has become a major cause of concern in recent years(Kanungo. , 2015). The ground water in the past was considered to be safefor drinking purpose but now it came to be known that many shallow tubewells contain heavy metals at concentrations higher than the safe limit setfor drinking purpose by WHO (2004). A recent study (Gupta et al., 2015)has performed a risk analysis of the presence of higher than desirablelevels os As in shallow groundwater wells in this area, which in turn isrelated to its topography. The North Eastern Regional Institute of Waterand Land Management (NERIWALM) report said people in the northeasternregion use water from tube wells for drinking, cooking and agriculturalpurposes and this way heavy metal like arsenic enters the food chain. Thiscould cause chronic arsenic toxicity in the course of time, resulting inarsenical skin lesions and dermatitis in the initial stages and cancer anddeath if patients are exposed to high concentration over prolonged periods.

The pH is a measure of the acidity of groundwater, the lower the pH, themore acidic is the water. At the typical temperature of groundwater, a pHof 7 is considered neutral, a pH less than 7 is acidic and a pH greater than7 means the water is alkaline. The pH is actually a measure of the hydrogenion (H+) availability. The H+ ion is very small and is able to enter and disruptmineral structures so that they contribute dissolved constituents togroundwater.Table 2: Drinking Water Quality Standards

Trace Metals Maximum Contaminant Level (WHO 2004) BIS:10500(2003)

As 10 mg l-1 50 mg l-1

Fe 0.3 mg·l”1 1.0 mg·l”1

Mn 0.5 mg·l”1 0.3 mg·l”1

pH 6. 5-8. 5 6. 5-8. 5

The mean pH values of the groundwater are presented in Table-1 rangingfrom 6. 24 - 8.05. Lower value of 6.24 was recorded in S1(MalugramMadhuramokh Rice Mill) while higher values of 8. 05 was recorded at S13(Vivekananda Road). Change in pH of groundwater takes place with depthand time. As rainwater descends into an aquifer as groundwater, it reactswith minerals in weathering reactions or diagenetic reactions. Thus thewater’s initially low pH to be buffered by those reactions and depends onreaction rate, rate of flow, pathways of flow, mineralogy of the aquifers,and microbe activity. The vertical distribution of pH is presented in Fig. 01

Temporal and Spatial Distribution of As, Fe and Mn

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with values ranging from 6. 51 (at surface) to 6. 43 ( at bottom). There wasa fairly increase of pH with depth 27-40m while the pH became fairlyuniform (7. 5) at 50-60m depth. There were no marked variations in the pHalong the reservoir.

According to the WHO, the MCL for As, Fe and Mn are 10 mg l-

1, 0.3 and 0.5 mg l-1 respectively(Table 2). Fig 02discuss the wide variationof trace element compositions range between sampling sites (ie., As BDL-65 mg l-1, Fe 0.19-17. 22 mg l-1and Mn 0- 1. 5530 mg l-1). The wells can bedivided into two basic chemical groups, high arsenic ( As> 10-65 mg l-1)and low arsenic (BDL - 10 g l-1) waters. In general the iron concentrationsin the low arsenic waters are 0. 19 - 10.4 mg l-1 whereas the ironconcentrations in the high arsenic wells range from 3. 42 -17. 22 mg l-1.The manganese concentrations in the low arsenic waters are 0 – 1.5460mg l-1 whereas in case of high arsenic wells it ranges from 0 – 1. 5530 mgl-1.In most of the cases the concentration of Asand Mn from groundwatersamples were within the permissible limit except Fe.

The level of arsenic concentration in 7 wells was found to be abovepermissible limits (10 µg l-1, WHO) . High value of 65 g l-1 in water samplewas found at S8 (Shyamananda Lane). Fe and Mn also show peak at S2,S8-S9, S12, S14, clearly indicates the reducing environment in the geogenicsituation due to which release of metals from their corresponding rocks intothe water takes place.

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Changes in pH affect the distribution of chemical forms byinfluencing solubility, sorption and redox processes. The pH variations areprimarily related to biological activity (Lee and Hoadley, 1967). The biotaapparently exert considerable indirect influence through their metabolicactivities. The uptake of DO during the bacterial respiration process at thesediment-water interface results in the production of CO2. Hydrolysis ofCO2 follows, depressing the pH and allowing the chemical transformationsto occur. During the study, the variations of As, Fe and Mn concentrationwith pH was recorded (Fig 03).

The heavy metals are released from the sediment suspensions withthe variation of pH. In this study, general trends showed that Mn wasreleased from sediments as pH was decreased and conversely, Mn wastaken up or incorporated into the sediments when the pH was increased.While the amplitude maxima of concentration of As and Fe in groundwaterincreases steadily with the increase of pH indicating the facts that thedesorption of iron along with arsenic takes place at higher pH.

Groundwater As concentration generally increased with depth startingfrom the shallowest well, peaks at ~ 30 m at Sites S8, S11, at ~ 40 m at SitesS9, and at ~ 50 m at Sites S12, S14 and then declined again towards thedeeper part of the shallow aquifer (Fig 05). Of all the constituents ofgroundwater that were quantified, the concentrations of the redox-sensitiveelements Fe and Mn varied the most spatially and temporally (Fig 04).Dissolved Fe concentrations magnitude increases consistently from depth ~30 m to ~ 50 m and then the magnitude decreases at bedrock aquifer. TheFe concentration at surficial aquifer at ~ 27 m depth is found to be less. Mnconcentrations show variability with higher spikes at ~ 30 m, ~ 45 m, and ~60 m depth and bears the signature of reducing environment in the matter ofwater-sediment interface where an increase in arsenic and iron concentrationalso takes place due to desorption and go into solution at the same depth .However there was no consistent relationship between depth profiles of Feor Mn at each site with the corresponding profiles of As.

Temporal and Spatial Distribution of As, Fe and Mn

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The difference in detection rate by aquifer type could be related tothe type of aquifer materials, differences in ground-water residence times,and geochemical factors related to contact time and redox conditions.Shallow, surficial wells are more likely to contain measurable dissolvedoxygen, have lower pH, and the reaction-path length is short. In deepbedrock wells, the water is more likely to be in contact with the aquifermaterials for a long time, have higher pH, and redox conditions tend to bereducing. Thestudy revealed that age of tube well has no impact on quantitiesof studied heavy metals. A comparison of groundwater data shows theabundance of trace elements is in the order of Fe > As > Mn.

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The Iron was found to be present in 100% of the samples analysedand 93% contains >0. 3 mg l-1(MCL) (Fig 07). Over 73% of the sampleshave Mn present in them and 40% have concentrations above the MCL(Fig 08). Almost 66% of the samples have detectable level of As while47% have higher than safe levels which is an alarming indication for thedrinking water for public use(Fig 06).In general 100% of all samplesanalysed contained one or more of the three heavy metals studied each invarying concentrations.

Conclusion

These results show high concentration of these heavy metals and in somecases the levels were above WHO specified Maximum Contaminant level.This suggests a significant risk to this population given the toxicity of thesemetals and the fact that for many, hand dug wells and bore holes are theonly sources of their water supply. The situation calls for framing of a longterm environmental planning to adequately address the risks and mitigatethe ensuing danger.

Acknowledgment

Financial support of the University Grant Commission, Govt. of India [F. 5-215/2011-12/MRP/NERO/10823 dated 01 Dec 2011] is thankfullyacknowledged. Authors also thank the authorities of G. C. College forproviding the laboratory facilities.

References:Adepoju-Bello, A.A., O, O, Ojomolade. , G, A, Ayoola. & H, A, B, Coker. (2009)

Quantitative analysis of some toxic metals in domestic water obtained from Lagosmetropolis. The Nig. J. Pharm, 42(1), 57-60.

APHA (2005). Standards Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 21st

Edition: American Public Health Association, Washington D. C.

Temporal and Spatial Distribution of As, Fe and Mn

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Bakare-Odunola, M.T. ( 2005) Determination of some metallic impurities present in softdrinks marketed in Nigeria. The Nig. J. Pharm, 4(1), 51-54.

Bureau of Indian Standards (2003) Indian standard: drinking water. Specification (firstrevision), Amendment No. 2, Sept 2003, New Delhi.

Chatterjee, A. , Das, D. , Mandal, B. K. , Chowdhury, T. R. , Samanta, G. , Chakraborti,D. (1995) Arsenic in ground water in six districts of West Bengal, India, the biggestarsenic calamity in the world, Part I. Arsenic species in drinking water and urine ofthe affected people. Analyst, 120, 643–650.

Gupta. A. , Bhattacharjee, D. , Borah, P. , Debkanungo, T. , Paulchoudhury, C. (2015).Arsenic contamination of groundwater in barak Valley, Assam, India: Topography-based analysis and rrisk assessment. In: Safe and Sustainable Use of Arsenic-Contaminated Aquifers in the Gangetic Plain: A Multidisciplinary Approach (Eds.A. L. Ramanathan, S. Johnston, A. Mukherjee and B. Nath), pp. 81-96. Co-publishedby Springer Publishing Company, Cham, Switzerland, with Capital PublishingCompany, New Delhi, India.

Hammer, M.J. & M.J. Hammer, Jr.( 2004) Water Quality. Water and Waste W aterTechnology, 5thEdn. New Jersey Prentice-Hall, 139-159.

Kanungo, T. D.,(2015) Arsenic Mitigation Processes on Trial and Tested in Barak Valley,Assam, India. Int.J.Pharm Drug Anal ,3(1),12-18.

Kondo , H. , Ishiguru, Y. , Ohno, K. , Nagase, M. , Toba, M. & Takagi, M. (1999) Naturallyoccurring arsenic in the groundwaters of the southern region of Fukuoka Prefecture,Japan. Water Res, 33, 1967-1972.

Lee, G. F.& Hoadley, A. W. (1967) Biological activity in relation to the chemical equilibriumcomposition of natural waters. In Equilibrium Concepts in Natural WaterSystems.Am. Chem. Society, Washington, D.C, 319-338.

Marcovecchio, J.E., S, E, Botte. & R, H, Freije. (2007) Heavy Metals, Major Metals,Trace Elements. Handbook of Water Analysis. L.M. Nollet, (Ed.). 2nd Edn. London,CRC Press. 275-311.

Robinson, M.S., Smith, T.E. & Metz, P.A.( 1990) Bedrock Geology of the Fairbanksmining district Fairbanks, Alaska Division of Geological and Geophysical Surveys.p. 2 sheets.

Samanta, G. , Chowdhury, T. R. , Mandal, B. K. , Biswas, B. K. , Chowdhury, U. K. ,Basu, G. K. , Chanda, C. R. , Lodh, D. & Chakraborti, D. (1999) Flow injectionhydride generation atomic absorption spectrometry for determination of arsenic inwater and biological samples from arsenic affected districts of west Bengal, Indiaand Bangladesh. MicrochemJ, 62, 174–191.

Sevgi, E., Coral, G.,Gizir, A.M. &Sagun, M. K.(2009) Investigation of heavy metal resistancein some bacterial strains isolated from industrial soils . Turk Journal of Biology,34,423"431.

USEPA, (2001) Drinking Water Standard for Arsenic USEPA, Fact Sheet 815-F-00-105.

Welch, M. K., Lico, M.S. &Huges, J. L.(1988) Arsenic in groundwater of the WesternUnited States. Ground Water, 26, 333-347.

WHO (2004) Guidelines for drinking water quality. World Health Organisation, Geneva

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CHAPTER - 27

Impact of Climate Change on CroppingPattern: a Case Study of Tualcheng Village,Champhai District, MizoramLalrinpuia Vangchhia* and Vishwambhar Prasad Sati**

Introduction

Climate change impact on cropping pattern – area under different crops,production and per ha yield is enormous at the global, regional and locallevels. The climate change scientists are working on the issue that howmuch it is and what its impact is. Climate change has both positive andnegative effects on the growth of crops or plants. One of the positive effectsis known as CO2 fertilizer effect that helps in increase of the plant growthby 10 per cent. The negative effect of climate change is temperature ashigh daily temperature even of a few hours duration can cause pollen sterilityin some crops such as rice and wheat (FAO, 1998).

The climatic conditions including temperature, rainfall and humidityare the main drivers of crop growth therefore; agriculture has always beenhighly dependent on climate pattern and variation. The nature ofdiversification differs across region due to the existence of wideheterogeneity in agro-climatic and socio-economic development. Regionalpatterns in crops diversification in India are quite different e.g. the southernand western region had accomplished higher agricultural growth during1990’s. These regions were relatively less developed in irrigation and largelyrelied on rainfall. As, pulses and oilseed required less water, they had foundriches in these regions. This region also witnesses substantial increase in

*Research Scholar **Professor, Department of Geography and Resource Management,Mizoram University, Corresponding authorl: [email protected]

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ISBN: 81-8019-518-3 (India) ISBN: 1-55528-374-8 (USA)

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the area under fruits and vegetables. Meanwhile, the eastern region ofIndia is food based, concentrating largely on rice, with little diversification.A humid atmosphere and high rainfall make cultivation of rice most favorablein this region (Joshi, 2005)

Climate is the most dominating factor influencing the suitability ofcrops in a particular region. The yield potential of a crop mainly depends onclimate. It was experienced that more than 50 per cent of variation in yieldof a crop is due to climatic differences as the type of crops is determinedby climate. The most important climatic factors that influence growthdevelopment and yield of crops are temperature, humidity and precipitation(Singh, 2005).

The whole state of Mizoram is suitable for rice cultivation. But, theyield of rice is decreasing in almost all parts of the state, mainly due toclimate change. The present study area is also suitable for cultivation ofrice. This village witnesses climate change in the form of increasingtemperature during the last decade (2004-2014). Consequently, changeswere noticed in crops production and yield during the same period. Thearea under shifting cultivation is decreasing and it is converting intopermanent cultivation. It has been observed form the study that per hayield of crops is increasing in the study area during the last decades. Themajor thrust of this study is to examine the climate change impact on landuse and cropping pattern.

Past Studies on Climate Change and Cropping Pattern

Many past studies focus the influence of climate change on cropping pattern.Lappe (1982) studies that variations in sowing and harvesting period,production and productivity of crops are mainly due to variation intemperature and precipitation. Negi (1996) describes that the changes inland use from time to time have been brought by social, economic andnatural forces but, the most dominating factor to bring about changes is thenature herself including climatic condition of a region. Panda (1996)emphasizes the new approach to agricultural planning viz. agro-climaticregional planning. He divids the country into 15 agro-climatic zones basedon agro-climatic factors like rainfall, irrigation etc. T. Radha and L. Mathew(2007) express that fruits exhibit vast diversity in various forms, shapes andaspects. According to climatic requirements, they are temperate, tropicaland sub tropical crops. He selected the factor like climate and availabilityof water for the classification of cropping pattern. He examines thatsuccessful fruits growing in a particular locality depends to a great extenton the natural factors especially climate and soil. Environmental factors

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such as temperature, atmospheric humidity and rainfall play a major rolefor crops production. Sadhu and Chattapadhyaya (2001) classify the cerealsand fruits on the basis of their temperature requirement such as temperate,tropical and sub tropical. Both divided India into major agro-climatic zoneson the basis of temperature. Gupta (2010) explains the effects of climatechange on food production. According to the United Nations, global foodproduction could be lost by 2050 due to the combines effects of climatechange, land degradation and water scarcity. Climate change would reducewater availability and lead to an increase in weed, animal pests and diseasescausing a fall in food production.

Materials and Methods

The Study Area

The Champhai District is located between 230 47’ 24" N and 930 32’ 56" E inthe northeastern part of Mizoram state. A village Tualcheng, representingthe district for examining climate change impact on cropping pattern wasstudied. This village stretches between 23043’24" N and 93030’42"E. It is apart of Champhai north rural development block. This village has total 165households with 770 total populations. Sex ratio is 1005 and literacy rate is79.74 per cent (COI, 2011). Agricultural practices dominate in occupationalpattern. Further, it is characterised by shifting cultivation as about 83 percent farming community is engaged on its practices. Over time, area undershifting cultivation decreased as the study reveals and the area under itspractices has been transforming into permanent agriculture.

Data Acquisition and Survey Method

This study was based on the accumulation of primary data and it wasconducted in July, 2015. A structured questionnaire was framed andquestions were asked on climate change impact on cropping pattern.Household level survey was conducted and 462 households (60 per cent ofthe total population) were surveyed. The two time series data of 2004 and2014 were collected. Climate data were collected from the village recordsand through GPS. Data on land use pattern and cropping pattern wascollected for the two different periods. Similarly, data on area, productionand productivity of different fruits and food crops was gathered. Collecteddata were calculated and interpreted.

Results and Discussion

Change in Area, Production and Yields of Cereals

With the changes in climatic conditions i.e. increase in temperature and

Impact of Climate Change on Cropping Pattern

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decrease in rainfall, land use and cropping patterns of the villages waschanged largely during the respective periods. Increase in temperature wasmainly due to depletion of forests. In 2008, large-scale changes were noticedin land use pattern. Area under shifting cultivation was transformed intopermanent viticulture farming. The state government allotted 125 km2 landsto personal permanent farms. The thick forests were cleared for grapescultivation and in many locations; they are seen as open land. This washappened mainly due to new land use policy of the state government. Inthis village, climate change has positive impact on the cropping patternparticularly on production pattern. Paddy rice is the main crop and foodstaple of the village. Table 1 shows change in area, production and yields ofcereal crops (rice, maize and soya been) in the case study village. Areaunder rice decreased by 25 per cent while, in terms of per ha yield, itincreased by 20.2 per cent. The other crops maize and soya been hasexperienced increase in production and per ha yield. Area under maizecrop decreased (11.1 per cent). As a whole, although, area under cerealcrops decreased by 19.6 per cent yet, their production and per ha yieldincreased.Table 1: Change in area, production and yield of cereal crops in per cent (2004-2014)

Crops Changes in area (ha) Changes in Changes in per haproduction (kg) yields (kg)

Rice -25.3 -10.2 20.2

Maize -11.1 860 980.1

Soya bean 8.3 15.6 6.7

Total -19.6 19.8 118.4

Source: Field survey

Change in Area, Production and Yields of Vegetables

Vegetables grow under shifting cultivation with high agro-biodiversity. Thedominant crops are tomato, mustard leave, beans, bitter berry, egg plant,bitter guard and ladies finger. Table 2 shows the major vegetable crops andchanges in their area, production and productivity. Except tomato whicharea decreased by 17 per cent, area under all other crops has increased. Interms of per ha yield, three vegetable crops i.e. beans, better berry and eggplant experienced decrease. In a nut shell, area, production and per ha yieldunder vegetable crops increased substantially during the respective period.

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Table 2: Change in area production and yield of vegetables in per cent (2004-2014)

Crops Changes in area Changes in Changes in per ha(ha) production (kg) yields (kg)

Tomato -17.0 14.3 38.0

Mustard leave 66.7 100 20.3

Beans 27.8 9.1 -14.8

Bitter berry 54.2 45.2 -6.0

Egg plant 50.0 30.9 -12.9

Bitter guard 20.9 33.3 10.0

Ladies finger 36.5 37.5 0.9

Total 24.7 26.1 12.4

Source: Field survey

Change in Area, Production and Yields of Cash Crops

Four crops viz. chili, potato, tobacco and yam are categorized under cashcrops in the study area. Table 3 shows change in area, production and perha yield of cash crops in per cent in 2004-2014. Area, production and perha yield of chili and potato crops increased during the recent decade. Interms of tobacco and yam although, area and production decreased yet,per ha yield increased during the corresponding year. The impact of climatechange seems positive on production pattern of chili and potato, as theyrequire warm climate during growing and ripening periods.Table 3: Change in area, production and yield of cash crops in per cent (2004-2014)

Crops Changes in area Changes in Changes in per ha(ha) production (kg) yields (kg)

Chili 100 900 400

Potato 142.8 350.0 17.6

Tobacco -26.7 -13.0 18.6

Yam -20 -10 12.5

Source: Field survey

Change in Area, Production and Yields of Fruit Crops

This village has feasible climatic conditions to grow various types of fruitsmainly grapes, banana and orange. Meanwhile, area under them isconsiderably less. Total area under these fruits was 3.1 ha in 2004. Recently,area has increased by 49 ha and subsequently production and per ha yield

Impact of Climate Change on Cropping Pattern

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has increased. It is interesting to note that grapes where not grown during2004 while area under its cultivation is 24 ha in 2014. Its production andproductivity is subsequently high. Fruits are generally consumed locally astheir production are less. But, if the trend of grapes production is continuedas such, it may be a major income generating crop in future.Table 4: Change in area, production and yield of fruit crops

Crops 2004 2014

Area (ha) Production Yield per Area (ha) Production Yield per(in kg) Ha (in kg) Ha

Grapes 0 0 0 24 90700 3779.1

Banana 2 50 25 7 200 28.5

Orange 0.1 50 50 3 0 0

Total 3.1 230 205 49 111900 5207.6

Source: Field survey

Conclusion

The climatic conditions have both positive and negative impact on particularcrop and area. The village that we have selected for study is experiencingclimate change as temperature is increasing and precipitation is decreasingslightly. It has been noticed that area under shifting cultivation is decreasing.Meanwhile, area under permanent agriculture is increasing. Area, productionand productivity of the crops grown in this village have increasing trend.This study shows that rice can be a promising crop in terms of its production,if a sizeable acre of land is devoted to its cultivation. The climatic conditionsare suitable to grow fruits and vegetables at the commercial level.

References:David. B. Lobell & Sharon. M. Gourdji (2001) the influence of Climate Change on Global

crop Productivity. Available from http://www.plantphysiol.org/content/160/4/1686.full.

F.A.O. (1998) Climate Change, Forest and Forest management; An Overview, DayaPublishing House, Delhi, pp.34-36.

Gupta K.R. (2010) Climate Change; Meeting the challenge, Atlantic Publisher & Distributors(p) Ltd. U.P, pp.14.

Joshy P.K. (2005) crop diversification in india; nature, pattern and drivers in Agriculture,food Security and Rural development, Asian development Bank,(ed), Oxforduniversity press, pp 186-19.

Lappe Frances Moore. (1982) Climate change and Agriculture in Climate Change, Causes,

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Effects and Solution, Hardly John,T (ed) Wiley Publication, Washington, USA,pp.117.

Negi.B.S. (1996) Agricultural geography, Kendaar Nath, Ram Nath Publication, Delhi.pp541.

Panda R.C. (1996) Institutionalization of Agro-climatic Regional planning in Agro-ClimaticRegional Planning in India, D.N Basu & G.S Guha. (eds), concept PublishingCompany, new delhi, pp.291.

Randha. T. & Mathew.L. (2007) Fruit Crops, New India Publishing Agency, New Delhi,pp. 429.

Sadhu. M.K. &.Chattopadhyay.P.K (2001) Introductory Fruits Crops, Naya ProkashPublication, Calcutta, pp 6.

Singh Neeraj Pratap. (2005) Basic Concepts of fruits Science, International Book DistributingCo. publication, India, pp. 41&42.

Impact of Climate Change on Cropping Pattern

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CHAPTER - 28

Community Based Water Projects, WitheringJustice and Environment Protection: a CaseStudy from KeralaLekha D Bhat*

Introduction

Water governance and water management is now highly influenced byworld water politics. In a developing country like India, the policies relatedto water are highly influenced and to a large extend are shaped by worldwater politics. Since water is a basic need, for a long time it wasgovernmental responsibility to provide drinking water to society. Thegovernments’ Fiscal crises, combined with structural adjustmentprogrammes, have compelled most developing countries to look foralternatives for water supply management (Nisha, 2013). Involvement ofMultilateral institutions like World Bank has created a situation where theresponsibility of ensuring water supply in rural areas is diligently transferredto the local community. Thus, water, from a basic right and public goodbecomes an economic good. The shift in water policies in Kerala clearlyillustrates this changes and new dynamics. The paper analyses these shiftstaking the example of a rural water project in Kerala. With such a shift inwater policy, we could identify two major implications. Not only waterjustice and equity is withering out but also environment protection is atstake as water sources becomes more polluted/ contaminated/over exploited.Holding such a perspective, this paper argues that environment protectionand water justice should go hand-in-hand.

*Assistant Professor, Department of Social Work, Central University of Mizoram, Aizawl-796004, India, [email protected]

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ISBN: 81-8019-518-3 (India) ISBN: 1-55528-374-8 (USA)

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Background

The Kerala Water Authority that is a government institution established in1930s; it was responsible for the water distribution including the rural areas.From 1980s onwards along with International Water and Sanitation Decade(1981-990) and declaration of Millennium Development Goals the structureand nature of this public funded body changed drastically. KWA became anautonomous public sector agency. The aim of such a change was to allowKWA to receive international aid and enable to generate its own income.

In 1995, the Government decided to hand over all rural drinkingwater supply schemes to local self-government for further renovation, andeventually to be handed over to community ownership. In 1997, a WorldBank funded rural water supply project, (popularly known as Jalanidhi)based on a community ownership model was introduced in Kerala. This isa participatory rural water supply and sanitation project and it initiated aparadigmatic shift in the water policies viz. shifting from supply driven modelto demand and participation driven model of water supply. Apart fromensuring water supply, other important components of this project aresanitation, recharge of ground water and strengthening of women’s self-help groups.

The funding of the project follows the uniform pattern acrossdifferent districts that, 75 per cent of the cost of water supply is funded bythe Jalanidhi, 10 per cent is funded by the local governments (GramPanchayats) and rest 15 per cent has to be mobilized by the concernedcommunity where it is usually borne by beneficiary households. A Statelevel autonomous organization called Kerala Rural Water Supply andSanitation Agency was established and each Gram Panchayat is having aSupport Organisation whose main responsibility is providing technicalassistance. The basic principles that guide this project are demand drivenapproach, cost recovery, women development and community involvement.An economic mode of operation is adopted in this project and due to severwater scarcity people of rural Kerala joined such market led reform.

The project had the following features. It was a community demand-driven and participatory process; it changed the role of government fromdirect service delivery to that of facilitator. It featured partial cost sharingin capital cost and full operation and maintenance cost by the users.

Materials and Methods

The study was conducted in two Gram Panchayats (GP) that arepredominantly having tribal population of Palakkad district. In the first

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stage, these two GPs were selected because they represent the backwardpanchayats of this district. These panchayats have considerable forestcoverage, livelihood is largely dependent upon the forest and natural perennialwater resources existed. Land is not very fertile and it limits the agriculturalactivities. The main source of income is laboring outside the village while aconsiderable men and women of the village are unemployed. Five beneficiarygroups (BG) from each Gram Panchayat were selected randomly and thesebeneficiaries formed the study population. Data were analysed via a two-tiered process following the model given by Miles and Huberman (1994).Initially, a first-level coding was conducted by reading of the transcripts.The key themes related to water access, environment protection was givenemphasis, and in the second round, these transcripts were repeatedly read.The results were then written up thematically. The study has used twotools for data collection- Semi-structured interview schedule and Focus-Group Discussion. The data collection period was two months and laterwas followed up by a second visit to the field to seek clarifications from therespondents.

Findings

Access, Equity related Issues

The lack of proper water connections by KWA was the main reason forwhich the beneficiary groups decided to join this project. This clearly showsthe institutional failure of Kerala Water Authority. Majority of thebeneficiaries depended upon ‘neighbours well’/ ‘other’s well’ as a sourceof water prior to the implementation of the scheme. In other areas whereKWA’s piped water was available (though irregularly) these pipes weresealed/ removed so as to pave way for successful implementation of thenew scheme where access to water was decided based on payment capacity.

There is severe drinking water crisis in both the Gram Panchayats;even after the implementation of the project, the respondents complainedthat water is not available in summer and water is not available for thehouses, which are located in the hills. Inadequate water source createsproblems in meeting the requirement of water. All the respondents agreedthat water availability has increased; but regularity, quality and affordabilityremain crucial issues. The project ensures 70 liter of water per capita perday, for an individual only ten BGs were able to ensure this quantity.

The sustainability of the scheme is the beneficiaries’ responsibilityalone, being completely dependent on beneficiaries’ contributions foroperation and maintenance costs. Thus, Jalanidhi has helped the Government

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of Kerala to reduce rural drinking water supply investments.

People in the lower areas are misusing water and this is creatingproblem for households who located in the hills. Sources of water identifiedare inadequate to meet the demand. The initial cost that each beneficiaryhouse invested vary from Rs 3500/- to Rs. 18000/-. Women of the areareported that, the authorities and the government officials showed initialenthusiasm, which later not sustained. This has created negative impact onthe lives of poor households; sustainability of the project in various areas isa serious issue.

After completion of the project, it is left to the Beneficiary Groupsfor operation and maintenance. A good number of the beneficiaries areBPL families and their income status and educational status do not equipthem to handle the operation and maintenance effectively for a long period.To meet the operational and maintenance cost of the project, monthlysubscription at the rate of Rs. 80/- to Rs.200/- was collected from thebeneficiaries on the basis of the capacity of water tank. There are familieswhose monthly income is below Rs 2000/- per month and when water itselfis charged Rs 200/- per month, it becomes unaffordable, however it is not aburden for the high income families. Due to lack of co-ordination, lack oftraining etc., records are not maintained properly. There are considerablenumber of groups in certain villages where the project functioning is stoppedcompletely due heavy maintenance cost.

Poor maintenance of the scheme creates problem because watersupply eventually becomes irregular; so households cannot solely dependup on the scheme for water requirements. Lack of co-ordination betweenbeneficiaries, government authorities and support organization has createsproblems in the functioning and sustainability of the project. Frequent breakdown of the machinery and low quality pipes resulted in failure in watersupply. The poorest of the poor are unable to pay the beneficiary share of15% as stipulated in the project and it is seen that such people are keptaway from the benefit of project.

In some Beneficiary Groups higher amount is charged from thehouseholds which exceed the prescribed water usage. This in turn createsa class divide amongst the members of the community and water isconsidered as a commodity, which can be sold to people who have theability to pay. Similarly, APL family member preferably a man handlesfinancial aspects of the project. Cleaning of the tank, minor repairs etc.,are the responsibilities of BPL family preferably women. This shows thecontinuum and hierarchy in which responsibilities are arranged and assigned

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within the community.

Environment Protection Related Issues

Other aspects of the project like water recharge programme etc., did notsucceed in the area. Programme component like rainwater harvesting,compost pit etc., did not catch people’s attention. These elements wereincluded in the project to increase participation of the community people.These elements are not integrated properly and this in turn is affecting thesustainability of the project.

Poor maintenance of old sources of water is the second majorproblem. During the initial phase of the project, water was available inadequate quantity from the newly developed water source. This led to asituation where old wells and ponds were not cleaned/ maintained. Insome villages these traditional water sources are so contaminated withwaste dumping.

Over exploiting ground water is identified as the third major problem.Bore wells were dug to provide water for domestic purpose. Initially aswater was available in plenty consensus was developed in the group to usethe water for small-scale agriculture, cropping purpose as well. This led toa situation where ground water level went down considerably and the areafaces severe water crisis especially during summers.

Similarly in certain villages the water sources used for this projectare running streams which are located inside the forest area. Earlier thewater from these sources were used optimally; after the commencementof the scheme water from these sources is over-exploited both for domesticand even for small-scale industrial purpose. This has led to drying up ofthese streams in many areas.

Discussion

Excessive exploitation of newly developed water sources and negligenceof naturally existing water resources leads to serious water justice relatedissues. Ecosystem degradation and denial of access and equity goes handin hand (Krishnan & George 2014). The relationship between water as ahuman right and the protection of water resources are not widelyacknowledged in the recent world conferences let it be Rio Summit or Rioplus 20 summits. Soverroski (2007) states that such dismissive reference tothis relationship among the international community arises from the realisationthat potential state responsibility would arise from the recognition of inter-linked nature of these two issues. Gorsboth (2005) mentions that, the State

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has to take concrete steps as to ensure safety, accessibility and affordabilityof water to all. State can respect and ensure the right to water only to theextend it has financial and physical resources. In addition, such a justiceand equity based paradigm should incorporate environment protection aspectas well. The ways in which water is valued, used, controlled, and givenmeaning are related to speciûc ecological, climatic, and geo-hydrologicalconditions which intertwine in complex ways with socio-historical processesto coproduce “waterscapes” (Baviskar 2007). This term allows recognisinghow natural and social environments always co-constitute each other, andis therefore useful “to explore the ways in which ûows of water, power andcapital converge to produce uneven socio-ecological arrangements overspace and time” (Budds and Hinojosa 2012). Ahlers (2000) shows thatwhen water management and distribution is led by demand driven agendathe notion of efficiency overshadows other goals including social equity.Ahlers (2000) argues that the introduction of market mechanisms in thewater sector perpetuates and legitimizes unequal access to water.

Right to water, minimal conditions of human existence, well-beingand health are closely interlinked. The convention like International Covenanton Economic, Social and Cultural Rights while interpreting who must haveaccess to water has clearly mentioned that it include marginalized (Irujo,2007).

This empirical study has highlighted the issues related to wateraccess, equity and environment protection. A water justice framework canopen up the debate on issues of justice in relation to water rights, protectionof the resource and such community based water projects’ impacts shouldbe evaluated using such a paradigm.

References:Ahlers, R. (2000). Gender relations in irrigation districts in Me´xico. In Gender and water

management in Latin America, ed. Cecilia Tortajada, 203–16. New Delhi, India:Oxford University Press.

Baviskar, A., ed., (2007) Waterscapes. The cultural politics of a natural resource. NewDelhi: Orient Longman.

Budds, J. and Hinojosa, L., (2012) Restructuring and rescaling water governance in miningcontexts: the co-production of waterscapes in Peru. Water Alternatives, 5 (1), 119–137

Gorsboth, M. (2005) Identifying and Addressing Violations of the Human Right to Water,Heidelberg, Germany: FoodFirst International Action Network and Bread for theWorld.

Irujo, A.E. (2007) The Right to Water, International Journal of Water Resources

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Development, 23:2, 267-283.

Krishnan, J & George, A (2014) Tribal communities, the forests, the fisher folk and theriver: whither water justice?, Local Environment: The International Journal ofJustice and Sustainability, 19:9, 1012-1023.

Miles, M.B. and Huberman, A.M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: an expanded sourcebook.Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Nisha K R (2013) Household Participation in community-based rural water supplysystems: Experiences from Kerala, India. Watr Ploicy 15( 2013), 515-534

Soveroski, M., (2007) Environmental rights versus environmental. Receil, 16 (3), 261–273

Community Based Water Projects in Kerala

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CHAPTER - 29

Corporate Social Responsibility andSustainability: A Case Study of NauguraWatershed in Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand,IndiaS. K. Bandooni*, Arun Kumar Tripati** and L.Mirana Devi*

Introduction

The concept of sustainability revolves around the balance of society, economyand environment. Therefore, creating the sustainability is utmost necessaryof the world. The Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) can play a veryimportant role to create and promote sustainable development in India. Atpresent time sustainable development is need for society as developmentand environment both are necessary to sustain the life over the surface ofearth.”Sustainable development is development that meets the needs ofthe present without compromising the ability of future generations to meettheir own needs (Brundtland Report). This definition suggests the need tobalance two concerns, one having to do with present, or intergenerationalneeds and the other having to do with future, or inter-generational needs.From a capital perspective, sustainable development can be defined asnon-declining per Capita wealth over time (United Nations et al., 2003).Sustainable Development is often described as being built on three, equallyimportant foundations or pillars such as social, environmental and economic

Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation (2015) : 381-400 Sati,V. P. et al. (Ed),Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002

ISBN: 81-8019-518-3 (India) ISBN: 1-55528-374-8 (USA)

*Department of Geography, Shaheed Bhagat Singh College (Eve.), University of Delhi,India**Department of Geography, Kirori Mal College, University of Delhi, India, E-mail:[email protected]

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development. Therefore, creating the sustainability is utmost necessary ofthe world.

The Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) can play a veryimportant role to create and promote sustainable development in India.Corporate Social Responsibility is the continuing commitment by businessto behave ethically and contribute to economic development while improvingthe quality of life of the workforce and their families as well as of the localcommunity and society at large. CSR is about capacity building forsustainable livelihoods.

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is the responsibility of anorganization for the impacts of its decisions and activities on society, theenvironment and its own prosperity, known as the “triple bottom line”of people,  planet,  and  profit.  Not  only  do  responsible,  sustainable  andtransparent approaches help build brand and reputation, they help strengthenthe community and therefore the marketplace. A solid business plan,embedded into the business culture, reflecting organizational values andobjectives through strategic CSR application, will help to build a sustainableand profitable future for all. Anselmsson and Johansson (2007) assessedthree areas of CSR performance: human responsibility, product responsibilityand environmental responsibility.

The SEWA-THDC (a unit of Tehri Hydro-Electric DevelopmentCorporation, Uttarakhand, India) is running a programme under corporatesocial responsibility in Naugura watershed in Upali Ramoli Patti in PratapNagar tehsil of Tehri Garhwal district (Garhwal Himalaya) in Uttarakhand.The programme is managed by Department of Geography, Kirori Mal Collegeof University of Delhi, India. With reference to create sustainability, thewhole work is a good example of expectation of the people, harsh reality inthe field, positive and negative aspect of the work and challenges in front ofworking group. The programme was started in 2011 and before to start theprogramme an intensive need assessment baseline survey was conductedby the faculty members and research scholars of University of Delhi. Needassessment has been defined as the process of measuring the extent andnature of the needs of a particular target population so that services canrespond to them. Need assessment is, therefore, a valuable tool for informingthe planning process for the success of corporate social responsibility andsustainable development. After conducting the baseline survey, SEWA-THDC gave the responsibility of creating sustainability to Dr. Kaushal KumarSharma (Department of Geography, Kirori Mal College) and Dr. S. K.Bandooni (Department of Geography, Shaheed Bhagat Singh (Eve.)

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College). The experiences of near about four years are a good example ofsustainable development in Naugura watershed of Tehri Garhwal districtof Uttarakhand, India.

THDCIL a Joint Venture Corporation of the Govt. of India andGovt. of U.P. was incorporated as a Limited Company under the CompaniesAct, 1956, in July1988, to develop, operate and maintain the Tehri HydroPower Complex and other Hydro Projects. The works were handed overto THDC in June 1989. The Board of Directors of THDCIL has approvedCSR-Policy. The CSR activities can be undertaken by the company directlyor through the company sponsored NGOs namely SEWA-THDC andTHDC- EMB and 2 percent of Net Profit before Tax of THDCIL subjectto minimum of 13.00 Crore is being allocated and transferred every year toNon-Lapsable CSR Fund for implementation of THDC CSR-CDScheme.The programme on ecological restoration for sustainable livelihoodat Naugura watershed is sponsored by THDCIL, Rishikesh through theirCSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) and SD (Sustainable Development)programme. It is managed by Department of Geography; Kirori Mal College,.It is a practical management strategy that would restores ecologicalprocesses to maintain ecosystem composition, structure and function. Atpresent the programme covers 12 villages of Nauguragad watershed (UpaliRamoli Patti) in Pratap Nagar teshil of Tehri Garhwal district in Uttarakhand(India). Later on the programme would cover all the 27 villages of UpaliRamoli Patti.

To promote the sustainability, the programme is being run througha well established centre at Deen Gaon with adequate staff for day to dayinteraction with rural communities. Apart from geographers, scientists, socialworkers, environmentalists, agriculturists, professional, policy makers etc.,are roped in to strengthen the programme.

Aims and ObjectivesTo create sustainability and also to meet the demand of the local people, thefollowing main aims and objectives of the study/project area have beendecided and have been implementing since 2011-

To establish a center for development and research activities.

To carried out activities of ecological and socio-economicempowerment.

To coordinates all development activities undertaken by SEWA-THDCin Pratap Nagar tehsil.

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To carry out awareness camps, training programmes, awardingprogressive farmers etc. from time to time.

To help/strengthen the local communities/Panchyati Raj Institutionthrough e-governance.

To provide scientific input to the farmers in agriculture/horticultureactivities to increase production and income.

To carry out activities related to Women and Child health and hygiene.

To organize training programme for empowering youth-male and femalethrough various primary activities for job/business.

To provides suggestive measures in livestock management for milkproduction, fodder development to raise production/income.

To develop Progeny-cum-Demonstration-Farms related to Horticulture(Fruits), Food Crops, Herbs, Medicinal Plants, Ginger, off -seasonvegetables etc. for other farmer to adopt such techniques.

To explores mechanism for market channels for quick disposal ofproduce.

To promotes improve method of cooking, clean drinking water, soilmanagement.

To supports and promotes Eco-tourism and Village Tourism in the area.

On the whole it is believed that Ecological Restoration Programmewould support and develop sustainable development mainly through thestrategies on Water Management, Forest Development, WastelandManagement, Water Harvesting, Fodder Development, Slope Management,Stream Ecology, agricultural transformation etc.

Materials and Methods

The present work is based on following methods

Questionnaire is used to determine the standard indicators of thesustainable development through Corporate Social Responsibility.

Interaction is done with the Locals, administrators, policy makers, socialworkers, scholars, scientist and others to understand the problems andbackground of the study area.

The present study is mainly based on field work, observation, experiencesetc.

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Some secondary sources are also used to understand the concepts,background of the study area etc.

GPS is used to determine the boundary of the Naugura Gad watershed.

Toposheet is used to mark the boundary, physical features, settlementetc.

Landsat ETM+ satellite imagery is used for the preparation of Landuse/ Landcover Map

Geographical Information Systems (GIS), mainly ArcGIS version 10.2is used to prepare the thematic maps and to analysis the work.

The Study Area

The Naugura gad watershed is located in the Upali Ramoli Patti of PratapNagar tehsil of district Tehri Garhwal in Uttarakhand state (India).Geographically, it is situated between 30°322 3 N to 30°372 3 N latitudeand 78°252 3 E to 78°312 3 E longitude (Fig.1). The geographical area ofNaugura gad watershed is 45.445 km. The Naugura gad is a tributary ofJalkur gad which makes confluence with Tehri reservoir (previously withriver Bhagirathi). The maximum villages of Upali Ramoli Patti of Nauguragad watershed are situated under extreme and harsh social, economic andecological conditions and villagers are struggling for their livelihood anddaily sustenance and survivability. The study (project) area is spread in 12villages out of 27 villages of Naugura gad and four other micro watershedsof Upali Ramoli Patti of Pratap Nagar Tehsil of Tehri Garhwal District.Now the villagers see social corporate responsibility work under Universityof Delhi as a way to solve the problems and to support sustainability.

Physiographic Analysis

Physiographic analysis of the watershed has been done using ArcGISsoftware for topographic map; contour and spot height. Digital elevationmodel is prepared and area under different elevation range has beencategorized to understand the physiographic constraints of the watershedinto the development process (Table.1). It was found that around 52 percentarea lies in the medium elevation range and its height varies between 1450m -2050 m. While 30 percent area is covered by medium high and 12percent area comes under high elevation categories that is more than 2350m.Hence, very little area falls under low elevation category and only less than5 percent area is below 1450 m above mean sea level. This shows thatmost of the area has high elevation variation that makes the area difficult

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for agriculture activities.Table 1: Area under the Different Elevation Range in the Naugura Gad Watershed

S. No. Elevation Range (m) Category Area (sq. km.) % Area

1 < 1450 Low Elevation 1.88 4.13

2 1450-1750 Medium 8.17 1.97

3 1750-2050 Medium Lower High 15.7 34.53

4 2050-2350 Medium High 13.97 30.72

5 2350-2650 High 5.24 11.52

6 > 2650 Very High 0.51 1.12

Total 45.47 100.00

Source: Compiled by the authors

Slope inclination is one of the crucial physical attributes whichinfluences development practices. Wentworth method is used to calculatethe slope in the Naugura watershed. It was measured that only less than 3percent area comes under slope inclination < 5°, mostly the watershed iscovered by moderately slope category 15° - 25° which the inclined coversaround 42 percent of area, followed by moderate high categories which is

Fig.1: Location of the Study area

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approximately 37 percent, and very high inclined slope inclination areacovered by 2 percent.

Generally aspect means sun facing slope direction and it is themeasure of sunshine hours, received in a day. Particularly, in the hilly areas,it plays a very crucial role for cultivation practices and growth of vegetation.Approximately around 28 percent area is covered by east facing slope,subsequently followed by north-east and south-east both covered around18 percent area. South-facing area i.e. sunny slope covers around 13 percent,west facing 11percent and other slope direction covers less than 1percentarea.

Land Use/Cover

Land use map of the area is prepared using Landsat ETM+ satellite imageryPath 146 Row 039 dated 1st June, 2010, obtained from http//glovis.usgs.gov.Further, it is also classified using Google Earth Satellite imagery. Pixel bypixel comparison and principal component analysis method is used in orderto get the accurate land use map of the area particularly for the agricultureand forest area. The analysis was performed using Erdas Imagine 9.2software through supervised classification method (Fig.2).

Naugura gad watershed is mostly covered by forest area. Forestarea covers around the 30 percent of the total geographical area, sparseforest covers 21percent and agriculture land covers around 20 percent.Other land uses are wasteland (18 percent), grassland (8 percent) andsettlement (less than 1 percent). Forest, mainly covers the upper part of thewatershed, which is high elevation range, slanting surface, east and southeast facing slopes. There are also some degraded lands due to unavailabilityof moisture. Agriculture land particularly confined to the valley and spur,and also to some extent to moderate to high inclined slope as terrace farmingin the watershed.

Socio-Economic Analysis

The study (project) area is spread in 12 villages out of 27 villages of Nauguragad watershed and four micro watersheds of Upali Ramoli Patti of PratapNagar Tehsil of Tehri Garhwal District(India).The population of the area is12907 persons out of which 6753 are male and 6154 females. The averagesex ratio of the watershed is 911 females per 1000 males. The schedulecaste population constitutes 12.38 percent of the total population of thearea. In terms of the literacy, the area is very backward. The averageliteracy rate of the area is 42 percent in which male literacy is approximately69.39 percent and female literacy in comparison male is to very poor (22.73

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percent).

The ratio of working population gives more clear pictures to thesocio-economic status of the area. Main working population is 41 percentof the total populations, out of which male working population is 42 percent,and female constitutes 40 percent of the total workforce. But, the ratio ofthe marginal workers clearly shows that female are partly involved in theprimary sector activities. The total population of marginal workers is 2095person out of which 1589 are females, which is around 2/3rdof the totalmarginal workers. It shows that female are mostly involved in the householdactivates, cultivation and animal husbandry which generates lesser incomeas compare to total working hours.

Agricultural and Allied Activities

Agriculture is the main source of livelihood of people living in the area.

Fig.2: Land use/cover of Naugura Gad Watershed.

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Around 65 percent households are dependent on the agriculture and alliedactivities in the area. This includes cultivation, animal husbandry, agro-forestry, collection of forest produce etc. The major crops of the area arepaddy, corn, kauda, jhungora, chaulai, soyabean, pulses and vegetables duringthe Kharif season. During the Rabi season wheat, mustard, pea, gram,potato and vegetables are grown.

Creating Sustainability through Corporate Social Responsibility

As already mentioned that corporate social responsibility (CSR) can playan vital role to sustain the environment including livelihood of any area if itis implemented seriously. The local people of the area have a lot ofexpectation from the project like job generation, technical education, medicalfacilities, diffusion of new ideas and promotion of crops, improve theconfidence level, protect the environment so on and so forth. With theseview in mind along with own experiences, many planning have beenformulated and in maximum of them have been already implemented.Local communities of the area are mobilized to adopt scientific agriculturepractices to raise their income. Supporting non-agriculture activities throughSelf Help Groups (SHG) approach is added for generating extra income.Women and Child health is taken care through organizing health camps.Computer education is imparted to all those who want to learn. Girls aregiven training for cutting and tailoring for economic empowerment. Eco-tourism and village tourism are being promoted and people are motivated tomake these as another avenue for economic benefits. More than 70 majorand minor programmes have been identified for the society and environment.All programmes are discussed with the stakeholders and then put to practice.To meet the aims and objectives, many techniques have been taken intoconsideration. Some of them are as follows-

Micro-Planning is prepared for Development on the basis of PrimarySurvey.

Programme is taken to the people in open meetings along with Panchayatrepresentatives, local experts, scientists are scholars.

Priority areas are set and Timework is decided for the initiatingprogramme and its outcome.

All programmes are in accordance with agriculture schedule, schoolfunctioning, religious and cultural festivals.

Monitoring, observation and modification in the programme is acontinuous process.

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The entire programme running in the area may be grouped intotwo categories and they are Socio-economic Empowerment Programmesand Scientific Programme. The socio-economic Empowerment Programmesare of two types- primary activities; and secondary and tertiary activities.Agriculture, horticulture and livestock development and transformation arethe main component of the primary activities. While training Programme,explore mechanism for market channels, awareness Camps, strengthenthe Local Communities/Panchayats, women empowerment, educationdevelopment programme, health & hygiene, sanitation, youth empowerment(Male/Female),awakening against social evils, eco and village tourism,strengthening Local NGO’s & SHG, culture development programme, etc.

Under scientific programme main activities are- Slope Stabilizationworks, Forest management mainly through re and afforestaion works, grassplantation, energy development, water management, disaster management,check on land degradation, improvement of stream ecology, biodiversityconservation, research work, etc.

In nut shell it can be concluded that the level of sustainability isincreasing in the area and the main direct and indirect benefits of thedifferent activities – ecological restoration, research, development in differentsectors, employment generation, income generation programmes, generationof services etc.

Few Examples

The few examples to explain the sustainability through corporate socialresponsibility are as follow-

Computer Education

The basic education facilities of computer education are very poor in thearea. The schools have computer laboratory but teacher are not qualifiedto take the computer classes or their level of knowledge is of lower level.Also the numbers of commuters installed in the schools are lesser ascompared to the total strength of the students. Therefore, DRC Deen Gaonhas established computer laboratory with 15 high grade computers with allsoftware for learning and for job orientation courses. The course work iswell framed ranging from 3 months to 3 years. The time is flexible to attendthe classes. The students are not charged any fee for learning computer.The target group is school children of any class, dropouts, girls, or anyother person like headman, progressive farmers and teachers wants tolearn computers. The Students learn MS Word, Excel, Photoshop, Paint,Power Point and typing in English and Hindi. The main objectives of

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computer education are to impart quality training in computer education,market oriented courses and to improve the communication with outsideworld. Initially there was only one computer center at Deen gaon. At presenttwo computer centers are managed by the centers (Budkot and Mukhem).The main impact of this activity is that nearly 200 students are well knownto computer education covering nearly10 Villages of the watershed. Manyof them have learnt all the basic software and expert in Hindi and EnglishTyping.

Promotion of Education

To improve the educational level of the students as well as others, twolibraries are running at Deen Gaon and Budkot villages. Other than regularlearning from schools books it is felt to inculcate habit among student andothers to learn from other books of local culture, folk songs, English, yoga,health, computer, general knowledge etc. Nearly, 275 persons includingstudents have been benefited from libraries. Apart from library scheme,poor and intelligent students are getting free coaching from the availablecompetent teachers. Many students also get scholarship to get bettereducation.

Yoga Camp for Education

The main objective of this programme is to inculcate the habit of exerciseamong young boys, girls and villagers. This programme is done in schoolswith the target of at least two programmes in a year. Since 2013 nearly 120boys, girls and elders have learnt basic exercises of yoga and many of themthose who have learnt yoga, practice it at home on regular basis. Yogaclasses are mainly taken by the expert of this field and during the coursethey also gives the tips of naturopathy and ayurvedic treatment.

Bal Sodh Mela (Children Knowledge Fair)

The main objective of this activity is to involve students both male andfemale in the schools to come out with innovative idea using local wisdomand to display their output and award the students publically to increaseconfidence level. One such fair was organized in 2013 and nearly 200students participated ranging from class 5 to class 12th from the surrounding7 schools of the project area. It was a big successful programme and studentsand parents want such activities to be carried out on routine basis. It wasagain organized in 2014 and it was also a great success.

Apart from this, essay competition, drawing, general knowledge test andrelated activities are also popular in the area. These programmes are for

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improving the writing and learning skills among the school going students.Two such programmes have been organized in the area and 85 studentsparticipated in this programme from 12 villages.

Cutting and Tailoring

Till the end of December 2014, the total number of beneficiaries from cuttingand tailoring programme is 85 and out of them 45 are from Deen Gaoncentre and 40 are from Budkot Centre. Now due to demand of thisprogramme from other villages, the Deen Gaon centre has been shifted toMukhem village and this clearly indicates the popularity of the programme.The beneficiaries of this programme has deposited Rs. 2,100/- to GramVikas Kosh( village development fund) for developmental activities and 20trainers have earned Rs 25, 000/- during 2013-14. The trainees are happywith this work. The students are mainly from Deengaon, Onalgaon,Herwalgaon, Ghandiyalgaon and Mukhem villages. The main findings areas follows-

It is a best mode where the females are getting empowerment.

The most of the girls are from 7th to 12th class and many graduatestudents are also coming.

Many students from Mukhem village used to come 6 km by foot. Nowthe center is at Mukhem village and girls from other villages are comingin that centre.

Cleanliness Programme

The situation of cleanliness in all the villages of the Naugura watershed isvery poor and in bad shape. The surrounding conditions of the houses andlanes are full of dirt. The locals are used to live in that unfavorable condition.To improve this condition, cleanliness programmes are being organized indifferent villages every year. The awards are given for this purpose thosewho stand 1st, IInd and IIIrd in the village on the basis of maintaining thecleanliness. The main idea behind it is to inculcate the sense of keepinghouse and the surrounding clean. Till December 2014, around 400 familiesof 8 villages have been brought under the programme. As a result, peopleare falling in habit of keeping their surrounding clean. Between October2014 and March 2015, to promote the clean India (swach Bharat)programme of honorable Prime Minister of India ( Mr. Narender Modi), 21toilets have been constructed in Deen Gaon Village. This Programme willcertainly be a boost for sustainability programme through CSR.

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Awareness Programme

The Naugura watershed in Tehri Garhwal District is very remote and isolatedarea. There is no public transport facility available in the area. As alreadymentioned above,the level of education is very low. Exposure of the peoplewith outside world is also very less. They are not aware of moderndevelopment, changing lifestyle, necessity of sustainable development, needof the society, scientific-technical development etc. Therefore, it is felt tostart awareness programmes in different field of local importance. Now itis a regular feature of the project with main idea behind it to expose peopleto new life and new thinking and to change perception of villagers towardsbetter quality of life. During different awareness programmes in differentvillages many scholars, social workers, progressive farmers,environmentalists, administrators, local representatives, politicians, scientistsand experts of different fields participate in the programmes to boost thewill of the locals. The experts give their views and explain the way toimprove the conditions. Through this programme the confidence level ofthe locals are increasing at higher speed. Till December 2014 around 900people (different age group and profession) from 12 villages have beenbenefitted from this programme and the locals understand the need ofintegrated development to sustain better life.

Distribution of High Yielding Varieties of Seeds

The distribution of high yielding varieties of seeds to increase the productivityof crops in agriculture is the popular activity of the programme. The wholearea is endowed with appropriate physio-climatic conditions for growingoff-season vegetable, warm and cold fruit cultivation, commercial crops,organic farming etc. The traditional crop production has declined due tounscientific cultivation and decreasing fertility of soils. If the project is ableto motivate farmers toward better food and commercial crops there incomeis going to rise in due course of time. Therefore, farmers need to be awareof all important practices in agriculture, horticulture, importance of organicfood, manage the land properly etc. prevailing outside the area. The mainobjectives of this programme are to motivate farmers toward growing betterfood and commercial crops/off-season vegetable, to raise their income fromcommercial/food crops, to save time for other constructive family works,to provide High Yielding Verities of Seeds, to develop of vegetable nursery,increase the habit of growing vegetables in kitchen garden, to increase thehabit of eating vegetables and crops, to promote organic farming, identifyprogressive farmers and to form SHG’s for agriculture/vegetable cultivation.The main impact of the programme between 2011 and May (20th) 2015

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are-

Nearly 380 farmers have been benefitted under this programme.

Under commercial farming (cultivation of Turmeric) 120 farmers havebeen benefited.

Under Ginger cultivation 50 farmers were into fold under commercialcultivation.

Many farmers are growing vegetables like lady finger, potatoes, cabbage,cauliflower, brinjal, bottle gourd, beans, capsicum, cucumber, chilies,etc.

310 families were brought under kitchen gardening.

More recently in the month of April 2015 one SHG of female only isagreed to grow the vegetables on cooperative basis and this group hastaken the land on lease for the same purpose. Seeds of differentvegetables have been given to the group. If this exercise gets successit will be the land mark example for all other SHG.

To promote the vegetable nursery and off season vegetables, fourpolyhouses (during 2014-15) have given to four progressive farmers ofSera, Budkot, Deen Gaon and Ghandiyal villages. They have shownthe positive response and as a result two more polyhouses to bedistributed within two months i.e. June- July 2015.

Horticulture

The physio-climatic conditions of the Naugura watershed are best forgrowing subtropical to temperate. For example apple and walnut can bebest grown in upper reaches of the watershed. While sub-tropical fruitslike orange and lemon can be grown in the lower parts of the watershed.Unfortunately, farmers in this area have never been exposed to horticultureactivities. They are still engaged in traditional cultivation. To educate farmers,there is need to develop Progeny-cum-Demonstration orchard as a showcaseas well as for distribution of Fruit Plants to the farmers. For this purposemany progressive and interested farmers have been identified and majorityof fruits plants have been given to them. Other farmers have also givenfew saplings of fruit plants in different villages as already mentioned thatthe area has immense scope fruit cultivation. If the project is able to motivatefarmers toward better food and commercial crops there income is going torise in due course of time. Keeping these view in mind, the main objectivesof the programme are- to bring maximum area under cultivation of fruits

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ranging from sub-tropical to temperate fruits, to raise the income of farmer,sustainable environmental development and slope stabilization and to reducethe soil erosion. To increase the area under fruits till December 2014 around20,000 plants of Orange, Mango, Narangi, Lemon, apple and walnut havebeen distributed to many household in 12 villages. It is mentioned toworthwhile that many farmers are following the advice of experts seriouslyand the success rate is more the seventy percent. During 2015 it is the planto plant around 5000 saplings of citrus varieties like lemon and orange andaround 10000 saplings of apple and walnut.

Forest and Fodder Plants

Under plantation programme, Community Plantation on waste land,community land and forest land is also an important activity. Because, thereis heavy pressure on the nearby forest for fodder, fuel wood and agriculturalland, the forest resources have stated declining and people were findingimmense problem to meet the basic requirement for livelihood from theforest. Due to deforestation activity, soil erosion, land degradation, waterscarcity etc. problems are increasing at alarming rate. As a result the mainobjectives of the plantation programme are to bring waste land underplantation, to increase fuel and fodder supply in future, increase the rate ofwater recharge and to check the rate of soil erosion and land slide. Underthis programme till year 2013, around 11,500 plants have been planted inthree villages namely DeenGaon, ghandiyalGaon and Baldogi. The successrate of in these villages varies from 40 to 70 percent. During the year 2014around 8000 sapling of different species including fruits planted at thecommunity land of Herwal village. The planting of saplings of fruit trees ina forest is to check the encroachment of wild animals in the agriculturalfield and settlement area. In the forest area mainly different varieties oftrees like oak, cedar, uttis, melu and kandar are planted. The Promotion ofmixed forest is actively supported by the two famous environmentalistsfrom the Uttarakhand (India) and they are Mr. Sachhidanand Bharati andMr. Jagat Singh Chaudhary Junglee.

Promotion of social forestry is also important to provide three F(Fuel, fodder and food) to the locals and also necessary to sustain theenvironment. Keeping this view in mind, one waste land of a farmer atHerwal village is selected and different varieties of plants are planted inthe year 2014. It is done under the guidance of famous forestry expertnamely Dr. Anil Joshi and it is very interesting to note that the survival ratein personal land is more than 90 percent and it is near about double ascompared to community land.

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Fodder Plantation is also an important activity as Green Fodder isavailable for limited period of time in the area and time taken to collectfodder ranges from 5 hrs to 9 hrs a day. Keeping this view in mind, Napierand other grass plantation has been extensively done in the area. The maintargets behind this activity are- to increase the supply of green fodderthroughout the year, save the time for women in collecting fodder, to provideseedling to the villagers in future, preparation of fodder nursery in eachvillage, training to the farmers for growing napier grass, increase the milkproduction, slope stabilization and checking soil erosion. The net impact ofthe implementation of this activity is that 80,000 thousand sapling havebeen planted in Naugura Gad and training has been provided to farmers forgrowing Napier grass. Along with it two nurseries have been developedsince 2014 to provide sapling and training to the farmers. During the rainyseason in 2015, there is again a plan of massive plantation of napier grass inmany areas.

Pits and Recharging Water

Generally, the rain water runoff on the slopes mainly on steep andbarren slopes is found very high. Therefore, the moisture content on theslope and underground is low hence the vegetative cover and availability ofwater has declined in some parts of the area. As a result, the water flow inalmost all the springs is declining. Keeping this view in mind, the idea andwork of Mr. Sacchidanand Bharati (Environmentalist) i.e. digging the pitsto conserve and recharge the water is implementing in the project area. Onthe basis of experiences and idea given by Mr. Sacchidanand Bharati it isdecided to dig pits on the slopes to retain the water. The idle size of the pitis 2 feet dia with 2 feet depth. It is hoped that the recharging of springs willincrease the water level over the period of time. During 2013, around 300pits have been digged in two villages (MollyaGaon and Onal Gaon). During2014, 500 pits have been digged in forest belt of Herwal village. One oldlarge destroyed pond (chal) is also renovated at the outer skirts of DeenGaon village and it is full of water round the year. Around and in betweenthe pits, tree plants and grass are also planted. Apart from this, check wallare also constructed along the seri gad at Herwal village to check the flowof runoff and water flow in stream. Two water points ( Deen Gaon andHerwal villages) are also renovated to supply the clean to the locals.

Water Flour Mills (Panchakki)

Improvement of functional capacity of water flour mills is also an importanttarget of the programme and 15 villages with around 3000 household will

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be benefited in future. This programme aims towards creating eco-friendlytechnology towards carbon serving, money saving, less burden onenvironment and increasing efficiency of old Panchakki (Gharat). Earlier10 Kg of Wheat could be grinded in one hour and 500gms would be left forthe owner of the water flour mill as grinding cost (Rs8/-).Now 40 to 45 Kgwheat is grinded in one Hour and 2 Kg would be left as grinding cost (Rs 8X4=32/-) at one renovated water flour mill. On an average villagers aresaving 1 to 2 Hours per visit. In future, two water flour mill (Gharats) willgenerate power equivalent to light 150 Bulbs for the local beneficiary at thelowest cost. One such plant was successfully completed but unfortunatelyafter generating electricity for few days it got destroyed by the great disasteroccurred in Uttarakhand in 2013.

Masala (spices) Grinding Programme

The main objective of this programme is meant for women empowerment.It is based on the concept of LizzatPapad organization (Mumbai). Thewomen are given raw spices and after grinding at home, they return backto the centre. They are paid wages according to their work. The mainobjectives of this programme are to increase the income of the women, touse spare time of women, to provide good quality of spices and to provideassured market for the spices. During the year 2013, around 250 Kg. Masala(spices) has been grinded by 12 women and they have earned Rs. 7500/-(per female) through this activity. Recently (2015) it is the plan to grind thespices in the water flour mill to increase the production as well as income.

Internship Programme

This programme is an applied development programme for rural community.It has many dimensions for learning for students and teachers of variousdisciplines from different universities, institutions and other academic bodies.They teach students, teachers and locals about the model of ruraldevelopment and need of sustainable development at present scenario bygiving real example from real world. Till May 2015, five International studentfrom Atlanta Public School USA, 30 National students(1 student IIT,Roorkee, 2 students from NIT Allahabad, 2 students from department ofSocial Work, University of Delhi, 3 students from Trinity college ofManagement and Technology, 7 students from Shaheed Bhagat Singh(Eve.)college(University of Delhi), 5 students from Miranda House University ofDelhi 10 students from K M College, University of Delhi ), 2 teachers fromUttarakhand and around 12 professors from University of Delhi (ShaheedBhagat Singh Eve. college, Miranda House, AND College etc.) have activelyparticipated in the programme. They interacted with the villagers and gave

Corporate Social Responsibility and Sustainability

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blue print for the development of villages. An active participation amongthe teachers, students and locals provides a golden opportunity to understandthe real problems and to solve them in proper order to save the area fromany harmful activity.

Allopathic Primary Health Centre

Keeping health service facilities in mind, in the month of June, 2014 oneallopathic primary health center has been opened in the area (Herwal village)as the distance of government hospital from the villages of the Naugurawatershed varies from 8 to 40 kms and many times staff is not available inhospital. As a result, the centre is so popular that within two months (up to31st July) around 1000 patients have been given proper treatment by theskilled staff i.e. doctor(MBBS), Pharmacist and ANM. Till the end of March2015 around 3000 patients have checked and given proper treatment by thestaff. Now with the help of Rotary International there is a plan to convertthis small health centre into a big hospital. In future it is fully hoped thathealthy person will participate actively to sustain the environment.

Formation of Self Help Group

Self Help Group (SHG) is important to develop resources and to sustain thelivelihood on the basis of cooperative behaviour. The proper registration,training, bank account and faith between themselves and with organizationare necessary to make the programme success. The SHG is also importantto have the feeling of joint work to make success any activity. Keeping thisview in mind, 19 SHG have been registered with the project office in differentsectors namely agriculture(13), poultry(2), nursery (1), juice(1), fishery (1),dairy farming(1), and six SHG are in the process of proper registration.One of them (female group) will be engaged with sanitary napkins activityand another with bee keeping. It is interesting to mention that juice SHGfrom Mukhem village has earned around one lakh rupees (0.1 million)between February 2015 to 20th May 2015 only. Therefore it is fully hopedthat with the help of these groups, level of economic condition may increasemany times. In near future, these SHG would be involved to manage theenvironment properly.

Cultural Programmes

In the present socio-economic changes the cultural values are being erodedin many parts of India. New generation is less interested in old folk songs,customs and rituals. Therefore, cultural awakening and awarenessprogramme has been launched in Deen Gaon and surrounding villages. The

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main objective of the programme is to strengthen cultural values in thevillages, to revive art and cultural group, to provide musical instruments,dress etc. to the cultural group and to support religious and culturalprogramme organized for the welfare of the community. After the initiationof this programme one cultural group has been revived with a group of 15people and musical instrument has been provided to the group. Now culturalprogrammes are being organized on regular basis. Apart from this, variousreligious and cultural programmes like Nagraja fair and holy stories(BhagwatGita) are also supported by the centre to promote the old cultural values.

Conclusion

On the basis of above mentioned discussion it can be concluded that applyingof concepts and ideas in the real field is a very difficult job because peoplehave so many doubts, worries and expectations in their mind. Actual realworld problems are also more difficult as compare to the perception in themind. Therefore to create sustainability through different programme likecorporate social responsibility is of hard task and requires patience andconfidence. It is a challenging and interesting field also to fulfill the dreamof social service and to contribute something positive for society, environmentand nation. The reality is that the work being done by the geography facultymembers of University of Delhi, India with the help, advice and consent ofthe nature, experts and local people is in a positive direction.

References:Anselmsson, Johan; Ulf Johansson, (2007) “Corporate social responsibility and the

positioning of grocery brands: an exploratory study of retailer and manufacturerbrands at point of purchase”. International Journal of Retail & DistributionManagement (10): 849.

Bandooni, S. K. et. al. (2014) “ Information System approach for Integrated NaturalResource Management, Learning and Practices in Nauguda Gad, Uttarakhand” inVishwamber Prasad Satti et.al.(Eds.), Management of Natural Resources forSustainable Development: Challenges and Opportunities, Excel India Publishers,New Delhi, pp.304-317.

Bandooni, S. K. et.al. (2014) “Corporate Social Responsibility: An Experience ofExpectation, Reality and Challenges from Garhwal Himalaya of Uttarakhand” inChhering Tandup (Ed.), Change in Cryosphere its Impact on Ecosystem Servicesand Rural Livelihoods: Understanding Local Adaptation in the Himalayan Region,Excel India Publishers, New Delhi, pp.119-134.

Brundtland Report, (1987) Our Common Future: Report of the World Commission onEnvironment and Development, World Commission on Environment andDevelopment, Geneva, Switzerland.

Sharma, K. K. et.al.(Eds), (2009) Himalaya Parvat Mei Sanshadan Prabhandan, Research

Corporate Social Responsibility and Sustainability

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India Press, New Delhi.

Sharma, K. K. and Bandooni, S. K. (2014) Ab Gaon Kei Aur (Hindi), Department ofGeography, Kirori Mal College, University of Delhi, Delhi.

United Nations, (2003) European Commission, International Monetary Fund, Organisationfor Economic Co-operation and development, World Bank (2003): IntegratedEnvironmental and Economic Accounting 2003, Studies in Methods, Handbook onNational Accounting, Series F, No. 61, Rev. 1, (ST/ESA/STAT/SER.F/61/Rev.1)SEEA.

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CHAPTER - 30

Energy Needs and Environment Mitigation:Nuclear Energy for IndiaPankaj Roy*

Introduction

Since the beginning of the industrial revolution, atmospheric concentrationsof carbon dioxide have increased nearly 30%, methane concentrations havemore than doubled, and nitrous oxide concentrations have risen by about15%. Carbon dioxide is the key greenhouse gas which is responsible forglobal warming concerns, and the overwhelming share of world carbondioxide emissions comes from burning fossil fuels, such as coal, oil and gas– our main sources of energy. The increased industrial activities occurringin traditional industrialised countries, together with the rapid industrialisationtaking place in China and India, have increased the global demand for energy.The negative effect of this growth in industrialisation is to increase thepercentage of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, thereby enhancing itsheat-trapping capability. The changing climatic conditions caused bygreenhouse gases could alter forests, crop yield and water supplies, whichin turn would affect human health, animals and many types of ecosystems.The negative impact of industrialisation on the environment could be reducedthrough the use of Energy Efficient Systems and Clean Alternative Sourcesof Energy. Energy Efficiency allows more work to be done per KWh ofelectricity, thereby reducing the percentage of greenhouse gases which isdelivered to the atmosphere, for the same level of industrial activity; while,Clean Alternative Sources of Energy are not fossil based, and would notcontribute to the rise in carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere. Hence, the

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*Assistant Professor of English, Govt. College Kamlanagar, Mizoram E-mail:[email protected]

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way forward is to focus on research activities and develop innovativetechniques, to bring High-Performance Energy Efficient Systems and CleanAlternative Energy Systems to the marketplace. These efforts would ensurethat we maintain an environment which is capable of sustaining human andanimal life.

India’s Environmental Problems

India’s environmental problems are gaining global significance because ofthe rapid and aggressive speed of urbanization and lack of infrastructure.Increasing urbanization, industrialization and transportation, the secondcousins of economic development put tremendous pressure on naturalresources and therefore there is a pressing need to strike a balance betweendevelopmental planning and urgency to safeguard the environment. India isthe first country, which has provided for the protection and improvementfor the environment in its constitution. The present paper, therefore, is anattempt to throw light on the trends in India’s planning for the reduction ofenvironmental degradation. Data have been used from the PlanningCommission Report of Government of India, from first five-year plan up totenth five-year plan. Report shows that there is an increasing importance inplanning and policies throughout the plan periods. Though in first few fiveyear plans there were no such concrete policies to reduce the degradation.But from the footsteps of 6th five-year plan, environmental degradationcoming into focuses in India’s planning and policies. Today, people aredestroying faster than nature can replenish, because of our numericalstrength of ten million people, and our insatiable desire of producing moreand more effective tools for conquering nature. We in India have beenpolluting the water and air and degrading land faster than nature can purifythem. In India, the environmental problems are caused because of underdevelopment. Millions of our people still continue to live for bellow theminimum levels required for a decent human existence; deprived of adequatefood, clothing, shelter, education, health and sanitation. Poverty and lack ofalternatives are the forces which drive rural people in India to the burningof forests, tilling of marginal lands, the over dependence of on finding grazingland for cattle, the over cutting of trees for fuel. We can see the other partof the coin also. Over technological and economic development leads peopleto live in poor environmental condition. Increasing number of vehicles,construction of industries and dams are the causes of environmentaldegradation in country like India. Both urban and rural areas in India areoverwhelmed by large numbers of people, who no doubt are looking foropportunity to join the process of development. Green revolution has alreadyforced large numbers of rural people to migrate to cities. In India, we are

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faced with the size of the population and its uneven distribution; poor housingconditions slums, squatter settlements, inadequate water and sanitation.(Farnandes, 1996). The man-made environment of our cities is undergoingviolent changes to the extent that authorities seem powerless in grapplingwith the situation.

India is facing an alarming situation in environmental condition inpresent day. India ranks the sixth largest and second fastest growing producerof Green House Gases (GHGs) in the world. Three of India’s largest citiesare considered among world’s 10 most polluted cities. Nearly 12 yearssince the disastrous Union Carbide Chemical leak in Bhopal and after 5years of economic resurgence, environmental awareness is high, titledGREEN – India (Growth with Resource Enhancement of Environmentand Nature). A report by TERI (Tata Energy Research Institute) focusingon the state of the Indian natural resources and environmental pollutionwas released to mark the 50th anniversary of India’s independence.According to the study, India is losing at least 10 % of its natural incomedue to environmental degradation. According to the report, the availabilityof fresh water declined by two-thirds of its availability in 1960s. The waterrequirement of major water consuming industries such as agro based,refineries, petrochemicals, fertilizers has grown 40 times but these are notyet treating the huge waste water generated. Indoors and out door airpollution result in the nation almost 2.5 million premature deaths. The totalsewage generation from the urban centres has grown six times in the last50 years.

Now coming to the energy need, India’s primary energy consumptionmore than doubled between 1990 and 2011 to nearly 25,000 PJ. India’sdependence on imported energy resources and the inconsistent reform ofthe energy sector are challenges to satisfying rising demand. The 2015edition of BP’s Energy Outlook projected India’s energy production risingby 117% to 2035, while consumption grows by 128%. The country’s energymix evolves very slowly over the next 22 years with fossil fuels accountingfor 87% of demand in 2035, compared with a global average of 81% (downfrom 92% today). Oil remains the dominant fuel (36%) followed by gas(30%) and coal (21%). CO2 emissions from energy consumption increaseby 115%. Electricity demand in India is increasing rapidly, and the 1128billion kilowatt hours (TWh) gross produced in 2012 was more than triplethe 1990 output, though still represented only some 750 kWh per capita forthe year. With large transmission losses – 193 TWh (17%) in 2012, thisresulted in only about 869 billion kWh consumption. Gross generationcomprised 801 TWh from coal, 94 TWh from gas, 23 TWh from oil, 33

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TWh from nuclear, 126 TWh from hydro and 50 TWh from otherrenewables. Coal provides more than two-thirds of the electricity at present,but reserves are effectively limited* – in 2013, 159 million tonnes wasimported, and 533 million tonnes produced domestically. The per capitaelectricity consumption figure is expected to double by 2020, with 6.3%annual growth, and reach 5000-6000 kWh by 2050, requiring about 8000TWh/yr then. There is an acute demand for more and more reliable powersupplies. One-third of the population is not connected to any grid. Themain focus is:

- Our country has a flourishing and largely indigenous nuclear powerprogram and expects to have 14,600 MWe nuclear capacities on lineby 2020. It aims to supply 25% of electricity from nuclear power by2050.

- Because India is outside the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty due toits weapons program, it was for 34 years largely excluded from tradein nuclear plant or materials, which has hampered its development ofcivil nuclear energy until 2009.

- Due to earlier trade bans and lack of indigenous uranium, India hasuniquely been developing a nuclear fuel cycle to exploit its reserves ofthorium.

- Since 2010, a fundamental incompatibility arises between India’s civilliability law and international conventions limits foreign technologyprovision.

- India has a vision of becoming a world leader in nuclear technologydue to its expertise in fast reactors and thorium fuel cycle.

At mid-2012, 203 GWe was on line with 20.5 GWe having beenadded in 12 months. In September 2012 it had 211 GWe. The government’s12th five-year plan for 2012-17 is targeting the addition of 94 GWe over theperiod, costing $247 billion. Three quarters of this would be coal or lignitefired, and only 3.4 GWe nuclear, including two imported 1000 MWe unitsplanned at one site and two indigenous 700 MWe units at another. By 2032total installed capacity of 700 GWe is planned to meet 7-9% GDP growth,and this was to include 63 GWe nuclear. The OECD’s International EnergyAgency predicts that India will need some $1600 billion investment in powergeneration, transmission and distribution by 2035. India has five electricitygrids – Northern, Eastern, North-Eastern, Southern and Western. All ofthem are interconnected to some extent, except the Southern grid. All arerun by the state-owned Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd (PGCI), which

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operates more than 95,000 circuit km of transmission lines. In July 2012 theNorthern grid failed with 35,669 MWe load in the early morning, and thefollowing day it plus parts of two other grids failed again so that over 600million people in 22 states were without power for up to a day.

A KPMG report in 2007 said that transmission and distribution(T&D) losses were worth more than $6 billion per year. A 2012 reportenumerated the losses as $12.6 billion per year. A 2010 estimate shows bigdifferences among states, with some very high, and a national average of27% T&D loss, well above the target 15% set in 2001 when the averagefigure was 34%. Installed transmission capacity was only about 13% ofgeneration capacity. India’s priority is economic growth and to alleviatepoverty. The importance of coal means that CO2 emission reduction is nota high priority, and the government has declined to set targets ahead of the21st Conference of the Parties on Climate Change to be held in Paris inlate 2015. The environment minister in September 2014 said it would be 30years before India would be likely to see a decrease in CO2 emissions.

But the use of Nuclear Power has been controversial for a longtime. Proponents of its use claim that it is a very ‘clean’ form of energysince very little fuel is needed to generate a lot of energy, and since no airpollution is produced, as in the burning of coal. However, because ofaccidents such as the one at Three Mile Island in the U.S., and the one atChernobyl in the former Soviet Union, many people are opposed to NuclearPower. Also, environmentalists, as well as other citizen groups, are concernedabout the disposal of the radioactive waste generated by the mining,processing and use of nuclear fuel. Currently, there are no universallyacceptable methods for the storage and disposal of these wastes. There isconcern that buried wastes might leak into groundwater and eventuallymake it into surface waters or into drinking water supplies. Are the concernsof these citizens well founded, or are they a result of misinformation? IsNuclear Power less damaging to the environment than the combustion ofcoal and oil, which is connected to air pollution and global warming? Or, isradioactive waste a permanent problem? Even Scientists disagree on theseissues. The question is, for a pie of world economy in this globalised world,ENERGY has become a bone of contention and everyone wants a goodpart of it and Nuclear Power is the potent though costliest available source:but the cost which comes with it laced in disguise is what we have todecide!

Energy Needs and Environment Mitigation

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References:Brown, L., Renner, Vital Signs (1997) The Environmental Trends that are shaping our

Future, W. W. Norton and Co., NY, 1997.

Lenssen, N., (1991) ‘Nuclear Waste: The Problem That Won’t Go Away’ WorldwatchPaper 106. December, 1991.

Petrucci, R. H., (1985) General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications, MacmillanPublishing Company, NY.

Sarabeth Asaff (1999) Advantages and Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy, Pioneer: Mumbai,1999.

Slovic, P., (1987) ‘Perception of Risk’ Science, 236, 17 April, 1987.

Turner, J. E., (1995) Atoms, radiation, and Radiation Protection, John Wiley and Sons„Inc., 1995.

http://www.bih.harvard.edu/radiologv/Modalities/Nucmed/nucmed.html accessed on20.07.2015, http://www.greenpeace.org/~nuclear accessed on 22.07.2015

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CHAPTER - 31

Current Trends of Tropical Cyclone Energy:The North Indian Ocean (NIO) PerspectivePradip Patra*

Introduction

Tropical Cyclones (TCs) are one the most devastating weather phenomena.TCs affect human being by various ways like wind, rain, storm surge andwave, coastal erosion, flooding, intrusion of saline water, agricultural loss,transport disruption, building damage, landslide etc. It has been found(Emanuel, 2005; Webster et al, 2005) that frequency of TCs are at a stableposition on a global scale, while their year to year variability occur in regionalscale due to some controlling factors like SST, El Nino, ENSO etc. with arelationship between Sea Surface Temperature (SST) and intense TCs.Klotzbach (2006) also found relation between increasing SST with increaseglobal category 4-5 TCs. In a recent study by Villarini et al (2012), whichhas used statistical model, found that Accumulated Cyclone Energy (ACE)and Power Dissipation Index (PDI) were very much related with SST inNorth Atlantic (NA) ocean basin, other than SST. Camargo et al (2005)also found positive influence of ENSO on TCs in Western North Pacific(WNP). Webster et al (2005) analysed TCs category 4-5 (one minutemaximum sustained wind >115 knots/ second) in all ocean basins and foundthat TCs frequency had become double for the time period between 1975-1989 and 1990-2005. Murakami et al (2013) have found positive anomalyof energy of TCs (ACE and PDI) in the North Atlantic (NA) ocean basin.Among various matrices the most popular one is Number (or frequency) of

*CSIR Junior Research Fellow, Department of Geography, University of Calcutta,[email protected]

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Cyclonic Storm (NTC), because it can easily be calculated and represented(Landsea et al, 2001, Emanuel 2006). But this method excludes other aspectsof TCs like their duration and intensity. So, an index, which can representthe life-time of TCs, is inevitable. Emanuel (1987) first proposed theMaximum Potential Intensity (MPI) of TCs in an increasing greenhousewarming climatic condition. Henderson-Sellers et al (1998) also predictedmore intense storm activity with increasing SST. The IPCC also has statedthat TCs with Category 4-5 will increase its frequency of 5%-10%.Considering the importance of sea surface temperature, the National Oceanicand Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) proposed ACE as an importantindex (Bell 2000) in this regard.

The Study Area

There are six ocean basins which are susceptible to the threat of TCs. Outof these, the most influential basin is the Western North Pacific (WNP)and the North Atlantic (NA), as the frequency and intensity of TCs in thesebasins is incomparable with other. Next to these two, the Indian Ocean alsois recognised a significant TCs affected area. In this study the North IndianOcean (NIO), extension 55°-90°E and 5°N-20°N, which covers the entireIndian Subcontinent and its adjoining areas, has been taken up. As incomparison to other main basins, in case of TCs are concern, frequency ofTCs is less (globally 80 system occurred per year and in NIO it is 5-6) here,but landlocked high SST and ever-increasing coastal population are verymuch exposed to such this natural hazard. A few research works havebeen done on TCs energy, variability and thier relation with other controllingfactors of this area. Eric et al (2011) have worked on the inter-annualvariation of TC activity over the NIO. Hoarau et al (2012) have discussedabout TCs with Category 3-5 and their inter-annual, inter-seasonal variationwith the help of reanalysis dataset and they have concluded that there hasbeen no regular increase of intense TCs in the NIO region.

Materials and Methods

Data about TCs over the NIO have been extracted from JTWC (JointTyphoon Warning Centre) Northern Indian Ocean (55°-90°E and 5°N-20°N) dataset (1981-2013). This time period is actually chosen by me dueto accuracy of various information of TCs: like frequency, intensity andduration of life-time of TCs on post satellite period. JTWC TC dataset areof every six hour of interval and give a comprehensive detailing about thestorm. TCs having a wind speed of above 35 knots (Tropical Storm andCategory 1-5 storm) only are considered in this dataset. On the basis of thisdataset of frequency, intensity and duration, two important measures of

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TCs energy i.e. ACE and PDI have been calculated and future vulnerabilityof TCs are predicted.

SST data have been obtained from the Extended ReconstructedSST data set V4, new one, of the NOAA. The NIO SST data is availablebetween 5p N-25p N and 80p E -100p E as 2p ×2p gridded data. Otherdata like El Nino and ONI (Ocean Nino Index) data are extracted from thewebsite of the NOAA (http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/analysis_monitoring/ensostuff/ensoyears.shtml accessed in June-July, 2015).This data are of 3 month mean monthly, which I have calculated for theannual mean.

Data from the above mention sources are extracted and the analysishas been done with the help of appropriate statistical tools/ techniques. Incase of total energy calculation has been done in annual basis, as is discussedbelow. The SST data are gridded, and therefore with the help of ArcGISthe final output has been obtained. On the basis of correlation model thefuture trend of TCs in relation to warming SST have been found out.

Energies Related to Tropical Cyclones

Various metrics are used to analyse frequency of storm, duration i.e. life-cycle of the storm, intensity of the storm, whether storm maximum intensityis increased or not. Kaplan and DeMaria (1993) had preferred to useintensity of storm rather than pressure decrease to estimate intensificationrate. In case of human impact of TCs, one must concentrate his/her intereston intensity of TCs (Emanuel, 2001). There should also have interest onbasin-wise integrated quantities, like ACE and PDI. To detect climate signal,these integrated quantities are one of the preferable measures, mainlybecause of availability of accurate information of TC life-cycle and accuracyof data in the post satellite era. ACE and PDI mainly depend on threecontrolling factors: storm intensity (I), storm duration (D) and storm numberor frequency (N).

Potential Intensity (PI)

Potential intensity of TCs is control by various ocean-atmospheric factors,like SST, outflow of temperature and the degree of thermodynamicdisequilibrium between ocean and atmosphere. Although degree ofthermodynamic equilibrium is assumed to be a function of SST, its ocean-atmospheric relation is very complex. There are certain problems to estimatePI of cyclone. Emanuel and Brister (1999) have used reanalysis data todetect trend with the help of measuring potential energies of air, which islifted above the sea level. Another way to find out PI is to measure radiative

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fluxes at sea level, which are really informative, but these data are notmeasured on regular basis. So, in the present discussion, two indices areused to define both propensities of TCs and their contribution towardsunderstanding of changing behaviour of TCs.

The Accumulated Cyclone Energy (ACE)

The ACE is one kind of wind energy index, and is defined as the sum ofsquare of the estimated six-hourly maximum sustained wind speed of allTCs while they become at least tropical storm category of their life-time(wind speed >34knots). This index, as given below, represent continuousspectrum of both intensity and duration, it does not suffer more discontinuity.

Here, is the maximum one- minute sustained wind in a particular timeperiod, and it is calculated every six-hour of interval, with a unit of .This is because the figure is too large to express. This energy index iscalculated on every storm’s life-time and also on the yearly basis. ACE isproposed by Bell in 1999. This index is preferred for the storm which has astrong intensity, while it is not favoured for long duration storm withcomparatively less intensity. In all the ocean basins of the world, since1970s ACE is calculated. It was noticed that in many seasons which havea more frequent TCs have less ACE and vice versa.

The Power Dissipation Index (PDI)

Another measure of TCs energy is PDI (Emanuel, 2005). This is generatedfrom power dissipation parameter which has a direct relation on tropicalcyclone contribution to upper ocean mixing and thermohaline circulation.Like ACE, it also uses three parameters: frequency, duration and intensity,as given in the following equation.

  Here is the maximum sustained wind speed at about 10 meterof altitude from the MSL. Although, according to Emanuel this index is abetter representation of TCs threat than intensity alone, and this index isused after the landfall of TCs. This index is similar to ACE where windspeed is calculated on the basis of square of wind speed. PDI is calculatedin annual and average basis, as the average fully depicts the real picture

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whether intense TC frequency is increased or not.

In fig. 1, the yearly distribution of ACE in the NIO shows thatthere are huge fluctuations of ACE. On analysis of 33 years of indivisualstorms life-time energy and sum of them on annual basis, it is found thatthere was no huge change in compare to other oceans like WNP and NA.ACE in the NIO in comparison with other prime ocean basins like WNPand NA is comparatively less. It is also found that overall ACE has increasedslightly during the 33 years, but since 1997 onwards it has increasedconsiderably.

Fig. 1: Accumulated Cyclone Energy (ACE) in the NIO

Fig. 2: Accumulated Power Dissipation Index (PDI) in the NIO

Fig. 3a: Distribution of ACE anomaly in the NIO; and Fig. 3b: PDI anomaly in the NIO

Current Trends of Tropical Cyclone Energy

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Like ACE, PDI yearly distribution (fig. 2) also presents the pictureabout year to year fluctuation of TCs energy. PDI deals with cube of energy,hence more prominent to define energy potentialities in the life-time of aTC. Distribution shows that from 1981-1996, PDI is considerably low; andsince 1997 energy in TC has increased noticeably.Table- 1: Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale

Category Wind Speed

1 74-95 mph, 64-82 knots, 119-153km/h

2 96-110 mph, 83-95 knots, 154-177 km/h

3 111-129 mph, 96-112 knot, 178-208 km/h

4 130-156 mph, 113-126 knot, 209-251 km/h

5 157 mph or higher, 137 knot or higher, 252 km/h or higher

Source: http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/pdf/sshws_2012rev.pdf retrieved in June, 2015)

Controlling Factors of TCs Energy

Annual accumulated ACE and PDI are the combining result of multiplicationof frequency, duration of storm, and intensity. It is found that out of thisthree factor only one or two play(s) a determining role of TCs energy.

Fig. 4: Annual Frequency distribution of TCs in the NIO

Frequency of TCs

Frequency of tropical storm and higher category storm denotes that there isslight change, as recorded (fig. 4). During 1981-2013 about 167 TCs wereoriginated in the NIO with a frequency of 5.06 per annum. Although thehighest frequency of the TCs was recorded 12 in the year 1992, and theaverage highest frequency of TCs were found in 1980s and 1990s, while in2000s frequency is not that much as compared to the earlier decades.

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Frequency of TCs is more uniform in 2000s, while the trend line of frequencydenotes only slight increase in the recent decades.

Duration of the Storms

This is one of the most important factors of TCs energy. Long duration ofstorm with the same intensity have high ACE and PDI values. In theperiod 1981-2013, a slight change of frequency has been found of TCs,having wind speed of 34 knots and more, i.e. tropical storm and more. Thehighest storm-days were recorded in the years 1996 and 1992, when storm-days were 79 and 72 respectively, and the annual mean storm-days remained27 for the period as a whole.

Intensity of TCs

It is the most vulnerable factor for human beings and any kind of livelihoodis concerned. It is found that TCs and deep depression (DD) in the NIOhave been decreasing, which is a positive sign for the human livelihood and

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society, as total availability of rainfall is controlled by frequency of depressionand deep depression. But storm having more than 64 knots wind speedhave a negative impact on human settlements and occupation. In case ofthe different types of TCs frequency is concern, in the NIO, TCs whichhave a wind speed of 34 knots to 63 knots were 118 in number as comparedto 167 total TCs; that means in the NIO, Tropical Storms (TSs) dominate,with occurring more than 70% of all TCs. However, due to poor economicand societal conditions of the region, these TSs are enough to increasevulnerability of the coastal population. It is to be noted that, Category 1, 2,3, 4 and 5 storms have a total frequency of 22, 7, 6, 9 and 5 respectively.Fig. 5 represents distribution of TSs and high intensive storm, which showsthat frequency of TSs are more in the 1980s and 1990s, while in the 21st

century their frequency has declined, although TCs Category 1-2 and 3-5dominated in the 1990s and in 21st century. Fig. 6 represents the averageand the maximum sustained wind speed in one-minute, if the gap betweenthese two aspects is higher, then it seems that, there has dominance of fewTCs which have a high wind speed, and those years are risky for humanbeings.

Results and Discussion

Out of three inner controlling storm energy factors, R. B. Scott (2007)examined that in the period 1974-2004, frequency of TCs has increased by71%, while duration and intensity have increased by 62% and 44%respectively in the WPO (Western Pacific Ocean) region while Emanuel(2007) found that duration and intensity have increased by 24% and 60%respectively in Atlantic Hurricane region. In the Indian Ocean, I have alsoexamined these inner factors and found that these are more responsible forpositive changes of PDI. The correlation between frequency and PDI showsthat the influence of frequency on PDI is little (with R² being 0.007), whereascorrelation between TCs number of days and PDI is more (R² = 0.056:fig.7b), but the most important relationship is actually found between theaverage Annual Intensity of Storm with PDI and the maximum intensity ofTC and PDI with R² being 0.57 and 0.67 respectively. It is therefore moreor less established that intensity in TC has been increased; hence the mostdetermining factor of energy of TC is its intensity.

Relation between SST and Tropical Cyclone Energy

Emanuel (2005) found that the relation between SST and PDI is very strongin the Atlantic Ocean whereas in the WPO, this relation is very week.Earlier studies by Wang and Chan (2004), Chan and Liu (2004) found that

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there was no relationship between SST anomaly and TCs formation. Forthe Indian Ocean Region (IOR), Yu and Wang (2009) found relation betweenincrease of potential intensity of TCs with doubling CO2 in the world. HereI have also examined whether SST has been increasing or not, and whetherthis change affects TCs energy or not. Fig. 8 clearly denotes the fact thatSST in the NIO is increasing with time (R² = 0.26). The land locked IndianOcean always have a greater SST in comparison with the other oceanbasins; and SST is greater than 27p C is much favourable to cultivate strongerTC storms with a wind speed of more than 155 knot like Gonu (155 knot),Sidr (145 knots), Phailin (140 knot) and Odisha Super Cyclone,1999 (140knot).

Fig.8: Sea Surface Temperature in NIO and its trend

Fig.9: Relation between Sea Surface Temperature (SST) and PDI in the NIO

Annual SST and Annual PDI relationship shows that a positiverelation with R² 0.11 (fig.9), is statistically not a good relation, but it is oneof the important factors as it gives some glimpse about the factorsdetermining PDI.

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Relationship between PDI and El Nino

In the WPO, ACE is strongly correlated with ENSO phenomena (Camargoand Sobel, 2005). El Nino and La Nina data have been collected from theNOAA website and annual distribution is calculated. The distribution clearlyshows the fact that in El Nino years there are less frequent and lessintensified storms compared to the La Nina years. Ocean Nino Index(ONI)is a measure of departure of SST from normal SST in the east-centralPacific Ocean. If the value of ONI is more than threshold value of ±0.5pC, then it is called El Nino (in case ONI>+0.5p C) and La Nina (in caseONI>-0.5p C). Further it is classified as medium El Nino/La Nina andStrong El Nino/La Nina when the value lies between 0.5p C and 1.0p C andgreater than 1.0p C in both the cases. In the period 1981-2013, there werefour medium and two severe El Nino years, viz.: 1992, 2002, 1991, 1982and 1997, 1987 respectively; and 7 La Nina years out of which one wasstrong (fig. 10). It is found that all medium and strong El Nino years haveless frequent, less intensive and also less annual TCs energy; while in LaNina years, most of intense cyclones were generated in the NIO and hadstrong TCs energy, as in the years 1998 and 1999.

Fig.10: Relation between Ocean Nino Index (ONI) and PDI in the NIO

(Negative value shows La Nina event and positive value indicates El Nino event)

From the present discussion, the energy parameters have beendiscussed in detail, and it is can be said that energy of TCs in the NIO isincreasing, as indicated by both PDI and ACE. The energy is the outcomeof frequency (N), duration (D) and intensity (I) of TC, and out of thesethree factors, intensity is the most determining factor in the NIO which isdifferent from other ocean basins. There are other external factors, whichalso influence energy of TCs. SST is one of them, and it affect energy andintensity of TCs in the NIO; but El-Nino plays less important role in this

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regard, while La Nina have a positive impact on both frequency and intensityof TCs. It is thus established that both energy and intensity of the stormshave increased significantly in the NIO, whereas frequency and durationof the storms have remain unchanged. Fluctuation of frequency of TCs isfound in this ocean basin, as in the decade of 2000-10.

Conclusion

To determine whether a natural phenomenon exceeds its vulnerabilityexpected through natural cause or human induced change like climatechange, it is a big challenge for anyone in this area of research. To reviewand predict future possibility of such phenomena, a good reliable databaseis needed, and in case of TCs future trend, various ocean-atmospheric dataand models are being used. It can be concluded that, there are variousfactors like mid-tropospheric humidity, vorticity, etc. to determine TCs inthe NIO. Data about TCs and its reliability is comparatively less in theNIO as Satellite Remote Sensing (SRS) in this region came in later periodas compared to other oceans like the WNP, the NAO. With the advancementof technology, SRS helps us to provide every aspect related to small scaleand rapidly intensified climatic phenomena, like TC. So the accuracy ofprediction and its post landfall analysis become successful with greatconfidence and also future prediction is now possible.

Acknowledgement

I am grateful to Prof. Lakshminarayan Satpati, my supervisor and Dr.Devendra Pradhan, Deputy Director General, IMD, Alipur (Kolkata) fortheir valuable suggestions for preparing this article. I also thank Centre forScientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Ministry of Earth Science, forfunding on my research work as JRF. I duly acknowledge the proprietorsof the respective websites for JTWC dataset and SST gridded data.

References:Bell, R (2011) Literature Review On The Natural Variability Of Tropical Cyclones.

http://www.met.reading.ac.uk/~df019697/PhD/lit_review/TC_structure.pdf extracted date:20.05.2015

Camargo, S.J. & Sobel, A.H. (2005) Western North Pacific Tropical Cyclone Intensity andENSO. Journal of Climatology, American Meteorological Society, vol. 18 pp2996-3006.

Chan C.L. & Liu K.S, (2004): Global Warming and Western Pacific Typhoon Activity froman Observational Perspective, Journal of Climatology, American MeteorologicalSociety, vol-17, issue 23 pp 4590-4602. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/3240.1.

Current Trends of Tropical Cyclone Energy

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Christopher W. Landsea, Nicholls N., Gay W.M. & Avila L.A. (1996) Downward trendsin the frequency of intense Atlantic hurricanes during the past five decades,Geophysical Research Letter, Vol.23, pp1697-1700.

Deo, A.A.& Garner, D.W. (2014)Tropical Cyclone Activity over the Indian Ocean in theWarmer Climate, Monitoring and Prediction of Tropical Cyclone in the IndianOcean and Climate Change: Mohanty, U.C., Mohapatra, M., Sing, O.P.& Vloemans,W.M. Springer Science and Business Media 2013.

Emanuel,K (1999) A Statistical Analysis of Tropical Cyclone Intensity, Journal ofClimatology. American Meteorological Society, pp 1139-1152.

Emanuel,K (2007): Environmental Factors Affecting Tropical Cyclone Power Dissipation.Journal of Climatology. American Meteorological Society, pp 5497-5509.

Elsner J.B., KOssin J.P. & Jagger T.H. (2008) The increasing intensity of the strongesttropical cyclones, Nature 455:92-95. Doi:10.1038/nature07234.http:/myweb.fsu.edu/jelsner/PDF /Research/ElsnerKossinJagger2008.pdf

Eric, K.W.Ng. & Chan, C.L. (2011):Interannual variations of tropical activity over thenorth Indian Ocean. International Journal of Climatology, Royal MeteorologicalSociety, doi: 10:1002.joc.2304.

Garner ST,Held I & Knutson TR,Sirutis JJ (2009) The role of wind shear and thermalstratification in past and projected changes of Atlantic tropical activity. J.Climate,22(17),doi:10.1175/2009JCLI2930.1

Hoarau, K. Bernard, J. Chalonge,L (2012) Review: Intense tropical cyclone activities inthe northern Indian Ocean, International Journal Of Climatology, RoyalMeteorological Society, London.

Kalpan J. &DeMaria J. (1993): Sea Surface Temperature and the Maximum Intensity ofAtlantic Tropical Cyclones, Journal of Climatology. Vol-7 pp- 1324-1334.

Knutson TR, Tuleya RE,Shen & W, Ginis I (2001) Impact of co2 induced warming onhurricane intensities as simulated in a hurricane model with ocean coupling. JClimate 14:2458-2468.

Klotzbach. P.L. (2006) Trends in global tropical cyclone activity over the past twentyyears(1986-2005). Geophysical Research Letters. Vol-23, issue 10. DOI: 10.1029/2006GL025881.

Maue. R.N. (2011) Recent historically low global tropical cyclone activity. GeophysicalResearch Letters, Vol-38. Doi: 10.1029/2011GL047711.

Maue.R.N. (2009) Northern Hemisphere tropical cyclone activity. Geophysical ResearchLetters. Vol. 36 doi: 10.1029/2008GL035946.

Moore. T.W. & Dixion R.W. (2014) Patterns in 500 hPa geopotential height associatedwith temporal clusters of tropical cyclone tornadoes, Royal Meteorological Society,London.

Scott P. & Pearce K, (2007): Tropical Cyclones in a Changing Climate: Research Priorityfor Australia, Bureau of Meteorology, Govt. of Australia. www.cawcr.gov.au/researchreports. Extracted from 24.07.2015.

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Vecchi GA, Knutson TR (2008) On estimates of historical North Atlantic tropical cycloneactivity. J Climate 21:3580-3600.http:/www.gfdl.noaa.gov/reference/bibliography/2008/gav0802.pdf.

Villarini, G. & Vechhi, G.A. (2012) North Atlantic Power Dissipation Index(PDI) andAccumulated Cyclone Enerrgy(ACE): Statistical Modelling and Sensivity to SeaSurface Temperature Changes. Journal of Climate, American Meteorological Society,pp 625-637. Doi:10.1175/JCL-D_11-))146.1.

Wu, L. Wang, B. & Braun, A.S. (2007) Implication of tropical cyclone power dissipationindex. International Journal of Climatology, Royal Meteorological Society. pp 727-731. Doi: 10.1002/joc.1573.

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CHAPTER - 32

Identification of Potential Sites for WaterRecharge and Conservation in Lower TlawngSub-watershed, Aizawl District using Geo-informaticsCh. Udaya Bhaskara Rao*

Introduction

Water is one of the utmost important resources for survival of plant andanimal life on the earth. GIS based site suitability analysis is very useful inresource management particularly; to identify run-off potential zones forsoil and water conservation practices (Dilip et al, 2004). The run-off andsediment yield of various watersheds in Mizoram have been estimated byTiwari and Jha (2004). As the topography of Mizoram is highly undulatingwhich is unfavourable for water storage, the data on run-off and sedimentyield index are useful to suggest water and soil conservation measures.Generally, the rivers in Mizoram flow at much lower levels than the adjacentmountains due to high topographic relief. In addition the settlements arelocated on the top of the mountains; therefore, the supply of water fordomestic use is a challenging task. Due to high surface run-off conservationof water resources is also a difficult task. Therefore, it is essential to conservewater resources in this region with proper strategies. The advancedtechniques of remote sensing and geographical information systems areexpected to offer solutions for this problem. An attempt has been made inthis study to identify suitable sites for water conservation and water rechargeusing the advanced tools and techniques of geo-informatics.

*Department of Geography and Resource Management, Mizoram University, Aizawl-796004, [email protected]

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Materials and Methods

For the present study Survey of India toposheets on 1:50,000 scales havebeen used to delineate watershed boundary, to prepare drainage networkand also to obtain relevant topographic information of the area. Faults andfractures have been delineated from satellite image (IRS P6, LISS-III,FCC, geocoded) and digital elevation models with 30 m resolution acquiredby Shuttle Radar Topography Mission which were downloaded from UnitedStates Geological Survey website have been used to generate slope, flowdirection and flow accumulation raster layers. ArcGIS 9.3 software overlaytools have been used to integrate drainage, slope, fault/fracture and flowaccumulation layers for proposing various water harvesting structures atappropriate locations.

Study Area

The area selected for the present study is a sub-watershed (3C2A8a) locatedin the Tlangnuam block of Aizawl district between 92o37'-92o41' Elongitudes and 23o43'-23o48' N latitudes (Fig.1). The areal extent of thewatershed is about 31 km2. The watershed is bounded on the east by a longcurvi-linear mountain range, on the west and north by the river Tlawng andon the south by a mountain range. The villages namely Sairang,Sawkurtuichhun and Tanhril are located in the watershed with a totalpopulation of about 12,000. The hill ranges in the southeastern and southernparts show the highest elevation of 970 m while the central part exhibitsmedium elevation structural hills at about 450 metres. Similarly, the structuralhills with lowest elevation of about 147 metres are seen in the northern partof the watershed. In general, the structural hills gradually decrease itselevation towards north mainly towards the main river valley of Tlawng.As a whole the terrain is inclining towards north. There are linear to arcuateshaped hill ranges running parallel with intermittent minor deep valleys inthe area.

A majority of the valleys and streams in this area are controlled byfaults and fractures. The river Tlawng itself is controlled by faults at numberof sections to a considerable extent. In general a majority of the faults/fractures are oriented in NW-SE, E-W and N-S directions (UdayabhaskaraRao, 2011). The area is composed mainly by sedimentary rocks such assandstones, siltstones and shales belong to the Tertiary period. The areareceives an average annual rainfall of about 250 cm and the area fallsunder moist tropical climate. The river Tlawng is the only major perennialriver which flows towards north along the western boundary of thewatershed. Setlak lui, Chengkawl lui, and Changpui lui are the prominent

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perennial tributaries to the river Tlawng. The watershed is covered bytropical semi-evergreen forest with predominant bamboo trees.

Estimation of Flow Accumulation

Flow accumulation is one the important aspect in hydrological modeling asit provides an estimate of volume of water in a drainage channel. Flowdirection is the source layer to quantify accumulation. A digital elevationmodel EM) with 30 m resolution acquired by

Fig.1. Location of the study area

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Fig.2. Water harvesting structures

Shuttle Radar Topography Mission of United States GeologicalSurvey has been used for this purpose. Firstly, the DEM has been openeddirectly in ArcMap Desktop software. The errors like sinks in the DEMhave been removed. A slope layer with 6 slope classes such as 0-5%, 5-10%, 10-15%, 15-25%, 25-35% and above 35% has been generated using

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surface analysis tools in 3D analyst tools. Similarly, a flow direction rasterlayer has been generated from DEM using Arc hydrology tools. The flowdirection layer shows the values between 1 and 255 as it is an integer. Itshows eight possible directions from N to NW (N,NE,E,SE,S,SW,W &NW) in clock-wise direction. In a flow direction layer, the flow directionwill be assessed based on the cell value. The flow direction of a cell isindicated by its value where the value is lower than the neighbouring cells.In some situations the flow direction will be based on the filtering out of onecell sinks where multiple cells in the raster having lower values (DE Barry,2004). Finally, a flow accumulation layer has been generated using Archydrology tools. The layer shows areas of high flow, low flow and no flow.No flow areas are topographically high like flat surfaces and ridges. Asseen in figure 2, the areas with high flow accumulation are indicated bywhite tone, low flow with gray and no flow areas shown with black tone.The highest flow accumulation in the watershed is 24288 m3. The flowaccumulation layer is very vital in proposing water conservation structuresat appropriate locations.

Data Integration

The layers of drainage network, slope, flow accumulation and faults/fractureshave been integrated in GIS environment to identify the areas suitable forimplementation of various water conservation measures in the area. Thefinal layer shows the locations where water conservation measures are tobe recommended.

Results and Discussion

It has been observed that water scarcity is the main problem in this region.The terrain in this area is mainly composed of sedimentary rocks of highporosity such as sandstones, siltstones and shales. Moreover, it is foundthat there is high run-off as well as high infiltration rate due to uniformdistribution of sandstones, siltstones and shales predominantly in the areawith high degree of slope. Due to this physical condition water storage is achallenging task in this area. As the area is criss-crossed by number offaults and fractures, these structural features can be used as rechargepoints for water storage.

The integration of data on drainage network, flow accumulation,slope and faults/fractures have provided appropriate locations for waterrecharge as well as water storage in the watershed. As shown in the figure3, check-dams should be constructed across the streams where flowaccumulation is moderate with low velocity of streams. Similarly, wire-

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gabion structures should be built across main streams where the velocity ofstreams is high. It is proposed in the area water recharge points at numberplaces where the faults and fractures cut across the litho-units as fracturesact as conduits for movement of water.

Conclusion

GIS softwares provide advanced tools and techniques to solve highly complexproblems. In the present study, the software tools have been used to quantifywater volume and also to identify places suitable for water recharge aswell as water conservation structures across stream valleys. This methodcan be applied to identify the areas suitable for water conservation activitiesin all other areas in this region.

References:Dilip, G., Durbude & Venlkatesh, B. (2004) Site suitability analysis for soil and water

conservation structures. Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing(Photonirwachak), 32 (1), 399-405.

DE Barry. Paul A. (2004) Watersheds (Process, Assessment and Management) John Willey& Sons, Inc., 648.

Tiwari, R.P. & Jha, L.K. (2004) Morphometric analysis of watersheds for estimation ofrun-off and sediment yield. Natural Resource Management (edited volume), 141-161.

Udayabhaskara Rao, Ch.(2011) Drainage morphometry: a tectonic inference from lowerTlawng sub-watershed in Aizawl district. Geographic, 6, 14-25.

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CHAPTER - 33

Watershed Management and SustainableDevelopment in Upper TuivaiL.Lhingneilam* and Kh. Paradipkumar Singh**

IntroductionWatershed is a dynamic and unique place where continuous activities ofman’s imprints are left. It is a complex web of natural resources- soil,water, air, plants and animals. Yet, everyday activities can impact theseresources, ultimately impacting our well-being and economic livelihood.Healthy watersheds are vital for a healthy environment and economy. Awatershed is the basic building block for land, water and developmentalplanning. Watershed management is simply the utilization of natural resourcesin a most effective or profitable way. One of the foremost aims of watershedmanagement is sustainable development

Study Area

The Watershed of the Upper Tuivai River is located between latitudes23.450 N to 24.300 N and longitudesof 93.150 E to 93.450 E. It covers a totalgeographical area of 871.95 km2 consisting parts of the four sub-divisionsof Churachandpur district in Manipur. These four sub-divisions ofChurachanpur are Henglep, Churachandpur, Thanlon and Singhat sub-divisions. The area is characterized by uneven terrains, exhibiting typicalcharacteristics of mountain range. The general slope of the land is verysteep of 35% slope. The hill ranges are aligned in a north-south direction,

*Assistant Professor, Department of Geography, M.B.College, Imphal**Associate Professor and Head, Department of Geography, Manipur University,Corresponding Author: [email protected]

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the highest elevation at 2018 m is in Kangkap Lhang in Thanlon and thelowest elevation at 627 m is near Tuilaphai village in Henglep sub-division.The drainage system of the area is mostly perennial. The main river isTuivai which is drained by five rivers namely- Tuila, Tuivai, Tuili, Tuilak andTuima. As per the 2011 census, the study area consists of 65 villages and asmany as 27, 257 people lives in the upper Tuivai watershed. The density ofthe dwellings is 31 persons per km2.

The study area has been divided into ten sub-watersheds.

The ten sub-watersheds are: 1) Tuilaphai Sub-Watershed(3C2F7g). 2) Tuilum-Dumdei Sub-Watershed(3C2F7f). 3) Singtam Sub-Watershed (3C2F7a). 4) Likhai Sub-Watershed (3C2F7e). 5) Tuivai Sub-Watershed (3C2F7e). 6) Tuiliphai Sub-Watershed (3C2F7d). 7) PamjalSub-Watershed (3C2F6j). 8) Phailien -Phungchongjang Sub-Watershed(3C2F6k). 9) Kentui-Tuili Sub-Watershed (3C2F6h). 10) Tuima-TuilakSub-Watershed (3C2F6f)

Objectives

The main thrust of the present study is on the following objectives:

(i) To highlight the need for watershed management for sustainabledevelopment

(ii) To give a rational watershed management and sustainable developmentstrategies and

(iii) To utilize the study as the basis for planning and development and forfuture researches.

Methodology

The data pertaining to the land use map 2007 were derived from IRS-IC/ID LISS III of 2006-07. The Google Earth high resolution images (source-http//www. Google Earth.com) and field survey data collected in the monthof February, 2010 were also used for validation of generated maps. Variousother primary informations are gathered through interviews and observationsand also discussion with the key informants like the village Chiefs, villageelders and Watershed Development Team (Integrated WatershedManagement Programme) of the study area.

Need for Watershed management

The study area being a hilly region lacks any form of developmental activities.The people are still engaged in most rudimentary form of agriculture coupled

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with charcoal making, timber logging, and fuel wood production. This hasled to the resource degradation in the form of degraded forest, soil erosion,water scarcity, etc has been taking place which has reduced the quantityand quality of land and water resources. Changes in the nature of thewatersheds have resulted from a range of physical factors such as surfacerunoff, soil erosion, forests fire, and anthropogenic factors such as changesin farming system (combining shifting cultivation and charcoal productionin the same field), overgrazing, deforestation, and dust pollution because ofquarrying and unfinished or unmetalled road in dry season. A watershedmanagement approach could be a way out for sustainable developmentand balanced ecosystem. The effective strategies to be adopted throughwatershed approach also suit the region’s environ and the requirements ofthe local populace. In recent years, the cumulative environmental costs andits socio-economic impacts has prompted investment in watershedmanagement all over the country. Watershed management is the integrateduse of land, vegetation and water in an area for the benefit of its residents,with the objective of protecting or conserving the natural resources that thewatershed provides. The economic activities of the people in some of theselected villages may be shown to throw some light as to how this watershedneeds an integrated watershed management programmes in the study area.

Economic Activities

The above economic related activities does not take into account the thetypes of soil or the slope per cent rather the people cultivate the land orplant what they think would best suit their land and generate cash incomewithout much help from the experts. The sub-watershed which has paddyfields is still engaged in jhum and other related activities like fuelwoodproduction and charcoal production to generate their monetary income.

Soil and slope mapping

Based on soil types and slope percent, assessment of the study area aredone for coherent management. The study area is under two distinct sub-eco regions with the thermic and hyperthermic temperature regimes. In thestudy area, 68% of the total geographical area comes under the first categoryi.e. Warm Per-humid agro-eco zone with thermo ecosystem, except theeastern side along the highway and the tip of the southern side, where thesecond category, warm per humid agro-eco zone with hyperthermiaecosystem of 32% are found. In the first category, Warm per humid agro-eco zone with thermo ecosystem, these soils are derieved from shale andsandstone and these are found to occur mostly on the hills of the varyingslopes. Soils occurring along the gently sloping foothills are deep in general

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but are vulnerable to sheet and rill erosion hazards. These are well drainedwith grayish brown to yellowish brown in colour. These comprise UmbricDystrocrepts, Typic Haplohumults and Ultic Hapludalfs. Soils on the steepto very steep hill slopes are very much susceptible to erosion. As suchthese soils are deep under thick vegetative cover and otherwise they areshallow with exposed stratified grey coloured shale and slate layers. Thesesoils are acidic to different level ranging from moderately acidic to slightlyacidic with high organic matter content.

The other category is the Soils of warm per humid agro-eco zonewith hyperthermic ecosystem: soils of the region are heterogenous in natureand developed on gently sloping narrow valleys and strongly to moderatesteep side slopes of hills with moderate to severe erosion hazards. Theseare well to excessively drain. The texture varies from fine to loamy skeletaland classified as umbric Dystrocrepts, Typic dystrocrepts and TypicHaplohumults. These soils are moderately to strongly acidic, humus rich,and have low base status. Soils developed in narrow valleys are deep,poorly drained, fine in texture with slight erosion hazard.

And despite the problems mentioned above, the soils and agroclimateof this hilly region are ideal for the development of horticultural crops likepineapple, pears, peach, plum, lemon, orange and banana. This may besuccessfully grown provided that transport and marketing facilities are laidout. So far, the horticultural products are not enough to be transported formarkets though it is more than enough for their comsumption. Therefore,the people should be encouraged to cultivate in a larger scale so that it maybe enough for transporting to the market centres. It is also possible toexploit these soils for cultivation of tea in the warm per-humid agro-ecozone with thermic ecosystem.

In the study area, the immediate need is to manage the upland areaof the villages because this is where the people live and seek their livelihood.The government’s plan of IWMP is being implemented here although it isstill at its nascent stage. This is a hopeful scheme as it involves themanagement of the physical environment for socio-economic developmentof the people. Therefore, it is significant for this research to study theimplementation of Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP)in the study area which is in-sync with the objective of this research that isthe conservation and development of natural resource base for sustainableeconomic development of the watersheds through people participation. Thetreatment under watershed development modeled by National WatershedDevelopment Programme in India may be tabled (Table 1) for reference as

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it may be beneficial and quite applicable to the study area too.Table 1: Watershed Treatment Model by National Watershed Development Programme inIndia

Treatment under Watershed Development Model by National Development Programme inIndia

I.Arable Land Treatment1.      1.Vegetative bunds/ key lines To arrest soil erosion and run off,

moisture conservation2.      Vegetative filter strips To arrest soil erosion and run off3.      Contour and vegetative hedges -do-4.      Contour guidelines Facilitate contour cultivation water

conservation, moisture retention.5.      Graded bunds Terracing so as to break slope and

create flow barriers6.      Opening dead furrows Moisture conservation7.      Gully controls To arrest the run off and ravine

formation8.      Surface drains To direct the run off9.      Loose boulder bank embankment To strengthen the bunds10.  farm ponds Water conservation

II.Non- arable land1.      Plantations Management of soil run off and

degradation2.      Live fencing Moisture conservation, wind erosion3.      Live check dams brush wood dams Arrest soil erosion and increases

moisture conservation4.      Drain lines Manage run off5.      Vegetative contour hedges with Reduce erosion and increase moisture

furrows conservation6.      Live check dams, brush wood Manage run off, reduce soil erosion

dams, loos dams, loose boulders and gully formationcheck dams and other stream checkmeasures

7.      Stabilization of nalla banks Reduce side cutting8.      Gully treatment with vegetative Check gully formation and stop further

measures erosion9.      Run off management with dug out Run off management, water

ponds conservation

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The model treatment given in Table 2 may be referred from timeto time in accordance with the nature of its watershed degradation and itsfollow up actions. This application should be participatory and based oncommunity need basis. The plate below shows Tuilaphai Watershed. Andin the last decade there has been an increasing decentralization ofresponsibilities for management of natural resources to the community level.The Watershed Development programmes being supported by theGovernment of India are one example of this. Managing a watershed helpsin the proper utilization and conservation of all the natural resources inorder to generate and achieve an environment where the people enjoy thebenefit of living to the fullest on this earth. It is indeed a people’s participatoryapproach management to sustain their well-being. In the study area,maximum areas are still under forest, and regenerating the land and itsvegetation cover in and around the settlement area could be attained withinfew years. The implementing agency should be well-versed with the needsof the common people and its environment and plan a strategy best suitedfor each village. We have learnt the magnitude of how jhuming the field,producing charcoal, cutting fuel wood, timber logging, cattle grazing, forestfire, etc. have adverse impact on the soil condition of the watershed andvice versa. All these activities are in relation to their socio-economiccondition and the compulsion to meet their daily needs.

At present, we cannot do away with shifting even if it is desirablebecause it is embedded in both social and economic lives, but others likecharcoal production, timber logging, etc. could be controlled if the peopleare given alternative sources of livelihood. But the real picture for all to seeis that while engaging in jhuming cultivation, people are heavily engaged inproducing fire wood and charcoal for market, etc. besides people are alsorearing chicken, duck, pig, cow, etc. and also plantation trees such as papaya,lemon, banana, jackfruit, etc. around their houses, everything is just formeeting their one time daily household consumption. Howsoever, in thestudy area, the people are not ignorant in their outlook towards theirsurrounding but the basic principle of surviving in this globalized world haveled them to resort to these kinds of activities which ultimately leads to landdegradation. But now that the government has taken up watershedmanagement programmes, it is expected to bring some positive results onthe land they live in. In the study area, IWMP 2010-11 has taken up in 22villages presently which cover about 7,303 hac. of land although the IWMPis committed in covering an area of about 23,800.93 hac. of land in theirplan under IWMP 2010-2011. The duration of the programme is for fiveyears and is likely to extend to for another two years. The works areimplemented on phase-wise where IVRs were constructed at Entry Point

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Level followed by Bench Terracing. These 22 villages are spread in all thesub-watersheds except in Tuilaphai Sub-Watershed (3C2F6l) and SingtamSub-Watershed (3C2F7a). The villages covered under IWMP are givenbelow in Table 3 where Inter-village Roads have been constructed andBench Terracing has been done as reported by the implementing agency,DRDA Office, Churachandpur.Table 2: Sub-watershed wise distribution of IWMP 2010-11

Sub-watershed Villages covered Area in ha

Tuilaphai Watershed (3C2F7g) Tuilaphai, N.Pangsang, 2508Nalphung, Monglham, Vungbuk,S. Bualjang and Thenjang

Tuilum-Dumdei Sub-Watershed Thingkeu 303(3C2F7f)

Singtampaojang Sub-Watershed(3C2F7a

Tuivel-Likhai Sub-Watershed Tangpijawl and Likhai 813(3C2F7e)

Tuivel Sub Watershed (3C2F7d), Bualkot, Hiangtam and Sialsi 1020

Tuiliphai Sub Watershed (3C2F6l) - -

Pamjal Sub-Watershed (3C2F6j) Kaihlam 240

Phailien and Phungchongjang Tuilijang,Phailian, Thiekbung 1287Sub-Watershed (3C2F6k) and Phungchong jang

Kentui-Tuili-Singtam or Tuivai Mualkui, Umtal, and 921Sub-Watershed (3C2F6h) Tuikumuallum,

Tuima-Tuilak Sub-Watershed Thuangtam 211(3C2F6f)

Source: DRDA Office, Churachanpur.

The Tuilaphai Watershed (3C2F7g) covers 07 maximum numberof villages, wherein 2,508 hac. of land are within the study area. The coveredvillages are Tuilaphai, N.Pangsang, Nalphung, Monglham, Vungbuk, S.Bualjang and Thenjang. Tuilum-Dumdei Sub-Watershed (3C2F7f) has onlyThingkeu village and covers an area of only 303 hac. In Singtam Sub-Watershed (3C2F7a) there is no IWMP project. Likhai Sub-Watershed(3C2F7e) covers only two villages namely Tangpijawl and Likhai. It coversan area of 813 hac. In Tuivai Sub Watershed (3C2F7d), it covers all thevillages, viz. Bualkot, Hiangtam and Sialsi villages of 1,020 hac. PamjolSub-Watershed (3C2F6j) covers Kaihlam village only. It is 240 hac of land.In Phailien-Phungchongjang Sub-Watershed (3C2F6k), it covers an area

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of 1,287 hac. comprising of four villages viz. Tuilijang, Phailian, Thiekbungand Phungchongjang. Kentui-Tuili Sub-Watershed(3C2F6h) covers Mualkui,Umtal and Tuikumuallum which is 921 hac. Tuima-Tuilak Sub-Watershed(3C2F6f) covers Thuangtam village of 211 hac. of land. Thus, IWMP coversan area of about 7,303 hac of land in the Upper Course of Tuivai River.Table 3: Sub-watershed wise distribution of IWMP 2011 onwards

Sub-watershed Villages to be covered Area in ha

Tuilum-Dumdei Sub-Watershed Muallum, Sumchinvum, L. 1730(3C2F7f) Phaimual and Buksau

Singtampaojang Sub-Watershed Zabellei and S. Munpi 442

(3C2F7a)

Source: DRDA office, Churachandpur

The above Table 3 shows the names of the villages to be coveredin the next plan. Four villages namely Muallum, Sumchinvum, L. Phaimualand Buksau lie within the Tuilum-Dumdei Sub-Watershed (3C2F7f). Itsarea coverage will be 1,730 hac. of land. And the other two villages, Zabelleiand S. Munpi lies in Singtam Sub-Watershed (3C2F7a) and will cover about442 hac. of land. Altogether, IWMP will take up 2,172 hac. of land in thenext plan in the Upper Tuivai watershed.

Watershed Management is a new paradigm and has come to meandifferent things to different people. Each watershed is unique so differentwatershed will need different treatment. The study area, when comparedwith other watersheds is not severely degraded. But the manner in which itis exploited; one can visualize the impending catastrophe if timelyintervention is not done. Therefore, managing the watershed throughIntegrated Watershed Management Programme could be an answer tosustain all the resources within. Different watersheds function in verydifferent ways and even neighboring watersheds may have major differencesin its land use; vegetationcover etc. and the socio-cultural elements implydifferent management strategies. Different communities vary and thebenefits they want from their watersheds also vary. Moreover, watershedschange through time. For example, the area cleared for shifting cultivationmight regenerate naturally into a forested tract after 5 years if it is leftuntouched, so management strategies are likely to change again after 5years or so and changes may also occur in short period time scale dependingon the need of the watershed’s people. In the study area, the impoverishmentin the socio-economic condition of the people largely determined the conditionof the watershed area. The health of the watershed area is almost dependent

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on how the people living within make use of it. The people should be firstlymade aware of the repercussions on the environment, and how it is affectingtheir socio-economic lives thereof. Therefore, improving the socio-economicconditions of the people should be the primary concern for the policy makersor framers. Thus, Watershed management is a dynamic and continuallyreadjusting process that is built to accommodate these kinds of changes.

The watershed lands can be treated on “ridge to valley” approach.A land lying below will not make an improvement if the upper reaches arenot treated. So, the best possible way of treating the land is to empower thepeople about the land and its resources who live on the land. They need tobe made aware through community mobilisation and capacity building inorder to ensure their involvement right from its decision making process toimplementation for effective management.

An integrated watershed approach should advocate the sustainableand productive use of the natural resources (specifically soil, vegetationand water) in ways that are ecologically sound, economically viable, sociallyacceptable and equitable. This calls for a paradigm shift from a top-down,technical and physical watershed intervention to a holistic, participatory,and multi-sectoral and inter-agency collaborative and result based watershedapproach. Hence, the three tier of watershed approach could better themanagement.

Sustainability is the pre-requisite for efficient watershedmanagement. Physical displacement of soil reduces its depth, spoils physicalconditions and cuts back productivity (Srivastava et al 1990). It is giventhat insufficient moisture built-up, limitations of water, limited soil depth andpoor retention and loss of nutrients are the major causes of diminishedproductivity. Therefore, Land Capability Classification is required for detailingout the type of programme to be implemented. Land Capability Classificationis a systematic arrangement of different characteristics to produce on asustainable basis without causing damage due to erosion and other hazards.All the characteristics which influence the risk of erosion and limit its usemust be assessed and considered. Then the grouping of land is done on thebasis of its intensity to which they can be utilized without deteriorating overa long period.

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Table 4: Land-use classification based on the slope Per cent

Slope in % Land Use Conservation Area in Areameasures km2 in %

1-2 Cultivation of crops, Strip cropping 1.71 0.19agroforestry

2-15 Crops, agroforestry, tea, Graded bunds, broad 27.02 3.09orchards base and bench terrace

16-35 Orchards, agroforestry, Bench terrace 27.76 3.18tea, crops

>35 Forest, pastures, orchards Contour trench, stone 818.45 93.86check dams

In the present study, propose landuse classification has been doneon the basis of slope percentage categories. So, based on the land usegiven above (Table 4), the Upper Tuivai Watershed in which the generalslope of the land is >35 percent slope. The lowest category of 1-2 percentis found in an area of 0.19 km2 is in Kentui-Tuili Sub Watershed along thecourse of the Tuivai River. Here, vegetables cropping may be carried outalong the sides of the river for local consumption.

Slope percent of 3-5 per cent covers an area of 9.88 km2 and isfound in various sub-watersheds. The largest area under this slope is foundalong the banks of Tuila River stretching from Tuilaphai, Vungbuk, Boljangand Thenjol in the north in Tuilaphai Sub-Watershed, passing throughHengmol in Tuilum-Dumdei Sub-Watershed to Tuijang in the south in Singtamsub-Watershed. This slope area is under permanent wet paddy field. Theother area of this slope per cent are found along a narrow stretched betweenBuksao, Simbuk and New Munpi in the eastern side of Tuilum-DumdeiSub-watershed and the area around is covered by dense scrub land andfew hectares of wet paddy are also found. The others are found in a verysmall and narrow streched area of less than a km2 in K. Tuiliphai in TuiliphaiSub-Watershed; in and around Phailon in Phailon-Phungchongjang Sub-Watershed, a very small stretched along the Tuivai River to the south ofMongmoul in Kentui-Tuili Sub-Watershed and a small narrow stretchedalong Tuima River to the east of Thangthuam and north of Tuima in Tuilak-Tuima Sub-Watershed. This slope percent of 3-5 per cent may be usefulfor vegetable cultivation, orchards and agroforestry since they are alsonear the settlement areas. Conservative measures such as Graded bunds,broad base and bench terrace may be taken up.

Slope of 5-10 per cent is found I 3.99 km2 and they found in less

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than a km2 along the narrow bank of Tuilak in the eastern side of Lungthul-Dongjam in Tuima-Tuilak Sub-Watershed, between Muallum and New Munpiis under wasteland-dense scrub and shifting cultivated areas; and also inarea adjacent to Munpi is interspersed with wastelands-dense scrub, shiftingcultivation and tree clad area-open in Tuilum-Dumdei Sub-Watershed andin and around Tuiliphai in Tuiliphai Sub-watershed. This area may be madeuseful for vegetable cultivation, orchards and agroforestry. And conservativemeasures such as Graded bunds, broad base and bench terrace may alsobe taken up.

Slope of 10-15 per cent occupies an area of 10.16 km2 and theyare found in the north of Tuilaphai. A narrow stretched of 8.87 hac. of wetpaddy field was extended towards the north of Nalphung in Tuilaphai Sub-Watershed after the year 1998. An area of one km2 is found in betweenKaikongbu and Muallum and is covered by wastelands-dense scrub inTuilum-Dumdei sub-watershed, half a km2 to the south of Lungthul-Langginin Tuilak-Tuima Sub-Watershed and to the east of Bolkot is interspersedwith wastelands-both open and dense scrub with tree clad area-open inTuivai sub-Watershed. An area of 7.40 km2 of 10-15 per cent slope isfound in Tuivai Sub-watershed along the sides of Tuivai River in Sialsi, andalso adjacent to Hiangtam, Buolkot and Khaithuam villages. Surroundingthe paddy fields, vegetable cultivaton and agroforestry may be taken upalong with conservative measures such as Graded bunds, broad base andbench terrace.

Slope of 16-35 percent are found in 27.76 km2 and occupies 3.18per cent of the TGA. It is found in and around Tanglon-T and Tanglon-D inSingtam sub-watershed, in and around Moulkot and Likhai which is coveredwith wastelands-both open and dense scrub in Likhai Sub-Watershed, tothe west of Lungthul-Dongjam and Lungthul-E in Tuilak-Tuima Sub-Watershed, and along the area of river Tuima in Kentui-Tuili Sub-Watershed,and also in and around Sinzang in Pamjol Sub-watershed, To the south ofKalpak Lhang in Phailon-Phungchongjang sub-watershed, in and aroundPhaipheng in Tuiliphai sub-watershed. This slope area may be suitable fororchards, agroforestry, tea, crops, etc. and bench terracing may be takenup as conservative measure.

Other than these, more than 35 percent slope occupies more than93 per cent of the TGA. This type would be best for forestry, pastures,orchards, should be taken up and conservation measures such as contourtrenching, stone check dams may be followed.

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In the study area, 93% of the watershed area is >35% slope, Fig.2(b) and therefore, based on the table given above; the Upper TuivaiWatershed would be best sustained if the land remain as forest followed bypastures and orchards. Moreover, the various studies carried out underdifferent ecological regimes have indicated the extent of hazard of cultivationof sloppy lands and the potential of conservation measures in improving theland and water resources.

The IWMP implementing agency has given emphasis on benchterracing in IWMP/Project/2010-11 in all parts of the districts; including thestudy area however prescriptions as to what type of crops or plantationcrops to be taken up is not informed yet. The bench terraces are lyingfallow without any vegetative cover. And in IWMP 2011-12 projects, EntryLevel Point (EPA) has concentrated on construction of Inter Village Roads.It is a thing to wonder as to how the office personnel from top to bottomand vice versa are ignorant about the simple techniques of managing thewatershed. It is often recommended that shifting cultivation should bereplaced by terrace cultivation since it is of fixed location and does notrequire more forest lands to be cleared every year. The ongoing benchterracing under IWMP (Table 2) need to be carefully implemented since itis in a fixed location and geologically unstable hill terrain. And this studyarea is yet to see the benefit of IWMP other than the funds allocationwhich is otherwise also not reaching the targeted beneficiaries.

Sustainable Development

Managing watersheds for sustainable development has been an indigenouspractice in India. Based on this indigenous technology several successfulfarmers have developed controlled soil conservation methods andimplemented them at reasonable cost. A century’s old practice in India isbeing rediscovered, adapted and promoted. Therefore, watershedmanagement should be first managed by incorporating the locally indigenouspractices in tandem with the socio-economic conditions of the people. Andonce developed and controlled, this would enabled sustainable development.Following interventions by the government,IWMP was implemented forthe benefit of the people and thus it covers every aspects of people: sociallyand economically as well as environmentally friendly.

Livestock systems: poultry, piggery, cattle rearing, bee keeping,sericulture, dairy farming, etc.

Agro-processing systems: basket making, dry flower objects making,leaf plate making, wood carving, toy making, oil extraction, lace making,

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etc.

Agro industries: cleaning, picking, marketing of produce such as cereals,pulses, fruits, condiments, spices. Making of agro-products such ashoney, jiggery, fruit pulp/juices, silk yarn, mushrooming farming, etc.

This approach of developing and nurturing the people helps inconserving the natural resources of the place. Therefore, the governmentshould train their staffs, invite expertise and should also engage NGOs whocould be vital in the management of the watershed or the land. WatershedManagement includes all the activities meant for the development of thesociety. Therefore, sustainable development is pursued in various capacitiesby managing the watersheds. It aims for ecological sustainability, economicsustainability and socio-cultural sustainability.

Based on the inputs of this research work, the sustainability issuesby Iyer and Roy,2005 has been modified and may be tabled as to howmanaging and operationalizing the concept of sustainable development inthe watershed will bring forth realization of the ingredients of sustainabilityin the study area:Ecological Sustainability Economic Sustainability

1. Regeneration of forest covers 1. Increase in cropping intensityon degraded land in the paddy fields

2. Increase in tree density 2. Increase in vegetable cultivation.

3. Increase in grass and forest products 3. Increase in livestock rearing.

4. Reduction in soil erosion and run-off 4. Availability of fuel security.

5. Increase in ground water-table 5. Increase in humus content in the soil.

6. Increase in perennially of streams 6. Transfer of cost effectivetechnologies for providingemploymentopportunity through

7. Security against drought MNREGS or other schemes

8. Reduction in over grazing and strictguidelines for cattle grazers

9. Practices of mulching and otherecological sustainable practices

10. Increase in number of wild animals

11. Increase in wild edible and medicinal Plants.

Social Sustainability

1. Building of local level institution for more conservation and preservations

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of natural resources

2. Consistent government support(technical, financial and managerialsupport)

3. Neutral dynamic leadership and participation of voluntary organisationsand other people’s organisations in watershed project.

4. Women’s empowerment and their participation

5. Special focus on the educational status of the people.

6. People’s participation in planning and implementation of WSD projects.

7. Safeguard of cultural and religious heritage of the people.

8. Self-help groups

9. Use of traditional wisdom of the people.

10. Cooperative and marketing linkages

11. Improving in the quality of housing facilities along with proper sanitation

Conclusion

By adopting proper land development measures, areas under agricultureand forests could be more realized. The hill slopes are specifically suitablefor large scale plantations and horticultural crops. A healthy forest willprovide what is more than required in sustaining the livelihood of the peopleand besides its vast natural assets have immense potential for tourismdevelopment as well. An integrated watershed management approach,thus, will help in bringing the ecological, economic and socio-culturaldevelopment. It aims at alleviating poverty in the region through a holisticapproach of conservation and sustainable exploitation of both the naturaland human resources.

References:District Census handbook, Series 15, part xii-A&B

Iyer, K.Gopal and Roy, Upendra Nath (Ed.) (2005) Watershed Management and SustainableDevelopment, Kanishka Publishers, New Delhi. Pp xix-xxiii

Mishra, Archana (2005) Watershed Management, Authors Press, New Delhi. pp 1-7, 257-270

Mittal, S.P. and Aggarwal, R.K. (2005) Watershed Approach to Natural ResourceManagement in Watershed Management and Sustainable Development, KanishkaPublishers, New Delhi. Pp 96-97

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Mukherjee, Roma, Environmental Management and Awareness Issues, (2002) SterlingPublisher Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, p- 57.

Saxena , H.M., (2004), “Environmental Geography”, Rawat Publications, New Delhi. pp45-67.

Singh, Jasbir and Dhillon S.S, 2005, Agricultural Geography, Tata McGraw-Hill PublishingCompany Ltd, New Delhi. pp 335-344-104.

Singh Kh. and Chinglianmawi: (2010) Prospect of Urban Landuse in Churachandpur Town,in Indian Journal of Landscape Systems and Ecological Studies, Vol. 33, p-133.

Singh, J.S., Pandey, U. and Tiwari, A.K. (1984) Man and Forest: A Central HimalayanCase Study. Ambio 13(2): pp 80-87.

Singh, Purushottam Baldeo (2010): Extension and Management in Watershed Development, Concept Publishing, New Delhi. pp 101.

Singh, Savindra (1995), Environmental Geography, Prayag Pustak Bhawan, Allahabad. pp90-105

Soils of Manipur for landuse planning, NBUS &L, ICAR, Nagpur

Sharma, H. Brajamani (2010): Working Plan of Southern Forest Division, ChurachandpurDistrict, Manipur (2010-11 to 2019-20), Government of Manipur. Pp 1,2,20,31-38,82.

ICAR, NBUSS&L, Soils of Manipur for Land Use Planning, Directorate of Horticultureand Soil conservation.

Singh, Ksh Jhaljit, (2009) An Account of the Natural Resources of Manipur: Managementand Sustainability Issues in Challenges of Economic Policy in Manipur,AkanshaPublishing House, New Delhi.pp 165-181

Tejwani,K.G. (2005) People and Watershed Management in Watershed Management andSustainable Development. Kanishka Publications, New Delhi. pp 85-92.

Singh, Kh.Paradipand Lhingneilam, L. (2012) Assessment of Landuse /Landcover in theUpper Course of Tuivai River Basin, The Geographical Review of India, Vol. 74,N0. 2, June, 2012.

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CHAPTER - 34

Effect of Physico-Chemical Parameters ofWater on Abundance of Trematode Parasitesof Channa Punctata in Pumlen Lake, Manipur,IndiaRomen Singh Ngasepam*, Maibam Shomorendra** and DevashishKar*

IntroductionWater is the most important in shaping the land and regulating the climate.It is one of the most important compounds that profoundly influence life.The quality of water usually described according to its physical, chemicaland biological characteristics. Rapid industrialization and indiscriminate useof chemical fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture are causing heavy andvaried pollution in aquatic environment leading to deterioration of waterquality and depletion of aquatic biota. Due to use of contaminated water,human population suffers from water born diseases. (Rafiullah, M. K. etal. 2012). The physico-chemical parameters of a water body have beenrecognized as valuable limiting factors in the biological productivity of waterbody. Maintenance of a healthy aquatic ecosystem is dependent onphysicochemical parameters of water. The nature of parasitization of fishpopulation in any confined body of water is affected by a variety of factors.Wisniewski (1958) formulated the concept of the characterization of parasito

*Division of Wetlands, Fishery Science and Aquaculture, Department of Life Science andBioinformatics, Assam University, Silchar-11 (Assam), India**Fish disease Research Lab, Department of Zoology, Thambal Marik College, Oinam-795134 (Manipur), India,*Corresponding author. [email protected]

Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation (2015) : 443-449 Sati,V. P. et al. (Ed),Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002

ISBN: 81-8019-518-3 (India) ISBN: 1-55528-374-8 (USA)

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fauna and further suggested that the character of a water body could beused to influence and determine the parasitic fauna. The nature ofparasitization of fish population in any confined body of water is affectedby a variety of biotic and abiotic factors. Some of the abiotic factors aretemperature, pH, DO content, alkalinity etc. Gaffar (2007) observed thatthe effect of temperature on the fishes is an important factor for infestationrate of parasites. Aquatic organisms are affected by pH because most oftheir metabolic activities are pH dependent (Wang et al., 2002). Accordingto Wogu, M. D. and Okaka, C. E. (2012), intestinal helminth infection infresh water fishes than their brackish water counterparts suggests a stronglimiting influence of water type on the intestinal helminth parasites infectionof fish. The reason for the difference in the rate of helminth infection couldbe attributed to variations in salinity tolerance of fish hosts. Besides, itcould also be related to the presence or absence of many freshwaterintermediate hosts of the intestinal helminth parasites. According to Paperna(1996), the first intermediate hosts of piscine acanthocephalans andnematodes are amphipods, isopods, copepods or Ostracods. Fishes becomeinfected by ingesting these invertebrates. Some other studies that havereported seasonality of helminth infection of fish, include those of Awachie(1968), Okaka and Akhigbe (1999). Unfortunately the knowledge of diseaseof the fishes, particularly parasites are still less explored in Manipur. Hence,a study on Effect of physico-chemical parameters of water on abundanceof trematode parasites of Channa punctata (Bloch) in Pumlen Lake,Manipur has been under taken.

Materials and Methods

The present study was carried out in Pumlen Lake locally known as PumlenPat (Pat – a Lake in Manipur) is the second largest freshwater wetlandlocated in the southern part of the Manipur valley. The Lake is situated inThoubal District of Manipur at a distance of about 50 km from Imphal, thecapital of the state towards the Southern Lowlands of the central valley i.e.on the left side of the Imphal river at the geographical ordinates between93o50’E to 94o0’E and 24o20’N to 24o35’N and at elevation of 767 metersabove mean sea level (A.S.L.). (Singh, N.R. et al. 2013). The fish Channapunctata which is commonly called as Snakeheads were routinely collectedfrom the study sites (January 2014 to December 2014) and brought to thelaboratory in the polythene bags containing water of the same locality. Theexternal body organs as well as internal body organs were thoroughlyexamined for the parasites. Mucus and epithelial tissue was scraped fromseveral areas of the body with a scalpel. The mucus material is thentransferred to a small drop of water on a slide and covered with a small size

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cover glass. The scraping was thin enough for proper examination with themicroscope. Epithelial scrapings from the fins were made and subjected tomicroscopic examination. For examination of the gills, each branchial archwas removed and transferred to a petridish with water. The examinationwas performed under microscope. Branchial filaments were cut off, slightlycompressed in a drop of water between slide and cover glass and examinedunder the microscope. The oral cavity and pharynx were examinedmacroscopically. The digestive canal was first examined for macroscopicparasites located on the external surface, and then stretched on the dishand carefully opened. The gut content was removed, diluted to some extentwith physiological saline and was examined macroscopically and under themicroscope. Liver, kidney, gonads and heart were examined externally andalso under a compound microscope. These organs were cut with a scalpelinto slices and the section surfaces were examined. Small tissue sampleswere compressed under cover glass and were examined under amicroscope. The parasites collected, upon being fully relaxed, were fixedin AFA (alcohol-formalin-acetic-acid) solution and preserved in 70 % alcohol.To facilitate identification of the worms, the trematodes were stained inAlum carmine, dehydrated in glacial acetic acid, cleaned in methyl salicylateand mounted in Canada balsam (Bylund et al., 1980). The physico-chemicalparameters of water were analyzed following APHA (2005).

Results and Discussion

The present study was carried out from January 2014 to December 2014for seasonal study of parasites with physicochemical characteristics of water.During the present investigation three species of trematodes have beenfound namely Metaclinostomum sp. Pandey and Baugh, Metaclinostomumsrivastavai Pandey and Baugh, 1965 and Metaclinostomum thaparusSahay and Sahay, 1984 there were concurrent infections by two or moreparasite species. Metaclinostomum sp. was found to be infected in theliver of the fish and M. srivastava and M. thaparus were found in theliver, body cavity respectively.

The correlation matrix between certain physico-chemicalparameters and abundance (% of infection) is given in Table 1. The seasonalvariation of percentage of infection with physico-chemical parameters ofwater in Pumlen Lake is indicated in table 1. The mean Abundance, Watertemperature (WT), pH, dissolved oxygen (DO mg/L), free carbon dioxide(FCO2 mg/L) and Total alkalinity (TA mg/L) respectively 62.15%, 21.260

C, 6.3, 5.5 mg/L, 10.57 mg/L and 50.46 mg/L. ( Table : 1). In the presentstudy, the maximum percentage of infection (96.4) was found in July at

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water temperature 28ºC, pH-6.4, DO-5.2 mg/L, FCO2-10.2 mg/L, and totalalkalinity-66 mg/L and minimum percentage infection (20.3) in the monthof January at water temperature (WT) 110 C, pH-6, DO-6 mg/L, FCO2 -10.0 mg/L and total alkalinity (TA)-46 mg/L in Pumlen Lake. Percentageabundance infection is positively correlated respectively with temperature(r=0.895, p<0.01), and pH (r=0.642, p<0.05), in the fishes of Pumlen Lake,negatively correlated with free carbon dioxide (FCO2) at r=0.208.Temperature is also positively correlated with dissolved oxygen at (r=0.761,p<0.01) and pH is also positively correlated with total alkalinity (r=0.603,p<0.05). (Table: 2). Seasonal variation in the occurrence of these parasitesare also effected by certain ecological conditions, particularly distributionof intermediate hosts and also the age of the host and the life cycle of theparasite species. (Puinyabati, H. et al. 2013). Ecological factors have beenheld widely responsible for the occurrence of adult digenetic trematodesquoted from Chubb (1979) and Madhavi (1978). Aquatic organisms areaffected by pH because most of their metabolic activities are pH dependent(Wang et al., 2002). Optimal pH range for sustainable aquatic life is pH 6.5- 8.2 (Murdoch et al., 2001). Pawar and Pulle (2005) stated that the pH ofwater is important for biotic communities because most of the plant andanimal species can survive in narrow range of pH from slightly acidic toslightly alkaline condition. In the present study the water of Pumlen Lakeshowed slightly acidic condition. Tedila and Fernando (1970) discussed thatfish become infected in autumn and incidence peaked late in winter, beganto decrease in March dropped to nit in August- September. Gaffar (2007)observed that the effect of temperature on the fishes is an important factorfor infestation rate of parasites. He found high infestation rate in the hotseason. The same has also been reported by Bussmann and Ehrich (1979),Amin (1987) and Fatima and Bilqees (1989). Chubb (1982) emphasizedthat water temperature acts directly on the helminths or indirectly throughthe host behaviour, especially feeding behaviour and metabolism, while, Jhaet al. (1992) showed that water temperature did not play an important rolein the seasonal occurrence of helminth parasites. During the present studyconcurrent infections by two or more parasite species were found.Percentage abundance infection is positively correlated respectively withtemperature (r=0.895, p<0.01), and pH (r=0.642, p<0.05), in the fishes ofPumlen Lake, negatively correlated with free carbon dioxide (FCO2) atr=0.208. Temperature is also positively correlated with dissolved oxygen at(r=0.761, p<0.01) and pH is also positively correlated with total alkalinity(r=0.603, p<0.05). Seasonal variation in the occurrence of these parasitesare also effected by cert ecological conditions, particularly distribution ofintermediate hosts and also the age of the host and the life cycle of the

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parasite species.The results also give detail knowledge of parasitic faunaof fish Channa punctata from Manipur which was till date less explored.At the same time it will help the scientific community and also pisiculturistto know about the parasite species found to be infected in the fish host.Table 1: Descriptive Statistics between certain physico-chemical parameters and percentageabundance

Mean Std. Deviation

% Abundance 62.1500 27.92394

WT 21.2583 6.08283

pH 6.3250 .27927

DO 5.5183 .39897

FCO2 10.5667 .33121

TA 50.4583 8.16439

Table 2: Shows correlation matrix between certain physico-chemical parameters andpercentage abundance

% Abundance WT pH DO FCO2 TA

% Abundance 1

WT .895** 1

pH .642* .476 1

DO -.548 .761** -.300 1

FCO2 -.202 .014 .003 -.157 1

TA .565 .414 .603* -.357 -.122 1

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).*. Correlation is significant at the0.05 level (2-tailed).

Acknowledgement

The authors are thankful to the Head, Department of Life Science andBioinformatics, Assam University, Silchar and Principal, Thambal MarikCollege, Oinam, Manipur for giving laboratory facilities. Thanks are due toProf. Umapati Sahay, the former Head of the Dept. of Zoology and Dean,faculty of Science, Ranchi University, Ranchi and Dr. B.K Sinha Dept. ofZoology, S.S College, Ranchi for helping in identification of the specimensand providing necessary laboratory facilities. Authors also thankful to UGCNew Delhi for providing fellowship to 1st author.

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References:Amin, O.M. (1987). Acanthocephala from lake fishes in ‘Wisconsin: Ecology and host

relationships of Pomphorhynchus bulbocolli (Pomphporhynchidac). J. Parasitol.,73: 278-289.

APHA (2005). Standards methods for the examination of water and wastewater. AmericanPublic Health Association, Washington.

Awachie, J.B.E. (1968). On the bionomics of Crepidostomum metoecus (Braun, 1900) andCrepidostomum farionis (Muller, 1784) Trematoda, Allocreadiidae), Parasitology,58:307-324.

Bussmann, B. and Ehrich, S. (1979). Investigations on infection of blue whiting(Micromesistius poutassou) with larval Anisakis sp. (Nematoda : Ascaridida). Arch.Fischereiwiss., 29 : 155-165.

Bylund, G., Fagerholm, H.P., Calenius, G., Wikgreen, B.J. and Wikstrom, M. (1980).Parasites of fish in Finland - ii. Methods for studying parasite fauna in fish. ActaAcad. Aboenisis, 40(2): 1-23.

Chubb, J.C. (1979). Seasonal occurrence of helminth parasite in fishes. Part-II. Trematoda.Advances in Parasitology, 17: 171-313.

Chubb, J.C. (1982). Seasonal occurrence of helminth parasite in fishes. Part-IV. Adultcestoda, nematoda and acanthocephala. Advances in Parasitology, 20: 1-292.

Fatima, H. and Bilqees, F.M. (1989). Seasonal variation of nematodes and acanthocephalaof some fishes of Karachi coast. Proc. Parasitol., 7&8: 1-201.

Gaffar, R.A. (2007). Seasonal variation and histopathology of helminth parasites in thefish Lutianus argentimaculatus (Forsk, 1775) red snapper. Ph.D. thesis, Universityof Karachi, Pakistan, p. 705.

Jha, A.N. , Sinha, P. and Mishra, T.N. (1992). Seasonal occurrence of helminth parasites infishes of Sikandarpur reservoir, Muzzaffarpur (Bihar). Indian J. Helminth., 44(1):1-8.

Madhavi, R. (1978). Life history of Genarcopsis goppo Ozaki, 1925 (Trematoda:Himiuridae) from freshwater fish Channa puntatus. J. Helminth., 52: 251-259.

Murdoch, T., Cheo, M. and O’Laughlin, K. (2001). Stream keeper’s Field Guide: watershedinventory and stream monitoring methods. Adopt-A-Stream Foundation, Everett,WA.

Ngasepam, R.S. and Kar D. (2014). Abundance and Distribution of Helminth Parasites inthe Fishes of Sone Beel, the biggest wetland in Assam. International Journal ofScientific Research. Vol: 3. Issue: 12. 2277-8179.

Okaka. C.E. and J.E. Akhigbe (1999). Helminth parasites of some tropical freshwater fishfrom Osse River in Benin, southern Nigeria. Tropical Freshwater Biology, 8: 41 –48pp.

Pandey, K.C. and Baugh, S.C. (1965). H.D. Srivastava Comm vol. 407-418.

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Paperna, I. (1996). Parasites, infections and diseases of fish in Africa: An Update. C I F ATech. Paper. No. 31. Rome F.A.O. 220pp.

Pawar, S.K. and Pulle, J.S. (2005). Studies on physico-chemical parameters in Pethwadajdam, Nanded district in Maharastra. India. J. Aqua. Bio., 20(2): 123-128.

Puinyabati, H., Shomorendra M. and Kar, D. (2013). Correlation of water’s physico-chemical characteristics and trematode parasites of Channa punctata (Bloch) inAwangsoi Lake, Manipur, India. Journal of Applied and Natural Science 5 (1): 190-193.

Rafiullah, M. K., Milind, J. J. and Ustad, I. R. (2012). Physicochemical Analysis ofTriveni Lake Water of Amravati District in (Ms) India. Bioscience Discovery,3(1):64-66.

Sahay, S.N. and Sahay, U. (1984). On Metaclinostomum thaparus sp. Nov. from the liverof Channa puntatus at Ranchi. Intl. J. Acad. Ichthyol., (Proc. IV AISI), 5:183-185.

Singh, N. R., Das, B.K., Shomorendra, M. and Kar, D. (2013). Fish diversity of PumlenLake in Manipur with a note on traditional fish catching devices. Indian J. ofapplied research Vol. 3, No. 10, 46-48.

Singh, N. R., Shomorendra, M. and Kar, D. (2013). Helminth Parasite Fauna of the Fishesof Pumlen Lake, Thoubal District, Manipur. Research Frontiers in Wetlands, Fishery& Aquaculture. Dominant Publisher & Distributor Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi 215-220.

Tedila, S. and Fernando, C.H. (1970). Some remarks on the ecology of echinorhynchussalmonis (Muller, 1784). Cad. J. Zool., 48: 317-321.

Wang, W., Wang, A., Chen, L., Liu, Y. and Sun, R. (2002). Effects of pH on survival,phosphorus concentration, adenylate energy charge and Na+-K+ ATPase activitiesof Penaeus chinensis osbeck juveniles. Aquatic Toxicology, 60: 75-83.

Wisniewski, L.W. (1958). Observation of the parasito fauna of an eutrophic lake (Parasitofauna of biocoenosis of Druzno Lake, Part I). Acta Parasite. Pol., 6: 1-64.

Wogu, M. D. and Okaka, C. E. (2012). A Comparative Study of the Gastro-IntestinalHelminth Parasites Infection of Fresh and Brackish Water Fishes from Warri River,Southern Nigeria. An International Multidisciplinary Journal, Ethiopia. Vol. 6 (2),Serial No. 25. 13-23.

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CHAPTER - 35

Identification of Urban Hot Spots in Relationto Built-Up Surface and Nature of Buildingsin the Kolkata Municipal Corporation (KMC)AreaSujoy Sadhu*

Introduction

Surface Urban Heat Island (SUHI) is the difference of land surfacetemperature (LST) between urban area and suburban area can be measuredby remote sensor using spectral signature of thermal infrared region ofelectromagnetic spectrum (EMS). It is a non-atmospheric urban heat islandwhich refers to the relatively higher temperature of urban surfacescompared to rural areas. Some places in SUHI are very hot and discerniblefrom surrounding heated urban surfaces. These spots can be termed asUrban Hot Spots (UHS). These are very important locations which releaseexcessive terrestrial thermal radiation to the lower atmosphere and increasethe ambient air temperature. Thus, identification of these hotspots is veryimportant consideration in micro-climatic study.

The magnitude and importance of urban surface temperatures in aheat island were not fully appreciated until they were first visualized fromthe air in the 20th century. Satellites and specially equipped aircraft are ableto map temperatures on the Earth’s surface and have found verydistinguishable hot spots in and around urban areas all over the world (LisaGartland, 2008). The first SUHI observations from remotely sensed data

*UGC- Junior Research Fellow, Department of Geography, University of Calcutta, E-mail: [email protected]

Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation (2015) : 451-464 Sati,V. P. et al. (Ed),Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002

ISBN: 81-8019-518-3 (India) ISBN: 1-55528-374-8 (USA)

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were reported by Rao (1972). Subsequently, various studies were carriedout to make remote observations of SUHI. The main approach in SUHIstudy is the examination of the spatial structure of urban thermal patternsand their relations to urban surface characteristics by using thermal remotesensing. According to Voogt and Oke (2003), the surface geometry andsurface thermal properties are believed to be the most important factors ofSUHI generation.

The main objectives of this study are to find out the urban hot spotsand investigate the reasons of their occurrence with reference to built-upsurface and building morphology of the Kolkata Municipal Corporation(KMC) area.

The Study Area

Kolkata, the capital of West Bengal, is a very old city with diversified built-up surface and high density buildings. Hence, the KMC Area has beenchosen as the present study area which is extended from 88.24°E to 88.46°Eand 22.42°N to 22.63°N and is situated on the left bank of the Hugli River.Total area of the KMC is 200.71 km2 and consists of 144 wards. The east–west dimension of the city is comparatively narrow, stretching from theHugli River in the west to roughly the Eastern Metropolitan Bypass. Thenorth–south distance is greater. The city can be demarcated into North,Central, and South Kolkata.

Figure 1: The Study Area

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Materials and Methods

The work has been done using Landsat-8 satellite image which isfreely downloaded from the archive of the United States Geological Survey(USGS). The details of the used orthorectified (Projection: UTM-45N,Datum & Ellipsoid: WGS 1984) 16 bit image are as follows:Scene Id Sensor Date of Sun Path & Used Spatial

Acquisi- Eleva- Row Bands Resolu-tion tion tion

(Deg- (m)ree)

NIR(5), NIR &RED(4), OpticalGREEN Bands-(3), 30 m

OLI 22/04/ 65.53 138 BLUE Ther-LC81380442014112LGN00 & 2014 & (2), mal

TIRS 044 SWIR- Bands-I(6) & 100mTHER- But Re-MAL samp-(10& led to11) 30 m

Estimation of LST

Landsat-8 TIRS is the newest thermal infrared sensor for the Landsatproject providing two adjacent thermal bands (Band-10 and 11), which hasa great benefit for the LST estimation. Both thermal bands have beenprocessed with the help of ArcGIS-10 software and finally the raw spectraldata of thermal bands is converted into LST by four different steps.

Firstly, thermal infrared bands have converted to top of atmosphere(TOA) spectral radiance using the radiance rescaling factors provided inthe metadata file:

Lλ = MLQcal + AL  where,

Lλ = TOA spectral radiance (watts/steradian/sq.m),

ML= Band-specific multiplicative rescaling factor from the metadata,

AL = Band-specific additive rescaling factor from the metadata,

Qcal = Quantized and calibrated standard product pixel values (DN).

Secondly, the spectral radiance of both thermal bands has converted

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at-satellite brightness temperature using following formula:

T = where,

T = At-satellite brightness temperature (in Kelvin),

Lλ = TOA spectral radiance (watts/steradian/sq.m),

K1 = Band-specific thermal conversion constant from the metadata,

K2 = Band-specific thermal conversion constant from the metadata.

Thirdly, Land surface emissivity (e) has been calculated usingfollowing equation:

e = 0.004 Pv+ 0.986 where,

Pv = Proportion of vegetation, which is calculated by the followingformula:

Pv = (NDVI – NDVImin / NDVImax – NDVImin) 2

Fourthly, the land surface temperature (LST) has been estimatedusing the single window algorithm which is:

LST = BT / 1 + W * (BT / P) * In (e)) where,

LST = Land surface temperature (in Kelvin),

BT = At-satellite brightness temperature (in Kelvin),

W = wavelength of emitted radiance,

P = h * c / s, where

h = Planck’s constant (6.626 * 10^-34 Js),

s = Boltzmann constant (1.38 * 10^-23 J/K),

c = Velocity of light (2.998 * 10^8 m/s)

Thus, the LST in Kelvin of both thermal bands (Band- 10 and 11) isestimated and after LST conversion from Kelvin to Degree Celsius hasdone by subtracting 273.15 Kelvin from previously derived LST in Kelvinunit based on the relation of 0oC = 273.15 Kelvin. Finally LST of bothbands has averaged to get final land surface temperature.

Z- Score Calculation

Standardized scores, also known as z-scores or t-scores, convert measures

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made on different scales to a standard score, enabling comparisons andcombinations. These scores are used when comparing a data item to theaverages for the rest of the data sample or population. Standardized scoresare derived by subtracting the sample mean ( ) from an individual (raw)

score ( ) and then dividing the difference by the sample standard deviation(σ).

Z-Score =

The Z- Score map of land surface temperature has been preparedto show spatial distribution of surface temperature and concentration ofmaximum LST in Kolkata Municipal corporation area.

NDVI and NDBI Calculation

Normalized Difference Vegetation Index or NDVI is a standard vegetationindex which explains the health of vegetation or concentration of greenbiomass. The NDVI has calculated using following formula:

NDVI = (NIR-RED) / (NIR+RED) where, NIR and RED standfor the spectral reflectance values acquired in the near-infrared and redbands respectively.

On the other hand Normalized Difference Built-up Index or NDBIis also a band ratio index which indicates the density of built-up surface and it is calculated by the following equation:

NDBI = (SWIR – NIR) / (SWIR + NIR) where, SWIR andNIR stand for the spectral reflectance values acquired by the shortwaveinfrared and near-infrared bands respectively. Both indexes have beendeliberated in this work to quantify vegetation and built-up surface.

LULC Mapping

Land use and land cover (LULC) map has prepared for KMC area bysupervised image classification method to show the distribution of land useand land cover categories. Some Google Earth images have downloaded,where the urban hot spots are observed, to explain the nature, pattern andassociation of buildings in that area.

Results and Discussion

Spatial pattern of LST

In this study LST has derived which depicted the spatial variability of surface

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456 Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation

temperature in Kolkata, ranging from 29.14ºC to 35.55ºC. The maximumLST has found at the north and south-west Kolkata whereas south andsouth-eastern fringe area of KMC showing minimum surface temperature.

The reason of this type of LST distribution is closely related to landuse and land cover (LULC) scenario in the study area. High thermal zonesare found on built-up surfaces which comprises buildings, roads, dock yards,impervious pavement etc. on the other hand, relatively low surfacetemperature is found on vegetative and water surfaces.

Figure 2: Spatial distribution of LST in KMC area.

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Figure 3: LULC map of KMC area.

Northern portion (Chitpur, Shyambazar, Narkeldanga, Sovabazar,Beliaghata etc.) is the oldest part of Kolkata, where residential, commerciallandscapes are closely associated in an unplanned way. Vegetation andwater surfaces are also less in those areas. Kolkata port, shipping complexand dock yards are situated at south-western part (Khidirpur, Garden Reach,Mominpur) of Kolkata, where LST is very peak due to high absorptivecapacity of solar radiation. South Kolkata is relatively new and planned citywhere proportional vegetative and water surfaces are greater than restpart of Kolkata. Hence the LST is comparatively low in this area.

Identification of Urban Hot Spots

From the LST distribution map, the surface temperature pattern has shown,but does not reveal the concentration of LST above or below mean LST inKMC area. For the normalization of LST distribution, standard score or Z-

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458 Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation

score has been calculated and mapped, where 6 classes have been derivedon the basis of Z-score.

Figure 4: Z- Score Map of LST

Six classes showing the magnitude of LST concentration in thestudy area. Very high (> 2) and high (1 to 2) clusters of LST are foundsouth-western and northern Kolkata whereas, low (0 to -1), very low (-1 to-2) and extremely low (< -2) clusters of LST found in south and south-eastern fringe region of KMC. The LST is moderately distributed in restpart of Kolkata.

From the Z-score map the peak thermal zone or urban hot spotsare estimated where the value of Z-score is equal or greater than 1.5 andthe estimated hot spots are basically concentrated south-western Kolkata.Some others are located north, central and eastern Kolkata.

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Figure 5: Urban Hot Spots

The hot spots are verified by ground observation and relating thosespots with high spatial resolution Google Earth images. Almost 32 hot spotsare identified. The location and characteristics of hot spots are given in thefollowing table:S.No. Absolute Location Relative Location LST in ºC Characteristics ofof Hot Buildings/Built-upSpots Surface

1 88.276217° E & South-West 38.73 Dock Yard, Metal22.551728° N Kolkata Roof

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460 Climate Change and Soico-Ecological Transformation

2 88.283818° E & South-West 36.51 Dock Yard, Metal22.550013° N Kolkata Roof

3 88.293135° E & South-West 36.20 Metal Roofed22.534938° N Kolkata Residential Houses

4 88.302621° E & South-West 38.22 Metal Roofed22.521962° N Kolkata Elongated Houses

5 88.306613° E & South-West 37.16 Old Commercial22.530480° N Kolkata Houses with Metal

Roof

6 88.312484° E & South-West 37.52 Commercial Houses22.520449° N Kolkata

7 88.305953° E & South-West 36.08 Dock Yard, Imper-22.540678° N Kolkata vious Pavement

8 88.317162° E & South-West 37.27 Cargo Houses Near22.529826° N Kolkata Dock Yard, Metal

Roof

9 88.314035° E & South-West 37.15 Dock Yard, Metal22.543190° N Kolkata Roof

10 88.319306° E & South-West 36.22 Commercial22.539454° N Kolkata Buildings with

ImperviousPavement

11 88.321245° E & South-West 36.31 Metal Roof Houses22.515536° N Kolkata

12 88.315764° E & South-West 36.48 Metal Roof22.512250° N Kolkata Commercial Houses

13 88.318589° E & South-West 36.41 Metal Roof22.518589° N Kolkata Commercial Houses

14 88.374722° E & North Kolkata 36.27 Old Residential22.622797° N Houses

15 88.371154° E & North Kolkata 36.38 Commercial Houses22.612992° N in Chitpur

16 88.380796° E & North Kolkata 36.36 Red Mud Roofed22.620830° N Old Residential

Houses

17 88.386179° E & North Kolkata 36.19 Cargo Houses Near22.597376° N Kolkata Rail Station

18 88.353948° E & North Kolkata 35.98 Metal Roof Old22.591924° N Houses

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19 88.371053° E & North Kolkata 36.16 Commercial Metal22.620610° N Roof Houses

20 88.355804° E & Central Kolkata 35.70 Old Congested22.574628° N Houses

21 88.425126° E & East Kolkata 36.45 Exposed Soil22.537972° N Surface

22 88.380596° E & North Kolkata 36.12 Red Mud Roof of22.575825° N Slum Houses

23 88.370315° E & North Kolkata 35.94 Metal Roof Shades22.567895° N of Sealdah Station

and NearbyMarkets

24 88.374171° E & North Kolkata 35.74 Old Residential22.585933° N Houses

25 88.375427° E & Central Kolkata 35.68 Slum Houses With22.541005° N Mud Tiles

26 88.368425° E & Central Kolkata 35.88 Old Residential22.553769° N Houses, Metal Roof

27 88.382165° E & North Kolkata 35.79 Old Residential22.591985° N Houses

28 88.387385° E & East Kolkata 35.54 Old Residential22.582404° N Houses

29 88.399266° E & East Kolkata 36.18 Metal Roof22.572866° N Commercial Houses

30 88.385938° E & East Kolkata 35.60 Metal Roof22.557934° N Commercial Houses

31 88.366432° E & South Kolkata 36.09 Usha Fan Industries,22.468859° N Old Metal Roof

32 88.374789° E & Central Kolkata 35.79 Metal Roof22.532117° N

Source: Prepared by the author based on LST classes

Roof top and the nature of buildings in urban hot spots are quiteinteresting. Basically old, same elevated closely spaced houses have highpotentiality to retain solar radiation and therefore they release more thermalenergy. From the Google Earth images it is clear that metal roof houses aremostly heated urban surface in Kolkata. In Khidirpur and Garden Reacharea the dock yards are made by metal sheet which have high thermalcapacity to gain surface temperature.

Identification of Urban Hot Spots

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In north Kolkata Chitpur and Cossipore are two important hot spotswhere also the metal roof commercial houses are very common. Moreover,the houses are very closely associated. So the roof top of all the housesmakes a canopy of thermally efficient material. Near Kolkata rail stationmany adjoining cargo houses, which are same elevated and having extendedflat roof top, make another hot spot.

In Khanaberia, near East Calcutta wetland, an elongated exposedbare surface emitting high surface temperature. On the other hand severalhot spot in central Kolkata also found. Near Bara Bazar, Colootola area ahot spot indicating very closely associated 3 to 5 storied buildings. InNarkeldanga and Park Circus some high surface temperature zones arelocated where basically slum houses are dominant and alls are red mudroofed houses.

Relation between LST and Surface Property

Land surface temperature rise is directly related with land surface property.In KMC area basically three types of LULC categories are found. Theseare built-up surface, vegetative surface and water surface. To quantify thebuilt-up and vegetative surface, NDBI and NDVI have calculated andthey are correlated with LST. The result showing that the LST is positivelyrelated with NDBI but negatively related with NDVI.

The highest NDBI value denotes high density built-up area wherethe land surface temperature also very high and vice versa. Highest NDBIvalue found at north and south-west portion of KMC area where NDBIvalue is 0.233667 and the corresponding LST is near about 38ºC. On thecontrary lowest NDBI value is -0.340202 and the corresponding LST isaround 27ºC. Thus, LST has increased with increasing high density built-upsurface.

On the other hand NDVI or Normalized Difference VegetationIndex is an important indicator of vegetation coverage and vegetation healthin a particular region using band rationing of NIR and RED band. TheNDVI value is ranging from 0.505481 to -0.111085 in study area. In thescatter diagram every dot representing the LST and corresponding NDVIvalue of each pixel of the study area and the LST has decreased withincreasing NDVI value.

The NDVI value greater than 0.2 indicates the vegetative surface,which reduces the LST by absorbing solar radiation. In the KMC area thehighest NDVI value found at southern fringe area where the LST is relativelylow than other minimum vegetative urban surface.

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Conclusion

Land surface temperature estimation through thermal remote sensing isvery effective technique to understand the thermal capacity and responseof different objects on earth surface. In this study distribution of LST andits variability gives an idea about the surface urban heat island generationin Kolkata. Moreover, location of hot spots in KMC area gives very closeobservation of those buildings which have high thermal capacity. From theground verification and analyzing the Google Earth images, it is clear thatmetal roofed old houses and extended flat roofed buildings are the majorhot spots in Kolkata. For minimization of surface temperature cool roofshould be introduce in urban hot spot area. The cool roofs have high solarreflectance as well as high emittance. Together, these properties help roofsto absorb less heat and stay up to 50–60°F (28–33°C) cooler thanconventional materials during peak summer weather.

Acknowledgement

This work is funded by University Grant Commission (UGC), Ministry ofHuman Resource Development (MHRD), and Government of India asJunior Research Fellowship. I convey my deep gratitude to my supervisorDr. Lakshminarayan Satpati, Professor, Department of Geography,University of Calcutta, for his precise guidance and immense encouragementto complete this paper. Thanks also go to USGS and Google Earth forproviding the free satellite images.

References:Arnfield, A. J. (2003) “Two decades of urban climate research: a review of turbulence,

exchanges of energy and water, and the urban heat island”, International Journal ofClimatology, 23, pp. 1-26.

Al-Obaidi, K. M., Ismail, M. & Rahman, A. M. A. (2014) “Passive cooling techniquesthroughreflective and radiative roofs in tropical houses in Southeast Asia: A literaturereview”, Frontiers of Architectural Research, 3, pp. 283-297.

Bhatta, B. (2008) Remote Sensing and GIS, 2nd edn. Kolkata: Oxford University Press.

Chen, X. L., Zhao, H. M., Li, P. X. & Yin, Z. Y. (2006), “Remote sensing image-basedanalysis of the relationship between urban heat island and land use/cover changes”,Remote Sensing of Environment, 104, pp. 133-146.

Gartland, L. (2008) Heat Islands: Understanding and mitigating heat in urban areas,London: Earthscan.

Hoppe, P. (1991) “Improving indoor thermal comfort by changing outdoor conditions”,Energy and Buildings, 15-16, pp. 743-747.

Identification of Urban Hot Spots

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Lillesand, T. M. & Kiefer, R. W. (1994) Raemote Sensing and Image Interpretation, 3rd ed.New York: Wiley.

Lipton, A. E. (1992) “Effects of slope and aspect variations on satellite surface temperatureretrievals and mesoscale analysis in mountainous terrain”, Journal of AppliedMeteorology, 31, pp. 255-264.

Nichol, J. E. (1996) “High-resolution surface temperature patterns related to urbanmorphology in a tropical city: a satellite-based study”, Journal of AppliedMeteorology, 35, pp. 135-146.

Oke, T. R. (1981) “Canyon geometry and the nocturnal urban heat island: comparison ofscale model and field observations”, Journal of Climatology, 1, pp. 237-1734.

Oke, T. R. & Maxwell, G. B. (1975) “Urban heat island dynamics in Montreal andVancouver”, Atmospheric Environment, 9, pp. 191-200.

Roth, M., Oke, T. R. & Emery, W. J. (1989) “Satellite-derived urban heat islands fromthree coastal cities and the utilization of such data in urban climatology”,International Journal of Remote Sensing, 10, pp. 1699-1720.

Sobrino, J. A., Oltra-Carrio, R., Soria, G., Jimenez-Munoz, J. C., Franch, B., Hidalgo, V.,Mattar, C., Julien, Y., Cuenca, J., Romaguera, M., Gomez, J. A., Miguel, E. D.,Bianchi, R. & Paganini, M. (2012) “Evaluation of the surface urban heat islandeffect in the city of Madrid by thermal remote sensing”, International Journal ofRemote Sensing, 34 (9-10), pp. 3177-3192.

Spronken-Smith, R. A. & Oke, T. R. (2010) “The thermal regime of urban parks in twocities with different summer climates”, International Journal of Remote Sensing, 19(11), pp. 2085-2104.

Tang, H. & Li, Z. L. (2014) Quantitative remote sensing in thermal infrared: Theory andApplications, New York: Springer.

Using the USGS Landsat 8 Product. Available from: <http://landsat.usgs.gov/Landsat8_Using_Product.php>. [21 April 2015].

Voogt, J. A. & Oke, T. R. (2003) “Thermal remote sensing of urban areas”, Remote Sensingof Environment, 86, pp. 370-384.

Voogt, J. A. & Oke, T. R. (1998) “Effects of urban surface geometry on remotely sensedsurface temperature”, International Journal of Remote Sensing, 19 (5), pp. 895-920.

Zhang, X., Zhong, T., Feng, X. & Wang, K. (2009) “Estimation of the relationship betweenvegetation patches and urban land surface temperature with remote sensing”,International Journal of Remote Sensing, 30 (8), pp. 2105-2118.

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CHAPTER - 36

The Use of Remote Sensing and GIS forManaging Forest Plantation and WatershedConservation in Pasolgad Watershed in PauriGarhwal, UttarakhandL. Mirana Devi*, S. K. Bandooni*, and Abhay Shankar Prasad**

Introduction

Uttarakhand has a total area of 51125 Sq. Km of which 92.57% ismountainous and 7.43% plain. Out of the total area around 63% is coveredby forest. But due to the anthropogenic and natural activities large part offorest is disappearing every year. Anthropic forest fragmentation foragricultural land, settlement etc. has been one of the main causes of changesin the structure in different types of landscapes. Forest fragmentation is theprocess of breaking up large patches of forest into smaller pieces. This canbe caused by many things, from clearing forest for roads, development etc.Decrease in forest area is creating many problems. So forest managementis the utmost necessity in Uttarakhand. Water is also one import resourceof the Uttarakhand and most part of the Himalaya receives heavy rainfallduring the monsoon from July to September (S.K.Bandooni, 1988). Theaverage volume of water received annually from rainfall is approximately9.46 Mha-m (94.62 bcm). Of this, 17.5% is lost as evaporation, 29.55 % isabsorbed into the soils, 15.46% infiltrates into the ground water and 37.5%

*Department of Geography, Shaheed Bhagat Singh (Eve.) College, (University of Delhi),Sheikh Sarai, Phase-II, New Delhi-110017**Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi-110007Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected]

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ends up in rivers (Malavika Chauhan, 2010). Because of the steep slopes,runoff is very heavy and holding capacity of water is very low in deforestedand other land. Any improper development in the watershed, changes thelanduse patterns which reduces the base flow by changing the ground waterflow path ways to surface water bodies. And this water mostly goes inrunoff. However, rain-event-runoff increased by 60% after forested landconverted to agricultural land at farm level (Hurni et al., 2005). Moreoverwater for household activities and animals are obtained from springs orflowing mountain streams. Because of heavy runoff, there is increasinglyshortage of drinking water. But there is a potential for improving waterquality and quantity with proper land use management practices in the studyarea. The socio-economic condition of the region is on self consumption.People are near about completely dependence on rain-fed agriculture.Gradually, due to scarcity of water, would and further, decreasing agriculturalproductivity and harsh life, youth are migrating towards the city for whitecollar job leaving behind the age’s parent.

Therefore, watershed conservation is an important steps in stateslike Uttarakhand to manage water, forest and other resources. The mainpurpose of this study is to establish the relationships between the forestplantation and water conservation for agricultural and domestic use suchas for animals, house hold etc. This is done by relating land use/land cover(LULC) patterns and soil erosion rate in Sub-watershed, using a computerbased GIS software system. The present study is focused on Pasol gadwatershed in Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand.

Aims and Objectives

To examine the land use/ land cover for the year 2014.

To analyse the contribution of locals for watershed conservation toincrease water amount and forest plantation.

Materials and Methods

The Survey of India (SOI) toposheet No.53 O/I of the year 1967 on Scale1: 50,000 has used to delineate the Watershed and Sub Watershed Boundaryand also for the preparation of base map and information for the drainagenetwork.Landsat and Google Earth Images (Geo Eye) have been used toprepare the land use/ land cover map. The secondary data such as forestsurvey data, statistics on the forest industries, and guides to forestry practiceis use. Using these data and the GIS, the annual available amount of landuseis calculated, and a distribution map is made. The GIS and Image processing

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software used in this study is Arcmap 10.1 version and Erdas 2013 version.

The Study Area

Pasol Gad watershed is a part of Eastern Nagar river catchment. It islocated in Eastern part of Pauri Garhwal district between 29º 53’ 12" to 29º57’ 51" N latitude and 79º 2’ 11" to 79º 7’ 34" E longitude in the state ofUttarakhand, India and encompasses a total area of 4865 hectares (Fig. 1).It comes under Bironkhal block and Thailisain tehsil with the elevation frommean sea level ranges between 1100 and 2300 mts. The climate is warmand cool temperate with cold winters, warm and crisp springs, cool summersand a strong monsoon.

The average temperature of the watershed is 20ºC approximately.The summer temperature ranges from 15ºC to 26ºC while during the wintertemperature ranges between 10ºC -15ºC.Many times winters temperaturedecreases below freezing point and snowfall is frequent. The average annualrainfall of Bironkhal station is 175 cm and about 150 cm to 200 cm ofrainfall during the monsoon season. July and August are the rainiest months.While lowest rainfall occurs in the month of November .During the winters,snowfall may occur as low as 1400 m. The winter rainfall and snowfallranges between 15-25 cm. The complex topography, with elevations rangingfrom 1100 m to 2300m, results in steep gradients of rainfall.

Results and Discussion

Pasol Gad watershed is rural occupation watershed in the Eastern Nagarriver catchment, in central western part of Pauri Garhwal in Uttarakhand.It is to be noted that population density has gradually increased over thelast few decades. Under an increasing population, the watershed has becomeintensively more prone to erosion and runoff due to the changed in Landusepattern by the human use. The higher soil loss rate in the watershed rangefrom 0 to 7469 Mg/ha/yr (L. Mirana et.al)

Landuse pattern of the Pasol gad watershed indicates thatmaximum area is under forest and second main landuse is agriculture(Table.1). It is followed by land not available for cultivation and waterbodies (Fig.2). Agriculture is the main occupation of the people, engagingaround 90 per cent of the total workers. Agriculture occupies 43.82 percent of the region which is an important activity and main occupation of thevillages. It shows that the agriculture is still in primitive stage and there isenough scope for modernization.

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The forest area in Pasol gad is of following types

Subtropical Forest Zone: Found at the elevation of about 1100m. It ismainly dominated by deciduous, sub-deciduous species such as Kachnar,Amla ,Semal and Haldu

Warm-Temperate Zone: Found at the elevations between 900 and1600m. Pine forest dominate this zoe with chir pine as the dominatetree.

Cool-Temperate Zone: It extends between 1600 and 2100 m and isdominated by oak, Rhododendron, melu, anyar, Utis, fir, cedar, spruceetc.

Cold-Temperate Zone: it is found above 2100m. Main trees are Cedarand spruce

Figure1: Location map of study area

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Figure 2: Land use/cover

Table1: Land use/cover 2014, Pasol Gad Watersheds

Sl.No Landuse /Landcover Area in Hectare Area in Per cent

1 Settlement 74 1.53

2 Agricultural Land 2132 43.82

3 Dense forest 2072 42.59

4 Scrub Forest 376 7.73

5 Barren Land 47 0.64

6 Road 31 0.64

7 Waterbodies 134 2.76

Total 4866 100

Source: Compiled by the authors

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Figure 3: Sub watershed boundary

Table 2: Categories of sub-watershed, Pasol Gad Watersheds

S.No Sub Area in Area in Soil Erosion PlantationWater Hectare Percent (Mg/ha/shed (%) yr)

1 SW1 95 1.95 686.73 Kachanar,Bhimal,Kharik

2 SW2 80 1.64 675.88 Kachanar,Bhimal,Kharik andOak

3 SW3 192 3.94 204.86 Kachanar,Bhimal,Kharik andOak

4 SW4 39 0.81 308.74 Kachanar,Bhimal,Kharik

5 SW5 190 3.91 268.53 Kachanar,Bhimal,Kharik ,Rhododenden ,Utis and Oak

6 SW6 202 4.2 104.78 Kachanar,Bhimal,Kharik,Meluanyar ,Tilonj and Oak

7 SW7 792 16.2 141.28 Kachanar,Bhimal,Kharik,Meluanyar,Tilonj and Oak

8 SW8 402 8.2 120.07 Kachanar,Bhimal,Kharik andOak

9 SW9 290 5.9 38.52 Kachanar,Bhimal,Kharik,Meluanyar,Tilonj and Oak

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10 SW10 89 1.8 15.13 Kachanar,Bhimal,Kharik,Meluanyar,Tilonj and Oak

11 SW11 506 10.4 27.59 Kachanar,Bhimal,Kharik,Meluanyar,Tilonj and Oak

12 SW12 1084 22.2 44.77 Kachanar,Bhimal,Kharik,Meluanyar,Tilonj and Oak

13 SW13 904 18.5 75.80 Kachanar,Bhimal,Kharik,Meluanyar,Tilonj and Oak

Total 4865 100 114.24 Kachanar,Bhimal,Kharik,Meluanyar ,Tilonj and Oak

Source: Compiled by the authors

*Soil loss data from unpublished journal “Landuse Planning and Watershed Monitoringusing GIS as tool for sustainable development in Pasol Gad watershed, Garhwal Himalaya(L.Mirana Devi, S.K.Bandooni and Phu Doma Lama).

High rate of soil loss is seen in SW1 and SW2 in the western partwhich indicate heavy runoff as the vegetation is composed by little trees,shrubs and patches of grass. These allow water to runoff with littlepossibilities for water to penetrate through the ground. However the areaswhich are less inhabited and which land cover is less degraded, the runoffis lowered. This is the case of the higher altitude with very dense cover offorest SW9, SW10 and SW11.

Thus, the result indicates that on the basis of soil loss and landuse,the watershed can be divided into five zones to give different priorities forConservation. Local community knowledge was compiled which includethe extent and change of hydrological regime, climate, land use, forest coverand land/soil management. According to the local community the forest–water relationships are not simple. Rainfall variability and populationincrement (both human and cattle) influenced the relationship between forestand water, but exceptions were also observed in the (Table.2).It is foundthat there is positive relationship between landuse/landcover and rate ofsoil loss. For example, the rate of soil loss is found less in dense forest areaand vice versa. Similarly open space and loose soil structure have more soilloss than pasture lands. It has been observed that the more erosion occurwhere poor agricultural and conservation practices are common. Vegetation/forest removal leads to higher surface and subsurface hillslope flow whichin turn causes gully and stream erosion (Tebebu et al., 2010).

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Table 3: Zones to improve the water and forest conservation for different sub watershed.

Zone Sub- Categories Area in Conservation andwatershed hectare management

Zone No.1 SW9,SW Low Prone 884.63 Fewer requirements to10, SW11 to erosion check erosion and runoff.

Plantation of tree likeKachanar,Bhimal,Khariketc ,can be done mainlyalong the water channels,loose soil structure andalong the roads. Bestareas to promote eco-tourism, horticulture andoff season vegetables.

Zone No.2 SW12, Medium 1987.65 Conservation is requiredSW13 prone to along the water channels

erosion and open land. Zone forcottage, small industrieslike juice and picklemaking, intensiveirrigated farming (rice andwheat), commercialfarming of vegetable andfruits like walnut, appleand orange can bepromoted.

Zone No.3 SW3, High prone 1588.84 Conservation is requiredSW6, to erosion at many places such asSW7, forest plantation and bio-SW8 fencing. Promotion of

horticulture mainlywalnut, apple, orange andlemon is worthy.

Zone No.4 SW4,SW5 Very High 228.75 More area should beprone to under forest, pasture etc.erosion because conservation

practices are required.Area for off seasonvegetables andhorticulture.

Zone No.5 SW1,SW2 Extremely 175.40 Need of conservation likeprone to retain wall, bio fencingerosion and Planting of trees.

Suitable techniques arerecommended to protectterrace cultivation. Areafor Citrus fruits.

Source: Compiled by the authors

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The local community of Pasolgad watershed understands thenecessity to manage water, forest and other resources of the area for thesustainable development. They are doing work on forest management since1980; environmental awareness camps since 1985, Pits for water rechargesince 1990 and to develop villages since 2015.Out of 25 villages underthese moments around 8 villages are from Pasol Gad Watershed. After theactive participation the forest and water resources of these villages arebetter as compared to surrounding villages. All these work are doing by thelocals under the guidance of notable environmentalist Mr. SacchidanandBharti. Scholars from different university, organization etc like Mr.AnupamMishra and Dr. S.K. Bandooni are actively supporting the conservationmoments.

Conclusion

The need for understanding forest and water relationship is necessaryespecially in the areas where the runoff is very high and source of incomeis the only agriculture. The present Paper focus on managing the forestplantation and watershed conservation using remote sensing and GIS inPasolgad Watershed in Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand. To understand andexplain all these, the soil loss data is used from unpublished journal (L.Miranaet. al) which is calculated on the basis of RUSLE model. Landuse/Landcoveris generated by using Landsat ETM+. The study shows opportunities forincreasing water conservation in forest plantation and for improving fast –growing plantation management which meet the goals for productivity. Theresults suggest that soil erosion is more prone to the area where the plantationis very less and possibilities of very high runoff. Local communities haveundertaken plantation of forest with the local leaders. In order to developthe management strategies for effective water conservation in forestplantation according to erosion rate, watershed is divided into 5 zones(Table.3). However, limitations associated with the availability ofhydrological data are difficult to increase the accuracy and reliability ofresults.

It is also interesting to note that subwatershed no SW12 had moresoil loss before 1980. But conservation movements for forest, grass andwater under the leadership of Mr. Sacchidanand Bharti since 1980 , therate of soil loss has decreased surprisingly and many deforested area isnow converted into forest area .It is also worthy to note that due tocommunity participation for the conservation, non-perennial river GadKharak ( now Gad Ganga) in Sub watershed SW12, which has shown asdry channel in toposheet is now converted to Perennial river, and the rate

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of discharge of water during the dry season is now 2 to 3 liter /minute fromand during raining season, it is 12 to15 liter/minute. At present time thelocal communities are working hard to sustain the watershed with the helpof environmental experts and Geospatial techniques can boost their efforts.

References:Bandooni, S.K., (1997): Hill Area Development and Five Year Plans, ‘Himalaya-Man

and Nature’, pp.11-13.

Bandooni, S.K., (2004):’Land Resource Management and Development in Hill Areas ‘,Research India Press.

Bandooni, S.K., et al. (2004):’Community Participation and Water Resource Managementin Garhwal Himalaya: A Study of Raath’ .Water Resources Management, pp.284-291.

Hurni, H., Tato, K., Zeleke, G., 2005. The implication of changes in population, land useand land management for surface runoff in the upper Nile Basin of Ethiopia. Mt.Res. Dev. 25, 147–154.

L.Mirana Devi .,et al (2014) : Landuse Planning and Watershed Monitoring using GIS astool for sustainable development in Pasol Gad watershed , Garhwal Himalaya .Unpublished.

Malavika Chauhan, 2010.”A Perspective on Watershed Development in the centralHimalayan State of Uttarakhand , India” International Journal of Ecology andEnvironment Sciences 36 (4):253-269.

Naqvi et al. (2012). Soil Loss Prediction and Prioritization Based on Revised UniversalSoil Loss Estimation (RUSLE) Model Using Geospatial Technique. InternationalJournal of Environmental Protection, Vol. 2 No. 3 2012 PP. 39-43.

Tebebu, T.Y., Abiy, A.Z., Zegeye, A.D., Dahlke, H.E., Easton, Z.M., Tilahun, S.A., Collick,A.S., Kidanu, S., Moges, S., Dadgari, F., Steenhuis, T.S., (2010) Surface and subsurfaceflow effect on permanent gully formation and upland erosion near Lake Tana in thenorthern highlands of Ethiopia. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 14, 2207–2217.

Yu-Pin Lin a, “, Nien-Ming Hongb, Pei-Jung Wu a, Chen-Fa Wu c, Peter H. Verburg d,(2007) “Impacts of land use change scenarios on hydrology and land use patternsin the Wu-Tu watershed in Northern Taiwan”. Landscape and Urban Planning80,111–126, science direct. Elsevier.

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CHAPTER - 37

Empowering Mountain Women throughLivelihood Promotion and Natural ResourceManagementMohan Singh Panwar*

Introduction

Women throughout the world continue to have fewer options andopportunities than men and in many countries women face over inequalities,marginalization, and discrimination. Of the 1.3 billion who live in poverty,70% are women (ICIMOD report 2006). Women perform two-thirds ofthe world work but earn only one tenth of the world’s income. Rural Indianwomen are extensively participated in agricultural activities. However, thenature and extent of their participation differs with the variations in agro -production systems. Women’s contribution in agricultural labor force indeveloped countries is 36.7% while, it is about 43.6% in developing countries(FAO, 1999). In Himalayan region mountain women face the burden offetching heavy loads of water and fuel wood and spend hours in drudgeryto meet the water and energy needs of their households and farms. In theIndian Himalayas a pair of bullocks works 1064 hours, a man 1212 hoursand a woman 3485 hours in a year on a one hectare farm, a figure thatillustrates women’s significant contribution to agricultural production (ShivaFAO, 1991). Often, young girls are unable to attend school because theyare needed to help with water and energy chores at home.Without reducingthe time women spend daily on collecting and fetching these resources andthe drudgery associated with these activities women simply do not havetime to participate in any new livelihood opportunities.

*Associate Professor, Department of Geography, School of Earth Science, HNB GarhwalUniversity, Srinagar (Garhwal), Uttarakhand, India, E-mail: [email protected]

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The Uttarakhand hill areas have a unique feature in respect totopography, climate and agriculture production system. The undulatedtopography, rugged terrain, unfavorable cold climate and lack of productionand sufficient marketing infrastructure have made the area poorest in termsof production and productivity of the agriculture production. The dominantfeatures of hill farming in Uttarakhnadare small land holdings,sloping marginalland, and rainfall-dependent farming (Gupta, 2003). Hill farming issubjectto a number of serious constraints as undulating topography, smallfragmentedand scattered holdings, with very limited use of inputs, poor andshallow soils(prone to erosion), which is aggravated by heavy migratorygrazing which has also ledto soil degradation. The region also suffer fromvery high male temporary andpermanent rural to urban migration; womenfarmers have increasingly foundthemselves becoming major contributorsto the agricultural labor force, the majority ofwho work for very long hoursall year long as unpaid family’s labor.

Drudgery of farm women is an important aspect that has attractedwide attention ofresearchers. Even women sufferfrom different healthproblems which adversely affect their working efficiency andfamily welfare.Women have shorter time to rest than men and environmentaldegradationis increasing women’s workload. (Mariamaand Janet, 2000). Women ofthe mountain and hill areas of Uttarakhand are the pivot of the family unit,bearing a major responsibility for agriculture, forest, and other naturalresource management as well as for their family‘s well being.

They are also the primary managers of agricultural and forest lands.Although local mountain women have the sophisticated knowledge to managea multiply of roles and small production system’s to adapt and survive in afragile environment. Considering the multiple roles of agricultural women,the present paper is an attempt to explore the drudgery involved in farmoperations, livelihood and income generation of mountain women a case ofUttarakhand and how through participatory institutional development processhelped to organize rural poor women into farmers associations and takeresponsibilities of management of village resources and generate income.Therefore, a complete package of the sustainable development of poormountain women farmers within this project involves a)Base line surveyand priorities of the villages and local women b)Need assessment c)Institutional development and strengthen of economic leadership amongmountain women through SHGs d)Physical interventions and farm andnonfarm programmes e)Creating access to the market at the doorstep ofthe women farmers f) Develop opportunities to involve them in trade and

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cash transactions g) Mainstreaming mountain women farmers in workpolicies and practices

Objective

The main objective of this paper is to share the experience and highlightthe livelihood promotion and natural resource management activities forreducing drudgery among mountain women and maintaining sustainabilityof mountain community an action programme which was implemented bythe research team of Department of Geography, HNB Garhwal Universityin last three years in the Tehri dam reservoir rim area villages targetinggrassroots women and her overall development. Along with SEWA -TehriHydro Development Corporation we adapted integrate approach suited tothe need and priorities of local area. The present study of the major researchproject aims to describes and examine how sustainable livelihoods andresource management can be achieved through access to a range oflivelihood resources available at village level that are combined in the pursuitof different strategies. In this paper an attempt has been made to exploresustainable livelihood security in terms of reducing women drudgery byimplementing various direct farm and non - farm activities.

Major objectives of this project was

1. Capitalizing upon abundant resources: Resources which areabundantly available may be utilised for the betterment of the localcommunity. For instance, it a subsistence agriculture-based region isendowed with a suitable climate for vegetables (which has an ampledemand in nearby markets) the agriculture in the region could begradually changed toward vegetables production by providingtechnological inputs like low-cost polyhouses, seeds and the wholecultivation package disseminated through field demonstrations, training,exposure visits, etc.

2. Rehabilitation of degraded ecology: The degradation of theenvironment can be arrested by mobilizing appropriate technologiesbacked by proper institutional framework, as can be observed intreatment of watersheds.

3. Drudgery reduction of women: It is widely recognised that womenare the major workforce in Uttarakhand hills who predominantly sustainthe life support system of the hill communities. There are technologiesthat can reduce the workload of women

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Materials and Methods

The study is based on grassroots level impact of the programmes as well asprimary and secondary data’s are collected with the help of interview,schedule, questionnaire, field observation and discussions. More than 60%of households are chosen for household survey on purposive random basis.In the study, secondary data/published /unpublished and relative literaturehave been taken into consideration and analyzed on the basis of theoreticalpractices. Personal field experiences have been applied in formatting thesuitable strategy for planning to implement action programmes in the fieldarea. In this study, how livelihood programmes improve the quality of life ofmountain women and her access to natural resources with increasing statusof value of women within society is documented by the researcher throughdifferent case studies. Strategic needs and reduction of women drudgery isalso focused in the study.

The Study area

The study area located at Tehri Garhwal District is one of the westernmost district of the Uttarakhand State (Former Uttar Pradesh) located onthe outer ranges of the mid Himalayas which comprise low line peaksrising contiguously with the planes of the northern India. The District liesbetween the parallels of 30o3’ and 30o53’ North Latitude and 77o56’ and79o04’ East Longitude. Uttarkashi from the North, Rudraprayag from theEast, PauriGarhwal from the South and Dehradun from the West arebounding the districts. On the western front Yamuna River separates itfrom Jaunsar Pragana of the Dehradun district while Bhagirathi rising fromthe North of Gangotri in the district Uttarkashi touches the district whilenear village Nagun. Total area of the district is 4421sq.kms (Census 1991).The district headquarter is located at New Tehri Town since 1.4.1989,Earlier Narendranagar was the district headquarter. The project areacovered 56 rim area villages of Pratapnagar and Jakhnidhar Block of DistrictTehri Garhwal where researchers from Department of Geography, HNBGarhwal University, Srinagar (Garhwal) conducted a base line survey of56 villages and after than implemented an action research project. Foridentification of development needs of the villages a baseline surveyconducted. Most of villages situated under extreme harsh social, economicand ecological condition and villagers are struggling for their livelihood anddaily sustenance and survivability.

Results and Discussions

Initially, base line Survey of 56 rim area villages of Pratapnagar and

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Jakhnidhar Blocks of Tehri Dam reservoir were conducted in the by theHNB Garhwal University research team involving post graduate studentsof Geography in 2008, to know the impacts of dam reservoir on environment,natural resources and local livelihood. Secondary data from the Tehri damoffice and other Govt. Offices were collected to identify the ground realitiesand needs of the local villagers in general and poor women farmers inparticular. Primary data at household level covering 30% households fromeach village have been collected through using sample survey techniques.Local Panchayat representatives (PRIs), rural Women folks, activists, socialworkers old age people, retired persons from government services and ex-army personal including political leaders such as local MLA’s are alsoapproached to know the local situation and detailed interview also conductedduring the survey. A questionnaire was prepared and the sample surveyconsisted of 2509 households, of which 15% higher income group (>Rs15,000 pm), 25% from medium income group (Rs 5000-15,000), 60% fromvery low income group (<Rs 5000) were covered. On the basis of collectedinformation’s priorities and needs of the local villagers were identified.According to 2011 census total population of 56 villages are about 25,975with 12,216 male and 13,759 female (5,518 Households) among 4,166 SCand 20 ST (from Auzi community). Average literacy rate is 60%.

Followings are the Major Issues Identified through Base LineSurvey

1. It is generally accepted fact that environmental degradation, major landuse change, infrastructure and essential services like roads, bridges,finance, market, health and education were adversely affected and thewhole geography of the area entirely changed due to the constructionof Tehri dam.

2. Geologically and tectonically this area is unstable and therefore onecan see that there are continuous heavy landslides surrounding thereservoir. Survey team observed that the Houses in the villages andsupporting walls locally known as Guthiyara and Agricultural fieldsare fractured and there is continuous threat of any major disaster inthis area and local villagers are living in high risk.

3. Widespread crop damage by wild animals (wild boars, monkeys,porcupines, and other herbivores) was attributed to huge agriculturaldegradation in the villages and there is a heavy out migration from thevillages.

4. Because of the erosion in basic livelihood opportunities (agriculture,

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horticulture, animal husbandry) large scale out-migration from thevillages are common. Every year 5 to 6 households from the villagesare migrating to New Tehri Town, Rishikesh, Dehradun and other cities.

5. Most of the land in the villages are not in good quality (Upraon) andcan be termed as wasteland and the area under wasteland threatens toincrease because of continuous heavy out – migration by the villagersand abandoning of their lands.

6. The Vegetative cover (mix forest and pasture land) in the villages aredecreasing rapidly.

7. It is noticed poor convergence of Govt. schemes and local villagers arenot getting any benefit from the Govt. schemes even they are not awareabout the present schemes.

8. It was also witnessed geo-environmentally many local streams(Gaads, Gadheras) of this area are facing heavy erosion (i.e.,denudation hills, sites of debris flow, gullies, landslide prone area etc.)they are extreme vulnerable for flood hazards due to high rate ofrunoff, sediment load delivery and denudation during rainy season andalso contribute silt load of the dam reservoir.

9. The medical facilities are not available within range of villages. Thereare number of death cases recorded since last decade due to absent ofmedical services.

10. Around 80% of women in the villages believed that they have to travellonger distances to fetch fodder – the burden of fetching fuel and fodderfalls solely on women. Similarly, drinking water has to be carried fromthe nearest springs (some of which are drying up) or someone has towait in a queue of 2–3 (or more) hours at the tap, another responsibilitiesalso adding to the heavy work load on local women.

11. In the villages, the average monthly income of people in the poorestcategory is INR 2000(approximately USD 30).

12. There is lack of data availability and the assessment of natural resourcesof this area.

After the need assessment of the area following priorities wereidentified

Priority1 Human Resource Development: Strengthening of Communitybased organizations (CBOs), SHGs, Farmer’s associations, Youth

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mobilization through career concealing, vocational and skill development,tailoring and computer education. ANM/GNM and Hotel managementtraining to unemployed youth, establishment of placement cells in the schoolsand colleges, Orientation of marginal farmers and Panchayat representatives,Establishment of women resource centers, quality education centers andhealth centers etc.

Priority 2 Promotion of Agriculture: Spices cultivation, vegetablecultivation, Oregano or herbs cultivation, solar fencing to control Cropdamage from Wild life, Improving agricultural techniques in farming, womenfarmer’s access to control over land, introduction of Climate resilientagriculture practices, Seed Bank, Farmers field schools, develop value chain,access to local market ,improvement in traditional agriculture practices,value chain, Tissue culture.

Priority 3 Reduce Drudgery and Stress among Women: throughreducing workload, fodder grass plantation, installation of vermin compostpits, technological interventions, energy saving smokeless chullahas andspring shed development, installation of Poly house and seed farmers .

Priority 4 Income Generation and Livelihood Promotion – Enhanceincome through Nursery raising, micro enterprise livelihood such as poultryfarming , Beekeeping, Goatry, mushroom cultivation, Bari- paapri making,nursery & poly house, Fruits and floriculture and vegetable cultivation.

Priority 5 Enhancement of Health and Hygiene Facilities in theVillages: 100% toilets availability in each and every village, drinking waterfacility, mobile ambulance services with medical doctor and supporting staff,strengthen of existing Govt. Hospitals, and ANM centers.

Priority 6 Stream (Gaad-Gadhera) Conservation: Slope Stabilizationand catchment area treatment through water recharge pits, check dams,gabion structures, Chal-khal ,embankment treatment, trenches, diversiondrains, energy plantation and intensive spring shed development.

Priority 7 Convergence of Govt. Schemes : Advocate betterimplementation of government schemes in the villages at Block Districtand State even at centre level – MNREGA, ATMA, Horticulture mission,food security, watershed development, Skill Development etc.

Priority 8 Natural Resource Management: Fodder, fuel, timber,medicinal, fruit plantation as an individual and common orchard in the villages,fruits nursery and tissue culture laboratory, development of fruit Graam,Graam Van, Fodder and seed Banks in each village .

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Priority 09 Animal Husbandry and Establishment of Mini Dairies-establishment of diaries by group of women farmers, Strengthen of existingGovt. support centers of animal husbandry in Pratapnagar and JakhnidharBlock , Cold storage for marketing milk, Goatry at large scale, Gaumutracollection and Gau- Savandhran .

Priority 10 Establishment of Eco - Village to attract Foreign as wellas Indian Tourists and pilgrims: There are huge potential of eco-tourism at DhungManadar, KhaitParvat, UpliRamoli, Sem-mukhem,Pratapnagar, Dharkot, MadanNegi, Motna, Kangshali, Kathuli, Jalwalgaonarea and local livelihood promotion and home stay can be stated for incomegeneration etc.

Priority 11 Infrastructure Development: Development of basic civicamenities such as Bridges, Roads, Electrifications and improvement ofCommon property resources.

The major Livelihood Promotion and Natural ResourceManagement Programmes Stated at Grass root Level:

a) Community Mobilization and Women Institutional DevelopmentPromotion of 60 Farmer’s Self Help Groups (FSHGs) and 36 MahilaMangal Dals (MMDs)

The basic concept behind this is to prepare a common platform forthe women farmers by which they can work collectively, share knowledge& can take maximum benefits. FSHG’s and MMD’s are small informalgroup of the poor women farmers created at the village level for thepurpose of enabling members to reap economic benefits out of mutual helpsolitarily and joint responsibility. Total 60 Self help farmers groups formedin 56 rim area villages with 876 members. Total 36 MMD’s are alsofunctioning in 36 villages. Women are given priority while forming communitygroups and at present 98% members of FSHG are women and 2% men.Out of total 64% are BPL & 36% are APL category. There are 96 activewomen groups in the project area with 1712 members.

Major achievement of these 96 women groups (60FSHG’s and 36MMD’s) are that currently they have deposited total fund of Rs. approx.54,00000/- (fifty four Lack Rs) in local banks after SEWA-THDC andHNBGU intervention and women of this area are now in leadership positionand developing linkage with market for selling their production . Now, HNBUniversity project team planning to provide scientific knowledge to thewomen groups on production, value addition techniques, advice them formarketing management for further enhancement in their incomes.

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Achievement

Formation of FSHG & MMD provides opportunity to develop economicleadership among rural women.

This is a strong women forum where women can share their happinessand sorrow.

Women institutions are now engaged with lot of resource conservationactivities and recreational activities.

Women also raise different social, economical issues which affect theirlives.

b) Income Generation and Non- Farm Livelihood PromotionActivities

In the rim area villages, the major goal of the project was ensuring economicsecurity and livelihoods of rural poor through strengthening and promotingincome at household level. As an average monthly income of vulnerablecategory is only Rs 2,069 (approximately USD 30). The primary source oflivelihood is agriculture and food availability is only upto 6 - 7 months mostlyfarmers have small landholdings. To enable women farmers to have theirown income source we initiate following livelihood activities afterconsultation with each and every beneficiary. Despite the limited resourceslocal villagers finalize following non -farm livelihoods activities:

1. Goatry : Realizing the importance of goat in the agrarian economy,Goatry was introduced among 124 poor farmers and the 248 localbreed goats were distributed from they earn total of Rs. approx.26,00000/- (Rs. Twenty six lack) through this activity. It is a multifunctional livelihood activity and plays a significant role in the economyand nutrition of landless, small and marginal farmers. There are verylow risks in Goatry and goats can efficiently survive on available shrubsand trees in adverse harsh environment, in low fertility lands where noother crop can be grown. Villages of Pratapnagar and Jakhnidhar blockprovide suitable conditions for Goatry promotion due to lots ofuncultivated land and shrubs.

2. Bee Keeping: -Total 42 women beneficiaries selected for bee keepingand ATI, Okhimath was approached for training to the farmers. Hands-on training was provided to 41 local farmers at village Daangi, Ghansali,Tehri where SEWA - THDC officials also participated. 02 ReadymadeBee boxes provided to each beneficiary. Women farmers of this activityearn average Rs. 950/- each in one crop season to sell honey in local

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market but the benefit was very low and there was high risk inbeekeeping since big local ant damage bees so, later the activity wasnot extended in the villages.

3. Poultry: Poultry farming was introduced in 21 villages specially thosewho are landless or marginal. Initially, HNB University hired a consultantand 125 villagers from weaker section were trained in poultry farming.Total 51 households were finally selected for poultry and 1732 highbreed Kroylar chicks were distributed. Each farmer earns Rs. 3000 to4000 Rs. in a one year. Apart from this, 04 youths establish commercialunits in Kathuli, Paturi and Pariya village and supplying chicken at localmarket madannegi, Bhengi and Dharkot.

4. Mushroom Cultivation: - Initially, 10Households selected from UpliRamoli Patti for this activity and expert from Krishi Vigyan Kendra(KVK), Ranichauri provide trining to the farmers. Later they wereselected for commissioning mushroom production units. it is still inprogress and hopefully farmers will achieve their goal. Mushroomcultivation is introduced first time in these remote villages at UpliRamoliarea HNB team closely monitoring its progress.

5. Establishment of Cottage industry as a new entrepreneurship:Sri Sukhdev Singh was an unemployed youth from Kathuli village andready to move outside from village to search job opportunity. Mr.Sukhdev Singh install cottage industry of grinding food grain at Kathulivillage and till now total 47 Quintal grain (wheat) has grinded and heearn Rs 13,782 in three months of time from this mill. It can be multiplywith other unemployed youth.

c) Promotion of Agriculture, Commercial Farming (Oregano),Vegetable Cultivation Oregano Farming: The agriculture is the primarysource of income of the targeted villages. In recent decades it was observethat due to scattered and small landholdings, crop damage by wild animalsand low productivity of agriculture lands does not support rural livelihood oflocals. A small oregano production zone was developed in Kathuli and Pariyavillage. Oregano is a European herb and marketed to Europe through flexfood industry, Lalltappar, Rishikesh. Local farmers were facing problembecause of crop damage by wildlife but wildlife do not touch oregano herbbecause of its smell, so it was successfully cultivated in local condition andthis innovation also provide safety net to the local farmers. Presently, 82farmers have adapted this new innovative crop and technical support wasprovided by HNBGU and Flex food industry jointly. First time, commercial

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crop production was introduced in this area. Direct market linkage withFlex Food Company was developed. Currently, farmers earning cash incomeof Rs. 35,000 to 40,000/-per year through Oregano herb cultivation.

Vegetable & Spices Cultivation: In order to promote vegetable cultivationamong farmers, strategy was planned out. Exposure visit was organized atKrishiVigyan Kendra (KVK) Ranichauri, Tehri for the farmers for sowingtechniques, grading, seeds treatment etc. HNBGU organized field trainingto equip farmers with the knowledge of production planning and distributed1581 Kg of high quality seeds which was procured from GB Pant agriculturalUniversity, Pantnagar. Total 2714 local farmers were covered under thisactivity and they are now adopting vegetable cultivation and earning Rs.4,000/- to Rs. 5,000/- before rainy season & Rs. 5000/- to Rs. 7000/- afterrainy season as an average cash income to sell vegetables in local marketbesides using vegetable for their own family. Some of the farmers likeSaunla Devi (Pariya village), Meena Devi (Kathuli), Bindradevi(Jalwalgaon), Urmila Devi (Gandoli village), Laxmi Devi (Chanthi village),Dilla Devi (Koldhar) and Rajni Devi, Beena Devi (Kangshali Village) areearning above than Rs. 30,000/- per annum from selling vegetable to localmarket. Through this activity farmers are exchanging seeds and continuouslyexpanding the area of vegetable cultivation in the villages. It is noticed thatthere are continuous demand of seeds of Potato, Onion, Garlic, Ginger,Cucumber, Gourd, Brinjal, Tomato, French bean, Capsicum, Chilly, Radish,Turnip, Meethi. Turmeric quality seed of 381 Kgs was also distributed among155 women farmers ensuring farmers will return seeds to HNBGU so thatit can further distribute to other local needy farmers to multiply the seedsand expand the area of cultivation of organic turmeric. Market promotionfor the turmeric is still in process and we are looking forward to link thisproduct with Mandies.

Promotion and Marketing of Traditional Organic Produce such asHigh Nutritious Pahari

Anaaz: We observe that due to suffer from low incomes, lack ofemployment opportunities, villagers are migrating from villages and malemigration is particularly predominant in the Pratapnagar area. Lack ofinterest in agriculture, lack of basic facilities and better prospects in thevillages every year 5% to 7% households are migrating from outside thevillage. We have taken this as a challenge and the strategy was developedfor the selling local produce to develop income opportunities and betterlivelihood at doorstep. The farmers were encouraged for cultivation oftraditional products like Jhangora, Koda, Gahath, Urad&Jakhya. For

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marketing a collection centre at kandakhaal, Pratapnagar was establishedand Gahath, Urd, Tor, Jhangora and Rajma were collected and packed atcollection centre. Total 249 poor farmers mostly small and marginal farmerswere benefitted and earn Rs. 1, 80,529/- in a one season to sell traditionalcrops with the help of HNBGU and SEWA team. Market promotion wasdone by HNBGU and 20 farmer groups of the area collected 250 quintalof organic grain of Jhangora, Kodo, high protein pulses Gahath, Urad andTor including Jakhya and it was marketed at Srinagar town and THDCoffice Rishikesh.

d) Reduce Drudgery and Stress among Women

It is increasingly recognized that there are heavy out migration ofmail population from mountain villages and it leads to a feminization ofvillage economy, women responsible for most economic activities as wellas for their livelihoods. Due to heavy resource depletion this poseschallenges and women are facing drudgery and stress because ofsubstantially increasing heavy workload in a new social setting. After fieldverifications, a women travel 230 Km. in a month to collect fuel and fodderand some time she work 18 hours in a day. Considering the heavy workload on women in the rim area villages a strategy was developed for reducingworkload of women through fodder grass plantation in nearby houses,technology demonstration of nursery raising, installation of vermin compostpits for promoting organic farming and reduce head load of women, installationof Poly houses and water storage tanks and other capacity building effortson women development.

1. Nursery Raising – Nursery raising is an important and involves raisingof seedlings to promote plantation over an area of land where the foresthas been amended or damaged. For increasing forest coverage in thevillages it was felt that there is a need to increase the level of awarenessamong the women in the development and rehabilitation of waste landsin a sustainable manner through participation in tree plantation activityand for this 02 local nursery was established to supply plants in localconditions. The two multiple species nurseries of healthy local nativeplant stock (medicinal plants, fodder and fuel plants) atBhuniyara Villagewith capacity of 5,510 variety of different plants and one in Govt.Degree college Agrora with 7,550 fodder, fuel and energy plants wereestablished. It was totally managed by local women group. Womengroup of Bhauniyara and Bangdwara earn Rs. 52,000/- from the nurseryafter selling the plants in MNREGA and village Panchayats. Overalloutput of this activity was environment conservation and income

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generation; it also gives double benefit in general and women inparticular.

2. Vermin Composting to Promote Organic Farming and Reducework Load of Women - Vermi composting is a simple biotechnologicalprocess of composting, in which certain species of earthworms areused to enhance the process of waste conversion and produce a betterend product.

Achievement: Total 250 vermin composts are installed in the 29villages. The approximated 1500 quintal fine manure was produced insix months duration. Due to increasing head load of women in agriculturethe share of women in agriculture is continuing falling in the villagesand many women are migrating permanently to the towns with theirhusband and family. Furthermore, the most vulnerable women familiesare still residing in the villages to survive in deprived conditions withheavy workload, living off community resources and small amount ofoff farm work. To increase agricultural productivity and living conditionof such women families this activity was introduced and it was recordedthat agriculture productivity of 3% to 5% was increased of such familieswhich give them food security who adapted this technology. It alsoreduced 03 to 04 quintal of head load of women in a one crop season.

3. Installation of Poly House & Poly Tunnels to Promote Seedlingsand Climate Resilient Agriculture:

The low cost poly houses are introduced among farmers to protectthe vegetables from the climatic changes & wild animals. The major benefitof the poly house is that it increases in production capacity of the crop byreducing time period. And if the weather support, one can get production 4to 5 times in a year from a poly house. It also gives uniformity in plantgrowth with good vigor.

Total two poly houses (Kathuli and Kangsali village) and one polytunnel at Jalwal Gaon Talla village was successfully installed and threefarmers benefitted by this activity. Three potential farmers Vijay SinghPanwar from Kathuli, Beena Devi from Kangshali and Bindra Devi fromJalwalGaonTalla of this area are earning more than Rs. 13,000/- each inone vegetable season for selling seedlings to other local farmers. Womenare perusing to install individual poly houses in Pariya, Kathuli, Koldhar,Motna, Sarpul, Kotchunri villages. It is an initiative of SEWA - THDC andHNBGU towards professional farming preferring household specializationin certain cultivation techniques in control environment for relatively in largeincome generation.

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4. High Protein Fodder Grass Plantation: Animal is a crucial link inmaintaining the eco-system. Animal husbandry and agriculture isinterlinked with each other. It provides cash income to local people.There is traditional pattern of animal husbandry is prevailing in all therim area villages and women are facing fodder crises and travel longdistances to collect fodder from the forest. The major villages are facinglack of fodder and low quality of animal breeds .Many villages arefacing fodder scarcity since long and women are losing interest in animalhusbandry. HNBGu first identified the potential villages for fodderpromotion and introduced high protein Napier fodder grass and planted71,700 slips covering 450 women farmers. Therefore, fodderdevelopment provide an opportunity to women and community as awhole to improve animal husbandry as a new alternative livelihoodresource. Napier grass is a green fodder which gradually increase milkproduction and reduce vulnerability and stress of women and it alsohelped women to diversify their livelihoods. Some of the womenhouseholds are selling Napier fodder slips to other households to nearbyvillages.

5. Household Water Storage Tank of Capacity 3000 Ltr : The areaface acute problem of water and decreases of water storage such asfresh water which is limited expected to affect lives of human as wellas animals in the villages. It is an accepted fact that where there arewater scarcity probability of more poverty, inequality, insecurity andwomen drudgery will be very high. The water crises areas are alwaysconflict prone regions. Keeping in mind these facts SEWA - THDCand HBGU install 100 low cost water storage tanks at house hold levelwith capacity of 3000 Ltr. storage capacity to conserve fresh waterand reduce workload of women and save her time from struggling forwater. Considering the other benefits of stored water it also scales upvegetable cultivation and animal husbandry.

Achievement: 100 water storage Tanks has been installed in 20 rim areavillages with the capacity of 3000 Liter water storage by each tank. Total3,00,000 liter water stored at a time in the villages. They used it during leanseason for irrigation, animals and for domestic purpose. If we comparethis work with economical term, the outcomes can be defined as ancontributing in ecosystem services in terms of Rs. 60 Lack (market rate of01 Ltr. of Mineral water bottle approx. Rs. 20/- per bottle so we achieveto storage 3 lack Ltr. of fresh water. It also supports the central GovernmentIntegrated water resource management programme

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6.Afforestation and Fruit Plantation through Community Participation

The villagers are suffering from human induced biodiversity loss inPratapnagar and Jakhnidhar area. The rich ecosystem is heavily degradeddue to lacking of conservational activities. Firewood extraction is animportant factor for deforestation of this area as wood is the most important,and often the only energy source for a large part of rural population. It isthe women’s and children’s responsibility to provide for the firewood demandof the families. Daily consumptions of about 18 Kg. per family, an estimated65 quintal firewood requirement of per family from fresh plant material areextracted every year from the villages. A clear over exploitation can beobserved in the villages and human pressure here overstrains ng the availablenatural resource. Completely depleted areas around the villages can befound. Therefore, afforestation activities were initiatedin 21 most affectedvillages. The total plantation of 82,037 different species plants (i.e. 75830are mix plants & 7207 are fruit plants) with 68% success rate weredone in the rim area villages with involvement of local villagers and panchayatheads. Plantation of Mulberry, Kachnar, Bamboo, Kathal, Sisam, Amla,Oak, Harera, Bahera, Dekan, Deaho, Tun, Subabool, Reetha, Jamun, Chulu,Padam was done in the villages following cluster approach. Besides, Fruitplantation was also done and Total 7,207 fruit plants was provided athose hold level mainly Mango, Guava, Apricot, Almond, Jamun, Litchi, Bel,Pomegranate, Kathal, Bel and Lemon. The entire plantation work is strictlymonitored and Panchayat representatives were involved at every step. Inthe long run, results can be achieved and local communities can manageecosystem as well as economic services which help them to conserve thefragile environment and enhance their income.

e) Stream Conservation

Maintaining the integrity of mountain ecosystems is vital for thewell - being of current and future generations. Yet, Mountains have lowresilience and high vulnerability, and are therefore under serious threat fromdrying springs and streams on which local people depends, soil degradation,siltation and environmental change. The maintenance and restoration ofmountain ecosystem requires long term micro level stream conservationapproach. SEWA -THDC and HNBGU has initiate a project on rejuvenatingof drying streams and springs through environment friendly engineeringtested water recharge techniques which recharge ground water, controlfloods, check sedimentation&provide regular water supply for consumptionand for irrigation purposes to the local villagers. The growing demand ofwater in the villages we targeted two streams initially in Pratapnagar block

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one was Kangshali Gad covers an area of 8.71 km2 and the elevationvaries from 960 to 2000 m above mean sea level (MSL) and other one wasBaseli Gad covers an area of 5.63 km square.

The subsequent soil and water conservation work has been startedaims to reduce soil runoff, siltation rate Recharging natural springs andstreams and protect water resource which is one of the important part forthe villagers and their survival. Recharge Pits of 500 nos. with artificialrecharge* capacity of 672 cubic meter, Diversion Drain of 2102 runningmeter with covering area of 630.60 M3 in Kangsali and Baseli Gad wasconstructed through involvement of local villagers. Total 1205.90 runningmeter Trenches** with carrying capacity of 1431.54 cubic meter waterand 06 Chal - Khal in order to manage rain water and soil runoff ofcovering total area of 5235 cubic meter with water recharge capacity wasthe major achievement of this activity. Initiating this activity ultimatelyimproves water conditions of local springs check sedimentation and provideslong term recharge capacity to the local streams like, kangshaliDhara,BaseliDhara and other three local small springs to increase the fresh watercapacity. It also provides 750 man day’s employment to the local villagers.A bund constructed out of stone across the stream is called as stone wall orcheck dam. It is adopted where the water velocity is very high and wherebasically stone of radius 100-150 mm is available. It helps in control oferosion by reducing the slope of the cultivated land & increasing theinfiltration of rainwater. In order to revival of lost ecosystem of KangshaliGad and Baseli Gad some loss is recovered.

Artificial recharge to ground water is a process by which the groundwater reservoir is augmented at a rate exceeding that obtaining under naturalconditions of replenishment. Any man-made scheme or facility that addswater to an aquifer may be considered to be an artificial recharge system.In areas where other sources of water is not available, rain water can betapped for artificial recharge.

Trenches are any form of depression or micro pit constructed overthe land surface in order to prevent soil erosion and to absorb rainwater innon arable lands. Trenches are constructed along the contours (calledcontour trenches) on hill slopes above 15% with vegetative supports forforestry and horticulture land uses. Contour trenches are used both on hillslopes as well as on degraded and barren waste lands for soil and moistureconservation and aforestation purposes. The trenches break the slope andreduce the velocity of surface runoff. It can be used in all slopes irrespectiveof rainfall conditions (i.e. in both high and low rainfall conditions), varying

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soil properties. For vegetative support forage grasses as well as economictrees can be planted. Periodical maintenance by way of unearthing of thetrenches and depositing on the downhill side ought to be given due attentionby the beneficiaries themselves.

f) Convergence of Govt. Schemes

The various Community mobilization programmes were organizedat village level & block level in which the information’s about variousgovernment schemes were imparted to local communities. women farmerswere informed about provisions of technical support available for setting upof poly houses, construction of guls ,soil testing availability of mini organicfertilizer kits, NADEP and vermin-compost; subsidies on power tiller,thresher, chaff cutter, weeders; guidelines of installation of fish pond, honeybees and poultry through different Govt. Schemes. RKVY, ATMA,Horticulture mission, and other Govt schemes were described briefly inseveral meetings. A large number of women farmers participated in themeeting and shows there interest in procuring Govt. Schemes.

The participants were also informed about the schemes like rooftoprainwater harvesting, watershed management, poultry farming etc. Total1500 active farmers were linked with Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Ranichauri toprovide daily weather reports and farmer services on day to day bases.Approx. 1500 farmers of this area are closely linked with Kisan SoochnaSewa SMS services by KVK. It is assumed that at least 15% of localvillagers are benefitted through awareness generation and approached toBlock level officials for the schemes.

g) Vocational Training (Tailoring) to Women and Girl and CapacityBuilding

1. Tailoring : Total 15 women from Bhuniyana and Pachri village and 31women from Badeel and Kathuli village were benefited from tailoringtraining .This is a continue process and now the tailoring centre hasbeen shifted to Rindol village where 35 women are currently registeredfor training.

2. Farmers Exposure : Time to timeexposure visit were also organizeto the farmers for sensitizing them and providing scientific knowledgeon modern agriculture techniques, seed treatment commercial cropping,networking groups, production techniques, value addition, marketingand how to get good price of their product. 40 farmers from differentvillages visit to KrishiVigyanKendra(KVK) Ranichauri and intractwithDr. LaxmiRawat ,Assisatant Professor, Plant Pathology,Dr.

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TejpalBisht - SMS (Horticulture), Dr. R.K. Biglwan, Plant Pathology,Dr. Neelam Research Personel, Plant Pathology, KVK, Ranichauri,Chamba, T.G.

h) Overall Outcome: As always, credit for the outcome of the programmegoes to SEWA - THDC without their support and input this partnershipwork would not have been possible. More specifically, throughout themountain region women are intimately connected to local resources fortheir livelihoods. Mountain livelihood systems have long been perceived astraditional, stable, backward and subsistence driven. After partnershipintervention of SEWA - THDC and HNBGU at 56 rim area villages ofTehri dam reservoir of Pratapnagar area since 2009, we are directly workingwith approx. 2500 small and marginal women farmers (households). Tosupport the poor women and promote saving habits and to increase accessto financial services to improve their household income, we also develop 96predominantly women institutions where 1,712 women are the activemembers of farmers self help group and MMD’s and they have a corpusfund of Rs. 54,00,000/-(Fifty four Lack Rs) at a time in local banks forfacilitating needy members. In order to check household migration fromthe target villages our partnership focus on promotion of income generationactivities based on farm and non - farm activities. Under this process , atleast 570 women households earn average cash income of Rs 16,000/-(Sixteen thousand), in a year through growing vegetables, Oregano, non-farm activities like goatry which provide her a base to stay in the villages.

The most marked achievement of partnership intervention is thatwe check at least 2% of migration through improving livelihood opportunityfrom those villages where we are working.Level of awareness has increasedand now more women farmers are using improved seeds, demanding newtechnology on farm practices and diversified livelihood options. As discussedearlier in base line survey Community forest of the villages is shrubdominated like lantana, parthenium, which is useless for local people. It isunable to fulfill fodder needs so we introduce fodder and fuel nursery raisingactivity, planting of high protein Napier fodder grass and individual fruitplantation with the objective of better understanding the link between socio- economic development of people and improving bio-physical diversity ofthis region. Initiating stream conservation in Pratapnagar area we targetedtwo streams of kangshali and Baseli to involve adjacent villagers forspring shed and food shed development through engineering measures andrejuvenate two springs, check soil erosion and reduce silt load of reservoir.By improving the fodder quality, water storage capacity of households wealso contribute towards reduce women drudgery and also achieve Govt. of

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India goals for sustainable Development, environment conservation, womenempowerment and improvement of income and livelihood security of localcommunity . As a part of vocational training total 46 women were trained intailoring and processing & marketing of traditional local grain. Local villagersalso find possibility to get benefit from Govt. Schemes and they approachedto Block office and Gram Pradhan to address their needs and demands.Several education and health related activities also introduced and total 657villagers were examined and provided medical support including medicinesin their doorstep through specialized Doctors and 1,021 students fromdifferent inter colleges were encouraged to choose better career andprospects through organizing counseling by the experts of the University.After this work we are looking forward to strengthen our partnershipbetween local villagers and SEWA - THDC.

Conclusion

This is a first action oriented project started by the academic institutions inIndia where specific indicators were developed and the results achievedafter completion was tested with baseline survey. A system was developedof review and sharing outcomes with stakeholders and tried to place greateremphasis on knowledge management for development action. The majorproject has targeted the poor and the women first its livelihoods enhancementinterventions.In India, women own less than 2 % of agricultural land, whichdebars her from accessing government schemes and institutional credit.Further, design of agricultural programmes and trainings are biased towardsmale members and rarely takes needs and concerns of women in accountduring formulating agriculture policy and programmes which limits womenfarmers’ scope of knowledge up gradation and skill enhancement. In ruralUttarakhand, women are contributing up to 90 per cent of the total work inagriculture and animal care. The participation rate of women in the economyof the state is much higher than several states and also the national average.Women constitute 90 percent of the agricultural workforce and thispercentage is increasing every year. It is also well known fact that womenare having significant role in agriculture but still their contribution isunrecognized, unrewarded and unacknowledged in Uttarakhand. Despiteplaying extensive role in agriculture, women are most often not recognizedas farmers. Contribution of women farmers remain neglected at all thelevels including family, social, economy and political level. Apart from that,a woman farmer has largely been marginalized as far as the recognition totheir contribution in agriculture is concerned. Women play a crucial role inagricultural development and allied fields, including crop production, livestock,horticulture, post-harvest operations, etc. The women in the Uttarakhand

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devote as much as 62.17 per cent of time for outdoor activities, 21.11 percent for indoor activities and 8.72 per cent for recreational activities. Itsays that a woman usually works for 16.49 hours on a daily basis, and workUttarakhand hilly regions, therefore the impact is causing burdens on thewomen with pressing workload and increased stress level.

The poor women were targeted through non-farm activities and itwas designed in a manner that the poorest women should be benefited onpriority bases. The process followed targeting the poor women with minienterprise through providing seed money. After organizing women intoproducer or self help groups they were motivated and willing to take - updiversified livelihood activities such as oregano cultivation, cash transactionactivities ,income generation and soil and water conservation activities andsome of poor women own land and livestock, control money participatedon an equal basis with their men. Women of this region are able to formfemale group which worked as security networks. Apart from this, throughpromoting women organizations at village level their participation in thedevelopment of mountain agriculture has increased tremendously. Whileintroducing drudgery –reducing technologies for mountain women‘s andincorporating the indigenous knowledge of local women in sustainabledevelopment activities reflect gain more insight into over all developmentof mountain women. It is important to assess the mountain women basedpractical and strategic needs and incorporate pro women policies andoperational programmes and their concerns and to draw an action plan atmicro level for implementation. Than only can be achieved gender balanceddevelopment.

References:FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations) (2007)”Adaptation to

climate Change in Agriculture, Forestry and fisheries: Perspective frame work andpriorities”, Report of the Interdepartmental Committee on Climate Change, ftp:// fao.org/docrep.fao/009/ j 927 le / j 927 le . pdf (accessed on 23rd July 2015)

Ramanjaneyulu, G.V. and Rao, Rukmini V. (2008) “Sustaining Agriculture- BasedLivelihoods: Experiences of Andhra Pradesh”, Development, 51(4) : 541 -46.

Teli. B.L. (1994). “Environment, People and Land in the Himalaya, Problems and Planningin the Himalayan Heritage & Environment”, Purohit, K.C. (ed.), Bishen Singh &Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun, pp. 111-134.

Baurai, Himanshu,(2001) ,”Hill Women Strength, Opportunities and Problems in GarhwalHimalaya:, Nature, Culture and Society” , Kandari, O.P and Gusain,O.P(rds.),Transmedia,Srinagar,(Garhwal), pp. 293-306.

Basole, Amit and Basu, Deepankar (2011)” Relation of production and Modes of Surplus

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Extraction in India”: Part I- Agriculture’, Economic and Political Weekly, 46. 41:41-58.

Krishna Raj, M (2007) (Introduction’ in M.Krishna Raj (ed.), Gender,Food Security andRural Livelihoods,Kolkata:Stree:x iii- XX.

Krishna Raj, M and Shah, A. (2004) “Mountain Women in Agriculture”, New Delhi :Academic Foundation,

Planning Commission (2011), Twelfth Plan Working Group on Disadvantaged Farmers,Including Women, New Delhi: Planning commission.

ICIMOD, (2006), “Report on Sustainable Mountain Development: “Traditional MountainHabitat and Women Institutions, Published report, ISSN 1013-7386.

Singh B, and Gupta, C. (1992) “Land, Vegetation and Water resources of Uttaranchal”.On watershed and District Bases with special reference to land use pattern, Landsurvey Directorate, Forest Department, Uttara Pradesh State, Dehradun, India.

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