Cleminson, Ronald W.; And Others Guidelines and ...MSS Informatiou Corporation, 655 Madison Avenue,...

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Cleminson, Ronald W.; And OthersGuidelines and Competencies for Elementary ScienceEducation: A Course Module.MSS Information Corp., New York, N.Y.7488p.MSS Informatiou Corporation, 655 Madison Avenue, NewYork, New York 10021 ($3.75, 20 percent discount inorders of $200.00 or more)

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.76 BC-$4.43 PLUS POSTAGEDESCRIPTORS Curriculum; Elementary Education; *Performance Based

Teacher. Education; *Performance Criteria; *ScienceInstruction; *Teacher Education; *Teaching Skills

ABSTRACTThis three-part document contains a set of

competencies for elementary science teachers. The objectives statethe level of competency expected and suggest how it may be achieved.The first section, "Process-Inquiry-Skills," discusses competenciesfundamental for elementary teachers ana children. The second section,"Instructional Skills," is designed to help teachers develop skillsin planning for and teaching elementary school science by the inquiryapproach. The third section, "Interest and Research/CurriculumKnowledge," provides the background in science education necessary tosupport this approach to teaching and to nurture an interest inscience. Instructions for completing each competency are contained ina module. Students are responsible for selecting activities ormethods included in the modular framework to complete each competencysatisfactorily. (Authors/JS)

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GUIDELINESANDCOMPETENCIESFORELEMENTARYSCIENCEEDUCATION

A Course Module

ByRonald W. CleminsonNelle E. MoorePaul L. JonesMemphis State University

'PERAuSS.ON TO REPRODUCE THIS COPY,FLOWED MAT RI L HA EEN GRANTED BY

TO ERIC AND ORGA IZADONS OPERATINGUNDER AGREEMENTS KITH THE NATIONAL IN.STITUTE OF EDUCATION fl.RTHER HEMEOUCTION OUTSIDE THE ERIC SYSTEM RE-QUIRES PERIAASSION OF THE COPYRIGHTOWNER

MSS Information Corporation655 Madison Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10021

CONTENTS

Preface 5Introduction 7

GUIDELINE A: Process-Inquiry Skills 9Al Observing and Inferring 11A2 Classifying 25A3 Measuring 29A=1 Recognizing and Controlling Variables 36A5 Organizing Data 43A6 Hypothesizing 52A7 Replicating 59

GUIDELINE B: Instructional Skills 61B1 Identifying and Classifying Measurable Performance

Objectives 63B2 Comprehending the Basic Principles of Inquiry (Discovery)

Teaching 69B3 Designing and Constructing an Inquiry Activity Module 71B4 Teaching by Means of Inquiry or Discovery 74

GUIDELINE C: Interest and Research/Curriculum Knowledge 77Cl Demonstrating Interest '/9C2 Demonstrating Knowledge 81C3 Describing and Comparing Programs 83C4 Analyzing Children's- Responses 90

Bibliography 93

PREFACE

The merging in time of two incidents gave impet-,.:to the development of this volume-- around work for acompetency-based program in the College of Education,Memphis State University, and the publication of the1970 edition of Preservice Science Education of Elemen-tary School Teachers by the American Association forthe Advancement of Science. The earlier edition (1963)had served as the basis for a reorganization of thescience content courses for preservice education ofelementary teachers.

The current AAAS recommendations (1970) furnishedthe actual organizational pattern for t,e guidelinespresented in this volume. The develope-s felt that thespirit of inquiry and emphasis on scientific processescontained in the AAAS guide expressed their own view-point in elementary science education. It seemedappropriate also to turn to another AAAS publication,Science--A Process Approach: Commentary for Teachers,for background information and some explanatory activ-ities in developing the portion of this volume whichdeals with scientific processes.

For three years these guidelines in variousstages of development have served as the basic frame-work for our undergraduate elementary science methodscourse. The feedback provided by our students hasresulted in numerous revisions of the guidelines. Thedevelopers woul; like to thank our students, who havebeen so patient and understanding of us as theystruggled with the earlier versions of these guidelines.

s

GUIDELINES AND COMPETENCIES FORELEMENTARY SCIENCE EDUCATION:

A COURSE MODULE

The following guidelines contain a minimum set ofcompetencies which the instructors believe all elemen-tary science teachers should possess. The objectivesstate the level of competency expected and suggest howthey may be achieved. Instructions for completing eachcompetency are contained in the module.

The module provides students with a framework forachieving each competency. The student is responsiblefor selecting activities and/or methods to completesatisfactorily each competency, as well as maintaininga loose-leaf notebook of his progress in the course.The instructor's role is that of instructional manager-teacher. Students will meet with the instructor indi-vidually and/or in small groups during the academicperiod. Individuals are responsible for schedulingthese meetings with the instructor.

Tie first section, Process-Inquiry Skills (A),contains tne competencies which the instructors believeare fundamental for elementary teachers and children.They are appropriate for students at all levels and pro-vide a basis for deve-oping process-inquiry skills.

The second and third sections deal with Instruc-tional Skills (B) and Interest and Research/CurriculumKnowledge (C), respectively. These sections have beendesigned to help the teacher develop skills in planningfor and teaching elementary school science by the inquiry(discovery) approach (B), and to provide the backgroundknowledge in science education necessary to support thisapproach to teaching, and to nurture an interest inscience (C).

The instructors suggest that the competencies inGuideline A be completed before those in Guideline B.The competencies contained in Guideline C may be com-pleted at any time during the academic period.

GUIDELINE A

PROCESS-INQUIRY SKILLS

The sci,nce experiences for elementary teachersshould develop competence in inquiry skills and proc-esses of scientific inquiry.

A 1 OBSERVING AND INFERRING - The student willdistinguish between observations and infer-ences and will demonstrate his ability tomake reasonable inferences.

A 2 CLASSIFYING The student will construct aclassification scheme for a set of objectswh. 711 differ in three or more ways.

A 3 MEASURING - The student will demonstrate themeasurement of length, mass, force, tempera-ture and volume in arbitrary, English andmetric units.

A 4 IDENTIFYING AND CONTROLLING VARIABLES - Thestudent will be able to identify the varia-bles which affect the results of investiga-tions and describe how and why they are orare not controlled.

A 5 ORGANIZING DATA - The student will collectand organize data and describe the rationalefor the organization (describing, diagramming,tabulating, graphing, etc.).

A 6 HYPOTHESIZING The student will construct ahypothesis, test its validity, and on thebasis of the results obtained from testingeither accept the hypothesis or reject andmodify it.

A 7 REPLICATING - The student will replicate anexperiment and compare the results obtainedwith those in the original experimentation.

SELF - EVALUATION - - PROGRESS SCALE

In order to determine your present competency level for process-inquiry skills,

please

read the competencies Al through A6.

Place a "B" in the appropriate column to indicate

your beginning competency level.

At the end of the course, place an "E" in the appropriate column to

indicate the

degree of competency you feel you possess.

This self-evaluation will enable you to

visualize your growth toward the attainment of each competency.

1 have np knowledge of

this competency,

I am tamiliar with the

competency and feel I

have an adequate under-

standing of the concept.

1 fully understand the com-

petency and can utilize and/

or relate it to my science

teaching.

12

34

56

78

9

Al

A2A3

...._

A4AS

A6A7

Al - OBSERVING AND INFERRING

General Competency_

The student will distinguish between observationsand inferences and will demonstrate his ability to makereasonable inferences.

Performance Criteria

Given information and appropriate activities thestudent will:

A1.1 distinguish between observations and Infer-ences.

A1.2 demonstrate his ability to make observationsand reasonable inferences on the basis ofthese observations.

Instructions for Completing Competency

The following instructions provide a recommendedsequence in completing this competency:

i. Read "Observing" and "Inferring."

2. Complete the cartoon series entitled "InferenceCartoons." See the instructor for responsesheet.

3. Arrange with the instructor to completeadditional activities.

4. When you feel you have met the performancecriteria, date and initial the CompetencyCompletion Checklist which the instructor willprovide.

RESTCOPYAVAILABLE

11

Al - NOTES AND COMMENTS FOR OBSERVING AND INFERRING

.... (-)2 Li

12

OBSERVIN-

The process of observing is basic to the develop-ment of all other skills. Observations are fundamentalto any scientific investigation; these observations inturn lead to the construction of inferences or hypo-theses that can be tested by observational techniques.So, observing provides both a basis for new inferencesand hypotheses and a tool for testing existing infer-ences and hypotheses.

In preparing to report any observation, considerthese basic ideas:

1. Observations include more than just seeing.2. Observations should be quantitative whenever

possible.3. Statements of change are important observa-

tions.4. Observations should be separated from infer-

ences.

1. In Science - -A Process Approach, for the processcf oriserving, any one or several or all of the senses--sight, touch, hearing, taste, and smell--may be used.rtbserving rewires that you pick up objects, feel them,nake them, press them, and do all the things which helpyou obtain information about the object. It does notmean visual inspection alone.

2. Quantitative observations (those that tell "howmuch") usually communicate more information than quali-tative observations. Compare these two statements:

"The room was rather large."

"The room was rather large. It measured 9meters by 13 meters."

The second statement tells the exact size of the room;it is more precise. The first statement is open to inter-pretation. rhe listener does not know whether the roomis large enough to be a warehouse or not. Exact measure-ments arc quantitative observations. However, estimationsar comparisons also clarify observations. Speaking of thesame rocm rof,rred to in the above statements you couldsay, "rhe room was about 10 meters by 14 meters," or, "Itwas about the size of an apartment living room." Bothstatements communicate something about "rather large."

13

i. In observing it is important to notice thethings that are changing. Compare characteristics before,during, and atter the change. ObservL the rate of changeand the circumstances under which the change is observed.What happens if heat or a liquid is introduced? How longdoes it take for the change to occur:

4. By observation we mean those characteristicsthat are directly perceived by the senses; an inferenceinvolves an interpretation of direct observations. ForexamplL, we may !-oe a doctor going into the Jones' houseand say, "Mrs. Jones is sick." This is an inference--weobserved the doctor entering the house, we inferred thatMrs. Jonew was sick. Obviously, there are othe.; possibleexplanations for the doctor's visit. For example, itmight have been Mr. ,:ones or one of the children whowas sick....

In conclusion, review these questions when you makeobservations:

1. Have you observed the appearance of the shape,color, number, position, order, and so on?Have you observed any odor or taste or sound?T4.. or shake the object if necessary. Did youfeel the object to determine its weight? Thelack of sound, taste, or odor is important,too, and should be stated.

So, whenever possible, make observations with allyour senses.

2. Have you asked questions like "how much length?"io you use terms like bright, loud, small, tiny,ifig, many, tall, and others without sayingexactly how loud or small or bright?

So, ':.henever possible, state your observations inquantitative terms.

3. Did you compare the object befor, during andafter tne change for similarities and differ-ences: Did you observe the rate of change inappropriate units--seconds, minutes, days, andso on?

tne obect you are observing change: that arcthe cnanges and how do they occur:

4. Did you limit your observations to propertieswhich were perceived by the. senses? Did youask yourself, "Did I really observe that?"tAAS, 1968, pp. 35ft).

14

INFERRING

Nothing is more fundamental to clear and logicalthought than the ability to distinguish between an obser-vation and an inference that is made about an observation.Many pitfalls in logical thinking can be avoided if thisdistinction is continually made and used.

An observation is a personal experience that isobtained through one of the senses. An inference is anexplanation of an 'hservation and results from thinkingabout the observation. The thought process 4s frequentlystrongly conditioned by past experiences, and may take;:lace in a fraction of a second. For example, you may bein your living room and see a bright flash outside thewindow. Almost immediately after the flash you hear aloud crashing noise. In less than a second you maybegin to state your inference, "Lightning struck some-thing not very far away." This inference is an explana-tion of two observations--light and sound. It is basedon past experience with lightning and thunder includingthe knowledge that the time interval between the flashand the sound is a measure of how far away the lightningstruck. Do you suppose that your immediate reactionmight have been to make a different inference about theflash of light and the loud noise if you had been amarine just returned home from Vietnam?

In many cases it is possible to make more than oneinference to explain an observation or set of observa-tions. It is important to remember this. Think howmany times you have "jumped to a conclusion," that is,accepted the first inference you thought of, to explainan observation, only to find out later that your infer-ence was not supported by further observations.

For example, suppose that it is recess. You lookout the window and see David and Neal playing catch withEc softball. You go back to your desk, and in a fewmoments there is a crash of broken glass as a ball goesthrough the window and rolls across the floor. You jumpup, see David and Neal running away, and call throughthe broken window, "David and Neal, come in here thisinstant." In half a minute they appear in your room andyou begin to lecture them about running away from thescene of an accident. Both boys protest that they didnot break the window and David produces the softball thathe has been holding behind his back as evidence that thewindow was not broken by the ball that they had beenplaying with. Only then do you retrieve the ball thatcame through the window from under a desk and find that

r'.

15

it is a golf ball. And there is a golf course just acrossthe street from the schtol. What new inference would youmake based on this further information?

The "hot line" between Washington and Moscow wasconstructed to decrease the chances that either theUnited States or Russia would jump to a conclusion (infer-ence) about some international incident and act toohastily on the basis of that inference.

Magicians carefully cultivate the art of inducingthe audience to jump to a conclusion with one hastyinference to explain an observation. The audience seesthe magician reach into a tall silk hat and "pull-out"a rabbit, a balloon, and several other large objects.They are expected to infer that those objects were inthe hat before the magician "pulled them out."

Scientists cultivate the ability to make at leastone, and frequently more than on<, carefully thought outInference to explain an observation or set of observa-tions.

Central to all scientific investigations are theactivities stated in the objectives. Scientists makeobservations, construct several inferences about eachset of observations, and decide what new observationswould help support the infcrences. They then make thesenew observations to see whether each of the inferencesis an acceptable explanation (AAS, 1968, pp. 145 ff).

16

INFERENCE CARTOONS

Directions: Study the following cartoons and then readthe following questions. Decide which statements areobservations and which statements are inferences.Answer questions on the response sheet provided by theinstructor.

Questions for Cartoon I

The ground is wet.The tricycle has water drops on it.It rained while we were sleeping.Maybe Mother watered the lawn.With what sense was the observation made?Can you decide, from what you are told, who is correct?What will you do to find out?

Questions for Cartoon II

The bike felt wet.Now it is dry.The water evaporated. It went into the air.Mother dried the bike.What kinds of observations were made?

Questions for Cartoon III

hear a noise.I hear clomp, clomp.It must be Dad.It could be the mailman.With what sense was the observation made?

Questions for Cartoon IV

I hear a siren.I hear sounds like fire engines clanging.There must be a fire.No, I think they are in the 4th of July parade.I smell smoke.What kinds of observations were made?

17

INFERENCE CARTOONS (cont.)

Questions for Cartoon V

Look at the pile of dirt.Here is a hole.I can put my foot in the hole.That pile of dirt came from the hole.Mother put the pile of dirt there.A wild animal dug the hole.What kinds of observations were made?Do you know which boy is right?

Questions for Cartoon VI

I am hot.It is hot today.Daddy's wheelbarrow is hot.The metal slide must be too hot to sit on.The slide isn't hot.It is in the shade.With what sense was the observation made?(Adapted from lthAS -SAPA, Part D)

18

Cartoon I

HEY MIKE., TliE GROUNO ISWET, YOuti 'TAtCYCA,E.. OAS WATERDRO P6

ALL OVER IT. %I' MUST HAV6RAINED.

I DID NOT 'Sti.ANY RAIN DIO VoU5E6 IT RAIN, ANDR6WF

ftntt4to WHILE" VJE WOW9LceritIG How ow ToeSIRE Ger WE.T tF r 'LE)

NoT 1:04.1K?

MAYBE MOTHER WI-MEDNUS L ros

19

ZARLY TH11 hoqmimsThe' (3i it a FEI-r wEr

Cartoon II

LE.T ME FEEL TyR611(E. Now TT ;5 DRY.

....e.

THE WATER EVAPosur1g12.IT WENT INTO -rttg

A.

20

OTHER DZig TBike wrrA fl -rowEL.1-bke Wnreg PlO PJOr

EYAPorAtE,

Li

Cartoon III

21

Cartoon IV

22

1

1

Cartoon VI

wove, 1 IX tfOT: to ADDY 's WItEEL8AR0IT s fjoT To oftK FEELS toy

24

A2 - CLASSIFYING

General Competency

The student will construct a classification schemefor a set of objects which differ in three or more ways.

Performance Criterion

Given selected activities or a set of objects thestudent will:

A2.1 construct a classification outline or diagramwhich has three or more attributes.



1. Read commentary entitled "Classifying."

2. Design a classification scheme using suggestedmaterials and construct a classification out-line which contains three or more attributes.

3. Arrange with the instructor to completeadditional activities (if needed).

4. When you feel you have met the performancecriterion (above), date and initial yourCompetency Completion Checklist.

25

A2 - NOTES AND COMMENTS FOR CLASSIFYING

e-

26

CLASSIF1ING

Classifying is the process scientists use to imposesome order on collections of objects or events. Biolo-gists classify organisms P, plants or animals. Che:astsclassify certain substances as acids or bases. Physi-cists classify subatomic paricles by mass, electriccharge, and half-life. Astrolomers classify stars bymagnitude and color. And so cn.

Classification schem's are designed to be usefulfor identifing objects or events. They are also use-ful for showing similarities, differences and inter-rlationships. The chemist's periodic table is a goodexample of this. The Periodic table shows families ofcnonical el(,ments that are related b having similar

procrties even though the individual elementsin each family differ in many other properties such asmolting point and boiling point.

eldSSI::y.ng is d process that is not restricted toscience. We all classify ob,ects and use classificationschem...s every da. Stores arc classified: grocery,drug, hardware, le;artment, automobile supply, and soon. Businessts of man:, types are grouped in the: classi-fied section of the telephone book.

Books in a library arc classified by subject area.mere are t c major classification schemes used in thenit ..d States, the Librar of Congress and the Dewey

D7cira. spstems. The former ;ystem is most useful forlarge librari.s and the latter for small ones. rhis

thre important principles in classifying.,:lassificatirn systems are designed to be useful,classification systems are arbitrar:, and am group ofob:ects cr -:vents ca., b-.! classified morc than one cvm.

D2velo-iing a classification systm is a process in'Anion cf is first divided into two ormore or t'asis of one observable property.

subst ,s further subdivided tne basis of as,::cond elsrvablo pnrerty, and so cr., until individualDi can p- _c..ntified by observing a sufficientnunt,r of

_:.at ars. used in identifl,ihg objectscan L .nt:s an outiine or a diagram. Such an out-lin cali.A a clai,,sification kt1. !:cu may have useda cla-;s1ficat.cn key from a book cn identifying rock,and m.nera,1,, er birds or pants. Man? rroiertie may

27

have to be observed to identify a single object if theset of all objects is large. For example, the classi-fication key in Gray's Manual of Botany lists more thantwenty properties that must be observed to identify aparticular species of holly (AAAS, 1968, pp. 58 ff).

28

A3 - MEASURING

General Competency

The student will demonstrate the measurement oflength, mass, force, temperature and volume in arbi-trary, English, and metric units.


Given the resource booklet (available in the book-store), laboratory equipment, and activities the studentwill:

A3.1 demonstrate his ability to measure length,mass, force, temperature, and volume inarbitrary, English, and metric units.

Instructions for Completing Competencz

The following instructions provide a recom endedsequence in completing this competency:

1. Read "Measuring."

2. Purchase and complete the resource booklet onthe metric system.

3. Arrange with the instructor for measuring equip-ment and for additional activities.

- 4. When you feel you have met the performancecriterion, date and initial you CompetencyCompletion Checklist.

29

A3 NOTES AND COMMENTS FOR MEASURING

.7.117!C.

30

MEASURING

"When you cannot measure it, when you cannot expressit numbers,-you have scarcely, in your thoughts,advanced to the stage of Science, whatever the mattermay be."- Lord Kelvin.

There is much in science that can be learned with-out measuring, and most scientists would agree thatLord Kelvin overstated the case. However, they wouldalso agree that measuring is one of the skills that isessential for most scientific investigations....

Skill in measuring requires not only the abil4y touse many measuring instruments properly, but also tneability to carry out calculations with those measure-ments. In addition, it requires 3udgment about theappropriate instrument to use for making a measurement(a meterstick is more appropriate than a 30-centimeterruler for measuring the length of a room), and aboutwhen approximate measurements can be used instead ofprecise ones.

Thousands of types of measuring instruments areused in scientific investigations. The instrumentsrange from simple ones like a ruler to complex andexpensive ones like a mass spectrometer....

Figure 1 shows how some quantities may be measured.Note that for items 1-8, each measurement is made witha single instrument, and no computations are required.For items 9-11, the measurements are also made with asingle instrument, but a mathematical operation isrequired to obtain the desired measure. Measurementsof this type a:e sometimes called indirect measurements.

Measurements of speed, density, and heat (items12-14 in Figure 1) are examples of derived quantities.Note that to obtain measures of each of these quanti-ties, two measuring instruments are used, and mathemat-ical operations are carried out to obtain the measureof the quantity. The units in which derived quantitiesare expressed may be called derived units. For thederived quantit,..es listed in Figure 1, the derived unitsare: centimeters per second for speed, grams per milli-liter for density, and calories (degrees Celsius permilliliter of water) for heat. Other derived units inthe metric system may be used for each of these quanti-ties. The unit that is appropriate depends on what isbeing measured. The speed of an automobile, for example,

31

Is usually measured in the derived unit kilometers perhour, rather than in centimeters per second.

...Precision refers to the agreement among observedvalues in repeated measurements. Obviously, if you wereto measure the length and width of your classroom byusing a meterstick and were to record your results tothe nearest millimeter, you would likely not record thesame figure each time. You would, however, be able toreport a range of values and could with some confidencesay that the length or width of the room was a certainvalue, plus or minus a certain number of millimeters,depending on your techniques in using your meterstick.she smaller the range the greater is the precision ofyour measurement.

Accuracy, on the other hand, refers to the agree-ment of the observed measurement with the actual or truevalue. Actual or true value might be defined operation-ally as the measurement that is made as carefully aspossible with the best measuring instrument that can bemade. Accuracy is affected both by the care with whicha measuring instrument is used and by the nature of theinstrument. For example, if the scale on your meter-stick was a bit longer or a bit shorter than a meter,Sour measurements would not be accurate, even thoughthey might have high precision. Not only are scientistsinterested in improving the accuracy of their observa-tions, but their ultimate aim is to devise instrumentsand techniques that will decrease the possible errors(precision) and also be as close as possible to thetrue value (accuracy).

It is also important in scientific work to use3udgment in deciding when to measure precisely andaccurately and when to make approximations. An exampleof a situation in which approximate measurements aresatisfactory is found in the exercise, Two Common Gases,Defining Operationally 7, Exercise a, -fart G, ,there atablespoon is an adequate measure of 15 grams of sodiumbicarbonate, and a pile 5 millimeters square on the endof a paste stick is a sufficiently accurate measure of100 milligrams of manganese dioxide.

Skill in measuring also includes the ability toestimate. :he an who guesses :our weight at the car-nival is highly skilled in estimating weights. Mostpeopie do not .levelop much skill in estimating measure-ments. You siouid practice making estimations of length,area, volume, time, mass, and so on....

32

Finally, you can make estimations to increase theaccuracy of measurements. If you are using a thermometerthat is graduated in degrees, and 6f the 8op of theliquid column is midway between 25 or 26 on the scale,you can estimate that the temperature is 25.5°. Assumingthat tilt. scale on the thermometer is properly calibrated--that is, the scale records the true value of tempera-ture--the measurement of 25.50 is more accurate than ameasurement of 25° or 26°. Scientists usually try toestimate to the nearest tenth of the smallest scaledivision of an instrument they are using to make ameasurement. With practice, you should be able to dothis, too (HAAS, 1970, pp. 85-87).

Please note: Figure 1 that follows was also taken fromthe above source.

33

FIGURE 1

Quantity

measured

Measuring

instrument

Operation

performed

Computation

Unit

1.

Length

Ruler

Read scale

centimeter (cm)

2.

Area

Grid

Count squares

square centi-

meter (cm2)

3.

Volume of a

liquid

Graduated

container

Read scale

milliliter (ml)

ie

4.

Angle

Protractor

Read Scale

degree

5.

Temperature

Thermometer

Read scale

degree Celsius

( °C)

6.

Time

Stopwatch

Read scale

second

7.

Force

Spring scale

Read scale

newton (n)

8.

Mass

Equal-arm

balance

Count standard

masses

gram (g)

9.

Area of a

Ruler

Read scale

Multiply length

cm2

rectangle

(by width)

Quantity

measured

Measuring

instrument

FIGURE 1 (contd.)

Operation

performed

Computation

Unit

10. Volume of a

rectangular

prism

11. Volume of an

irregular

solid

12. Speed

13. Density of a

solid

14. Heat

Ruler

Graduated con-

tainer of water

Ruler and stop-

watch

Read scale

Multiply length, cubic centi-

width and height

meter (cm3)

Read scale, put

Subtract initial cubic centi-

object in the water from final scale

meter (cm3)

and read scale again reading

Read scale of

ruler; read scale

of stopwatch

Equal-arm balance

Count standard

and graduated con-

masses; measure

tainer of water

volume as

described in 11

Graduated con-

tainer of water

and thermometer

Read scale of con-

tainer, read scale

of thermometer

before and after

changing the tem-

perature of the

water

Divide distance

cm/sec

traveled by time

elapsed

Divide mass by

g/cm3

volume

Subtract initial calorie

from final tem-

(0C/m1 of

perature, Multi-

water)

ply temperature

change by volume

of water

A4 - RECOGNIZING AND CONTROLLING VARIABLES

General Competency

The student will be able to identify the variableswhich affect the results of investigations and describehow and why they are or are not controlled.


Given descriptions of investigations the studentwill:

A4.1 identify the variables which affect theresults of the investigation.

A4.2 describe how and why the variables are orare not controlled.



1. Read "Variables."

2. Complete the activity on variables in observinga picture, paying special attention to thecomments on the activities.

3. Arrange with the instructor to completeadditional actZvities.

4. When you feel you have met the performancecriteria, date and initial your Com-ietencyCompletion Checklist.

36

A4 NOTES AND COMMENTS FOR RECOGNIZINGAND CONTROLLING VARIABLES

7

37

VARIABLES

You have probably heara a housewife remark follow-ing a baking fiasco, "I can't understand why the cakedidn't turn out. I did everything exactly the same asI always have." It is reasonable to suspect that some-thing was different, even though the cook did not knowit.. Perhaps it was an unnoticed change in the ingre-dients, the length of time the eggs were beaten, thetemperature of the butter, the age of the eggs, lr anyone of a great number of factors. Each of thesefactors is a variable, which may have influenced thequality of the cake. In this exercise, you will bethinking about variables and how they may influenceone another.

The process of Controlling Variables is pervasivein scientific inquiry. The most definitive results ofan investigation are obtained when the variables can beidentified and carefully controlled. You will have thebest possible evidence from your investigations if youfollow tnese steps: Change (manipulate) one variablein a systematic way, and watch for and measure corre-sponding changes in another (the responding) variable;hold constant (keep the same) all the other variablesyou can think of while you are manipulating one vari-able and observing the response of another. It isnot always possible to attain this ideal, butscientists always strive for it....

ACTIVITY 1 - Variables in Observing a Picture

Observe Figure 2, which is constructed with onlythree sizes of black dots. Do you recognize the objectin the picture? Now, prop the page in a verticalposition, and as you look at the picture, walk slowlyaway fr'm it. Keep walking until you can name theobject in the picture, and then continue reading.

As you walked away from the picture, you even-tually were so far away that the dots appeared tomerge Into one another and the object in the picturebecame apparent. At what distance, in metric units,did this occur? Try It again if 'ou didn't notice thedistance. The distance at which you first recognizedthe ob;ec7t can be called a variable--something thatwas part of event or situation. Other variablesin this example include the color of the wall in theroom whtre you are looking at the picture, the amountof light shining directly on the book, and the qualityof your vision.

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38

QUESTION 1

Make a list of the variables that you infer mayhave an influence on the distance at which you are firstable to recognize the object in the picture of Figure 1.Some of these variables are listed in the Comments onActivities, but be sure to make your list before turn-ing to that section.

Suppose you infer that the distance at which theobject is just recognizable (resolved) depends onwhether you start close to the picture and walk awayfrom it or begin at a long distance awa} and approachthe picture. In this inference, there are two varia-bles. Think about how you could investigate thissituation before reading the next paragraph. Thencheck your plan with the one proposed in the followingparagraph, and try your test or the one described.

You could first begin at a distance beyond whichthe picture is recognized and then move toward it.Measure the distance at which you think }ou are ableto recognize the face. Then begin at a position closeto the picture and move away from it. Measure thedistance at which you think you are just able to recog-nize the face in the picture. If the illumination,color, observer, and so on, were unchanged, you shouldbe able to make some statement about the influence ofthe variable direction of approach on the variabledistance at which the face in the picture is recog-nized.

QUESTION 2

In the test described (or the one you plannedyourself), what variables are held constant? That is,were any variables not allowed to change? Which ones?

Which variables were allowed to change? (Thedirection of your movement in relation to the picture,and the distance from the picture at which you identifythe object.) Which of these variables did you manip-ulate? In the test described above, you calked towardthe picture and then away from it. In other words,you manipulated the direction of your motion. Thedirection is called the manipulated variable. Thevariable distance is the responding variable.

So far, three kinds of variables have been identi-fied and named: the manipulated variable, the respond-ing variable, and the variables held constant. In thetest just described, all of these variables were con-trolled. Now can this be? CertaAnly the variables

40

which were held constant were controlled. The manip-ulated variable was controlled at your will. Theresponding variable was controlled by the manipulatedvariable. So, all variables were controlled in thetest. Usually, most variables in a test or investi-gation are held constant, one is manipulated either bydesign or because it cannot be helped.

QUESTIONS 3 and 4

In manipulating the variable in this example(direction of movement in relation to the picture),only two possible values of this variable were con-sidered. What were they? What other values might havebeen assigned to this variable?

You have been conducting an investigation in whichyou manipulated the variable, direction of movement inrelation to the picture. Look at the list of variablesin this situation (either your list or the one givenin the Comments on Activities). What other variableor variables might be tested in order to determine thedistance from the eicture at which the object could berecognized? Could the amount of light in the room bemanipulated as a variable in a different investiga-tion? How about the height of the picture above thefloor? The answers to these questions are yes. Thequestions are asked to emphasize that several variablesmight have been manipulated. This is not to suggestthat more than one variable be manipulated at a time.In elementary classrooms, you should try to restrictinvestigations to those in which only one variableis manipulated at a time....

COMMENTS ON ACTIVITY

ACTIVITY 1 (QUESTION 1)

1. The distance of the observer from the picture

2. The observer (eyesight, sensitivity or retina,color-blindness)

3. The light in the room

4. The light directly illuminating the picture

5. The color of the light illuminating the picture

6. The direction of approieh of the observer tothe picture

41

7. The amount of practice the observer has had

8. Whether or not th,! observer has recognized theobJtet in the picture prior to determining thedistance


Variables that should be held constant includeillumination on picture, speed of walking, person beingtested, rosition of picture.

ACTIVITY 1 (QUESTIONS 3 and 4)

The two values are walking directly toward thepicture and walking directly away from it. You mighthave walked toward or away from the picture at an angledifferent from 900 (AAAS, 1970, p. 129 ff.)

....., OM%

i

42

A5 - ORGANIZING DATA

General Competency

The student will collect and organize data anddescribe the rationale for the organization (describ-ing, diagramming, tabulating, graphing, etc.)


Given an activity, the student will:

A5.1 collect, organize, and describe the rationalefor the organization to the satisfaction ofthe instructor.

Instructions for Completing Competencs,

The following instructions provide a recommend,Jdsequence in completing this competency:

1. Read and study "Organizing Data."

2. Complete the activity outlined in the generalinformation related to how water flows ordrops. Check your results with those given.

3. Complete the activity "Your Fingers, HisPulse" and/or "The Weight of Our Height."Collect and organize your data. Describe yourrationale for this organization. (You mayselect a comparable activity.)

4. Arrange with your instructor for other activ-iti,-s requiring presentation of data.

5. When you feel that you have met the performancecriterion, date and initial your CompetencyCompletion Checklist.

43

A5 - NOTES AND COMMENTS FOR ORGANIZING DATA

4,

44

ORGANIZING DATA

..A graph is a device for communicating a rela-tionship between two variables. In Science--A ProcessApproach, pupils are introduced to graphing with targraphs which are particularly useful for recordingnumbers of different objects. For example, in one houra bird watcher counted 20 sparrows, 6 robins, 2 cardi-nals, 1 wren, and 10 starlings. This information canbe displayed in a bar graph, as in Figure 3.

Look at Figure 3 carefully and then make your ownbar graph. Take some change from your coin purse andcount the number of each kind of coin. Then make a bargraph to show the numbers of pennies, ale:els, dimes,quarters, and half-dollars.

The two variables that are plotted in Figure 4 andthe ones you have Just plotted are called discontinuousvariables. This means that there are no intermediatevalues of the variables between the values shown. Forexample, a bar showing 5.5 quarters would be meaning-less since there is no such thing as half a quarter.Likewise there is no coin between a penny and a nickel,or between a nickel and a dime. Both the number ofcoins and the kind of coins are discontinuous variables.Bar graphs are useful for showing relationships betweendiscontinuous variables.

Line graphs, on the other hand, are useful forcommunicating relationships between continuous varia-bles. Figure 4, for example, shows the number ofswings per minute for pendulums of different lengths.The points with the circles around them show thenumber pairs that were actually measured. Here thetwo variables are continuous. There are intermediatevalues between the points that are plotted. The pendu-lum can be of any length and there can be any numLerof swings per minute including fractions of swingssuch as 30.3. The smooth curve through the points forwhich number pairs were measured indicates that thevariables are continuous. The smooth curve can beused to find number pairs that were not actuallymeasured. For example, the line includes the numberpair (85, 33). That is a pendulum 85 centimeterslong would swing 33 times in one minute.

One of the skills that you are expected to developin this exercise ls the relationships and trends shownin graphs. Figure 4, for example, indicates that as apendulum is made shorter it swings more rapidly. The

45

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change in rate of swing for a given change in length isgreater for short pendulums than for long ones. Forexample, shortening a 200 - centimeter pendulum by 10centimeters increases the rate only one swing per minute.But shortening a 60-centimeter pendulum by 10 centi-meters increases the rate more than 7 swings per minute.

Before you begin constructing a point graph, someof the conventions used for constructing graphs inScience--A Process A °roach, are identified in the nextparagraph. -,Le graph (Figure 5) and try to maketh,a correct choices in the statements which follow.

t. The (manipulated, responding) variable isgraphed on the horizontal or the x-axis.

2. The (responding, manipulated) variable isgraphed un the vertical or y-axis.

3. Each axis (is, is not) labeled so as to describewhat was manipulated and what was observed.

4. The intersection of the x-axis with the y-axis('s, is not) the zero-or starting-point of thex and y number lines.

5. The units of measurement of each pair ofobservations (are, are not) indicated alongwith the labels on the x-axis and the y-axis.

6. Numerals are placed along each axis at(regular, irregular) intervals as on a numberline.

7. The numeral on the y-axis where a horizontalline crosses the y-axis determines they-coordinate of any point on that horizontalline. (Yes, No)

8. The numeral on the x-axis where a verticalline crosses the x-axis determines the x-coor-dinate of any point on that vertical line.(Yes, No)

9. The graph (is, is not) a grid formed by hori-zontal and vertical lines, each line havingan assigned value as shown by the numeralsalong the x-axis and the y-axis.

10. Numerals along each axis are placed (on,between) the vertical and horizontal linesof the grid.

47

Did you choose the first item of each pair ofchoice:'

Now try your hand at contructing a graph of datayou collect. To collect the data, you will need apaper cup with a flat bottom, a pin, a 100-millilitergraduated container, some water, and a stopwatch or awatch with a second hand. Make a pinhole in the bottomof the cup. Place your finger over the pinhole andfill the cup nearly full of water. Hold the cup sothat the pinhole is directly over the 100-millilitercontainer, remove your finger, and immediately starttiming. Rest the cup on the top of the container.Read and record the volume of water in the containerevery 20 seconds for three minutes. Then make a graphusing the number pairs you have collected. Write ashort statement describing the relationships of thevariables-and the trend shown by the graph. . When youhave finished, compare your graph and statement withthe one in the Comments on Activities section....

COMMENTS ON ACTIVITIES

If your change did not contain one kind of coin,for example, half-dollars, you should have marked aplace for that coin on your graph. The absence of abar above it indicates that your change included nocoins of that type.

The graph in Figure 5 is a plot of data similar tothat which you collected when you measured the waterflowing from a pinhole in a paper cup. Note that someof the observed number pairs do not lie on the curve.The curve was drawn as a best fit of the set of numberpairs. Notice that of the number pairs that do not lieon the line, approximately half are above and half arebelow the line. In scientific work, it is generallyassumed that deviation of a number pair from a smoothcurve indicates an experimental error, such as failingto read the watch dial or the volume scale precisely.

The graph shows that the water flows through thehole fastest at the start and more slowly as timeprogresses (AAAS, 1970, p. 101 ff.).

48

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E"A

YOUR FINGERS, HIS PULSE

1. Identify a partner for this activity.

2. Calmly sit for three minutes. Have your part-ner take your pulse with his fingers (not histhumb).

3. Have your partner count your pulse rate for30 seconds.

4. Wait one minute.

5. Pgain, have your partner count your pulse ratefor 30 seconds.

6 Average the two values obtained,

7 Double the average value and record it. Thisrepresents your pulse rate before exercise.

8 Now, run up and down two flights of stairs ordo 20 jumping-jacks.

9 Have your partner take your new pulse rateaccording to steps 3 through 7 above andrecord it. This is your pulse rate afterexercise.

10. Reverse the above procedures with your partnerto obtain his pulse rate before and afterexercise.

11. Now, obtain the pulse rates of ten otherpeople before and after exercise.

12. Make a graph for each pulse rate variable(before and after exercise) against some othervariable (i.e., height, weight, sex, age, timeof day, etc...).

THE WEIGHT OF OUR HEIGHT

1. Identify and list the names of the otherstudents in the classroom, each student'sheight in inches and his weight in pounds.

2. Predict what relationship you could expectbetween weight and height.

50

3. Graph the two variables, weight and height(use X for males and 0 for females, or designa procedure of your own).

4. Determine if there is a difference in theweight-height relationship for males andfemales.

51

A6 - HYPOTHESIZING

General Competency

The student will construct a hypothesis, test itsvalidity, and on the basis of the results obtained fromtesting either accept the hypothesis or reject andmodify it.


Given an-experiment and/or data, the student will:

A6.1 construct a hypothesis.

A6.2 test the validity of his hypothesis.

A6.3 accept his hypothesis or reject and thenmodify it.

Instructions for Completinq_Competena


1. Read and study "Formulating, Testing, and Modi-fying Hypotheses."

2. Complete the activity, "Activity 1 - Construc-ting a Hypothesis."

3. Complete the activity, "Activity 2 - Testing aHypothesis."

4. Construct a hypothesis of your own.

5. Test the validity of your hypothesis.

6. Accept your hypothesis or reject it and, ifneeded, modify it. State your reasons inwriting.

7. When you feel you have met the performancecriteria, date and initial your CompetencyCompletion Checklist.

'WSW a 0 F 'WSW SIAM

A6 - NOTES AND COMMENTS FOR HYPOTHESIZING

53

FORMULATING, TESTING, AND MODIFYING HYPOTHESES

Thinking about observations leads scientists toseek causes for events. To broaden their understandingof their environment, they then generalize their state-ments of explanation. This process of generalizationis what we have called Formulating Hypotheses.

In Science--A Process Approach, a hypothesis isdefined as a generalization that includes all objectsor events of the same class. Hypotheses may be formu-lated on the basis of observations or of inferences.For example, you may observe that a sugar cube dissolvesfaster in hot water than in cold water. From such anobservation, you might formulate the hypothesis thatall substances soluble in water will dissolve fasterin hot water than in cold water. An examplg of ahypothesis that is generalized from an inference isas follows: If you invert a glass jar over a burningcandle, the candle will continue to burn for a shorttime and then go out. One of several inferences thatyou might make to explain this observation is that thecandle went out because all of the oxygen in the airin the jar was used up. A hypothesis based on thisinference might be that burning candles covered withglass jars go out when all the oxygen in the jar isused up.

Research scientists devise tests of hypotheses.Testing a hypothesis that is a generalization fromobservations consists of making more and more observa-tions of whatever class of objects or events is coveredby the hypotheses. For example, the hypothesis thatall substances soluble in water will dissolve morequickly in hot water than in cold water can be testedonly by mixing many substances that are soluble inwater with both hot and cold water and recording theirdissolving times. If any substance is found to dis-solve in hot water at the same rate as, or more slowlythan, in cold water, then the hypothesis is not sup-ported.

Testing a hypothesis that is a generalization froman inference also involves conducting a test which willprovide data that will support or not support the hypo-thesis. In the case of the hypothesis about burningcandles under glass jars, it is necessary to test theair in the jar after the candle has gone out to seewhether or not oxygen is present. This experiment hasbeen conducted and oxygen is indeed present even afterthe candle has gone out, so the hypothesis is notsupported.

54

When data are collected that do not support ahypothesis, the hypothesis must either be modified orrejected. In the case of the hypothesis about the dis-solving time of substances soluble in water, if somefew exceptions are found, the hypothesis might berevised to say: Most substances soluble in water willdissolve more quickly in hot water than in cold water.The hypothesis about burning candles might be modifiedto state: Candles under inverted jars go out when theamount of oxygen in the air in the jar is reduced to10%. Or, it might be replaced by a new hypothesis,such as: Candles under inverted jars go out when theamount of carbon dioxide in the air in the jar increasesto 3%. All of these hypotheses could be tested byfurther investigations.

ACTIVITY 1 - Constructing a Hypothesis

In the exercise Viscosity; Experimenting'11,Exercise p, Part G, the children observe the apparatusshown in Figure 6. Each of the vials is full of aliquid, and each contains an object that appears to beellipsoidal. The caps of the vials are fastened firmlyinto holes in a wood strip. When the vials are inverted,as in Figure 7, the objects fall through the liquidsat different rates. Some of the observations that maybe made are:

1. The object in Vial A falls fastest and the onein Vial B slowest.

2. The object in Vial A is red, in Vial B, green,and in Vial C, blue.

3. The vials have the same shape and size. Theliquids are colorless.

4. Each vial has a small air bubble in it. Theair bubbles move up as the objects move down.The bubble in A rises most rapidly, and thebubble in B least rapidly.

QUESTION 1

Write several inferences that might account forthese observations. After you have made your inferences,generalize one of them into a hypothesis. As you con-struct your hypothesis, keep in mind that you are goingto construct and demonstrate a test of it in Activity 2.

55

QUESTION 2

What you do in this activity depends entirely onwhat hypothesis you constructed in Activity 1. Yourhypothesis will also determine what materials you willneed to carry out your test. You will almost certainlyneed screw or snap cap plastic vials and one or moreliquids (water, corn syrup, cooxing oil, and so on).Objects you may want to try might include marbles ofvarious sizes, metal spheres (shot), and pebbles.

Plan and execute your test carefully. Rememberthat for best results, you should control all variables.You should identifl the manipulated and respondingvariables, and plan to hold all other variables con-stant.

After you have carried out your test and collectedand'recorded'your datS, you should interpret, your dataand decide whether or not your observations support ordo not support your hypothesis. If your hypothesis isnot supported, revise it to take account of your newobservations. When you have completed the activities,read the following Comments on Activities.

COMMENTS ON ACTIVITIES


There are many inferences you might make. Here are afew:

1. The objects have different masses. The objectin A is the heaviest and the object in B isthe lightest of the thr ee.

2. Though the objects appear to have approx-imately the same size, their size actuallydiffer a little. Object B is the smallestand object A is the largest of the three.

3. There is a different liquid in each vial.The liquid in B is thickest and that in A isthe thinnest.

Each of these inferences could be generalized intoa hypothesis. Here is a hypothesis from Inference 1:The rate at which an object falls through a liquiddepends on its mass. Given two objects of the samesize but different mass, the heavier one will fallthrough a particular liquid faster than the lighterone.

57


Suppose you want to test the following hypothesis.Objects of the same size, shape, and mass fall fasterin thin liquids than in thick ones.

The manipulated variable is the thinness or thick-ness of the liquid. These terms are not commonly usedby scientists to describe properties of liquids, thoughthey are frequently heard in everyday speech. Theyshould be defined operationally at the time that thetest of the hypothesis is being constructed. Here isone possible operational definition:

Pour 50 milliliters of the liquid into a100-milliliter beaker. Invert the beaker andhold it upside down for 10 seconds. Right itand measure the amount of liquid that remainsin the beaker. The greater the amount ofliquid remaining, the thicker the liquid.*

To test the hypothesis, prepare three or moresolutions of different viscosities. These might bewater, and 10%, 20%, and 30% sugar solutions. Testthe solutions and order them by viscosity. Take fouridentical vials and fill each with one of the solutions.Then, take four identical marbles and place one in eachvial. Screw the cap on each vial. Invert the vialsand compare the rates at which the marbles fall throughthe liquids. If the rate of fall is slower in themore viscous liquids, the hypothesis is supported.If not, the hypothesis will have to be revised or .

discarded (AAAS, 1970 pp. 157-161).

*This is a rough measure of a property of liquidscalled viscosity. The more viscous the liquid, themore slowly it flows from a container.

58

A7 - REPLICATING

General Competency.

The student will replicate an experiment andcompare the results obtained with those in the originalexperimentation.


Given an experiment, the student will:

A7.1 replicate the experiment

A7.2 compare the results with those obtained inthe original experiment.



1. Arrange with the instructor to obtain anexperiment.

2. Conduct this experiment according to theinformation given.

3. Record your data. Compare in writing theresults you obtained with those in theoriginal experimentation.

4. When you feel that you have met the performancecriteria, date and initial your CompetencyCompletion Checklist.

59

A7 - NOTES AND COMMENTS FOR REPLICATING

60

GUIDELINE B

....Sao-

Science for elementary teachers should be taughtin the same style of open inquiry that is encouragedin elementary science programs. The student's scienceexperience should result in his enthusiasm for andconfidence in teaching science through inquiry tochildren.

INSTRUCTIONAL SKILLS

B 1 IDENTIFYING AND CLASSIFYING MEASURABLEPERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES - The student will beable to identify measurable objectives andclassify them into categories according toBloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives.

B 2 COMPREHENDING THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OFINQUIRY (DISCOVERY) TEACHING - The studentwill demonstrate his comprehension of thebasic principles of inquiry (discovery)science teaching.

B 3 DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTING AN INQUIRY ACTIVITYMODULE - The student will be able to constructan inquiry (discovery) teaching module whichcontributes to both the product (content) andthe process aspects of science.

B 4 TEACHING BY MEANS OF INQUIRY OR DISCOVERY -The student will demonstrate his ability touse the inquiry (discovery) approach with agroup of peers and/or pupils.

SELF-EVALUATION--PROGRESS SCALE

In order to determine your present competency level for instructional

skills, please read the competencies Bl through B4.

Place a "B" in the

appropriate column to indicate your beginning competency level.

At the end of the course, place an "E" in the appropriate column to

indicate the degree of competency you feel you possess.

This self-evaluation

will enable you to visualize your growth toward the attainment of each

competency.

I have no knowledge of

this competency.

I am familiar with the



standing of the concept.

I fully understand the

competency and can

utilize and/or relate

it to my zcience

teaching.

12

34

56

78

9

Bl

B2B3

B4

B1 - IDENTIFYING AND CLASSIFYING MEASURABLEPERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES

General Competency

The student will be able to identify measurableobjectives and classify them into categories accordingto Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives.


Given a set of statements, some of which aremeasurable objectives, the student will:

B1.1 identify those which are measurable, withat least 80% accuracy.

B1.2 classify the measurable objectives intocategories based on Bloom's Taxonomy ofEducational Objectives in the cognitivedomain, with at least 80% accuracy.

Instructions for Completing the Competency

The following instructions provide a recommendedsequence in completing this cc:petency:

1. Read the enclosed set of statements andidentify which are measurable.

2. Record your responses, as well as your confi-dence level, on the response sheet providedby the instructor.

3. Evaluate your responses and compute yourconfidence level. See instructor.

4. Read enclosed materials entitled "Taxonomy ofEducational Objectives in the Cognitive Domain:'

5. Using the measurable objectives you haveidentified from the statements, classify theminto the six categories.

6. When you feel that you have met the performancecriteria, date and initial your CompetencyCompletion Checklist.

63

r

B1 - NOTES AND COMMENTS FOR IDENTIFYING ANDCLASSIFYING MEASURABLE PERFORMANCEOBJECTIVES

64

STATEMENTS

1. Given the ESS booklet on Colored Solutions,the student will read the booklet carefullyand have a better understanding of varioussalt solutions.

2. Given a meter stick, the student will be ableto select the appropriate units for making aparticular measurement to the satisfactionof the teacher.

3. Given a set of objects, the student willgroup objects or systems of objects accordingto a given property.

4. Given the textbook, the student will developan appreciation for the meaning of Ohm's law.

5. Using a metric scale, the student will weighthree objects and grasp the significance ofthe scale to the satisfaction of the teacher.

6. Using a hygrometer, the student will list thesteps in their order for setting up andreading a hygrometer.

7. Given a classroom situation, the prospectiveteacher will teach an activity and becommitted to teaching as a career.

8. Given an experiment, the student will dis-tinguish between dependent and independentvariables with 100% accuracy.

9. Given a unit on evolution, the student willhave faith in the theory of evolution to thesatisfaction of the instructor.

10. Without the aid of references, the student willknow exactly what to do in case of a scienceclassroom emergency.

11. Given an ESS activity, the student willdevise and use simple means of checking theaccuracy of his predictions.

12. The student will be able to identify thefactor most likely to have caused a givenchange in a system.

65

Statements (contd.)

13. Given an experiment, the student will orallyrecognize which data are necessary andsufficient to support an inference or ageneralization to the satisfaction of theinstructor.

14. With the aid of reference materials, thestudent will appreciate and believe that ahypothesis is a basis for generalizing interms of similar problem situations.

15. Given a selected experiment, the student willuse a planned procedure insolving the problem.

16. Given a completed activity, the studentdemonstrates that he is slow to accept factswhich are not supported by data.

17. Given an outdoor activity, the student willenjoy it and believe that children should betaken outside regularly.

18. The student will develop an appreciation forscience and grasp its impact on our country.

19. With the aid of selected materials, thestudent will recognize in writing and usepertinent arguments, reasons, or principlesto justify a prediction.

20. Given a laboratory situation, the studentwill become familiar with and have respectfor chemicals in the classroom.

66

TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES IN THECOGNITIVE DOMAIN

1.0 KNOWLEDGE

This involves the recall of specifa, processess, orstructure. It is often a rote procedure withlittle, if any, alteration of material.

A description of the behavior expected of thestudent would be to:

a. define d. identifyb. recall e. listc. recognize f. name

2.0 COMPREHENSION

This involves understanding of the literal messagecontained in a communication. It includes theability to translate, interpret and extrapolate.


a. translate d. summarizeb. make inferences e. draw conclusionsc. predict f. generalize

3.0 APPLICATION

This level involves the ability to use abstractionsin concrete/real situations. The abstractionscould be general ideas, rules, methods, conceptsor theories which need to be remembered andapplied.


a. apply d. illustrateb. demonstrate e. usec. employ f. solve

67

4.0 ANALYSIS

This involves the breakdown of material intoorganizational or necessary parts so that therelation among parts is clear. The breakdownshould illuminate the basis and organizationof the material.


a. cl.issify (group) d. organizeb. identify elements e. explain

c.

(parts)detect (fallacies,casual relations,etc.)

f. relate

5.0 SYNTHESIS

This involves putting together parts to forma whole. This process combines the parts orelements to form a structure that is new to thestudent.


a. integrate d. planb. propose e. organizec. design f. formulate

6.0 EVALUATION

This involves making judgments in terms of theavailable material or external evidence, based onappropriate standards or criteria.


a. compare (using a d. rankstandard) e. critique

b.

c.

distinguishassess

f. appraise

68

B2 - COMPREHENDING THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OFINQUIRY (DISCOVERY) TEACHING

General Competency

The student will demonstrate his comprehension ofthe basic principles of inquiry (discovery) scienceteaching.


Given appropriate situations provided by theinstructor, the student will discuss in writing subjectmatter related to such topics as:

B2.1 the nature and purposes of discovery orinquiry teaching.

B2.2 advantages and disadvantages of the discoveryapproach to teaching.

B2.3 the role of the teacher in planning, ques-tioniiig and using invitations to discovery(such as discrepant events).

B2.4 the role of students in activities, investi-gations, experiments, questioning, verbal-izing, etc.

B2.5 uses of divergent and convergent question-ing techniques.

B2.6 appropriate learning theories in scienceeducation.



1. See the instructor for bibliographic refer-ences necessary to meet performance criteria.

2. Read appropriate materials.

3. Complete your discussion in writing and/orschedule a conference with your instructor.

4. When you feel that you have met the per-formance criteria, date and initial theCompetency Completion Checklist.

1.7,

B2 - NOTES AND COMMENTS FOR COMPREHENDING THE BASICPRINCIPLES OF INQUIRY (DISCOVERY) TEACHING

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B3 - DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTING AN INQUIRYACTIVITY MODULE

General Competency

The student will be able to c'onstruct an inquiry(discovery) teaching module which contributes to boththe product (content) and the process aspects of science.


Given the necessary resource materials the studentwill:

B3.1 select a concept, principle, (or closelyrelated concepts and principles)as a goalfor working with children in science. Heshall also select at least one of theprocess skills of science related to thedevelopment of the chosen content goal.

B3.2 construct at least one specific measurableobjective appropriate to developing theconcept and/or principle stated in the goaland at least one such objective appropriateto developing the process skill(s) outlinedin the goal statement.

B3.3 plan an invitation to discovery to use as ameans of inviting investigative inquiry andactivities on the part of the pupilsinvolved in learning the above chosen goal.

B3.4 develop a series of learning strategies (oractivities) which along with the objectivesand invitation to discovery will comprisean instructional module on the product-process goal.

B3.5 construct sample convergent and divergentquestions to use in teaching the abovemodule. The questions will be used tostimulate investigating and generalizingon the part of the pupils.

B3.6 develop tasks (or other means) to assess theaccomplishment of the objectives (B3.2) setup for the module.

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B3 (contd.)


The follcwing instructions provide a recommendedsequence in completing this competency:

1. "sing the available resources in the classroomand/or the curriculum laboratory identify aconcept or principle (or closely related con-cepts or principles) as the overall goal foryour teaching module.

2. Construct at least one specific measurableobjective for the content and at least onefor the process(es) stated in your goal.

3. Schedule a conference with your instructor.

4. Design an invitation to discovery to introduceyour teaching module.

5. Develop a series.of learning strategies (oractivies) for the objectives which you havedeveloped for your teaching module.

6. Construct sample convergent and divergentquestions to use in teaching your module.

7. Develop evaluation tasks to assess the chil-dren's achievement of the objectives you haveidentified for your module.

8. When you feel that you have met the performancecriteria, date and initial the CompetencyCompletion Checklist.

....I.-1,,

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B3 - NOTES AND COMMENTS FOR DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTINGAN INQUIRY ACTIVITY MODULE

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B4 - TEACHING BY MEANS OF INQUIRY OR DISCOVERY

General Competency

The student will demonstrate his ability to usethe inquiry or discovery approach with a group of peersand/or pupils by teaching part (or all) of the instruc-tional module he developed in B3.


Given a simulated or real teaching situation, thestudent will:

B4.1 demonstrate his ability to teach the modulewhich he has developed to the satisfactionof the instructor and/or a panel of judges.



1. Schedule time with instructor for teachingthe module.

2. See the instructor to arrange for him or apanel of judges to evaluate your teachingexperience.

3. When you feel that you have met the perform-ance criterion, date and initial the CompetencyCompletion Checklist.

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B4 - NOTES AND COMMENTS FOR TEACHING BY MEANS OFINQUIRY OR DISCOVERY

GUIDELINE C

Science experiences should be selected so as todevelop a capacity and disposition for continuouslearning which the teacher should demonstrate by engag-ing in science activities which will provide newinformation and experiences capable of affectingexisting attitudes, ideas, and teaching.

INTEREST ND RESEARCH/CURRICULUM KNOWLEDGE

C 1 DEMONSTRATING INTEREST The student willdemonstrate an interest in teaching scienceto children.

C 2 DEMONSTRATING KNOWLEDGE - The student willdemonstrate his knowledge of the nature ofscience.

C 3 DESCRIBING AND COMPARING PROGRAMS Thestudent will describe and compare selectedactivity-based science programs.

C 4 ANALYZING CHILDREN'S RESPONSES The studentwill present and analyze children's responsesto Piagetian-type tasks.

CO

SELF-EVALUATION-PROGRESS SCALE

In order to determine your present competency level for science interest

and curriculum/research knowledge, please read the competencies Cl through C4.

Place a "B" in the appropriate column to indicate your beginning competency

level. At the end of the course, place an "E" in the appropriate column to indicate

the degree of competency you feel you possess.

This self-evaluation will enable

you to visualize your growth toward the attainment of each competency.

I have no knowledge of

this competency.

I at familiar with the



standing of the concept,

I fully understand the

competency and can,

utilize and/or relate

it to my science teach-

ing.

12

34

56

7

Cl

C2C3

C4

Cl - DEMONSTRATING INTEREST

General Competency

The student will demonstrate an interest inteaching science to children.


During the academic period, the student will:

C1.1 read a minimum of three (3) current science-related articles (one or more from thejournal, Science and Children), read one(1) or more books which deal with teachingscience and will show evidence of his read-ing in his course notebook.



1. Select recent articles and book(s) availablein science education center, curriculumlaboratory, university library, and bookstore.

2. React (in writing or orally) to the materialyou have read.

3. Enter in your notebook bibliographical dataon articles and book(s) read.

4. When you feel that you have met the perform-ance criterion, date and initial yourCompetency Completion Checklist.

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- - - 7 -

C1 - NOTES AND COMMENTS FOR DEMONSTRATING INTEREST

4 ' 1

80

C2 - DEMONSTRATING KNOWLEDGE

General Competency

The student will demonstrate his knowledge of thenature of science.


In response to appropriate situations set up bythe instructor, the student will be able to demonstratein writing that he comprehends the meaning of:

C2.1 the nature of science

C2.2 concepts, principles, and conceptual schemes

C2.3 processes of science

C2.4 scientific methodology



1. See the instructor for bibliographic refer-ences necessary to meet performance criteria.

2. Read appropriate material.

3. Complete your discussion i,, writing and/orschedule a conference with your instructor.

4. When you feel that you have met the perform-ance criteria, date and initial the CompetencyCompletion Checklist.

C2 - NOTES AND COMMENTS FOR DEMONSTRATING :KNOWLEDGE

82

C3 - DESCRIBING AND COMPARING PROGRAMS

General Competency

The student will describe and compare selectedactivity-based science programs.


Provided access to adequate sampling of materialsin activity-based elementary science programs thestudent will:

C3.1 describe and compare these programs:S-APA, ESS, SCIS, MINNEMAST and COPES.


1. Classify the above programs according to theiremphasis on the product (content) of scienceand/or the processes of science.

2. Select any three (3) of these programs andcompare their structure or organization (i.e.,fields of science covered, age levels,sequence, teacher's guides, other pertinentaspects).

3. Select one (1) part (booklet, section, unit)rrom each of the above three (3) programsand briefly describe its nature and why itinterested you.

4. When you feel that you have met the perform-ance criterion, date and initial the CompetencyCompletion Checklist.

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C3 - NOTES AND COMMENTS FOR DESCRIBING AND COMPARINGPROGRAMS

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SELECTED ACTIVITY-BASED SCIENCE PROGRAMS

The following activity centered projects havereceived considerable attention during the past tenyears. They are representative of recent curriculummovements in science education at the elementary schoollevel. Additional information and materials can beobtained from your instructor or by writing to thepublishers of the programs.

SCIENCE CURRICULUM IMPROVEMENT STUDY (SCIS)

Science Curriculum Improvement Study (SCIS) devel-oped by the University of California, Berkeley andsupported by the National Science Foundation:

Publisher

Rand McNally and CompanySchool Depari-mentBox 7600Chicago, Illinois 60680

Materials

1. Teacher's Guides A manual for each unitwhich contains information to help theteacher.

2. Student Manuals - The student manual isused by children to record informationabout their experiments. Some of theprimary units do not have manuals.

3. Unit or Equipment Kit - Each contains theequipment and maten7ls needed for 32pupils to p;rform the activities in theprogram.

4. Films - Teaching and inservice films may bepurchased or rented. Extension Media Center

2223 Fulton StreetBerkeley, Calif. 94720

Level - K-6

Description

The Science Curriculum Improvement Study (SCIS)consists of two series of related and sequential lifescience and pnysical science units for each of the six

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10%-,As. Children are introduced to knowledge ofscientific content through individual and group investi-gations. Through these activities, they engage inobservation, measurement, interpretation, prediction,and other processes. The program presents four majorscientific concepts: matter, energy, organism andecosystem. Performance objectives for each of thetwelve units have been developed for the progr m. Nostudent textbooks are available.

ELEMENTA'v SCIENCE STUDY (ESS)

Elementary Science Study (ESS) developed by Educa-tional Services Incorporated and supported by theNational Science Foundation.

Publisher

Webster DivisionMcGraw-Bill Book CompanyManchester RoadManchestar, Missouri 63011

Materials

1. Teacher's Guides - Each of the 56 units hasa guide which provides background informa-tion, teaching suggestions, activities,illustrations, a description ,Jf the mate-rials needed in teaching, and ideas forintegrating the material into other areasof the curriculum.

2. Student Mater:als - These worksheets,individual cards an booklets provide guidesfor making or asserabling equipment, read-ing material and pictures and proceduresfor recording observations made in theclassroom.

3. Equipment and Materials Kits - :ach class-room kit contains the equipment and materi-als needed for 30 children. Small groupkits for 6 children and individual studyare also available for some units.

4. Film Loops and Films - The film loops canbe used by a whole class, a small group, oran individual student. Films (16 mm.) areavailable for some units; teacher-trainingor inservice films are also available.

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Level - K-9

Description

Elementary Science Study (ESS) consists of morethan 56 individual teaching units, each of which may beused for varying lengths of time in a range of grades.The units are open-ended. Several units may beselected for a complete science program or individualunits may be identified to supplement a program alreadyin use. It is not necessary to purchase a kit for eachunit since much of the material needed for teaching canbe obtained locally. There are no student textbooks.Performance objectives are not available.

SCIENCE--A PROCESS APPROACH (S-APA)

Science--A Process Approach (S-APA), developed bythe Am,:rican Association of the Advancement of ScienceCommission spn Science Education and supported by theNational Science Foundation.

Publisher

Ginn and Company191 Spring StreetLexington, Massachusetts 02173

Materials

1. Commentary for Teachers A self-instruc-tional text of units in workbook form forteachers.

2. Hierarchy Charts - These charts visuallyrepresent the organization and objectivesof the program.

3. In-Service Training Materials - Theseconsist of an in-service guide, responsebooklets, process measures and kit materials.

4. Comprehensive Classroom Units (Kits) - Eachunit contains the equipment and materialsneeded for 30 pupils to perform the activ-ities in the program.

Level - K-6

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Description

Science--A Process Approach (S-APA) is an activity-centered program which involves all learners in theprocesses of science (i.e., Observing, Using Space/TimeRelationships, Measuring, Interpreting Data, etc...).Th.-: activities are designed to teach scientific proc-esses and concepts. No student textbooks are availableS-APA is a competency based structured program,providing group and individual performance measuresfor each set of activities (booklets).

CONCEPTUALLY ORIENTED PROGRAM IN ELEMENTARY SCIENCE(COPES)

Conceptually Oriented Program in Elementary Science(COPES) developed by the COPES Project at New YorkUniversity and supported by the U. S. Office of Educa-tion and the National Science FoundaLion.

Publisher

Nei, York UniversitySchool of EducationCenter for Field Research and School Services51 Press BuildingWashington SquareNew York, New York 10003

Materials

1. Teacher's Guides - Self-instructional textswhich contain the appropriate activities,and a hierarchy of science concepts to bepresented to children at each grade level(K-6) .

2. Assessment Kits - Each kit contains unboundconcept assessment pages and worksheets foreach grade level.

Level - K-6

Description

Conceptually Oriented Program in Elementary Scienceprovides a highly-structured, sequentially organizedelementary science program for children. The programcenters on five conceptual schemes (i.e., conservationof ene j, interaction anL) change, etc...). Since each

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scheme is too comprehensive to be presented as a whole,the program concentrates on examples of the conceptsthat will lend themselves to progressive ordering orsequencing to enable children to understand each scheme.Performance objectives and concept goals are includedin the teacher's guides; there are no textbooks forchildren.

MINNESOTA MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE TEACHING PROJECT(MINNEMAST)

The Minnesota Mathematics and Science TeachingProject (MINNEMAST) developed by the University ofMinnesota and supported by the National Science Founda-tion.

Publisher

MINNEMAST720 Washington Avenue, S.E.Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455

Materials

1. Teacner's Guides - A manual for each unitwhich contains teaching suggestions,activities and worksheets for the teacher.

2. Student Manuals - The student manual con-tains activities and worksheets for theprogram.

3. Equipment Kit - Each kit contains the equip-ment needed for 30 children. Informationon where to obtain these is available fromthe publisher.

Level - K-3

Description

The Minnesota Mathematics and Science TeachingProject (MINNEMAST) consists of more than 29 teachers'guides and handbooks. The project developed acoordinated science and mathematics curriculum forprimary children. The unifying idea of the program isthe study of systems. This concept is develo 3 throughthe study of objects and their classification Itstresses the processes of science through groue andindividual experiences with concrete materials. Severalof the initial units are appropriate for pre-schoolchildren. No student textbooks are available

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C4 - ANALYZING CHILDREN'S RESPONSES

General Competency

The student will present and analyze children'sresponses to Piagetian-type tasks.


Given the text entitled Student-StructuredLearning in Science the student will:

C4.1 read and complete "Section 4.1, Studying theChild's Interpretation of His Environment."



1. Read "Studying the Child's Interpretation ofHis Environment."

2. Prepare the necessary materials.

3. Arrange to interview six or more children(i.e., two 7-year-olds, two 9-year-olds, andtwo 11-year-olds or any similar combination).

4 Tabulate and evaluate the results of the study.

5 Compare all task results obtained and specifywhat implications the findings have forelementary curriculum. When all studentshave completed the tasks the instructor willtabulate the rIsults. These results will beused as a basis for discussion.

6. When you feel you have met the performancecriterion, date and initial the CompetencyCompletion Checklist.

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C4 - NOTES AND COMMENTS FOR ANALYZING CHILDREN'SRESPONSES

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

American Association for the Advancement of Science.Preservice Science Education of Elementary SchoolTeachers: Guidelines, Standards, and Recommenda-tions for Research Development. A Report sponsoredby the AAAS Commission on Science Education andsupported by the National Science Foundation.AAAS, 1970.

American Association for the Advancement of Science.Science--A Process Approach: Commentary forTeachers. Third experimental edition. AAAS, 1968.

American Association for the Advancement of Science.Science--A Process Approach: Commentary forTeachers. AAAS/Xerox Corporation, 1970.

Carin, Arthur A., and Robert B. Sund. Teaching ModernScience. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. MerrillPublishing Company, 1970.

Matthews, Charles C., Darrell G. Phillips, andRonald C. Good. Student-Structured Learning inScience: A Program for the Elementary SchoolTeacher. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown CompanPublishers, 1971.

Stone, A. Harris, Fred is and Louis Kaslan. Experiencesfor Teaching Children Science. Belmont, California:Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1971.

Sund, Robert B., and A. J. Picard. Behavioral Objectivesand Evaluational Measures: Science and Mathematics.Columbus, 7517:37--Charles E. Merrill PublishingCompany, 1972.

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