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TECHNICAL EDUCATION ANDVOCATIONAL TRAINING INYEMEN AND ITS RELEVANCETO THE LABOUR MARKET

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TECHNICAL EDUCATION ANDVOCATIONAL TRAINING INYEMEN AND ITS RELEVANCETO THE LABOUR MARKET

May 2004

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Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of

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ISBN 92-9157-404-X

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PREFACE

This report has been produced at therequest of the Government of Yemenwithin the framework of a joint action by theEuropean Commission and the World Bankto support the development of a strategyfor reforming the technical education andvocational training (TEVT) sector in thecountry. The participation of the EuropeanTraining Foundation (ETF) is the result of arequest from the European Commission forthe ETF to provide technical support and towork in synergy with the World Bank andthe Yemeni authorities to analyse theTEVT system in Yemen and to develop thereform strategy.

This overview of TEVT in Yemenconstitutes a first contribution to theprocess of designing a strategy for themodernisation of the sector. The first draftwas prepared in 2003 by the consultantAhmed Gdoura, in cooperation with aYemeni Planning Team chaired by the ViceMinister of Technical Education andVocational Training. The final version is theresult of close cooperation between staffand consultants from the ETF, the WorldBank, and the Yemeni Government.

This report therefore owes much to theactive cooperation of the Government ofYemen. The team of authors would like toexpress their gratitude to HE Dr AliMansour bin Sefa’a, Minister of TechnicalEducation and Vocational Training, for hisfull commitment and responsiveness, andto Eng. Abdul-Wahab M Al-Akil, ViceMinister of Technical Education andVocational Training for his support andleadership of the Planning Team. ThePlanning Team played an important role,especially in collecting key data andbackground information. The inputs of MrSaid El Khoulaidi, national consultant, andMr Abdelghani Abdelkader, Director ofCooperation and their colleagues at theMinistry of Technical Education andVocational Training (MoTEVT) have alsoplayed an important role. The authorswould like to express their gratitude to all ofthe management of the MoTEVT for theirsuggestions and their frank and opencontributions during the preparation of thereport.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE 3

1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 7

1.1 The socio-economic context and the characteristics of the labour market 7

1.2 The main features of the labour market 8

1.3 The technical education and vocational training system 8

1.4 A strategy for the TEVT sector 11

2. INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES 13

2.1 The context 13

2.2 Short description of the project: objectives, outputs and activities 14

2.3 Data collection and methodology for the preparation of the report 14

3. YEMEN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OVERVIEW AND POLICY CONTEXT 17

3.1 Global economic overview 17

3.2 Population growth 18

3.3 Geographical distribution and internal migration 19

3.4 Environmental challenges 20

3.5 Institutional structure of the state 20

3.6 Development perspectives in Yemen 21

4. THE LABOUR MARKET 23

4.1 Population and labour market 23

4.2 Labour market information in Yemen 26

5. THE TEVT SYSTEM IN YEMEN 27

5.1 Education and training 27

5.2 The TEVT system in Yemen 30

5.3 Types and levels of TEVT: initial and continuing training 34

5.4 TEVT provision: centres and institutes 34

5.5 Lifelong learning 39

5.6 Mission and structure of the Ministry of Technical Education andVocational Training 40

5.7 Donor activities 40

5.8 Relevance of TEVT to labour market requirements 42

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6. KEY ISSUES AND STRATEGY DEVELOPMENT FOR THE TEVT SECTOR IN YEMEN 47

6.1 TEVT overview: key findings and conclusions 47

6.2 A strategy for improvement of the Yemen vocational education andtraining system 49

ANNEXES 53

Annex 1: Planning team to undertake the formulation of a strategic plan for thedevelopment of TEVT in the Republic of Yemen 54

Annex 2: Main labour market indicators according to the 1999 labour force survey 54

Annex 3: Initial and continuing training institutions under the mandateof the Ministry of Technical Education and Vocational Training 55

Annex 4: Applicants and accepted total (formal/parallel) in technical vocationalinstitutes and vocational training centres in 2002/03 56

Annex 5: Training programmes implemented in the training institutionsof the Ministry of Technical Education and Vocational Trainingfor the private sector in 2002 56

Annex 6: Current organisation chart of the Ministry of Technical Education andVocational Training 57

Annex 7: Development opportunities within economic sectors 58

LIST OF ACRONYMS 61

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TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND VOCATIONAL TRAINING IN YEMEN ANDITS RELEVANCE TO THE LABOUR MARKET

1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

1.1 THE SOCIO-ECONOMICCONTEXT AND THECHARACTERISTICS OF THELABOUR MARKET

The 1990s was a very critical period for theRepublic of Yemen. Major events likereunification, the first Gulf war and the civilwar in 1994 aggravated the already difficulteconomic situation of the country. Sincethe mid 1990s, the country has striven toenhance its socio-economic developmentthrough the implementation of severalambitious reform programmes. However,Yemen is still classified among the 20least-developed countries in the world.

In 2000, the population was about18.3 million, of which at least 48.8% wereunder the age of 15, and 74% were living inrural areas. Today gender inequality is stillrife and constitutes a major obstacle forsocio-economic development.

The major development challenges thathave been identified in Yemen includemainly social, economic, demographic, andgeographical aspects.

The social challenges revolve around thehigh illiteracy rate and the negative attitudetowards the education and participation inthe real economy of females. Theeconomic challenges stem from the lowlevel of per capita income, the heavyreliance on oil revenues, and theincreasing pressures on governmentspending for new development projects.High population growth has an impact onall aspects of life, of which the most criticalare rising poverty, high illiteracy rates, poorrates of school enrolment, inconsistentdevelopment needs and poor healthservice coverage. Limited institutionalcapacity and low levels of qualification arealso significant. Finally, the dispersal of thepopulation makes providing basic servicescostly and difficult to provide, especially inrural areas. Yemen also suffers from waterscarcity which poses a challenge thatneeds urgent remedy.

Yemen has rich natural resources(fisheries, gas, oil, mineral reserves, fertilelands, tourism assets, and a rich heritageof handicrafts), a strategic location and ayoung and dynamic labour force.

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In addition, Yemen currently enjoys politicalstability and wide ranging foreign support.Since the mid 1990s Yemen has carriedout stabilisation and structural reformprogrammes and has made good progresson both fronts.

1.2 THE MAIN FEATURES OFTHE LABOUR MARKET

Since 1975 Yemen’s population has growntwo and a half times, reaching 19.4 millionin 2003. According to projections, thepopulation is expected to grow to 35 millionby 2025. The population growth rateincreased to 3.7% (1994 census) beforefalling recently to 3.5%, but it still stands asone of the highest in the world. The youngage structure of the population (47% under15 years old) implies a fast growing labourforce and the need to rapidly expandemployment opportunities.

Yemen is still predominantly rural, with only26% of the population living in urban areas.It is characterised by the prevalence ofsmall communities dispersed across thewhole country. However, a fast-growingurban population (almost double thepopulation growth rate), points to a highrate of internal migration.

There is great pressure on the labourmarket, with a working population of9.3 million and an average annual growthrate of 4.6%. Total employment in Yemenincreased by an average 3.8% during theperiod 1994 to1999 reflecting an annualincrease of 115 000 jobs. However, thenumber of unemployed workers increasedfrom 277 000 to 469 000. This situation ismainly due to the increase of graduateswith education and skills that do not matchlabour market needs, high dropout ratesfrom basic education, and the trend(especially among females) of seekingemployment to improve living standards.

Between 2000 and 2025 an expected170 000 new annual job opportunities arerequired to provide jobs for all new labourmarket entrants. Workers are concentratedin the agricultural sector (53%), whichrequires unskilled labour, whileemployment in high value-added sectors,

which could contribute to increasingnational income, is decreasing. Theinformal sector absorbs 62% of all workers,which indicates the weaknesses of theformal sector in creating new jobopportunities.

Total unemployment (under-employmentincluded) reached 36% of people atworking age in 1999. Unemployment ismost common among unskilled workersand workers with only elementaryeducation. However, there is a hiddenproblem in the rise of unemploymentamong those with qualifications,particularly in social sciences, technicaland vocational specialisations and teachingschool graduates, who constituted 22% ofthe total number of unemployed in 1999.The surplus in qualified workers does notrespond to work force requirements andresults in a significant shortage of workerswithin certain professions. In the absenceof a work force able to adapt to the fastdevelopments and new conditions ofcertain businesses, there has been agrowing dependence on immigrants inmany professions.

The rate of women participating ineconomic activity is still low, even though itincreased from 18% to 23% between 1994and 1999 as a result of an increase in thenumber of female graduates and the needfor women to work and participate inproduction to alleviate poverty. Widespreadilliteracy and the low level of educationalattainment of women are considered majorconstraints towards broadening theparticipation of women in the economy,and in society in general.

1.3 THE TECHNICALEDUCATION ANDVOCATIONAL TRAININGSYSTEM

1.3.1 THE EDUCATIONSYSTEM

The education system in Yemen followsthe traditional pattern of three levels ofinstruction. In 2002, 3 518 000 pupils wereenrolled in basic education, which lasts

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nine years. Post-basic education includesfour branches: general secondaryeducation, vocational secondary education,vocational training and technical education.Some 513 000 students were enrolled ingeneral secondary education in 2002.

Higher education encompasses universityeducation, teaching institutes andcommunity colleges. In 2002 there were182 000 students at this level.

The education system’s performance facesmajor equality and attainment issues.There are serious gender gaps (femalesmake up only 34% of attendees) andsignificant urban-rural disparities. Aqualitative concern emerges when thestructure of graduates is analysed. At thetop of the pyramid we find universitygraduates rather than low andmedium-level graduates. Furthermore,instruction is predominantly theoretical (forexample social sciences), which creates agap between the system’s output andlabour market needs.

1.3.2 DESCRIPTION OF THETEVT SECTOR

The TEVT system in Yemen has beenundergoing continuous restructuring inrecent years due to a growing belief ofpolicymakers in the TEVT sector’simportance for structural economic change.However, the share of students in technicaleducation or vocational training in the totalnumber of enrolled students at alleducational levels is still only 0.4%. TheMoTEVT, which was created in 2000, hasbecome the institution responsible forTEVT management and provision. Itinherited structures that belonged to theMinistry of Education and othergovernment institutions. In 1998 the HigherCouncil for Vocational and TechnicalTraining was created and was laterfollowed by local councils. Theseinstitutions govern the current structure,with a central operational role for MoTEVT.

There are 44 operational institutes andcentres providing both technical educationand vocational training in Yemen, 14 ofwhich were recently transferred from the

Ministry of Education. In addition, 20 othercentres are being restructured or beingbuilt, or lack equipment or are seekingfinancing. Another 19 centres are planningbilateral/multilateral cooperation withpotential donors. There are 52 licensedprivate providers that only cover a fewspecialisations, e.g. computer training orforeign languages.

In 2003, enrolment in public technicaleducation and vocational traininginstitutions reached 11 546 initial students,half of them in vocational institutes, almost35% in training centres, and the remaining15% in technical institutes. There is anevident problem of capacity, since thisstructure can only cope with 50% of thetraining demand. Women are veryunder-represented in the TEVT institutions(about 5.5% in 2003). In addition, theregional distribution of trainees, as well astraining institutions, is imbalanced.

Continuing training exists through fourtypes of short-term course. Despite the500% growth in the number of participantsin continuing training from 1998 to 2002,this type of training still suffers fromcapacity problems and from a lack ofmechanisms to encourage employers torequest training services.

1.3.3 KEY FINDINGS

Policymakers have a strong commitment toenhancing and modernising theperformance of the TEVT sector, and sharea strong belief that it must become animportant component of the educationsystem. At the same time the effectivenessand efficiency of the TEVT services needto be enhanced by targeting labour marketrequirements. The overall vision of thesector’s future is in line with the country’skey strategic objectives of reducing povertyand ensuring economic and social welfare.Nevertheless, an overall strategic approachthat integrates a common vision and anoverall commitment towards well-definedstrategic goals is still missing. In parallel tothe design of such a strategy and actionplan, the interface between the strategicand executive management levels must beenhanced to ensure a successful

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implementation of the key goals of thecountry’s overall development strategy. Interms of structures, the creation of theMoTEVT in 2000 has lead to majorenhancements on the strategic front, andprovides an opportunity for furtherdeveloping a coherent and coordinatedvision of the TEVT system. The framework,scope and role of national and localcouncils needs to be further clarified anddeveloped.

As described in the previous sections, thesystem currently has a number ofopportunities for reform or promisingdevelopments. However, the challengeremains of how to integrate and coordinatethese reform initiatives within a coherentstrategic framework.

The main problem in the Yemeni TEVTsector is its strong supply-driven approach.Despite some reform attempts, the linksbetween the current TEVT system, labourmarket requirements and the private sectorare very weak, posing the threat ofincreasing unemployment and greaterpoverty. Most training programmes stillfollow the academic model ofvocational-technical schools.

There are no permanent exchanges andlinks with the private sector. The businessand trade sector does not participate inprogramme and curriculum development orin providing training services. Enterprisesare not interested in human resourcesdevelopment or in investment in trainingand skills acquisition. It is not consideredas an investment in people. Furthermore,there is a mutual distrust between theTEVT system, the business community,chambers of commerce and federations.This hampers cooperation in dual trainingdevelopment and prevents the bringingtogether of training providers and the usersof skilled workers.

Furthermore, the labour market informationsystem is not well developed. Sectoral orlocal strategic studies identifying thedevelopments of the sector/region and theurgent skills and qualifications needs are,to a large extent, missing. The vocationaltraining centres do not have a sufficientstake in the development of the sector forwhich they are training workers.

Another problematic area is the resourcesand financing of the system. The wholesystem lacks funding for expansion and theacquisition of training materials. Initiativesput in place until now to attempt to diversifyfunding have not been successful.Furthermore, there is a limitation ofprofessional expertise that could help themodernisation of TEVT not only in terms ofinfrastructure, but also in terms of design,content and direction.

The overall capacity of the vocationaltraining centres is limited. The situation isaggravated by the one-period-per-dayworking regime. The economic return andthe costs involved are not taken intoaccount. Great gaps exist between thevocational and technical institutes asregards levels of equipment, structures,capacity and available resources.

With regard to teachers and trainers, theirqualification levels and motivation are quitelow. There is no proper system in place forteacher and trainer retraining and skillsupgrading, nor for attracting trainers withenterprise-based experience. No standardsare fixed for staff recruitment.

In the areas of curriculum development,standards, certification and assessment,the situation is mixed. Despite some of theabovementioned initiatives aimed atmodernising the pedagogical engineeringof the system, many dysfunctions persist.The participation of the business sector incurricula implementation and design is notensured, leading to a strong theoreticalfocus and a lack of relevance in terms oflabour market requirements. There is nocontinuous updating of certainspecialisations following their inception.The new TEVT ministry has made a goodstart at this level, but further developmentand external technical assistance isneeded. So far there is no properstandardisation of qualifications,assessment methods and teachingapproaches. In addition, new informationand communication technologies are notincorporated in training methods. A verylimited number of vocational trainingcentres have access to modern informationand communications technology and thereis a lack of perspectives for e-learningdevelopment.

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However, as mentioned above, theopportunity for a more in-depth reform ofthe system is there, relying strongly on thehigh awareness and political will to reformTEVT so that it can play its role in theeconomic and social development ofYemen.

1.4 A STRATEGY FOR THETEVT SECTOR

Within the perspective of economicdevelopment and social welfare, a newstrategy of development for the TEVTsector is necessary. The objective wouldbe to develop a TEVT system able toenhance the qualifications and skills of theYemeni work force, provide the labourmarket with its skills needs, regulate theoverall education system and reducepoverty in Yemen.

The very first steps in restructuring theTEVT system in Yemen have already beentaken under the mandate of thenewly-created ministry and with thetechnical and financial assistance ofvarious international organisations. The1999 National Conference on Technicaland Vocational Education identified manyof the themes necessary for futuredevelopment. The numerous themesidentified illustrate the complexity andinterconnections associated with thedelivery of TEVT, and hence the necessityto adopt a systems approach todevelopment. Subsequent experience alsoindicates the need to translate the outputsof this conference into a concrete action plan.

MoTEVT has energetically pursued anumber of the themes arising from the1999 conference as illustrated by severalinitiatives already mentioned. Theseinitiatives have been undertaken becausethey were both relevant and achievable.However, they have not addressed theunderlying systemic strategic issues.

In order to ensure the success of thedevelopments, the overall strategy shouldcomply with the pillars and foundations ofthe country’s general orientations, i.e. theYemen Strategic Vision 2025, the Second

Five-Year Socio-economic Development

Plan (2001 to 2005), and the Poverty

Reduction Strategy.

The purpose of the strategic planningprocess is to synthesise the identifiedchallenges into an integrated developmentplan that indicates the responsibilities of allparties, and can also be used as aprospectus to seek and coordinate externaldonor assistance.

Based on work to date, the following fivestrategic issues represent the key elementsto be addressed in the proposed TEVTstrategy: responsiveness and equality,labour market links and enterpriseparticipation, institutional capacitydevelopment, training centre capacitydevelopment, and sector financing.

Responsiveness and equality

From the analysis of existing trainingarrangements in Yemen it becomesapparent that while enrolment has beenprogressively increasing over the past sixyears, the current programme framework isresponsive to a limited constituency ofcitizens and a limited number ofemployment opportunities. There is anevident need for the TEVT system to bemore responsive to the needs of women,dropouts from the education system,handicapped people, those seeking toestablish micro-enterprises, and thoseseeking to upgrade skills in order to movefrom the informal economy into formalemployment. There is a similar need todiversify the programme framework to bemore responsive to the specific skillsdevelopment needs of those enteringemployment in the traditional economy, aswell as those entering employment in themore technologically advanced emergingeconomy.

Labour market links and enterprise

participation

In order to serve its mission of maximisingthe opportunity for Yemenis in all walks oflife to gain the skills necessary foremployment or income generation in theformal and informal economies, a strategicissue for the TEVT system is to deepen itsunderstanding of labour market needs,motivation, behaviour and actions. Thisrepresents a particular challenge in Yemenwhere the employer community includes awide range of small enterprises operatingin the traditional economy, medium-scale

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companies beginning to adopt moderntechnologies, and a small number ofemployers linked to the internationalmarket place where international skill levelsare required of the workforce. Thisstrategic priority is meant to cover areassuch as the development of a labourmarket information system, the liaison withemployment services, the development ofstrategic partnerships between educationand training institutions and the privatesector and cooperative training models, aswell as awareness-raising of the benefitsand relevancy of human resourcesdevelopment among employers.

Institutional capacity development

As illustrated previously, in order totransform the TEVT system from a publicsector supply-driven model, to a model thatis driven more by the requirements of thelabour market and the employercommunity, there will be a parallel need toaddress issues of governance,organisational structure, operationalprocedures, and staff development. This istrue at various levels: at policy level(coordination among all the relevantpartners), planning and management levels(organisation and functioning of theMoTEVT), and operational level (newmodels for the functioning of vocationaltraining institutions and for enhancing theparticipation of the private sector). Thisstrategic priority will cover areas likeorganisational and regulatory reviews,setting up management informationsystems and TEVT system management,as well as staff development.

Training centre capacity development

The challenge for the TEVT system is tooptimise the use of existing and planned

capacities through policies and practicesthat allow greater flexibility in trainingdelivery and a diversification of trainingservices. The whole process of upgradingand/or creation of new TEVT institutionsshould contribute to the development of anew organisation that will cover allfunctions: (i) administrative and financial,(ii) pedagogical, (iii) delivery, (iv)development/communication, and (v)quality control. The capacity issue is alsorelated to infrastructure, equipment and theproblems arising from their maintenance,as well as under-utilisation of premises.This will be linked to the process ofcompetency-based curriculaimplementation. It will cover work in areassuch as the use of facilities, inventories ofequipment, procurement and maintenance,and the introduction of information andcommunication technologies.

Sector financing

With regard to the scope of the proposedexpansion of the TEVT system and thecosts that it will impose on the government,there is an urgency to explore the full rangeof financing mechanisms for TEVT. One ofthe mechanisms adopted as a means ofdiversifying financing of the TEVT sector inYemen is the establishment of a SkillsDevelopment Fund (SDF). While theobjectives of the Fund remain valid, thereis a need to review and restructure itsoperation. Other mechanisms fordiversifying financing sources will have tobe explored. This strategic priority willcover issues such as financing studies andstrategy development, encouragement ofthe role of private training providers (whilemaintaining a balance with the role of thegovernment) and intensive donorcoordination.

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2. INTRODUCTION AND

OBJECTIVES

2.1 THE CONTEXT

During the past decade, the government ofthe Republic of Yemen has placededucation at the forefront of its social andeconomic development initiatives.Significant progress has been made inmoving towards achieving universal basiceducation. This has been accompanied byrapid growth in both public and privatepost-secondary education opportunities.With respect to the technical education andvocational training sector however, aparallel level of growth has not occurred.This has resulted in a contradictorysituation in the labour market,characterised by high unemployment onthe one hand, and a shortage of skilledworkers on the other.

In order to address the current andprojected imbalance between the humanresource requirements of the labour marketin Yemen, and the skills available in theworkforce, the Government of Yemen hascommitted itself to significantly expand and

upgrade the technical and vocationaleducation system. In order to ensure thatthis expansion takes place as effectivelyand efficiently as possible, the Ministry ofTechnical Education and VocationalTraining (MoTEVT), after discussion withthe World Bank and the EuropeanCommission, has agreed to prepare asector strategy that will guide futuredevelopment in the sector. This strategywill be supported by an implementationplan for the first four-year period.

The Yemeni authorities have appointed aplanning team for the strategy developmentprocess chaired by the Vice Minister ofTechnical Education and VocationalTraining. It is supported by an internationalconsultant, acting as Task Team Leader,and by one local consultant. The EuropeanCommission has given a mandate to theEuropean Training Foundation totechnically support this process and towork in synergy with the World Bank on theanalysis of the TEVT system in Yemen andthe development of the strategy.

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2.2 SHORT DESCRIPTION OFTHE PROJECT: OBJECTIVES,OUTPUTS AND ACTIVITIES

The Yemeni authorities have agreed withthe World Bank and the EuropeanCommission on the following activities for

the planning process:

1. preparation for planning (including theestablishment of a planning team and apreliminary assessment of thestakeholder groups);

2. preparation of TEVT/labour marketoverview (TEVT/LM) to serve as a basisfor the elaboration of the strategy(including a description of the existingarrangements, an overall assessment ofthe performance of the sector and anidentification of strengths andconstraints);

3. regional and sectoral consultations;4. identification of key strategic issues for

the TEVT sector;5. vision and mission statements

(including a description of the mainobjectives/achievements for the reformof the sector and a mission statementfor the TEVT ministry);

6. preparation of a strategic plan for theTEVT sector in Yemen, accompaniedby an implementation plan;

7. validation and ratification of the strategicplan.

The overall objective of this intervention isto support the Yemeni authorities in settingup a sector strategy for TEVT that wouldallow technical education and vocationaltraining to better match the skills needs ofthe labour market and the objectives forfuture economic development.

The specific objectives associated withthe preparation of the TEVT/LM overviewto support the development of a TEVTstrategy in Yemen are the following:

� to document the current structure of theeconomy, and identify the quantitativeand qualitative nature of the workforcein Yemen;

� to identify emerging sectors of theeconomy and identify those workforceskill sets needed to attract furtherinvestment and development;

� to identify, through economic analysesand stakeholder consultations, theoptimum role that public and privatetraining providers can play in order toenhance income generatingopportunities by those either entering orengaged in the formal and informalsectors of the economy in Yemen;

� to assist the TEVT sector in fulfilling itsstrategic role within the broaderframework of lifelong learning,especially in the fight against povertyand the achievement of socialdevelopment goals.

In addition to the overview of the currentsituation of the technical education andvocational training system in Yemen and itsrelevance to the labour market, the sectorprofile should provide an analysis ofstrategic issues facing the development ofthe TEVT sector. It should also identify aseries of strategic goals achievable withinthe context of the available investment andoperating resources.

2.3 DATA COLLECTION ANDMETHODOLOGY FOR THEPREPARATION OF THEREPORT

The work was primarily carried out duringthe missions of the international consultantto Yemen in May, June and September2003. The first phase was dedicated tounderstanding the TEVT system and thesecond phase was geared to theidentification of strategic issues that needto be addressed for the furtherdevelopment of the system.

Prior to the missions, the planning team(see list in annex 1) had, under thesupervision of the Vice Minister of TEVT,prepared a report describing the systemand presenting its main components. Theconsultants and the planning teamcollected additional information for theTEVT/LM overview by reviewing recentdocuments, survey statistics anddatabases in Yemen, at the World Bankand other international institutions. Duringthe mission to Yemen in May and June2003, the consultants interviewed the mainactors, representatives of the Ministry of

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TEVT, the Ministry of Planning, as well asthe key stakeholders and Yemeniinternational development partners. Duringthe mission, the consultants receivedpermanent support from the staff of theMoTEVT. The Director for InternationalCooperation at the ministry facilitated theagenda and the planning of the visits, andprovided full support for the achievement ofplanned activities.

In order to maintain stakeholdercommunication and participation, theMoTEVT organised a workshop inSeptember 2003, to review and commenton the findings and recommendationsarising from the initial phase of theplanning process. Participants at theworkshop, which was chaired by theMinister of Technical Education and

Vocational Training, includedrepresentatives from the ministries ofplanning, social affairs and labour, finance,education and higher education. Amongapproximately 80 delegates in attendance,were representatives from thegovernments of France, Germany andHolland, as well as private trainingproviders and employers. Following anopen discussion on the initial findings andanalysis of the TEVT/LM overview,workshop participants were divided intosmaller working groups that engaged in adetailed discussion on the differentstrategic axes of the TEVT sector.Conclusions from the workshop wereincorporated in later versions of theTEVT/LM overview and provided a basisfor the development of a strategyframework for the TEVT sector.

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2. INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES

3. YEMEN ECONOMIC

DEVELOPMENT OVERVIEW

AND POLICY CONTEXT

3.1 GLOBAL ECONOMICOVERVIEW

The decade of the 1990s was the mostcritical period in Yemen’s recent history.The unification of North and South Yemen,rapid development of the oil sector, and aradically changed external environmentfundamentally transformed theopportunities and challenges facing theYemeni people. Economic development inYemen at this time reflected the manystructural changes in the overall economicenvironment. The development of thecountry’s oil fields may have been theelement that kept Yemen away from asevere economic crisis. Oil exportsprovided a new and growing source offoreign exchange earnings, even iffluctuations in world oil prices added a newvulnerability.

Only a few months after unification, Yemenexperienced a major shock. The first Gulfwar led to the return of about 750 000Yemeni workers from the Gulf States,challenging a fragile socio-economic fabric

already weakened by a severe two-yeardrought. The strains from thesedevelopments eventually led to a brief civilwar in 1994, following an attempt atsecession by elements of the formerPeople’s Democratic Republic of Yemen(South Yemen) leadership. It was only afterthe secessionists were defeated militarily –and as the new constitution providing for amultiparty democracy, a free press, and anessentially market-based economic systemtook hold – that the political consensusbecame oriented towards the urgenteconomic reforms that had been delayedsince unification.

In 1995, Yemen started an economicreform programme supported by the IMFand the World Bank, other internationalorganisations and countries. It aimed atstrengthening the foundations of amarket-based and private sector-driveneconomy, integration into world marketsand broad financial stability. This approachhas continued to be the main direction ofgovernment policy.

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The first priority of the reform was torestore macro-economic stability. Althoughthe stabilisation policy was successful,structural reforms have faced greaterdifficulties and greater resistance, andwere constrained by Yemen’s limitedadministrative capacity. The country hasmade some progress in structural reform,especially through the liberalisation ofexchange and trade regimes and by thelifting of price controls, but has left a largeunfinished agenda in tax and budgetreform, privatisation, and the improvementof the civil service.

Deep-rooted obstacles to economicgrowth, notably and including weaknessesin the judicial system and governance,have barely been touched. Reform in theseareas, perhaps more than in others, willhave to emerge from and be shaped bycivil society itself.

During the second half of the 1990s,Yemen’s economic performance in termsof growth and inflation, social indicators,and savings and investment balances,improved. It was a remarkable recovery onthe macro-economic stability front, butconsiderably less so on the socialindicators’ front. This reflects severalfactors: the return to political stability andpeace, oil sector developments that wereon the whole favorable, and the first fruitsof the reforms. However, in order to buildon these achievements an even greaterfocus on growth and poverty reduction willbe needed. The Yemeni authorities havetherefore embarked on preparing acomprehensive poverty reduction strategyin the context of the next Five-Year Plan

(2001 to 2006) and in broad consultationwith civil society.

Although three decades have passed sinceYemen embarked on its developmentcourse, it is still, however, classified asbeing among the 20 least-developedcountries in the world. The majordevelopment challenges facing Yemenhave been identified in Vision 2025, theSecond Five-Year Plan, and the Poverty

Reduction Strategy. These include mainlysocial, economic, demographic, andgeographical aspects.

The social challenges revolve around thehigh illiteracy rate and the negative attitudetoward the education and participation inthe real economy of females, as well as theweaknesses in institutional capacityaffecting the implementation ofdevelopment projects. The economicchallenges stem from the low level of percapita income and the heavy reliance on oilrevenue, combined with increasingpressures on government spending for thenew development projects. High populationgrowth has an impact on all aspects of life,of which the most significant are increasingpoverty, high rates of illiteracy, low rates ofschool enrolment, inconsistentdevelopment needs, and poor healthservice coverage. Finally, the geographicaldispersal of the population makes it costlyand difficult to provide sufficient basicservices, especially in rural areas. Yemenalso suffers from water scarcity, whichposes a challenge that requires urgentremedy. Limited institutional capacity andlow qualifications of its human resourcesare the main features of the Yemenisituation.

3.2 POPULATION GROWTH

Since 1975, Yemen’s population has grownby two and a half times, reaching19.4 million in 2003. According toprojections, the population is expected togrow to 35 million by 2025. The populationgrowth rate increased to 3.7% (1994 census)before falling recently to 3.5%, which stillmakes it one of the highest in the world.The fertility rate declined from 7.8 livebirths to 6.5 between 1992 and 1999. Theoverall contraceptive rate was estimated ataround 20% in 1997.

This population growth is absolutelyincompatible with the economic resourcesavailable, and therefore limits the potentialfor economic growth and socialdevelopment, not to mention the pressuresthat it creates on education, healthcare,food and the environment. The young agestructure of the population (48% under15 years old) also implies a fast-growingworkforce and the need to rapidly expandemployment opportunities.

18


National attention is now focused onaddressing the rapid population growth.A National Population Action Plan wasadopted in 1991 and updated in 1996 and2000. An inter-ministerial and inter-sectoralNational Population Council chaired by theprime minister has been established. Theplan emphasises maternal and child health,sustainable human development and theneed for awareness-raising as the meansto achieve rapid population stabilisation.

During the first development plan from1996 to 2000, population policies, includinga relative improvement in the educationand health sector and increasedawareness on population issues, haveyielded an improvement in demographicindicators, such as the reduction of fertility.The national population surveys show astrong relationship between the educationlevels of women and fertility. The fertilityrate is 6.9 for illiterate women compared to3.2 among mothers who have completedbasic education. These surveys alsoindicate higher fertility in rural areas (7.0)compared to urban areas (5.0).

3.3 GEOGRAPHICALDISTRIBUTION AND INTERNALMIGRATION

Yemen covers an area that isapproximately 460 000 km², with apopulation density that does not exceed40 people per km², and consists to a largeextent of small agglomerations of less than500 people. Some 26% of the populationlives in urban areas and 74% in ruralareas. About half the population lives in thegovernorates of Taiz, Ibb, Sana’a, andHodeidah, whereas the populations of the

least populated governorates, Al-Mahra,Al-Jouf, and Marib, together do notconstitute more than 3% of the totalpopulation. The distribution of thepopulation agglomerations in themountains, valleys and coastal areas, andin small entities, scattered and far apart,leads to access difficulties to essentialservices, especially in view of the scarcityof resources. The population concentrationin the central highlands and the smallnumber of people living in the western andeastern plains leads to a disparity betweenpopulation distribution and the availabilityof resources, which is reflected, forexample, in the increase in demand forgroundwater in the central highlands.

Although urban areas are still relativelysmall, urbanisation is accelerating. Therate of growth of the urban populationreached 7% per annum in 1999, comparedto a total population growth rate of 3.5%per annum. The urban growth rate of theCapital Amana (the region surroundingSana’a) is 9% per annum, which aloneconstitutes about 28% of the urbanpopulation of Yemen.

The limited resources in the cities lead todifficulties in the provision of essential andsupplementary services, and to theappearance of shanty housing lacking thesimplest amenities. The cities requireurban planning and expanding roadnetworks so that the transport sector,instead of being an impediment, becomesa source of growth. Rural-urban migrationleads to an increase in the burdens onwomen, elderly people and children inagricultural work, the neglect of agriculturalland and the destruction of the mountainfarm terraces.

19

3. YEMEN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OVERVIEW AND POLICY CONTEXT

Table 1: Population growth projections for Yemen, from 2000 to 2025.

Population 2000 2005 2025

Population size 18 300 000 21 500 000 35 000 000

Average growth rate (%) 3.5 3.3 2.3

Urban (%) 26 30 60

Rural (%) 74 70 40

Source: Statistics Second Five-Year Plan

3.4 ENVIRONMENTALCHALLENGES

Environmental degradation associated witheconomic development and populationgrowth is one of the main problems facingYemen today. As long as human activitycontinues at a level above the regenerativecapacity of the natural environment, theresult will be a decline in the quality of life.The degradation of natural resources alsoimposes a burden on present and futuregenerations. In addition to the pressures ofhuman activity, Yemen’s climatic conditionsalso call for careful natural resourceplanning. The total agricultural area isestimated at only 1.6 million hectares and90% of the country has an arid orhyper-arid climate with high rainfallevaporation rates.

Most of the natural resources that could beused to build sustainable livelihoods havebeen overexploited, depleted or polluted.The most alarming environmentalemergency in Yemen is a water crisis ofunprecedented proportions. Yemen is oneof the most water-scarce regions in theworld. This is largely attributable to thegreat expansion of groundwater pumping.The over-extraction of groundwater hasbeen supported not only by the availabilityof pumping technology but also by policiesthat make investments in groundwaterprofitable.

Water shortages already exist in majorcities such as Sana’a, Taiz and Sa’adah. Inthe high mountains extraction is as muchas five times the quantity of precipitation. Itis projected that at current levels ofextraction, the water reservoirs in thisregion will dry up within 50 years. Waterscarcity will have a major effect on the jobsand income situation of the country – bothagriculture and industry will be adverselyaffected. In rural areas, water scarcity isexacerbated by groundwatercontamination.

3.5 INSTITUTIONALSTRUCTURE OF THE STATE

The merge of the authorities, institutionsand organs, as they had previously existedin both parts of Yemen, led to an inflatedgovernment administrative apparatusabsorbing the senior and administrativestaff of the two former parts. This had animpact on the financial conditions of thecountry, which, to start with, suffered froma lack of resources, a weak productionbase and structural deficiency and flaws inbudgeting. This situation worsened duringthe early years of this century as a result offinancial deficits and poor performance in anumber of production and serviceinstitutions. The public sector wage billmakes up 10.3% of GDP and 27.9% oftotal public expenditure. The return ofsome 750 000 Yemenis from the GulfStates following the first Gulf war added afurther burden to the government, whichhad the responsibility of absorbing some ofthis returning labour in the public sector.

The administrative apparatus has thereforebecome full of employees with limitedqualifications and low wages, and forwhom there is no real need. The averagewage of an employee in the governmentadministrative apparatus has declined inreal terms to about two-thirds of its formervalue. In addition, public administrationsuffers from a poor distribution ofemployees both geographically and amongthe different government functions andservices. Furthermore, there is a severeshortfall of qualified personnel and capacityis poor.

The delivery of public services andadministrative conditions have deteriorateddue to mismanagement, poor application ofthe law, an absence of an integrated publicadministration system, low wages, salariesand incentives, rigid centralisation andredundant administrative procedures, aswell as the absence of reward andpunishment and accountability. Corruptionhas increase and become morewidespread with increasing violations ofpolicies, which has given rise to false gapsbetween demand and supply, as well asthe creation of opportunities for makingillegal profits. The effects of corruption are

20


a major factor hindering investment,disrupting public confidence and leading tothe misuse of social resources.

3.6 DEVELOPMENTPERSPECTIVES IN YEMEN

Despite the abovementioned challenges,Yemen has several positive featuresnecessary for economic growth anddevelopment. It is endowed with richnatural resources (fisheries, gas, oil,mineral reserves, fertile lands, touristassets, and a rich heritage of handicraft).Besides theses resources, Yemen isstrategically located and has a young anddynamic labour force. In addition, it

currently enjoys political stability andwide-ranging foreign relations and support.Since the mid 1990s Yemen has deployedstabilisation and structural reformprogrammes and has made significantprogress on both fronts.

The Yemeni economy is dominated by theagricultural, service and oil sectors, with alimited manufacturing sector. However, theagricultural sector, which supports aboutthree-quarters of the population atsubsistence level, is not at all dynamic.Economic opportunities within specificsectors and with regard to Yemen’s futureeconomic development are presented inannex 7.

21

3. YEMEN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OVERVIEW AND POLICY CONTEXT

4. THE LABOUR MARKET

4.1 POPULATION ANDLABOUR MARKET1

The labour market in Yemen faces majorchallenges stemming from the rapidpopulation growth and the young agestructure of the population; both of themlead to a rapid increase in the workforce byrates exceeding the already high totalpopulation growth rate. The working agepopulation (15 years old and over) rosefrom 7.3 million in 1995 to around8.9 million in 2000. The increase in thenumber of university graduates, the highpercentage of children not enrolled in theeducation and training system, a highdropout rate from basic education, and thetrend of individuals, especially females, toseek employment to improve theirstandards of living, all lead to an increasein the number of new entrants in the labourmarket and an increased workforceparticipation rate.

The labour force grew at 4.6% per annumduring the period 1994 to 1999 and is

expected to continue to rise at a rate of3.8% a year during the period 2000 to2005, thereby requiring 170 000 newannual job opportunities. Male workersmake up nearly 81% of the labour force.While the male participation rate is about70%, the female rate has remained atapproximately 23%, according to the 1999labour force survey. This reflects, amongother things, a lack of opportunities and lowwages, the opposite of which are crucial forgetting individuals into the labour market.Wages have been falling in real termssince the early 1990s.

Total employment in Yemen increased byan average 3.8% during the period 1994 to1999 reflecting an additional 577 000 jobs.A shift in the composition of employmentaway from the government sector towardsprivate services and agriculture has takenplace. Nevertheless, the growth ofemployment has been much less than thegrowth of the labour force.

23

4

1 The data in this section is based on background information from the Second Five-Year Plan of theGovernment of Yemen, the population census in 1994, and the labour force survey in 1999.

Workers are concentrated in theagricultural sector (53%), which relies onunskilled labour, while employment in highvalue-added sectors, which couldcontribute to increasing the nationalincome, is decreasing. The depletion anddegradation of natural resources,especially water and soil, have seriousimplications for the livelihood of a sizeablemajority of the population. One of the majorcharacteristics of the agricultural sector inYemen is share cropping. This practicetakes different forms depending on theproportion of the contribution to production,assets and labour. The contribution of eachparty determines the share that each partyreceives from the crop (or its monetaryequivalent).

In agriculture, it should be noted thatcontribution of women is not properlyaccounted for in labour force statistics. Thehighest percentage of female participationis in this sector. Women are involved innearly all agricultural activities providing anestimated 60% of labour, but culturaltraditions keep them at a lower status andprevent them from gaining control overimportant household resources.

In recent years, poverty has increased inYemen. The poor have become poorer andthe livelihood of many has become lesssustainable. According to the 1999 PovertySurvey, 27.3% of the Yemeni populationlives below the food poverty line and 34.9%live below an ‘upper poverty line’, whichincludes not only food but also access to

basic social services including educationand healthcare. The majority of these poorpeople live in rural areas. A growingnumber of people lack access to adequatehousing, safe drinking water, healthcareservices, education, income and sufficientnutrition. Poverty is a strong determinant ofsocial exclusion in Yemen. In addition tobeing deprived of basic goods andservices, the poor and other marginalisedsocial groups also lack social networks andeffective political representation.

Until these groups are integratedeconomically and socially, the country willcontinue to be pulled apart by twoopposing dynamic forces: the efforts totransform the country into a modern marketsociety and the severe problems of povertyand poor utilisation of human and naturalresources.

Unemployment in all its forms is alsoprevalent; open unemployment has risenfrom 277 000 in 1994 to 469 000 in 1999.This gives an unemployment rate of 11.5%.Unemployment among women is 8.2%compared to 12.5% among men.Underemployment (wage earners andself-employed for less than 35 hours aweek) reached 25.1%, including mostlyseasonal, casual and part-timeemployment, particularly in rural areas.Underemployed is characterised by weakabilities and low productivity as well as lowwages, which affect living standards andincrease poverty.

24


2.75

3.00

3.25

3.50

3.75

4.00

4.25

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999

Labour forceEmployed

millio

n

Graph 1: Employment and labour force in Yemen, 1994-99

Unemployment is most apparent amongunskilled workers and workers with onlyelementary education. However, there is ahidden problem in the rise of openunemployment among holders ofqualifications, in particular in socialsciences, technical and vocationalspecialisations and graduates of teachingschools, which constituted 22% of the totalunemployed in 1999.

Unemployment is not just confined to newentrants to the labour market but alsoincludes workers who were laid off forvarious reasons. The percentage ofunemployed people who were previouslyemployed rose from 29.7% to 62.8%between 1994 and 1999. Nevertheless, theunemployment rate for the 15 to 24 agegroup is higher than for older workers,which calls for the adoption of policies andprogrammes targeted at young people,both men and women.

The surplus in qualified workers does notrespond to labour market requirements andhas resulted in a significant shortage ofworkers within certain professions. In theabsence of a workforce adaptable to thefast developments and new conditions ofcertain businesses, there has been agrowing dependence on immigration inmany professions.

The illiteracy rate among workers is 48%(37% for males 83% for females), and 66%of the unemployed are illiterate or are onlyjust able to read and write. This group ofunemployed people faces significantdifficulties to integrate into the labourmarket and often fall into a vicious circle ofpoverty. The informal sector is expandingand absorbed about 65% of the totalemployed workers in 1999. This sector hasa limited number of activities and is narrowin scope. There is also a lack of socialprotection and poor productivity within theinformal sector, which exacerbates theproblems of poverty.

The rate of participation of women in formalsector activities was only 22.7% in 2000.However, the number of women in thelabour market is increasing due to theincrease in female graduates from the

education system and the increasingdependence of women in work as a meansof alleviating poverty.

The participation of women is concentratedin traditional fields, especially in agriculture,where productivity is low and accordingly,so is income. The number of femaleworkers has risen by 331 000 since 1997,with the agricultural sector accommodating90% of this increase, followed by the publicsector with 6%. This situation reflects theshortage of job opportunities available towomen outside agriculture.

Several factors limit the participation ofwomen, such as the social and culturalvalues that focus on their traditional role,as well as the poor application of laws andlegislation on gender equality. However,widespread illiteracy, lack of education,and the low educational attainment ofwomen are considered major constraintsagainst broadening the participation ofwomen in the economy, and in society ingeneral.

According to the 1999 Poverty Survey,700 000 children aged between 6 and 14(or 12% of this age group) are engaged inwork, with 35% of them combining workand school. The number of workingchildren appears to be rising in Yemen.Among 10 to 14 year-olds, those in workincreased from 10.5% in 1994 to 16.5% in1999, which reflects the expansion andseverity of poverty and the reliance of poorfamilies on children. Child labour isconcentrated in rural areas (94%) and inactivities related to agriculture (92%), andsmall-scale trade in permanent and mobileoutlets (5%). Working children put in anaverage of almost 38.5 hours per week.About 91% of these children work with thefamily without pay, whereas 8% areself-employed or work for cash or amaterial wage. The causes and reasons forchild labour vary from helping the family(71%), poverty, unemployed parents, or adeceased family provider (15%), to otherreasons including not being enrolled ineducation, no desire to continue ineducation (10%), and the desire for selfattainment (3%).

25

4. THE LABOUR MARKET

4.2 LABOUR MARKETINFORMATION IN YEMEN

The data situation in Yemen is nowherenear as comprehensive as in othercountries in the Middle East and NorthAfrica. The last population census was in1994 and there has only been onehousehold labour survey (in 1999). Thelabour force survey followed ILO definitionsand presents detailed information. Thedata provide a basic insight into the labourmarket situation, but in the absence ofprevious or follow up series, fewconclusions could be drawn regardinglabour market trends. The Statistical Officewould like to carry out a yearly survey butthe necessary funds are not available. The1999 survey was conducted within theframework of the Labour MarketInformation System (LMIS) Programme asa part of the Poverty Information MonitoringSystem project of the United NationsDevelopment Programme. The aim of theLMIS project is to create and distributelabour market data to labour marketstakeholders.

Information about the needs ofestablishments has not been available andhas hindered efforts deployed byrecruitment offices to close the gapbetween labour demand and supply, andcurrently the LMIS project is continuingwith the Survey of Labour Force Demand.The main data to be ‘drilled out’ of thissurvey concern the requirements of thelabour market over the coming years invarious professions and specialisations. Itis considered as a complementary step tothe labour force survey of 1999. Theoutputs of the two surveys will assist indeveloping strategies for the labour marketand employment, as well as for educationand TEVT.

Within the framework of the LMISprogramme a national occupationalclassification system has been prepared inline with international structural andprofessional classifications. Theprogramme has also drawn up astandardised statistical system for theMinistry of Social Affairs and Labour,ensuring knowledge of labour marketconcepts and definitions and regularinformation flow.

26


5. THE TEVT SYSTEM IN

YEMEN2

5.1 EDUCATION ANDTRAINING

The Constitution of Yemen stipulates thateducational opportunities should be equallyavailable to all citizens and should meetthe needs of individuals on the one handand the needs of society on the other inaccordance with the economic and socialplans. However, average enrolment inbasic education is still low (62.2%),especially among females (46.3%), and thedropout rate is more than 15%, in particularin the lower grades of primary education.

The Government of Yemen pays greatattention to education issues, and hasincreased financing for the education andtraining sector. A Basic EducationDevelopment Strategy has been adoptedfor the period 2003 to 2015. In the 1990s,18% of public expenditure was directed atthe education and training sector. Thesefunds have contributed to an increase inthe ability of schools, institutes and

universities to absorb more students. Infact, the total number of students enrolledat all levels increased from 2 453 000 in1990 (of which 29.1% were females) to3 993 000 in 2000 (of which 33.1% werefemales).

The government also adopted a NationalStrategy for Eliminating Illiteracy and forAdult Education, with the aim of freeingpeople from alphabetical and functionalilliteracy. Nevertheless, the limited financialresources allocated to this programmetogether with the weak role of civil societyin it, meant that only partial results wereachieved with a target group of only290 000 illiterate people between 1995 to2000. In view of the high number ofilliterate people, the large proportion of thepopulation not enrolled in the educationsystem and considerable dropout rates, thequestion of eliminating illiteracy andproviding education for adults willundoubtedly remain a primary issue forpresent and future development plans.

27

5

2 The prime source of data and information in this chapter is the Ministry of Technical Education and VocationalTraining.

5.1.1 STRUCTURE OF THEYEMENI EDUCATION SYSTEM

Education is a sector that receives a highpriority during the implementation of thePoverty Reduction Strategy (2003 to 2005).Its great importance in improving humancapital for the process of socio-economicdevelopment is acknowledged by theGovernment of Yemen.

The formal education system is composedof three levels: basic, post-basic and highereducation.

The structure of the education system

in Yemen

Basic education: equivalent to theconventional primary school. It lasts nineyears for an age group ranging from six to15. Successful pupils are awarded anIntermediate School Certificate. There aresome 3 212 schools, with almost 94% of allteaching staff providing basic education forthe 3 518 000 pupils enrolled in 2002/03.

Post-basic education: includes fourbranches of education over two levels.

� General secondary education: this issubdivided into a commerce section(assignment in the first year), and ascientific and a literary section

(assignment in the second year). For allsections, education lasts for threeyears, after which the Al Thanawiya(General Secondary EducationCertificate) is awarded to students whopass a national exam. The total numberof students enrolled in secondaryschools was 513 000 in 2002/03.

� Vocational secondary education: towhich access is granted once theIntermediate School Certificate isobtained (basic education). It lasts forthree years and covers a wide range offields.

� Vocational Training: available as apost-basic education path but remainsdistinct from secondary education. Thetraining lasts for two years.

� Technical education: access to thisbranch is granted after the completionof secondary education in its two forms.It lasts for two or three years in bothcases.

Higher education: includes also threedifferent types of education.

� University education: delivered in theso-called scientific and theoreticalfaculties of the Yemeni universities. Thefirst stage leads to the Bachelor’sdegree and lasts for four years, then thesecond stage, lasting two years, is atdiploma level. Finally, after two to three

28


Master and PhD. degrees3 to 5 years

UniversityScience andArts Faculties4 to 6 years

Teachers’institutes

2 years

Communitycolleges

3 years

Technicaleducation2 or 3 years

General secondary3 years

Vocational secondary3 years

Vocational training2 years

Basic education9 years

LA

BO

UR

MA

RK

ET

Figure 1: The structure of Yemen’s education system

years’ study beyond the diploma, thelast stage leads to the Master of Arts orthe Master of Science Degree. In 2002there were 182 425 students in highereducation.

� Teaching institutes: they providecourses for future teaching staff over aperiod of two years. They are awardedan intermediate diploma.

� Community colleges: They provide anintermediate education betweensecondary and higher education. Theprogrammes last for two years.

The annual statistics of the Yemeniauthorities indicate that there is also aqualitative concern about the distribution ofthe output of the system. The pyramid ofgraduates from the system is reversed: atthe base we find university graduates, andat the summit we find vocational institutegraduates. Moreover, most universitygraduates are those who receivedtheoretical education (human sciences,literature, anthropology and so on). Thisstructure is inadequate for labour marketneeds. It increases the gap between laboursupply and demand and means that skillsare not adapted to meet real marketdemands.

5.1.2 GENERAL EDUCATION

The education system faces severaldifficult challenges. The share of childrenoutside the education system is 38% (23%of males and 56% of females). Enrolmentin schools in rural areas amounts to about38% (compared to 80% in urban areas).This reflects a sharp difference inaccessibility to educational services, whichis even worse for females in rural areas.This difference relates to a number offactors of which the most important are thescattered population, the pressure onchildren to become employed, and theinsufficient number of schools available forgirls or, in many cases, their distance fromthe population centres, not to mention thelow awareness of the importance ofeducation for girls.

Basic education, which takes in 83.8% ofthe total number of students and pupils ofall education and training levels, also

suffers from poor internal efficiency asillustrated by the high dropout and failurerates. Group observation studies indicatethat on average there is a 15% dropoutrate from basic education every year. Thisadds to the number of students outside theeducation system, as well as the number ofilliterate people. Studies also show that thefailures and repeaters reach an average of11%, and accordingly, rather thanspending nine years to complete basiceducation, some students take 15 yearsand some female students take evenlonger.

Moreover, general education faces amultitude of distortions and difficulties,which are exemplified by curricula that donot keep pace with modern developments,the obvious inadequacy of school buildingsand equipment (in terms of quantity andquality), and the weak contribution of civilsociety to the education process. Thesector also suffers from a disparity in theaverage number of students per teacher(especially between rural and urban areas).There are very few female teachers andgirls’ schools in rural areas, andpre-qualification teaching standards arelow.

Until unification there was a shortage ofteachers, which was compensated for bybringing in teachers from other ArabStates. The expansion of public educationled to the increase of teacher training andretraining programmes. This was carriedout within the framework of fiveprogrammes directed at graduates frombasic education, education colleges,intermediary institutes and the higherteacher institutes, in addition to the use ofgeneral secondary school graduates inteaching work. These approaches –despite the obvious differences inqualifications and skills – lead to thereplacement of non-Yemeni teachers andthe creation of a teacher surplus. However,only 28.4% of the total teaching personnelare women. The Comprehensive EducationSurvey of 1999/2000 showed that 40% ofthe teaching staff were holders ofsecondary school certificates or higheracademic qualifications, and that 60% hadcompleted basic education, in addition torehabilitation and training for one or two

29

5. THE TEVT SYSTEM IN YEMEN

years. This shows that the majority of theteachers lack the basic skills in educationand teaching, which in turn is reflected inthe quality of the outputs of the educationsystem.

Based on the above characteristics theBasic Education Development Strategy hasthe following four objectives:

� expanding coverage so that basiceducation will be provided to 95% ofYemeni children in the six to 14 agegroup, and closing the gap betweenmales and females and urban and ruralareas by 2015;

� improving the quality of basic educationby focusing on the development ofteachers and students;

� improving internal competencies andincreasing the funding of basiceducation and diversification of itssources, as well as increasing theproductivity of the education system andits competitive cost; and

� increasing the openness and dynamicsof basic education to make theeducation system more responsive todevelopment and the social needs ofsociety.

5.1.3 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION

University education witnessed an averageincrease in enrolment of about 16% duringthe period from 1990 to 2000. This growthwas paralleled by an increase in thenumber of government universities fromtwo universities with 86 colleges and42 000 students (16.7% female), to 15universities (of which seven are public) with130 colleges (or faculties) and 184 000students (24.5% female).

In 2000 the number of graduates from allthe universities was 17 836 male studentsand 6 600 female students, with 87.8% insocial sciences and 12.2% in scientificfields. This excludes 8 100 male andfemale students who graduated from theteaching institutes.

The government and the private universityeducation sector face numerous difficultiesthat prevent this type of education from

carrying out its functions efficiently andeffectively. The internal difficulties include:the structures and regulatory frameworksof the universities (duplicity andredundancy in the colleges and divisions ofthe universities); predominantly theoreticalsubjects and teaching methods; outdateduniversity curricula out of step with newdiversified knowledge and skills and theirapplication; a severe shortage of teachingequipment and services (libraries,laboratories, workshops, and so on), aswell as a heavily centralised administration.

There is a gap between the educationprovided by the universities and therequirements for development and for thelabour market. There is also a problem withthe absorption capacity of universities (forstudent admissions and distribution amongthe various faculties). The interaction withthe private sector is slow and inefficient.Universities also complain about variousother issues: the shortage and poordistribution of teaching staff; scarceresources for training and retraining; thehigh student/teacher ratios; and the lack(in quality and quantity) of supervisory,technical and administrative staff.

5.2 THE TEVT SYSTEM INYEMEN

As far as the conceptual structure isconcerned, the TEVT sector should play animportant role in the Yemeni educationsystem and provide resources to supportthe development of the country. In fact, itshould fulfil a regulatory and balancing rolewithin the entire education system and itsoutput to the labour market. Thesefunctions are ensured in the design of thesystem through links between the differentlevels of TEVT and the general educationsystem.

Interest in pursuing vocational training(after basic education) and technicaleducation (after secondary school) is stilllow, as the percentage of students in botheducation fields, from the total number ofstudents at all education levels andtributaries, amounted to only 0.4%. Thevocational and technical diploma holders inboth the intermediate and high branches

30


represent less than 2% of the total nationalworkforce. The gender gap is also obviousin vocational training and technicaleducation for a number of reasons linked totraditions and customs, and the lowawareness of the roles of women in theoverall development process.

In contrast, the TEVT sector remains amain ‘absorber’ of dropouts fromsecondary schools, providing them with thepractical skills that they may be able to usein the labour market. This is in addition tothe students who completed their basiceducation and are unwilling to continuetheir studies further. The technicalinstitutes open to Al Thanawiya graduatesare an alternative to university studies andcould prove to be the solution to the excessof university graduates, and could play apart in reversing the labour force pyramid.Furthermore, the different levels ofeducation in general schools guarantee theminimum necessary for enrolment intohigher levels of TEVT.

Vocational training and technical educationin Yemen is, in general, confronted with anumber of quantitative and qualitativechallenges. These include: (i) the lowabsorption capacity of the vocationalcentres and technical institutes; (ii) thepredominance of theoretical subjects overpractical aspects; (iii) the delayed follow-upof the developments and advances in theirfields; and (iv) the unsuitable output inrelation to the needs of the labour market.

5.2.1 HISTORICALBACKGROUND

Few records are available about thehistorical background of the TEVT sector inYemen. During the last 30 years variousinitiatives with different approachessupported the establishment of vocationaltraining centres. These initiatives werefunded by grants from multilateral andbilateral donors (China, Algeria, Russiaand Germany, among others), whichprovided technical and/or financial supportfor the creation of these centres. The resultwas that pedagogical approaches,curricula, diplomas and even the duration

of training were different from oneinstitution to another.

So far the TEVT system is to a large extentbuilt and managed according to asupply-driven approach with weak links tothe labour market.

Reviewing the Yemeni TEVT experience, itis possible to draw conclusions about twofacts.

Firstly, the quantitative evolution of thesector’s infrastructure experienced certainfluctuations. The number of institutes andcentres varied through three differentperiods: before 1980, 10 units (under themandate of the Ministry of Labour andVocational Training) were operational.During the 1980s, nine new TEVT unitswere created. Between 1990 and 1998 thecreation rate stagnated with only twotechnical institutes created. However, from1999 onwards the trend grew rapidly toreach 11 institutes. Globally, 34% of theactual structure was erected in the lastthree years.

Secondly, we must point out that the typeand scope of the units created differedfrom one period to another, mainly due todifferent education policy orientations. Thetraining centres were predominant in theearly years of the evolution of TEVT. Thenthere was a degree of equilibrium betweentechnical institutes (secondary vocationaleducation) and vocational training centres.The recent creations were shifted towardssecondary vocational education structures.This trend finds its justification in thegeneral education policy, which aimsmainly at restructuring the composition ofthe education system graduates which, asmentioned before, is in conflict with labourmarket needs.

The TEVT sector has been gainingimportance as a key strategic area inpolicymaking. The government believes inits critical role in poverty reduction, in itspotential to satisfy labour market needs,and in the need to regulate the educationsystem. This concern is confirmed by themodifications of the structure and mandateof the MoTEVT over the last 12 years. The

31


main important historical phases of theevolution could be summarised as follows:

� transfer of the control of technical andvocational institutes from the Ministry ofEducation to the Ministry of Labour andVocational Training;

� creation of the General Authority forVocational and Technical Training in1995;

� launch of the Vocational and TechnicalEducation and Skills Development Fundin 1995;

� creation of the National Council forVocational and Technical Training in1995;

� restructuring of the Ministry of Labourand Vocational and Technical Training;

� creation of the Higher Council forGeneral Education and Vocational andTechnical Education Planning in 1998;

� creation of two community colleges inAden and Sana’a in 1998;

� designation of 24 May as the nationalday of vocational and technical training;

� creation of the Ministry of TechnicalEducation and Vocational Training(MoTEVT) in 2001.

In 1999 a National Conference on TEVTwas held. Under the mandate of the earlyMinistry of Labour and Vocational Training,three major topics were discussed: (i)human resources development, (ii) TEVT,and (iii) funding. As for the TEVT topic, thesuggested policies and actions revolvedaround seven axes that summarise themajor concerns regarding the performanceof the system.

TEVT policies

Suggestions concerned the drawing up ofnational policies for TEVT that satisfynational development policies and theneeds of the different economic sectors, aswell as the activation of the NationalCouncil for TEVT, the local councils, andthe development of a TEVT informationsystem linked to the Labour MarketInformation System.

The capacity of training institutions

The suggestions mainly concernedincreasing the number of traininginstitutions and the diversification of the

specialisations available in order to recoverthe balance between TEVT and generalsecondary education.

The relevance of TEVT to labour market

needs

To be achieved through the definition of thelabour market needs (qualitative andquantitative) and the appropriatedevelopment and updating of programmesand curricula.

Enhancing the effectiveness and quality

of TEVT

Definition of quality standards andimplementation at all levels of the trainingprocess, as well as the establishment ofthe appropriate audit and controlmechanisms that ensure the continuousenhancement of the system.Decentralisation was also recommendedas the best way to manage traininginstitutions. Finally, it was established thatthe TEVT system should have closer linksto the local communities as well as togeneral and higher technical education.

Staffing

Setting programmes for initial as well aslifelong training for teachers and trainers.Industry-based trainers were asked toparticipate in training provision as part-timetrainers. Field training was alsorecommended for trainers. Finally, thefinancial and social status of trainersshould be enhanced.

Infrastructure

Great attention was directed to this point.Adequate buildings and equipment are tobe at the disposal of training institutionswithout falling behind on maintenancerequirements.

Vocational guidance and counselling

Implementing basic education curriculawith vocational and professionalcompetencies, as well as the developmentof public awareness programmes for thetarget groups and encouraging anentrepreneurial spirit.

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There is a clear political recognition for theimportance of the TEVT sector and astrong will to design a strategy that willfacilitate rising resources for themodernisation of the TEVT system and atthe same time allow the MoTEVT toadequately play its key institutional role.

5.2.2 TEVT PROVIDERS INYEMEN

There are three main types of TEVTprovider in Yemen. The classification isbased on the relevant authority responsibleand, of course, the type of inputs (origin ofthe trainees) and the outputs (qualificationsand certificates of graduates). Thefollowing figure presents the generalstructure of TEVT providers in Yemen.

Until 2001 there was a considerableoverlap between the different authoritiesconcerned. But lately, the MoTEVT startedto gain its leadership role in trainingprovision, especially after the transfer of14 institutes and centres from the Ministryof Education to the MoTEVT.

The main vocational training structure ismanaged by the MoTEVT and is actuallycomposed of 44 operational vocationaltraining centres (VTCs) and institutes (seelist in annex 3).

The community colleges provide arelatively new form of higher education in

Yemen. These colleges are mid-levelinstitutions between secondary schoolsand university studies. They are designedto enhance the suitability of the output ofthe education system to labour marketneeds by providing flexible and adaptableeducation, targeting labour marketindicators, and the evolution of newtechnologies and techniques. The currentavailable training specialties are:computing and electronics, engineeringtechnologies, computer programming, andweb technologies. As soon as theirinfrastructure has been expanded, theseinstitutions will also provide education inthe following fields: car mechanicstechnologies, tourism and hotels,environment engineering, construction andbuilding, small enterprise management,house decoration, precision equipmenttechnologies (medical equipment),marketing and advertising.

In order to address their specific needs forskills and competencies, some ministriesand other public institutions provide theirown training through the institutes andcentres they own and run. There are13 structures including the GeneralInstitute of Telecommunication, healthinstitutes and centres, the Fishery Institute,the Petroleum Training Centre, the BankingStudies Institute, and the CustomsInstitute. Some of these institutionsdevelop academic programmes and givediplomas in their fields of specialty,whereas others provide short-term training

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TEVT providers in Yemen

Vocational and technicalcentres

Vocational institutesTechnical institutes

Communitycolleges

Other publicproviders

Privateproviders

Otherministries

Ministry of HigherEducation and Scientific

ResearchMoTEVT

Figure 2: The general structure of TEVT providers in Yemen

courses. They play an important role inproviding up-dated knowledge and skillstraining for specific needs.

Finally, there are 52 private licensed VTCs.Most of them are in the Amanah of Sana’aand Hadramout provinces. All of themprovide short-term training courses, mainlyin computer skills (80%), administrativeskills, management and accounting (13%),and a few other fields. The total trainingenrolment capacity of these privateinstitutions is estimated at 3 000 students.

5.3 TYPES AND LEVELS OFTEVT: INITIAL ANDCONTINUING TRAINING

There is a common distinction between thetwo types of training in Yemen: formal andcontinuing education. However, the divisioncriteria is not well specified. In fact, twolevels of distinction are commonly used.First, there is a rule that initial training isconsidered as formal training or education,whereas all other types of education,continuing/lifelong training included, areconsidered in Yemeni terminology to be‘parallel’ training.

Secondly, the division is made dependingon the origins of the training provider. If it isan institution under the mandate ofMoTEVT or the Ministry of Education, thenit is formal education. Any other providerwould be delivering parallel education.

However, there is a consensus that formaland continuing ‘parallel’ education are asfollows.

Initial formal education and training iscomposed of three branches:

� a two-year training regime accessiblethrough basic education provided byVTCs in construction, agriculture andindustry;

� a three-year training regime accessiblethrough basic education provided byVET institutes in construction,agriculture, industry, and trade;

� a two or three-year training regimeaccessible either through the generalsecondary certificate (scientific section)or by obtaining a vocational certificatefrom above regimes, provided bytechnical institutes in construction,industry, trade, services, tourism,agriculture and veterinary specialties.

Lifelong learning/in-service education isusually provided through short-termcourses that last for six months.

Dual training refers to the implementationof vocational training programmes incooperation with the training and educationinstitutions on the one hand, and thebusiness and production sectors on theother. This type of training aims at directingTEVT programmes towards meeting theneeds of the labour market. Dual training isfrequently linked to internationalcooperation programmes (such as theGTZ-supported projects).

5.4 TEVT PROVISION:CENTRES AND INSTITUTES

5.4.1 VOCATIONAL TRAININGCENTRES AND CAPACITYPROVIDED

There are 44 operational institutes andcentres providing both technical educationand vocational training in Yemen, of whichthe Ministry of Education recentlytransferred 14. There are another 20centres undergoing restructuring orsearching for financing, or being built, orlacking equipment. Another 19 centres areprojected for bilateral/multilateralcooperation with potential donors. The 44operational units are distributed as follows:

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The above scheme suggests that there is arelative balance between pre-secondaryeducation institutions (the training centresnot belonging to the secondary educationbranch, of which there are 21) andsecondary and post-secondary institutions(respectively, vocational institutes andtechnical institutes, of which there are 23).

The geographical distribution isconcentrated in five main governorates:Aden (8), Ta’izz (7), Sana’a (6), Ibb (6), AlHudaydah (5). Three governorates are notcovered by any operational centre (it isintended that the whole country will becovered by the 39 projected new centres).The present situation stresses theinequality of training available in theregions. Data collected specifies that in2001 some 1 140 candidates coming fromTa’izz were retained for training againstonly five from Sa’dah and another five fromAl Jawf.

Moreover, many of the centres describedabove lack equipment and teaching staff,and this affects their real operationalcapacity. In 2003 the total number ofregistered trainees and students was

11 446, of whom 4 784 were in trainingcentres (41.4%), 4 849 in vocationalinstitutes (42.0%), and 1 813 in technicalinstitutes (15.7%). These institutionsrespond to less than 50% of the trainingdemand (5 513 registered of 12 311candidates in 2002, see annex 4). Thesituation worsens if we consider the totaldemand for TEVT which, besides formaleducation, includes continuing training andshort-term courses. The TEVT systemproduced 2 000 graduates in June 2003.

The capacity problem may be partiallyaddressed by revising the daily workinghours. It becomes obvious that thedeficiency is not only a structural one,since the functional time of the institutionsspreads over eight sections of 45 minuteseach. So the training facilities are onlyused for a single morning shift until2 o’clock. It is true that the centres provideshort-term courses and continuing trainingin the evening period, however, theseactivities do not fully utilise the capacityavailable. If we were to consider the sameinfrastructure within the framework ofwhole-day training provision, the shortageof capacity would be solved.

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MoTEVT

23 Technical and vocationalinstitutes

21 Training centres

4 Technical institutes 19 Vocational institutes

4 Vocationalindustrialinstitutes

5 Agriculture andveterinaryinstitutes

9 Vocationaltrade

institutes

1 Tourism andhotels

institute

3 Technicalindustrialinstitutes

1 Technicaltrade

institute

Figure 3: The technical and vocational institutes and centres in Yemen

It is apparent from the above table thatwhile enrolment has been progressivelyincreasing over the past six years, thecurrent programme framework onlyresponds to a limited number of citizensand for limited employment opportunities.There is an evident need for the TEVTsystem to be more responsive to the needsof women, dropouts, handicapped people,those seeking to establish micro-enterprises, and those seeking to upgradeskills in order to move from the informaleconomy into formal employment. There isa similar need to diversify the programmeframework to be more responsive to thespecific skills development needs of thoseentering employment in the traditionaleconomy, as well as those enteringemployment in the moretechnologically-advanced emergingeconomy.

In addition to the core programmes,MoTEVT has begun the implementation ofa limited number of training coursesdesigned to meet the specific trainingrequirements of the private sector.

On the other hand, dual training involvingenterprises is very limited. A dual trainingformula that adopts the competency-basedapproach and shares the provision oftraining programmes between vocationalcentres and industries could increasecapacity. This type of training is widelyused, has been proved successful and ischeap to provide in Germany, otherEuropean countries and, more recently incountries with emerging economies. Thismodern approach has the addedadvantage of creating links betweentraining providers and the labour market.

In Yemen, cooperation between TEVTcentres and businesses to provide modern

training is limited, and a permanentcommitment from employers barely exists.Most initial training is provided on aresidential basis and there is no exposureto or exchange with companies.

5.4.2 EQUIPMENT

The existing inventory of equipment invocational training centres does notprovide information about the age,technological level or operational potentialof the registered equipment. The databasegives information about the quantity of theequipment with no details about the type orcondition. A quick glance at the availableinformation about the age of some of theequipment in the main institutes (especiallythe oldest ones) indicates that theequipment is relatively old and obsolete – afact that diminishes their operationalpotential and compatibility with the latesttechnologies.

The reform strategy should foresee specificactions for each vocational training centreand should include an appropriatemodernisation/development plan, includingequipment and maintenance issues.

5.4.3 STAFFING

Staffing remains a problem in the Yemenivocational system. The current situationpoints to various deficiencies in thisrespect.

� The shortage of trainers and teachers,which affects the operational capacitiesof many centers.

� A qualitative deficiency in the existingoperational staff. Available trainers aresometimes poorly qualified to teach

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Table 2: Public provider TEVT enrolment trends, 1997 to 2003

Academic year 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Technical institutes 531 407 498 692 1 136 1 748 1 813

Industrial institutes 1 610 1 812 1 849 2 139 2 247 2 670

4 849Commercial institutes 313 364 500 528 1 787 1 607

Agricultural institutes 451 349 343 476 424 522

Vocational trainingcentres

2 403 2 420 2 788 2 572 3 004 3 246 4 784

Total 5 308 5 352 5 978 6 407 8 598 9 793 11 446

modern knowledge and skills or tograsp pedagogical concerns. Thedistribution of trainers over the differentspecialisations needs reviewing; sometrainers are working in fields differentfrom their own specialisation.

� Retraining or competency-raisingprogrammes for teachers areinsufficient.

Some of the trainers in the oldest institutesand vocational training centres teachobsolete techniques, merely because theydid not update their knowledge/skills andpedagogy, or because they do not have theappropriate equipment at their disposal.The pedagogical background and abilitiesof trainers are not always precisely defined.Currently recruitment criteria and standardsare being developed at the MoTEVT. Partof this new set of criteria is already beingused at local level.

Most trainers are not familiar with thecompetency-based approach and fewtrainers use computers and moderninformation communication technologies.Trainers are badly paid which induces apoor return and little motivation and

enthusiasm in performing their work. Thereis no complete national directory that listsexisting trainers, their qualifications andtheir training needs. The system does notprovide suitable national structures fortrainer training or for upgrading their skillsand knowledge by retraining. The NationalInstitute for Technicians and Instructors(NITI) implemented in Aden with Germansupport is a primary but insufficientsolution. Budgets allocated to theacquisition and updating of competencesare very poor and respond neither tocurrent or future needs.

A lot of work has to be done in this areawith the restructuring/modernisation of theTEVT system. Staffing, pedagogicalengineering and curricula development arethe most important pillars of training.Limited initiatives have been made onthese issues. Intensive efforts andpermanent attention should be dedicated tothese critical training components. Untilnow, insufficient attention was paid tothese issues, in contrast with the supportand efforts in areas such as infrastructure(especially buildings) and the provision ofoperating funds.

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Table 3: Staffing structure at training institutions, 2002/03

2002/03

Vocational training centres

administrative 234

teachers and trainers 814

assistant trainers 123

other functions 96

sub-total (1) 1 267

Vocational institutes

administrative 121



other functions 56

sub-total (2) 749

Technical institutes

administrative 99



other functions 117

sub-total (3) 714

Grand total 2 730

Total training staff 2 007

Source: MoTEVT’s annual report 2002

Any restructuring of the TEVT systemshould, as a first step, establish theadequate mechanisms to ensure aconstant flow of highly qualified trainers(both in technical and pedagogical issues)who can lead the training process to asuccessful end.

5.4.4 CONTENTS ANDMETHODS

Training courses, programmes andcurricula are undergoing a transition as aresult of the updating and developmentdynamics of Yemeni society. In the past,the curricula were more like study plans,depending on a syllabus and with lowrelevance to the quantitative and qualitativelabour market requirements. Moreover,there was a weak link betweenprogrammes and curricula on the onehand, and the skills ladder on the other.

The new policy in curricula and programmedevelopment adopts a competency-basedapproach implemented through modulartraining units that are taught in astep-by-step process, in which the trainee

receives a ‘general grounding programme’,then ‘special grounding programmes’, andfinally ‘specialised programmes’ in thechosen occupation. Such a systemensures a maximum of flexibility that leadsto greater suitability and adaptability oftraining outputs to the continuous changesin market requirements. A team from theMoTEVT which benefited from a specialtraining provided by the ILO is introducingthe new approach and is carrying out thetask of reviewing and adapting the trainingprogrammes. The MoTEVT hasestablished ‘guidance committees’responsible for approving advancedcurricula and ‘technical committees’responsible for developing and updatingthe curricula in a framework of more than200 selected programmes.

The competence-based approach issuitable for the vocational training contextand Yemeni socio-economic conditions.However, its implementation requiresmodern knowledge and a serious follow-upof all its stages. Feedback and regularadaptation are the main ingredients ofsuccess of such an approach.

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Task Task Task

Skill Skill Skill

Duty Duty Duty Duty

Te

ch

nic

alco

mm

ittee

sG

uid

an

ce

co

mm

ittee

s

Job descriptionOccupationalClassification

Directory of Yemen

Field visitsto jobholders

and supervisors

Analysing job into duties

Analysing dutiesinto tasks and skills

Field assessment

Final approval of curricula

Curricula design

First approval of curricula

Figure 4: Curricula development and updating mechanism

5.4.5 QUALIFICATIONS ANDASSESSMENT

There are three vocational levels availablefor trainees depending on the number ofyears and the institution providing thetraining.

The MoTEVT has started to develop shortdefinitions for the knowledge and skillsstandards at each level of qualification.These definitions have to be disseminatedthrough the vocational training system.Special training sessions for trainersshould be carried out in order to harmonisethe programme and the provision oftraining. Currently the only criteria is thenumber of years or the type of institutionthat provides the training.

At present, the curricula taught are barelyrelevant to the operational skills to beacquired at each level of qualification. Thesame trade is somehow approached in thesame manner at two different levels, whichdiminishes the meaningfulness of leveldistinction. Assessments are generallyconducted each month, then eachsemester and finally, a yearly examinationthat covers the whole programme in itstheoretical and practical aspects.

MoTEVT is beginning a standardisation ofassessment for the shared or commonmodules in different institutions.

5.5 LIFELONG LEARNING

For development in Yemen, lifelonglearning has social and economic aims andpurposes. To fulfil both social andeconomic objectives, lifelong learning hasto extend over a huge territory and a widevariety of learning grounds: basic level,vocational education and training, civic

values, specific training and in-service oron-the-job retraining, and non-formallearning for professional and personaldevelopment. Most of these learningexperiences already exist and actually takeplace every day. Sometimes they take theform of short courses with or withoutcertification. Sometimes they occur ineveryday life outside any learning setting orenvironment. All these field experienceshave to be taken into account to enableYemeni people to progressively buildknowledge societies.

The challenge for Yemen, as for allcountries aiming to developknowledge-based economies, would be thedevelopment of a policy of lifelong learningor a strategic vision followed by operationalplans to implement it. Responding to thecontinuing training challenges anddesigning the strategies which can respondto these needs is the responsibility ofYemeni government with the cooperationof business representatives, and thevarious training providers at national andregional levels.

Continuing training (formal and informal)has to gain greater importance in theYemeni vocational context. Besides itsusual goals, this type of training plays avital role in correcting the disproportionateoutput of the Yemeni education system ingeneral, and the TEVT system in particular– both quantitative and qualitative output.The key challenges to be taken-up throughcontinuing education are to develop andraise training efficiency, to introduce furtherflexibility, to diversify training in accordancewith the occupations, levels and numbersrequired by the market, and to achieve abetter balance between Yemeni labourmarket needs for skilled workers and TEVToutputs.

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Table 4: Vocational levels available for trainees

Level of qualificationDuration

(years)Prerequisites Provider

Skilled worker 2Preparatory certificate

Vocational training centres

Technical secondary level 3 Vocational institutes

Technician 2 or 3Secondary diploma orskilled worker or technicalsecondary level

Technical institutes

The most important continuing training

programmes already in existence are

short-term and generally last for six

months. The courses currently available

are:

� initial training courses (beginners)

targeted at those without an

occupational background;

� competency-raising training courses

provided for practitioners in order to

enhance their competence and skills in

various fields of their specialisation;

assessments are made by the MoTEVT

structures and in this way they empower

the successful trainees to obtain

occupational promotion;

� retraining courses mostly aimed at

jobseekers, at workers whose skills do

not match their jobs’ needs and at those

whose skills are no longer adequate to

labour market needs;

� refresher courses organised for

developing the performance of

in-service workers/trainees and

enabling them to perform the skills of

their occupations to the required level in

line with the employer’s requirements;

� other courses where methods and

curricula are designed upon request;

they are tailored independently for the

employer or individual requesting the

training.

The available statistics on continuing

training beneficiaries show that from 1998

to 2002 the total enrolment rates have

grown five times. The problem of the

relevance of training to the market needs

is, in principle, less acute in this type of

training as programmes are designed upon

applicant/business requests. However,

there are still problems of quality with the

curricula.

5.6 MISSION AND STRUCTUREOF THE MINISTRY OFTECHNICAL EDUCATION ANDVOCATIONAL TRAINING

The MoTEVT was created on 4 April 2001. It

replaced the General Authority for Vocational

and Technical Training, which was under

the former Ministry of Labour and Vocational

Training. Its mandate currently covers all

structures concerned with TEVT, some of

which were recently transferred to it by

other stakeholders such as the Ministry of

Education.

The MoTEVT is composed of four main

sectors, which are under the direct

supervision of the minister and the

vice-minister, and six administrative

departments, one of which is in charge of

the 11 regional bureaus or agencies.

The four sectors are the ‘hard core’ of

TEVT conception and provision and are

divided into standards and quality, curricula

and continuing education, labour market

and private sector relationships, and finally

planning and projects. Each of these

sectors is subdivided into three or four

departments.

This actual structure (see annex 6) is,

somehow, a staff-line organisation.

However, it seems that there are no links

between the different departments, either

in staff or in line. This results in an

organisation with two structures that

operate independently and which can

overlap. The different departments lack

autonomy and direct contact with the

different TEVT provider-stakeholders. The

regional bureaus are separate from the

main four sectors concerned with TEVT

design and provision, which increases the

gap between the operational management

of the ministry’s structures and the actual

policymakers. The regional bureaus are,

under this structure, confined to

bureaucratic administrative tasks, rather

than being a link between the operational

and policymaking spheres.

The organisation of the MoTEVT must be

revised in order to ensure both the

effectiveness and the efficiency of any

future strategy implementation for the

development of the TEVT sector.

5.7 DONOR ACTIVITIES

The support of donors is of major

importance in the Yemeni TEVT system,

which faces considerable funding

shortages. So the financial interventions of

countries, international organisations and

financial institutions are of vital relevance

to the development of the current system’s

structure and its management. The

following table summarises the most recent

significant funding from donors.

40


Each of the above contributions is relatedto particular projects.

� The German technical advisory

assistance project: various counsellingservices are conducted within itsframework, ranging from cadre andleadership to the development ofcurricula, parallel training programmes,organisation of trainer trainingworkshops and the development ofstudies.

� The NITI German support project in

Aden: aims at providing the NITI withthe capacity to provide formal trainingprogrammes for technicians andvocational instructors.

� Support to priority areas of vocational

training (financed by the EU): covers thecreation of a modern vocational institutein the tourism sector, supporting thedevelopment of curricula in the oil/gassector and measures for enhancingwomen’s access to the labour market.

� The World Bank project (already

completed): had as its objective thestrengthening of the vocational trainingsystem in order to improve its qualityand relevance. Among thepre-requisites stipulated by the projectwere changes to the policy frameworkunder which the vocational trainingservices operate, including therequirement that individual training

centres are given more autonomy andflexibility to develop trainingprogrammes responsive to the needs oflocal and regional labour markets. Otherelements were the establishment of asystem of curriculum development,including performance standards andthe development of institutional capacityof adult education and training centres.

� Polytechnics institute project: thisproject is funded by a loan of $9.2 millionfrom the Islamic Development Bank.

� VET centres and institutes

establishment project: this project aimsto create 35 new centres, 19 of whichare funded by a loan of $50 milliongranted by the Saudi Fund forDevelopment.

Although the contribution of donor activitiesto the TEVT sector development isundeniable, it has triggered a certainproblem of coherence in the overallsystem. In fact, the origin of the donor isreflected in the type of training delivered,and its methods and contents, whichresulted in a variety of training approacheswithin the same system affecting thecoherence of programmes, curricula andcourses. Therefore, in the future it isrecommended that donor funding be usedwithin the framework of a global strategyfor the development of the TEVT sector.

41


Table 5: Recent international assistance for the Yemeni TEVT system

Donor Type of funding Amount Scope

Germany Grant�1 890 000 + anadditional �300 000

For MoTEVT, 2000 to 2003

Germany Grant �1 278 000For NITI, January 2002 toDecember 2003

EU Grant �7 000 000

To strengthen the institutionalcapacity of Yemen’svocational training system atboth national and local levels

World Bank Loan $22 000 000

To enhance the VET systemby rehabilitating andextending centres, equipmentpurchasing and curriculadevelopment, 1997 to 2003

OPEC DevelopmentFund

Loan $11 000 000

Islamic Bank forDevelopment

Loan $9 235 000To create a polytechnicinstitute in Amanah

Saudi Fund forDevelopment

Loan $50 000 000To create 19 technicalinstitutes and training centres

5.8 RELEVANCE OF TEVTTO LABOUR MARKETREQUIREMENTS

It is not possible for the time being toquantify the existing gap between labourmarket requirements and the outputs of theTEVT system. A precise evaluation of theactual needs and how to satisfy themwould not be possible before theachievement of a credible and pertinentlabour market information system. So theresults of the 1999 labour survey and the2003 survey of labour force demandprovides a first insight into how the currentsystem works, its deficiencies and thepotential corrective measures to be taken.However, time series data are moreimportant when it comes to derivingevolutionary trends, especially those whichconcern labour demand and supply persector and profession. Such trends wouldinform about the changes occurring in theeconomic context and labour marketstructure – a process that so far has notbeen taken into account by policymakersand TEVT stakeholders.

Actually, the imbalances that face theemployment and labour market are a resultof various factors, the most significant ofwhich are the shortcomings of linksbetween the systems that produce theworkforce and the requirements of thelabour market. In fact, the prevailingeducation and training policies do notreflect the structural and qualitydevelopments of the Yemeni economy.Hence, the education and traininginstitutions are not able to achieveharmony with the latest conditions becausethe expansion effort has been focused onquantitative aspects, resulting in theprovision of outputs in specialisations andskills that are not in line with labour marketrequirements.

The missing links between the educationsystem, TEVT provision and the labourmarket aggravate unemployment, lead toan uneven distribution of the workforcebetween sectors, a lack of workers incertain professions, the exaggerated use offoreign workers, and the poor distribution ofqualifications among graduates of both theeducation and the TEVT systems. As the

most important source of entry to thelabour market, the education and TEVTsystems remain the major cause of theseimbalances because they failed to fulfiltheir regulatory function. Unless a fullreview of the links between them and thelabour market is carried out, the situationcould deteriorate even more.

Links between the labour market and TEVTusually exist as follows: (i) informationexchange and use; (ii) cooperation intraining provision between TEVT providersand the business sector; and (iii)mechanisms of support and developmentof links between the TEVT system and thelabour market. In the Yemeni context, littlehas been done to establish these links.

5.8.1 INFORMATION USE ANDEXCHANGE

Information and its quality is one of themain problems of policymaking in Yemen.As for the TEVT system and its relevanceto the labour market, the situation is worse.The information concerns the structureslead by the MoTEVT. There has been aconsiderable effort to collect a maximumamount of data over the last three years,encouraged by international programmesand the recent creation of the ministry. Asa result data concerning vocational trainingcentres, technical and vocational institutes,student numbers, profiles, specialisations,and enrolment are now available. However,no effort has been directed towardscollecting data relevant to labour marketrequirements as there is an overlapbetween two ministries and the CentralStatistical Office. Even the available data isvery general and cannot be used to drawconclusions about specific matters. In otherwords, there is no platform or interface thatgathers all stakeholders concerned withinformation on the labour market and itsrelevance to other fields, such as TEVTprovision.

No periodic studies have been undertakento observe labour market changes andpolicies have not been allowed to respondto changing labour market needs byadapting training programmes to newconditions. Consequently, policy planners

42


and drafters have been unable to get aclear vision as to the needs for upgradingeducation and training programmes. Thestrategies conceived need improvement inorder to be coherent with thesocio-economic developments of Yemen.This is the main reason for makingquantitative aspects a priority inpolicymaking in the TEVT context. Thegoal of the current TEVT strategy is toenrol 15% of basic education output,regardless of the specialisation orqualification the students enrol in, so as toensure their employability once theygraduate.

International organisations, such as theUnited Nations Development Programmeand ILO, in fully understanding theimportance of labour market information indesigning strategies, implement differentprogrammes to overcome this deficiency.One example of this is the Labour MarketInformation System programme; a keyinitiative that will provide the datanecessary for policymakers and otherstakeholders in the TEVT system and thelabour market.

The ILO’s technical cooperation withMoTEVT gave birth to the Vocational andTechnical Education Graduates’ Follow-upSystem, or the ‘tracer system’, aninstrument through which one can judgewhether or not education institutions havebeen fulfilling their role in preparing therequired manpower according to thespecifications of jobs offered by thesurrounding labour market. In a secondstep, improvements are to be introduced inthe content and educational methodspursued by the training centres andtechnical institutes. The importance of suchmechanisms comes from their findings. Forinstance, the tracer system – as yet in itsexperimentation stage – provided majorfindings that confirm the inadaptability oftraining contents and methods to labourmarket needs.

� Women are under-represented in TEVT.� A high percentage of graduates are not

employed in jobs in their areas ofspecialisation, either because they are

not available in the workplace orbecause the trainee is not satisfied withthe career he was trained for.

� Graduates are dissatisfied with thetraining programme mainly because oftheir high theoretical content and thelack of practical classes.

� Graduates show low rates ofperformance in their workplacesbecause there was no coordination andcooperation between training institutesand working institutions during thepre-graduation period.

� Some of the working institutions havenever heard of the training institutes.

It is evident that similar programmes maycontribute to highlighting crucial problemsabout TEVT provision and its relevance tothe labour market. The collected data mustbe diffused to all stakeholders andthoroughly processed and used in order toenhance the overall performance of TEVTprovision and ensure its suitability to labourmarket requirements.

5.8.2 COOPERATIONBETWEEN TEVT PROVIDERSAND THE BUSINESS SECTOR

The business sector, being the finaldestination for students and the beneficiaryof their competencies, should be involvedin TEVT provision in all its stages, startingfrom curriculum design andimplementation, sharing the teaching ofskills and knowledge transfer, and endingwith cooperative training and the insertionof trainees into workplaces.

The policymakers in Yemen are consciousof this fact. Cooperative training isconsidered as formal training provision forwhich an initial framework has beenprovided since 1996. It was defined as thepreparation, elaboration and implementationof vocational training in cooperation witheducation and training institutes on the onehand, and the business and productionsector on the other. Cooperative trainingprogrammes started in 1996 in Hodeidahand by 2002 had been extended to fourother governorates.

43


However, despite the commitment of theMoTEVT and its international partners toencouraging the implementation of thistype of training, the business and tradesectors are still reluctant to enrol in suchprogrammes because they find the TEVTprovision inadequate to their needs andinefficient for their own businesses. Theydo not believe in either the mid-term or thelong-term benefits of this approach totraining, and they think that the currentstructures under the MoTEVT mandatelack effectiveness and competency.

On the other hand, many formal TEVTproviders and MoTEVT officials think thatthe business sector is not yet ready to fulfilthe role of training provider. This distrust inno way encourages the development of alasting relationship between both parties. Ifcooperative training is not properlydeveloped it is hard to imagine how thetrade and business sector would be furtherinvolved in TEVT delivery.

Another missing link also appears to be theabsence of industry-based educationalstaff for specialised education. Theavailable lists of staff employed in the

different institutions show that most of theteachers are either university graduates orvocational centre and technical institutegraduates, foreign experts aside. Theindustry-based teachers’ contribution toTEVT provision is crucial because of theirknow-how and the practical aspects oftraining they give. Moreover, they wouldbring a first insight into the gaps in curriculaand inadequacies in relation to the realworkplace.

Continuing education is another way toimplement a communication interfacebetween different stakeholders. However,as mentioned in previous sections,short-term training and contract training arestill too low-key. In comparison to long-termcore programmes offered by formal traininginstitutes, in which 10 060 students wereregistered in 2002, the 3 276 registered invarious short-term programmes ofcontinuing education represent only 32% ofthe overall registrations of the trainingsystem in the same year. As for the privatesector, it is totally left out of all stages ofvocational training provision especially withregard to curriculum design.

44


Table 6: The number of trainees that benefited from cooperative training in 2002 and

their distribution in the productive work field according to provinces

Province No trainees Work fields No tradesImplemented

specialisation

Hodeidah 263 71 9

electrician, mechanics,automobiles, carpentry,architecture, commerce, aircondition, welding, electronics

Taiz 204 25 12

electronics, fine arts, welding,electricity, electronic control,computer programming andmaintenance, light vehicles,electrical engines, hydropneumatic control

Aden 31 10 4general hotel (front desk, foodservices, chief, room service)

Hadramaout 14 2 1 lathing

Al Amanah 214 26 5

petrol vehicles, dieselvehicles, sanitary installations,metal compounding,architecture

Total 726 134 31

Source: MoTEVT

5.8.3 DEVELOPMENT OFLINKS BETWEEN THE TEVTSYSTEM AND THE LABOURMARKET

Due to the political consciousness andcommitment to involve the business sectorin vocational education provision, and theencouragement of donors, somemechanisms are being implemented inorder to bring the TEVT providers closer tothe business community. The mostimportant recent development in this field isthe establishment of the SkillsDevelopment Fund (SDF).

The SDF aims at finding stable resourcesof financing so as to meet the existing andongoing lack of funds for vocationaleducation and training programmes. This isproposed through the participation ofprivate sector enterprises and theircontribution to the SDF in enrolling theiremployees in training and updatingprogrammes. Funds are available fortraining employees whose employercontributes to the SDF. It is also meant tofinance TEVT centres and institutes. Fundsare collected basically from the monthlycontributions of the employers, and amountto 1% of the total of wages and all cash ornon-cash benefits paid to all enterpriseworkers.

However, the SDF has failed to fulfil itsmission of attracting contributors andclients mainly because of the fund’slegislative framework. In effect, the SDF issupposed to finance any trainingprogramme up to 80% of the amount paidby the employer to the fund and not whatthe programme itself costs. This rule

hinders the achievement of initial goalsbecause employers avoid undertakingtraining programmes so they do not haveto contribute to their costs – a contributionwhich sometimes amounts to 70% of thetotal cost. From the viewpoint of theemployers the fund is a cash-box fromwhich they recover only 80% of theirsavings with no substantial benefit. Thefunds collected are not at the real disposalof the fund’s board and cannot be used forother programmes as they are onlyavailable for the use of the contributor.

Besides these structural deficiencies thereis a management problem. Some 43% ofthe fund spending in 2002 coveredmanagement expenses. On the otherhand, the fund’s management is also incharge of collecting the contributions fromenterprises, and 80% of efforts arededicated to this task. Yemen’s socialsecurity coverage is very low and cannotbe used to collect the 1% para-fiscalcontribution.

It is evident that the political commitmentexists. But poor inception andimplementation hamper the mechanismsavailable and hinder the achievement oftheir goals. For better performance, thefund’s inception, organisation andmanagement should be reviewed in orderto separate the collection of thecontributions from the provision of training.The government has to find a newmandatory collection mechanism accordingto the specific Yemeni situation in orderensure regular funding for continuingtraining and promoting permanentknowledge and skills acquisition anddevelopment.

45


6. KEY ISSUES AND

STRATEGY DEVELOPMENT

FOR THE TEVT SECTOR IN

YEMEN

6.1 TEVT OVERVIEW: KEYFINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS

The current situation of the TEVT system inYemen and its relevance to both labourmarket and economic needs suffers fromthe non-existence of a clear and commonvision shared among the differentstakeholders as to how the system shouldbe and how it should perform. The existingpolitical commitment has not beentranslated into an actual process ofrestructuring and enhancement of thesystem.

The analysis carried out in the previouschapters points towards the following keyfindings.

Policymakers have a strong commitment toenhancing and modernising theperformance of the TEVT sector, with astrong belief that it must become animportant component of the educationsystem. At the same time it must target thenecessity to match labour market

requirements, and in this way enhance theeffectiveness and efficiency of the TEVTservices. The overall vision of the future ofthe sector is in line with the country’s keystrategic goals of poverty reduction andlasting economic and social welfare.Nevertheless, a global strategic approachintegrating a common vision and an overallcommitment towards well-defined strategicgoals is missing. In parallel to the design ofsuch a strategy and action plan, it isnecessary to enhance the interfacebetween the strategic and the executivemanagement levels to ensure a soundimplementation of the key goals to copewith the country’s global developmentstrategy. In terms of structures, thecreation of the MoTEVT led to majorenhancements in the strategic front andprovides an opportunity for furtherdeveloping a coherent and coordinatedvision of the TEVT system. The framework,scope and role of national and localcouncils for vocational training need to befurther clarified and developed.

47

6

As described in the previous chapters, thesystem benefits at present from a numberof opportunities for reform or promisingdevelopments, such as:

� the establishment of quality standardsfor TEVT provision, actors andstructure;

� the strive towards the development,updating and standardisation ofcurricula, programmes and trainingmodules;

� the revision, updating and adoption ofthe Occupational ClassificationDirectory of Yemen;

� the emergence of the concern aboutmarket requirements and the relevanceof TEVT outputs to them;

� the creation of the SDF and thechances for involving the businesscommunity and the production sector invocational training provision;

� donor support programmes and funds.

However, the challenge remains on how tointegrate and coordinate these initiativesfor reform within a coherent strategicframework.

The main problem in the Yemeni TEVTsector is its strong supply-driven approach.Despite some attempts at reform, the linksbetween the current TEVT system, labourmarket requirements and the private sectorare very weak, posing the threat ofincreasing unemployment and greaterpoverty. Most training programmes stillfollow the academic model of vocationaltechnical schools. Even when specificcourses are requested by employers, thecurriculum tends to be loaded withacademic education related to occupationalclassifications which bear littleresemblance to current conditions in theworkplace. Many of the degree-grantingcourses tend to be theoretical and rigid.

There are no permanent exchanges andlinks with the private sector. The businessand trade sector is not participating indeveloping programmes and curricula, andin providing training services. Enterprisesare not much interested in humanresources development and investment inacquisition of training and skills. Training isnot considered as an investment in people.Furthermore, there is a mutual distrust

between the TEVT system and thebusiness community, chambers ofcommerce and federations that hamperscooperation to develop dual training and tobring together the providers and thoseneeding to employ skilled persons. Settingup a cooperative climate will take a longtime. The TEVT strategy and theinternational donor community have tosupport the development of permanentchannels for the consolidation ofcooperation among all stakeholders.

The labour market information system isnot well developed. Sectoral or localstudies identifying the developments of thesector/region and the urgent requirementsof skills and qualifications is, to a largeextent, missing. The vocational trainingcentres do not have sufficient interest inthe development of the sector for whichthey are training workers.

Another problematic area is the resourcesand financing of the system. The wholesystem lacks funding for expansion andacquisition of training materials. Initiativesput in place until now to attempt to diversifyfunding have not been successful.Furthermore, there is limited professionalexpertise that could help the modernisationof TEVT, not only in terms of infrastructure,but also of design, content and direction.

The overall capacity of the vocationalcentres is limited. The situation isaggravated by the one-period-per-dayworking regime. The economic return andthe costs involved are not taken intoaccount. Great gaps exist between thevocational and technical institutes at thelevel of equipment, structures, capacity andavailable resources. Some are modern,well-equipped centres, while others aremuseum-like structures and provideobsolete training. The oldest centres set upin the 1970s and 1980s suffer fromobsolete training equipment and a severeshortage in the ability to upgrade theirtechnological tools. The MoTEVT isdeploying efforts to rehabilitate thesevocational training centres at technical,financial and managerial levels.Furthermore, and within the strategicframework, the MoTEVT has to restructureall institutions inherited from the formerTEVT structure.

48


The qualification levels and motivation oftrainers and teachers are quite poor. Thereis no proper system in place for teacherand trainer retraining and skills upgrading,as well as for bringing trainers into thesystem with enterprise-based experience.No standards are fixed for staff recruitment.

In the area of curriculum development,standards, certification and assessment,the situation is mixed. Despite someinitiatives to modernise the pedagogicalengineering of the system, many problemsremain. The business sector is not involvedin the implementation of curricula and itsdesign, and this creates a strongtheoretical focus and irrelevance for labourmarket requirements. There has been nocontinuous updating of certainspecialisations since their inception. TheNational Institute for Technicians andInstructors provides limited services tocover the huge and urgent need to review,adapt and upgrade TEVT programmes.This structure should be strengthened withtechnical experts and qualifiedprofessionals in order to train and coachthe junior trainers and develop appropriatepedagogical approaches and tools. TheTEVT ministry made a good start, butfurther development and external technicalassistance is needed. So far there has notbeen a proper standardisation ofqualifications, assessment methods andteaching approaches. In addition to this,new information and communicationtechnologies are not incorporated intraining methods. Very few vocationaltraining centres have access to moderninformation and communicationtechnologies and there are no perspectivesfor e-learning development.

Finally, the vocational training system (aswell as most of the population) have notuntil now acknowledged the highimportance that the handicraft sector couldhave for job creation and skillsdevelopment. This sector has cultural,economic and social links, and could havea positive impact on the employment ofYemeni women.

The opportunity for a more in-depth reformof the system exists, and this relies heavilyon the high awareness and political will for

reform so that TEVT can play a role in theeconomic and social development ofYemen.

6.2 A STRATEGY FORIMPROVEMENT OF THEYEMEN VOCATIONALEDUCATION AND TRAININGSYSTEM

It is important at this stage to emphasisethe rationale of a TEVT system and itsmandate, so that it serves as a frameworkfor the development strategy. The missionof vocational education is manifold. Thesystem should deliver both basic andspecialist skills to individuals to enablethem to find a first job or adapt theirknowledge to new technologies andenvironmental changes within theirprofessions. In the case of Yemen, theimprovement of social and individualproductivity offers a large scope forreducing unemployment and poverty.

Training is an instrument for structuralchange. It provides an alternative path forworkers who leave jobs that are no longerin demand. The social cost for change isthen lowered. As for Yemen, vocationaleducation seems, as demonstrated, asolution for rebalancing the reversedworkforce pyramid produced by theeducation system. Equality is also, in asense, obtained through vocationaleducation. Although it does not ensure anequal distribution of income it helps todiminish social disparities. Vocationaleducation is also an instrument forachieving national economic developmentand social objectives. It helps to reducepoverty, attract and encourage investors,stimulate regional development, supportpriority industry sectors and ensuregeographical distribution.

Within the perspective of economicdevelopment and social welfare it isnecessary to draw up a new strategy forTEVT sector development. The goal is toenhance the qualifications and skills of theYemeni labour force, supplying the labourmarket with what it needs, regulating theoverall education system and reducing thelevel of poverty in Yemen.

49

6. KEY ISSUES AND STRATEGY DEVELOPMENT FOR THE TEVT SECTOR IN YEMEN

The very first steps in restructuring theTEVT system in Yemen have already beentaken under the mandate of thenewly-created ministry and with thetechnical and financial assistance ofinternational organisations. As mentionedin previous chapters, the 1999 NationalConference on Technical and VocationalEducation identified many of the themesnecessary for future development. Thenumerous themes identified illustrate thecomplexity and links associated with thedelivery of TEVT, and hence the imperativeto adopt a systematic approach todevelopment. Subsequent experience alsoindicates the need to translate the output ofsuch a conference into a concrete actionplan.

The MoTEVT has energetically pursued anumber of the themes arising from the1999 conference as illustrated by severalinitiatives already mentioned. Theseinitiatives have been undertaken becausethey were both relevant and achievable.However, they have not addressed theunderlying systemic strategic issues.

Several measures have already beenimplemented: the restructuring of theMoTEVT; the adoption of thecompetency-based approach in trainingprovision; the revision of the curriculumproduction process; the establishment of acalendar for infrastructure extension; therevision, updating and adoption of theOccupational Classification Directory ofYemen; and the establishment of qualitystandards for TEVT provision. These andmany other initiatives taken by theministry’s officials and local administratorsprove that all parties grasp more or less theessence of any restructuring processchosen. Furthermore, many of theseactions have started to producesatisfactory results.

Technical assistance activities included inthe World Bank-funded Technical andVocational Education Project focused onissues that were relevant in 1999 andcontinue to be relevant today. Some ofthese investments, such as those relatingto curriculum design and development,proved to be effective and have resulted inoperational change. Other initiatives, suchas the Skills Development Fund or the

establishment of regional councils, havenot achieved the desired results.Nevertheless, the basic issues that theselatter initiatives were intended to addressremain valid and should be intensivelyevaluated in order to identify lessonslearned in terms of future action.

For all the reasons mentioned above, therecommendations of this section pointtowards a strategy for improvement ratherthan a complete restructuring process,ensuring continuity with the reforms initiallyundertaken and bringing coherence to thevarious approaches.

In order to ensure success within thedevelopment framework the proposedstrategy should comply with the pillars andfoundations of the country’s generalorientations, i.e. the Yemen StrategicVision 2025, the Second Five-YearSocio-economic Development Plan (2001to 2005), and the Poverty ReductionStrategy.

The purpose of the strategic planningprocess is to synthesise the identifiedchallenges into an integrated developmentplan that identifies the responsibilities of allparties, and can also be used as aframework to seek and coordinate externaldonor assistance. This planning processshould also be used in prioritisinginterventions. The European Commission,the European Training Foundation and theWorld Bank have agreed to continue toprovide support to the Yemeni authoritiesin the process of strategy development.

It is well understood that the MoTEVT andother stakeholders are fully aware of thechallenges they face in further developingthe TEVT sector in Yemen. The purpose ofthe strategic planning process is tosynthesise these challenges into anintegrated development plan that identifiesthe responsibilities of all parties and canalso be used as a prospectus to seek andcoordinate external donor assistance.

Based on work to date, on the findings ofthis report and on the consultationspursued with the Yemeni stakeholders, themain axes of the strategy framework canbe captured under the following fivestrategic issues.

50


1. Responsiveness and equality

From the analysis of existing trainingarrangements in Yemen it becomesapparent that while enrolment has beenprogressively increasing during the past sixyears, the current programme framework isresponsive to a limited number of citizensand employment opportunities. There is anevident need for the TEVT system to bemore responsive to the needs of women,dropouts from the education system,handicapped people, those seeking toestablish micro-enterprises, and thoseseeking to upgrade skills in order to movefrom the informal economy into formalemployment. There is a similar need todiversify the programme framework to bemore responsive to the specific skilldevelopment needs of those enteringemployment in the traditional economy, aswell as those entering employment in themore technologically advanced emergingeconomy.

This strategic issue would answerdemands on how to cover the demands oftarget groups such as school dropouts,women, young people seeking employmentor employees in need of skills upgrading.The issue of accreditation of the varioustypes of training provided would be centralto achievements in this field.

2. Labour market linkages and

enterprise participation

In order to ensure that TEVT systems arerelevant to the workplace, quality ofemployability skills, and the quantitativedemands of the labour market, it isessential that the systems establish closelinks with the labour market at all levels.This is a particular challenge in Yemenwhere the employer community includes awide range of small enterprises operatingin the traditional economy, medium scalecompanies that are in the process ofadopting modern technologies, and a smallnumber of employers linked to theinternational marketplace whereinternational skill levels are required.

There is also a clear need to ensure anefficient and effective matching of qualifiedlabour supply and demand through localemployment offices. The Ministry of Social

Affairs and Labour has recently started apilot project in this area but has a long wayto go.

In order to maximise the opportunities forYemenis in all walks of life to gain the skillsnecessary for employment or incomegeneration in the formal and informaleconomies, a strategic issue for the TEVTsystem is to increase the understanding oflabour market needs, motivation, behaviourand action.

This strategic priority is meant to coverareas such as the development of a labourmarket information system, liaison with theemployment services, the development ofstrategic partnerships between educationand training institutions and the privatesector, cooperative training models, as wellas awareness-raising among employers ofthe benefits and relevancy of humanresources development.

3. Institutional capacity development

As illustrated in previous sections of thisreport, in order to transform the TEVTsystem from a public sector supply-drivenmodel to a model that is driven more by therequirements of the labour market and theemployer community, there will be aparallel need to address issues ofgovernance, organisational structure,operational procedures, and staffdevelopment.

This is true at various levels: policy level(coordination among all the relevantpartners), planning and management levels(organisation and functioning of theMoTEVT), and operational level (newmodels for the functioning of vocationaltraining centres and for enhancing theparticipation of the private sector).

This strategic priority will cover areas likeorganisational and regulatory reviews,setting up management informationsystems and TEVT system management,as well as staff development.

4. Training centre capacity development

The challenge of TEVT system is tooptimise the use of the existing and thefuture planned capacities through policies

51

6. KEY ISSUES AND STRATEGY DEVELOPMENT FOR THE TEVT SECTOR IN YEMEN

and practices that allow greater flexibility intraining delivery and a diversification oftraining services. The whole process ofupgrading and/or creation of new TEVTinstitutions should contribute to thedevelopment of a new type of organisationthat will cover all functions:

i) administrative and financial,ii) pedagogical,iii) delivery,iv) development/communication, andv) quality control.

Support for quality improvement will beachieved through strengthening linksbetween vocational institutions andenterprises (in terms of information,organisation and delivery) leading toimproved training delivery.

The capacity issue is also related toinfrastructure, equipment and the problemsraised by the maintenance of both, as wellas under-utilisation of the premises. Thiswill be linked to the process ofcompetency-based curriculumimplementation. It will cover work in areassuch as the use of facilities, inventories ofequipment, procurement and maintenance,and introduction of information andcommunications technologies. On the otherhand, an analysis of facility and equipmentrequirements for different programmelevels may suggest designating a limitednumber of centres for advanced trainingonly while others respond to a broaderrange of training needs. Consideration willalso be given to the possibilities of

reaching synergy effects with neighbouringTEVT institutions and local enterprises.

5. Sector financing

In recognising the scope of the proposedexpansion of the TEVT system and thecosts that this will involve, there is anurgency to explore the full range offinancing mechanisms for TEVT. One ofthese adopted in order to diversifyfinancing of the TEVT sector in Yemen hasbeen the establishment of a SkillsDevelopment Fund. While the objectives ofthe Skills Development Fund remain valid,there is a need to review and restructure itsoperation. Other mechanisms fordiversifying financing sources will have tobe explored.

There will be a continuing need forparticipation by the international donorcommunity in the development andfinancing of TEVT in Yemen. While there isa degree of dialogue between somedonors, other investments are being madewithout ensuring a full coordination ofobjectives and activities. The absence ofsuch coordination subsequently createsgaps that have a negative impact on theinternal and external efficiency of thesystem.

This priority will cover factors such asstudies into financing and strategydevelopment, encouragement of the role ofprivate training providers (while maintaininga balance with the role of the government)and intensive donor coordination.

52


ANNEXES

Annex 1: Planning team to undertake the formulation of a strategic plan for the

development of TEVT in the Republic of Yemen

Annex 2: Main labour market indicators according to the 1999 labour force survey

Annex 3: Initial and continuing training institutions under the mandate of the MoTEVT

Annex 4: Applicants and accepted total (formal/parallel) in technical vocational institutes

and vocational training centres in 2002/03

Annex 5: Training programmes implemented in the MoTEVT’s training institutions for the

private sector in 2002

Annex 6: Current organisation chart of the MoTEVT

Annex 7: Development opportunities within economic sectors

53

ANNEX 1: PLANNING TEAM TO UNDERTAKE THE FORMULATIONOF A STRATEGIC PLAN FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF TEVT INTHE REPUBLIC OF YEMEN

Sultan Al Abidy Higher Council for Education Planning

Hussein Al Ahjary Ministry of Civil Service

Abdul Wahed Al Ghafori Association of Industries

Hamoud Al Umaisy Ministry of Planning

Jameel Al Aribi Ministry of Finance

Abeer Hashim National Women’s Committee

Yahia Al khulani Federation of Labourers

Mohamed Ben Rabia’a Deputy Minister, Projects and Procurement

Mohamed Moqbil Al Hazwarah Deputy Minister, Training and Curricula

Abdullah Ali Jubary Deputy Minister, Quality Control and National Standards

Hadi Ali Abu Luhom Deputy Minister, Private Sector and Labour Market

ANNEX 2: MAIN LABOUR MARKET INDICATORS ACCORDING TOTHE 1999 LABOUR FORCE SURVEY

1. Economically active people 4 090 680

Male 3 121 204

Female 969 476

1.1 Employed people 3 621 679

Male 2 731 569

Female 890 110

1.2 Unemployed people 469 001

Male 389 635

Female 79 366

1.2.1 Unemployed people having worked previously 294 359

Male 266 015

Female 28 344

1.2.2 Unemployed people never having worked 174 642

Male 123 620

Female 51 022

2. Not economically active people 4 825 508

Male 1 345 259

Female 3 480 249

Total workforce (1+2) 8 916 188

Male 4 466 463

Female 4 449 725

54


ANNEX 3: INITIAL AND CONTINUING TRAINING INSTITUTIONSUNDER THE MANDATE OF THE MINISTRY OF TECHNICALEDUCATION AND VOCATIONAL TRAINING

Province Training institution Field Start year

Alamanah

Vocational training centre Baghdad Industrial-building 1978

Vocational training centre Dahban Industrial-building 1983

Industrial vocational institute Hada Industrial-building 1970

Agricultural and veterinary institute Agriculture and veterinary 1982

Abdennasser commercial vocationalinstitute

Commercial 2000

Arwa commercial vocational institute Commercial 2000

Aden

Vocational training centre Almansoura Industrial-building 1971

Vocational training centre Khor Maxer Industrial-building 1977

National Institute for Technicians andInstructors Dar sa’ad

Industrial-building 1995

Industrial technical institute Muala Industrial-building 1952

Hotel-tourism institute Al-Tawahi Hotels and tourism 1999

Commercial technical institute KhorMaxer

Commercial 1999

Maritime technical instituteJazeerat-al-’ommel (Worker Island)

Maritime-fishing 2001

Vocational training centreBouemdiene/Sabr


Technical agricultural institute Sabr Agricultural 1983

DhamarVocational training centre Dhamar Industrial-building 1979

Vocational training centre Wsab-al-’aly Industrial-building 2000

Al-Mahweet Vocational training centre Al-Mahweet Industrial-building 1999

Ma’reb Vocational training centre Mareb Industrial-building

Al-MokallaVocational training centre AL-Mokalla Industrial-building 1975

Commercial vocational institute Fouh Commercial 2000

Say’un Vocational training centre Say’un Industrial-building 1980

Alhodeidah

Vocational training centre Hayy-al-’ommel Industrial-building 1979

Industrial vocational institute Al-Dorayhimi Industrial-building 1994

Agricultural vocational institute Sardoud Agricultural 1982

Al-Thawra commercial vocational institute Commercial 2000

Balkis commercial vocational institute Commercial 2000

HajaTechnical institute Abs Industrial-building 2002

Al-Thawra commercial vocational institute Commercial 2000

Abyan

Ouras vocational training centre zungbar Industrial-building 1986

Vocational training centre Alkoud Industrial-building 1976

Industrial vocational institute Alkoud Industrial-building 1985

Taiz

Industrial vocational institute Alhaseb Industrial-building 1980

Vocational training centreAlsaeed/Alo’rouk


Technical industrial institute Alhoban Industrial-building 1999

Vocational training centre Alturba Industrial-building 2000

Commercial vocational institute Taiz Commercial 2000

Alkhansa’ commercial vocational instituteTaiz

Commercial 2000

55

ANNEXES

Province Training institution Field Start year

Ibb

Agricultural vocational institute Aloudyn Agricultural 2000

Vocational training centre Yarim Industrial-building 2000

Vocational training centre Al-Naderah Industrial-building 2000

Vocational training centre Al-Kafr Industrial-building 2000

Vocational training centre Dar-Acharaf Industrial-building 2000

Commercial vocational institute Ibb Commercial 2000

Al-Dhala Vocational training centre Jubn Industrial-building 2001

Amran Vocational training centre Khomr Industrial-building

ANNEX 4: APPLICANTS AND ACCEPTED TOTAL(FORMAL/PARALLEL) IN TECHNICAL VOCATIONAL INSTITUTESAND VOCATIONAL TRAINING CENTRES IN 2002/03

SN Province

Vocational

training centres

Vocational

institutes

Technical

institutesTotal

Applicantstotal

Acceptedtotal

Applicantstotal

Acceptedtotal

Applicantstotal

Acceptedtotal

Applicants Accepted

1 Alamanah 2 024 686 1 812 538 3 836 1 224

2 Aden 540 371 536 368 889 564 1 965 1 303

3 Taiz 361 123 953 382 1 763 755 3 077 1 260

4 Abyan 315 124 180 96 495 220

5 Hadramot 491 269 157 100 648 369

6 Hodeidah 570 170 795 345 1 365 515

7 Haja 184 147 132 97 316 244

8 Ibb 97 61 97 61

9 Dhamar 512 317 512 317

Total 4 813 2 060 4 714 2 037 2 784 1 416 12 311 5 513

ANNEX 5: TRAINING PROGRAMMES IMPLEMENTED IN THETRAINING INSTITUTIONS OF THE MINISTRY OF TECHNICALEDUCATION AND VOCATIONAL TRAINING FOR THEPRIVATE SECTOR IN 2002

SN Institute Name No of training fields No of beneficiaries

1 Industrial vocational institute Hada 5 11

2 Vocational training centre Baghdad 9 10

3 Vocational training centre Dahban 3 1

4 Vocational training centre Khor Maxer 4 1

5 Vocational training centre Dhamar 7 1

Total 28 24

56


ANNEX 6: CURRENT ORGANISATION CHART OF THE MINISTRYOF TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND VOCATIONAL TRAINING

57

ANNEXES

Cu

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ula

an

dco

ntin

uin

ge

du

ca

tio

nse

cto

rL

ab

ou

rm

ark

eta

nd

priva

tese

cto

rre

latio

nsh

ips

se

cto

r

Equipment andmaintenance

Sta

nd

ard

sa

nd

qu

alit

yse

cto

rP

lan

nin

ga

nd

pro

jects

se

cto

r

Technical cooperation

Women training

TEVT councils affairs

Training services

Vocational guidance

Research and libraries

Staff training

Student services

Curricula and educationmethods

Standards and vocationalclassification

Om

ran

Vic

eM

inis

ter

Cu

rren

to

rgan

isati

on

als

tru

ctu

reo

fth

eM

oT

EV

T

Institutions projects

Information and statistics

Inspection andtotal quality

Examinations

Ma

’re

bIb

bH

ajja

Ho

da

yd

ah

Ab

ya

nTa

izA

ma

na

hH

ad

ram

ou

tA

de

nD

ho

ma

r

Th

eM

inis

ter

Inspection andcontrol dept

Legal affairs dept

Information andpublic relations dept

Finance dept

Staff affairs dept

Local bureaus

Studies andTEVT map

Counsellors

Ministers council

Ministers bureau

SDF

Foreign investment

ANNEX 7: DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES WITHIN ECONOMICSECTORS

Major

potentials

Main

constraints

Vocational training

relevance

1. Agricultural sector

� huge fishery resources

� 1/3 of cultivatable landcurrently not used

� good export potential due toproximity to Gulf markets

� huge potential for increasingactual productivity

� substantial yield gap

� limited water resources

� extensive qat plantations

� high population growth andrapid urbanisation

� prevalence of traditionalcultivation methods

There is a sufficient structure(institutes and centres) thatprovides agricultural training.However, the education contentis traditional. Curricula andtraining methods should beupdated. There must also be amechanism for helpinggraduates’ insertion andentrepreneurship.

1.1 Fishery sub-sector

� fish reserves estimated at850 000 tons

� warm waters

� high value fish stocks

� limited infrastructure

� inefficiency of management offisheries and marine life

� incomplete legislation andregulations

� lack of quality control

� poor performance ofinstitutions

With regard to the goals andpotential assigned to thissector, the 55 graduates of theMaritime Technical Institute arevery few. An increase incapacity and a concentration onnew fishing techniques andequipment are necessary.

2. Industrial sector

� potential for new gas and oildiscoveries

� large mining potential

� potential in manufacturing asnatural resources, and cheapand abundant manpoweravailable

� financial constraints

� weak institutional framework

� lack of security

� weak infrastructure and highproduction costs

� weak legal and judicialsystems

Within the framework of theSupport to Priority Areas ofVocational Training project, anoil and mining vocationalinstitute is being established.However, the curricula andprogrammes taught must beupdated.

2.1 Manufacturing

� abundance of raw materials

� large population comparedwith other Gulf countries

� low cost labour available

� strategic transit location

� establishment of the AdenFree Zone

� high production costs

� high costs of transportationdue to weak networks, poorroads and monopolies in thesector

� low productivity

� low level of domestic demand

� lack of skilled manpower andhigh cost of foreign skilledworkers

� harrying by governmentbureaucrats

A good and diffused structureof training exists despite anunder-utilised capacity.Programmes and curricula areinadequate for the mostdemanded specialisations.Education methods are poor.Training equipment andteaching techniques areobsolete. Much effort is to bedeployed to enhance theperformance of TEVT system inthis field.

2.2 Construction

� good quality and cheapbuilding material

� high skills in construction andbuilding

� lack of regulations with regardto property rights, landownership, titles andregistrations

The current structure is to befully utilised in order to respondto the increasing demand forskilled labour. Furtherup-to-date knowledge andtechniques and specialisationsare to be implemented.

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Major

potentials

Main

constraints

Vocational training

relevance

3. Services sector

� good potential for tourism

� good prospects for trade andtransport services

� weak legal and judicialsystem

� monopolies divert the privatesector

� lack of technical skills for highquality services

� security concerns in manygovernorates

Further specialised institutesare to be established. Thecurrent scope covers traditionalcommercial training. Furtheracute and precise disciplinesare to be taught.

3.1 Tourism

� attractive uncontaminatednatural environment andunique cultural heritage

� 2 000 km of coastline andmore than 100 islands

� outstanding and diversifiedlandscapes

� beautiful villages nestled inthe mountains facing densepalm groves

� cities and villages inhabitedby a traditional populationwhose lifestyle echoescenturies of civilization in themaking

� security concerns

� travel warnings by manywestern governments

� hurdles of different kindshamper investments

� high cost of hotel operationsand lack of air transportationdiminishing the margin of touroperators

� poor service in hotels due topoor management and staffqualifications

There is only one hotel andtourism institute which is notfully operational. The capacitymust be increased, with anemphasis on certain trainingfields in hotel management inorder to enhance the serviceprovision of hotels.

3.2 Transport and communication

� two telephone lines for every100 people leaving scope forcommunication services

� Yemen’s locationadvantageous in the shippingnetwork

� 14 airports of which 6international ones

� 6 586 asphalt roads in 2000

� monopoly of transport sector

� lack of standards,specifications, maintenanceof roads

� old fleet of ships and portequipment

� monopoly of telephoneservices

� high cost of communications

There is a great scope toestablish new programmes fornew businesses/specialties inboth the transport andcommunications sector. Typeand capacity of providedcurricula must be determinedaccording to results of strategicstudies.

3.3 Handicrafts

� Yemen’s rich cultural andhistorical background andtraditional heritage offeringgreat opportunities to develophandicrafts

� weak local demand

� poor tourism performancedecreasing the demand forhandicrafts

� absence of institutionalframework

� no or weak legislation andregulations to organise thesector, the occupations, thelicensing

� no political commitment todevelop the sector

Handicrafts could absorb animportant proportion of trainingdemand. Many specialisationscould be established. Mucheffort to be deployed incurricula and programmesdevelopment.

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ANNEXES

LIST OF ACRONYMS

ETF European Training Foundation

EU European Union

GDP Gross domestic product

GTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit(German Association for Technical Cooperation)

ILO International Labour Organization

IMF International Monetary Fund

LM Labour market

MoTEVT Ministry of Technical Education and Vocational Training

NITI National Institute for Technicians and Instructors

SDF Skills Development Fund

TEVT Technical Education and Vocational Training

VTC Vocational training centre

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EUROPEAN TRAINING FOUNDATION

TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND VOCATIONAL TRAINING IN YEMEN AND

ITS RELEVANCE TO THE LABOUR MARKET

Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the

European Communities

2004 – 64 pp. – 21.0 x 29.7 cm

ISBN 92-9157-404-X

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