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Transcript of Clastic depositional system
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Clastic Hierarchies and EustasyClastic Hierarchies and Eustasy
Spring 2005
Professor Christopher G. St. C. KendallProfessor Christopher G. St. C. [email protected] [email protected]
777.2410777.2410
Clastic Depositional SystemsClastic Depositional Systems
Their Response Their Response to to
Base Level ChangeBase Level Change
Based, in part, on classroom lectures Based, in part, on classroom lectures by David Barbeau & Chris Kendallby David Barbeau & Chris Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Lecture Series OverviewLecture Series Overview Sequence stratigraphy & stratigraphic surfacesSequence stratigraphy & stratigraphic surfaces Basics: Ideal ‘sequence’ of Vail et al 1977 & Basics: Ideal ‘sequence’ of Vail et al 1977 &
associated terminologyassociated terminology Clastic system response to changing sea level and Clastic system response to changing sea level and
rates of sedimentation - with movierates of sedimentation - with movie Carbonate systems response to changing sea Carbonate systems response to changing sea
level and rates of sedimentation - with movie level and rates of sedimentation - with movie Exercises – Sequence stratigraphy of carbonates Exercises – Sequence stratigraphy of carbonates
and clastics from chronostratigraphy, seismic, and clastics from chronostratigraphy, seismic, outcrop and well log characteroutcrop and well log character
Sedimentary rocks are the Sedimentary rocks are the product of the generation, product of the generation, transport, deposition, and transport, deposition, and diagenesis of detritus and diagenesis of detritus and solutes derived from pre-existing solutes derived from pre-existing rocks.rocks.
Sedimentary rocks are the Sedimentary rocks are the product of the creation, transport, product of the creation, transport, depositiondeposition, and diagenesis of , and diagenesis of detritus and solutes derived from detritus and solutes derived from pre-existing rocks.pre-existing rocks.
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Depositional SystemsDepositional Systems depositional systemdepositional system:: assemblage of multiple process-related assemblage of multiple process-related
sedimentary facies assemblages, commonly identified by the sedimentary facies assemblages, commonly identified by the geography in which deposition occurs.geography in which deposition occurs.
EX: nearshore depositional system, deep marine depositional system, EX: nearshore depositional system, deep marine depositional system, glacial depositional system, fluvial depositional systemglacial depositional system, fluvial depositional system
NBNB depositional systems are: depositional systems are:modern featuresmodern featuresused to interpret ancient sedimentary successionsused to interpret ancient sedimentary successions
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Types of Depositional SystemsTypes of Depositional Systems
marinemarine ocean, sea ocean, sea
transitionaltransitional part land, part ocean part land, part ocean
terrestrialterrestrial land land
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Clastic Depositional SystemsClastic Depositional SystemsTerrestrialTerrestrial
Transitional
TransitionalMarineMarine
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Clastic Depositional SystemsClastic Depositional SystemsTerrestrialTerrestrial
Transitional
TransitionalMarineMarine
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Clastic Depositional SystemsClastic Depositional SystemsTerrestrialTerrestrial
Transitional
TransitionalMarineMarine
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Characteristics of Clastic SystemCharacteristics of Clastic System Critical stratigraphic signals of system?Critical stratigraphic signals of system? Geomorphologic & tectonic setting Geomorphologic & tectonic setting Dominant sedimentary processesDominant sedimentary processes FaciesFacies
Subdividing surfacesSubdividing surfacesLithologyLithologySedimentary structuresSedimentary structuresGeometries – Confined versus open Geometries – Confined versus open Fauna & floraFauna & flora
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Types of Depositional SystemsTypes of Depositional Systems
marinemarine ocean, sea ocean, sea
terrestrialterrestrial land land
transitionaltransitional part land, part ocean part land, part ocean
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Types of Depositional SystemsTypes of Depositional Systems
marinemarine ocean, sea ocean, sea
transitionaltransitional part land, part ocean part land, part ocean
terrestrialterrestrial land land
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Marine Depositional SystemsMarine Depositional Systems shallow/nearshoreshallow/nearshore
tide-dominatedtide-dominatedwave-dominatedwave-dominatedreefreef
shelf/platformshelf/platformcarbonatecarbonateclasticclastic
deep marinedeep marinedeep sea fansdeep sea fanspelagicpelagic
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Marine Depositional SystemsMarine Depositional Systems wave-dominated coastswave-dominated coasts tide-dominated coaststide-dominated coasts fluvial-dominated coasts (deltas)fluvial-dominated coasts (deltas) carbonate reefscarbonate reefs clastic shelves & platformsclastic shelves & platforms carbonate shelves & platformscarbonate shelves & platforms deepwater fansdeepwater fans pelagic abyssal plainspelagic abyssal plains
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Coastal Depositional SystemsCoastal Depositional Systems Form proximal to shorelinesForm proximal to shorelines Geographically narrow, geologically importantGeographically narrow, geologically important Fluid flow transport and depositionFluid flow transport and deposition
Surface wavesSurface wavesTidal waves (not tsunami!)Tidal waves (not tsunami!)Fluvial inputFluvial input
Grain-size decreases with deeper water Grain-size decreases with deeper water Onshore, offshore & longshore sediment transport Onshore, offshore & longshore sediment transport
importantimportant Net sediment input (often from rivers) often leads to Net sediment input (often from rivers) often leads to
progradationalprogradational geometries geometries Important for tracking sea-level changesImportant for tracking sea-level changes
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Coast TypesCoast Types
Dalrymple et al, 1992Dalrymple et al, 1992
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Coast TypesCoast Types
Dalrymple et al, 1992
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Tidal Range and Coastal MorphologyTidal Range and Coastal Morphology
Hayes, 1979Hayes, 1979
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
CoastCoastTypesTypes
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Marine Depositional SystemsMarine Depositional Systems wave-dominated coastswave-dominated coasts tide-dominated coaststide-dominated coasts fluvial-dominated coasts (deltas)fluvial-dominated coasts (deltas) carbonate reefscarbonate reefs clastic shelves & platformsclastic shelves & platforms carbonate shelves & platformscarbonate shelves & platforms deepwater fansdeepwater fans pelagic abyssal plainspelagic abyssal plains
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Waves & Wave PeriodsWaves & Wave Periods
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Characteristics of Beach SystemsCharacteristics of Beach Systems Sediments coarsen upward from marine shalesSediments coarsen upward from marine shales Linear sand bodies parallel to basin margin, serrated margins landward Linear sand bodies parallel to basin margin, serrated margins landward Formed by a mix of waves and tidal currentsFormed by a mix of waves and tidal currents FaciesFacies
Subdivided erosion surfaces formed during Subdivided erosion surfaces formed during – Dropping in base levelDropping in base level
Local channelsLocal channels– Rising in base levelRising in base level
Wells sorted and rounded pure quartz arenites commonWells sorted and rounded pure quartz arenites commonSedimentary structures Sedimentary structures
– Offshore hummocky wavy beddingOffshore hummocky wavy bedding– Nearshore cut and fillNearshore cut and fill– Gently seaward dipping thin parallel beds Gently seaward dipping thin parallel beds
Geometries Geometries – Confined incised channelsConfined incised channels– Open linear sheets parallel to shore Open linear sheets parallel to shore
Fauna & floraFauna & flora– Marine fauna at base of units Marine fauna at base of units – Terrestrial flora at crest of units Terrestrial flora at crest of units
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Vertical stacking of shore line sedimentsVertical stacking of shore line sediments
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
CoastCoastTypesTypes
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Beach Face - South Carolina ForeshoreBeach Face - South Carolina Foreshore
Note High Energy Planar BedsNote High Energy Planar Beds
Photo: G. Voulgaris
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Trough Cross-bed Current RipplesTrough Cross-bed Current Ripples
Ordovician – Near WinchesterOrdovician – Near WinchesterKentuckyKentucky
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Offshore Coastal Profile - HummockyOffshore Coastal Profile - Hummocky
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Coastal ProfileCoastal Profile
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
GeomorphologyGeomorphologyof Coastof Coast
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Coastal MorphologyCoastal Morphology
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Coastal Profile and LithofaciesCoastal Profile and Lithofacies
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Coastal Lithofacies & ArchitectureCoastal Lithofacies & Architecture
Aigner & Reineck, 1982
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
CoastalCoastalLithofaciesLithofacies
Reineck & Singh, 1980
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Walker, 1984Walker, 1984
ProgradationProgradation TransgressionTransgression InletInlet
Coastal LithofaciesCoastal Lithofacies
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Hayes, 1979Hayes, 1979
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Hubbard et al., 1979Hubbard et al., 1979
Tide Versus Wave DominationTide Versus Wave Domination
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Coastal MorphologyCoastal Morphology
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Wave Dominated - Texan CoastWave Dominated - Texan Coast
Note Storm WashoverNote Storm WashoverSerrated Back BarrierSerrated Back Barrier
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Wave Dominated - Texan CoastWave Dominated - Texan Coast
Note Storm Washover
Note Storm Washover
Serrated Back Barrier
Serrated Back Barrier
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Wave Dominated - Texan CoastWave Dominated - Texan Coast
Note Storm Washover
Note Storm Washover
Serrated Back Barrier
Serrated Back Barrier
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Wave Dominated - Texan CoastWave Dominated - Texan Coast
Note Storm WashoverNote Storm WashoverSerrated Back BarrierSerrated Back Barrier
PennsylvanianPennsylvanian Wave Dominated CoastWave Dominated Coast
Note Storm WashoverNote Storm WashoverOn a Back BarrierOn a Back Barrier
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
CoastCoastTypesTypes
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Chenier Coast – Gulf of CarpentariaChenier Coast – Gulf of Carpentaria
Note Channels ReworkingNote Channels ReworkingChenier PlainChenier Plain
Note Channels ReworkingNote Channels ReworkingBarrier IslandsBarrier Islands
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Delta Mouth Bar - KentuckyDelta Mouth Bar - Kentucky
Note Incised Surface Of Reworked BarNote Incised Surface Of Reworked Bar
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Tidal, Storm or Tsunami ChannelTidal, Storm or Tsunami Channel
Note Incised Surface Beneath ChannelNote Incised Surface Beneath Channel
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Characteristics of Sequence Boundary Characteristics of Sequence Boundary (SB) from well logs, core & outcrop(SB) from well logs, core & outcrop Defined by erosion or incision of underlying flooding Defined by erosion or incision of underlying flooding
surfaces (mfs and TS)surfaces (mfs and TS) Inferred from interruption in the lateral continuity of Inferred from interruption in the lateral continuity of
these surfaces these surfaces
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Characteristics of Sequence Boundary Characteristics of Sequence Boundary (SB) from well logs, core & outcrop(SB) from well logs, core & outcrop Defined by erosion or incision of underlying flooding Defined by erosion or incision of underlying flooding
surfaces (mfs and TS)surfaces (mfs and TS) Inferred from interruption in the lateral continuity of Inferred from interruption in the lateral continuity of
these surfaces these surfaces
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Beach Ridges: St. Phillips Island, SCBeach Ridges: St. Phillips Island, SC
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Progradation & Transgressive ArchitecturesProgradation & Transgressive Architectures
Kraft & John, 1979
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall Reading, 1986
Sea-Level Changes Sea-Level Changes
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Visser, 1980
Tidal BundlesTidal Bundles
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Bedforms Bedforms Current RipplesCurrent Ripples
Sand in mud m
atrix
Sand in mud m
atrix
Sand predominates
Sand predominates
Sand & Mud 50/50
Sand & Mud 50/50
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Asymmetric Current RipplesAsymmetric Current Ripples
Upper Mississippian – Pennington FormationUpper Mississippian – Pennington FormationPound GapPound Gap
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Base Level Change on CoastBase Level Change on Coast
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Tidal GeomorphologyTidal Geomorphology
Kraft et al, 1987
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Transitional Depositional Transitional Depositional SystemsSystems
EstuariesEstuariesDeltasDeltas
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Characteristics of Estuary SystemsCharacteristics of Estuary Systems Sediments coarsen upward from marine shalesSediments coarsen upward from marine shales Sand bodies perpendicular to basin margin, narrow landward Sand bodies perpendicular to basin margin, narrow landward Formed by a mix of tidal currents and occasional storm wavesFormed by a mix of tidal currents and occasional storm waves FaciesFacies
Subdivided erosion surfaces formed during Subdivided erosion surfaces formed during – Dropping in base levelDropping in base level
Local channelsLocal channels– Rising in base levelRising in base level
Wells sorted and rounded pure quartz arenites commonWells sorted and rounded pure quartz arenites commonSedimentary structures Sedimentary structures
– Offshore hummocky wavy beddingOffshore hummocky wavy bedding– Nearshore cut and fillNearshore cut and fill– Gently seaward dipping thin parallel beds Gently seaward dipping thin parallel beds
Geometries Geometries – Confined incised channelsConfined incised channels– Open linear sheets perpendicular and occasionally parallel to shore Open linear sheets perpendicular and occasionally parallel to shore
Fauna & floraFauna & flora– Marine fauna at base of units Marine fauna at base of units – Terrestrial flora at crest of units Terrestrial flora at crest of units
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Estuarine LithofaciesEstuarine Lithofacies
Horne et al, 1978Horne et al, 1978
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Marine Depositional SystemsMarine Depositional Systems Wave-dominated coastsWave-dominated coasts Tide-dominated coastsTide-dominated coasts Fluvial-dominated coasts (deltas)Fluvial-dominated coasts (deltas) Carbonate reefsCarbonate reefs Clastic shelves & platformsClastic shelves & platforms Carbonate shelves & platformsCarbonate shelves & platforms Deepwater fansDeepwater fans Pelagic abyssal plainsPelagic abyssal plains
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Deltaic Depositional SystemsDeltaic Depositional Systems Form where rivers with large drainages meet standing Form where rivers with large drainages meet standing
water bodies (~basins)water bodies (~basins) Very large sediment fluxVery large sediment flux Fluid & gravity flow transport and depositionFluid & gravity flow transport and deposition
Surface wavesSurface wavesTidal waves (not tsunami!)Tidal waves (not tsunami!)Fluvial inputFluvial inputTurbidity currents & sub-aqueous debris flowsTurbidity currents & sub-aqueous debris flows
Net sediment input often leads to Net sediment input often leads to progradationalprogradational geometriesgeometries
Delta types depend on tidal range, wave climate, and Delta types depend on tidal range, wave climate, and composition and depths of water in river and basincomposition and depths of water in river and basin
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Characteristics of Deltaic SystemsCharacteristics of Deltaic Systems Sediments coarsen upward from marine shalesSediments coarsen upward from marine shales Sand bodies form tongues perpendicular to basin marginSand bodies form tongues perpendicular to basin margin Formed by a mix of fluvial input, tidal currents and storm wavesFormed by a mix of fluvial input, tidal currents and storm waves FaciesFacies
Subdivided erosion surfaces formed during Subdivided erosion surfaces formed during – Dropping in base levelDropping in base level
Local channelsLocal channels– Rising in base levelRising in base level
Poorly sorted and irregular litharenites commonPoorly sorted and irregular litharenites commonSedimentary structures Sedimentary structures
– Offshore laminated to hummocky wavy beddingOffshore laminated to hummocky wavy bedding– Nearshore cut and fillNearshore cut and fill– Gently seaward dipping thin parallel beds Gently seaward dipping thin parallel beds
Geometries Geometries – Confined incised channelsConfined incised channels– Open linear sheets perpendicular and occasionally parallel to shore Open linear sheets perpendicular and occasionally parallel to shore
Fauna & floraFauna & flora– Marine fauna at base of units Marine fauna at base of units – Terrestrial flora at crest of units Terrestrial flora at crest of units
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Coast TypesCoast Types
Dalrymple et al, 1992Dalrymple et al, 1992
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
CoastCoastTypesTypes
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Lena River Delta - RussiaLena River Delta - Russia
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
ShattShattal Arabal ArabDelta Delta
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
AtachafalyaAtachafalya Delta - USADelta - USA
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
AmazonAmazon Delta - BrazilDelta - Brazil
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
NileNile Delta - EgyptDelta - Egypt
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Delta TypesDelta Types River-dominatedRiver-dominated
Small tidal range, weak storms and large Small tidal range, weak storms and large sediment flux build delta out into basinsediment flux build delta out into basin
Tide-dominatedTide-dominatedLarge tidal ranges dominate transport, Large tidal ranges dominate transport, deposition & geomorphologydeposition & geomorphology
Wave-dominatedWave-dominatedStrong and repeated storms rework delta Strong and repeated storms rework delta sedimentsediment
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Delta ProcessesDelta Processes Depositional patterns and geomorphology Depositional patterns and geomorphology
depend on the relative dominance of three depend on the relative dominance of three competing processes at river mouths:competing processes at river mouths:
Inertia Inertia – River water River water – Basin waterBasin water
FrictionFriction– Water vs. substrateWater vs. substrate– Water vs. waterWater vs. water
BuoyancyBuoyancy
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Delta ProcessesDelta ProcessesRelative influence of inertia, friction & buoyancy is a Relative influence of inertia, friction & buoyancy is a function of:function of: Density contrastsDensity contrasts
Homopycnal flow – equal density water bodies mixHomopycnal flow – equal density water bodies mixHyperpycnal flow – higher density sinks below ocean (Yellow)Hyperpycnal flow – higher density sinks below ocean (Yellow)Hypopycnal flow – lower density floats on ocean (Mississippi)Hypopycnal flow – lower density floats on ocean (Mississippi)
Concentration, grain size and suspended vs. bedload Concentration, grain size and suspended vs. bedload ratioratioWater depthsWater depths
Mouth Mouth BasinBasin
Water dischargeWater discharge Water inflow velocityWater inflow velocity
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Delta ProcessesDelta Processes Inertia-dominated deltasInertia-dominated deltas
deep water, steep slopes, high river flow velocitydeep water, steep slopes, high river flow velocitymoderate sediment transport, large flow expansionmoderate sediment transport, large flow expansion
Friction-dominated deltasFriction-dominated deltasshallow water, low slopes, shallow water, low slopes, proximal sediment transport, large bars, limited flow proximal sediment transport, large bars, limited flow expansionexpansionhyperpycnal flow possiblehyperpycnal flow possible
Buoyancy-dominated deltasBuoyancy-dominated deltasdeep water, hypopycnal flow, large suspended loaddeep water, hypopycnal flow, large suspended loaddistant sediment transport, flow rafting distant sediment transport, flow rafting plumes plumes
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Delta MorphologyDelta Morphology
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
River-Dominated DeltasRiver-Dominated Deltas
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Lobe-SwitchingLobe-Switching
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Inter-distributary baysInter-distributary bays
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Mahakam River-Dominated DeltaMahakam River-Dominated Delta
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Wave-dominated Grijalva DeltaWave-dominated Grijalva Delta
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
BramaputraBramaputra Delta - IndiaDelta - India
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Tide-Dominated Niger DeltaTide-Dominated Niger Delta
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Tide-Dominated Niger DeltaTide-Dominated Niger Delta
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
DeltaDeltaSuccessionsSuccessions
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Delta SuccessionDelta Succession
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Wave-DominatedWave-DominatedDelta SuccessionDelta Succession
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Delta CollapseDelta Collapse
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Delta Collapse Delta Collapse
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Fan-DeltasFan-Deltas
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Deltaic SuccessionDeltaic Succession
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Deltaic SuccessionDeltaic Succession
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Deltaic SuccessionDeltaic Succession
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Types of Depositional SystemsTypes of Depositional Systems
marinemarine ocean, sea ocean, sea
terrestrialterrestrial land land
transitionaltransitional part land, part ocean part land, part ocean
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Marine Depositional SystemsMarine Depositional Systems
wave-dominated coastswave-dominated coasts tide-dominated coaststide-dominated coasts fluvial-dominated coasts (deltas)fluvial-dominated coasts (deltas) carbonate reefscarbonate reefs clastic shelves & platformsclastic shelves & platforms carbonate shelves & platformscarbonate shelves & platforms deepwater fansdeepwater fans pelagic abyssal plainspelagic abyssal plains
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Deep SeaDeep SeaDepositional Depositional
SystemsSystems
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Deep Sea Depositional SystemsDeep Sea Depositional Systems
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Characteristics of Deepwater SystemsCharacteristics of Deepwater Systems Sediments fine upward from marine fansSediments fine upward from marine fans Sand bodies form lobes perpendicular to basin marginSand bodies form lobes perpendicular to basin margin Formed by a mix of fluvial input, and turbidite currentsFormed by a mix of fluvial input, and turbidite currents FaciesFacies
Subdivided erosion surfaces formed during Subdivided erosion surfaces formed during – Migrating fan lobe fillMigrating fan lobe fill– Dropping in base levelDropping in base level
Local channelsLocal channels– Rising in base levelRising in base level
Poor to well sorted litharenites commonPoor to well sorted litharenites commonSedimentary structures Sedimentary structures
– Fining upward cycles that coarsen up as depo-center of lobes migrateFining upward cycles that coarsen up as depo-center of lobes migrate– Up dip channel cut and fillUp dip channel cut and fill– Gently seaward dipping thin parallel lobate sheets Gently seaward dipping thin parallel lobate sheets
Geometries Geometries – Confined incised channelsConfined incised channels– Open lobate sheets perpendicular and occasionally parallel to shore Open lobate sheets perpendicular and occasionally parallel to shore
Fauna & floraFauna & flora– Restricted Marine fauna often in over bank shales Restricted Marine fauna often in over bank shales
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Deep Sea Fan Depositional SystemsDeep Sea Fan Depositional Systems Form in the moderate to deep ocean, down-dip of Form in the moderate to deep ocean, down-dip of
submarine canyons and often deltassubmarine canyons and often deltas Large sediment flux, high sedimentation rate, large Large sediment flux, high sedimentation rate, large
areaarea Gravity flow transport and depositionGravity flow transport and deposition
turbidity currentsturbidity currentssubaqueous debris flowssubaqueous debris flowssuspension fall-outsuspension fall-out
Lobes and lobe-switching importantLobes and lobe-switching important Both coarse and fine grained sedimentBoth coarse and fine grained sediment Often well-sorted and normally gradedOften well-sorted and normally graded
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Bengal Fan & Ganges-Brahmaputra DeltaBengal Fan & Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Submarine Canyons and Deep Sea FansSubmarine Canyons and Deep Sea Fans
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Submarine CanyonsSubmarine Canyons
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Submarine Canyons and Deep Sea Submarine Canyons and Deep Sea FansFans
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Submarine Fan MorphologySubmarine Fan Morphology
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
SubmarineSubmarineFan TypesFan Types
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Turbidity Currents Turbidity Currents Turbidites Turbidites
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Gravity Flows: Turbidity CurrentsGravity Flows: Turbidity Currents
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Turbidity Currents & Hemipelagic SedimentTurbidity Currents & Hemipelagic Sediment
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Deep Water Fan DepositsDeep Water Fan Deposits
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Deep Water Fan DepositsDeep Water Fan Deposits
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
TurbiditesTurbidites
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Coarse-grained TurbiditesCoarse-grained Turbidites
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Coarse-grained TurbiditesCoarse-grained Turbidites
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
TurbiditesTurbidites
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Proximal TurbiditesProximal Turbidites
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Distal TurbiditesDistal Turbidites
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Soft-Sediment DeformationSoft-Sediment Deformation
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Submarine ChannelsSubmarine Channels
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Delaware Mountains – Basin FansDelaware Mountains – Basin Fans
Channel Sands
Channel Sands
Deepwater ChannelDeepwater Channel
Kendall PhotoKendall Photo
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Brushy Canyon Group - Base of Slope Brushy Canyon Group - Base of Slope Permian BasinPermian Basin
Kendall PhotoKendall Photo
Channel FillChannel FillTurbidites Turbidites
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Brushy Canyon GroupBrushy Canyon Group - Base of Slope - - Base of Slope - Permian BasinPermian Basin
U.S. Highway 62-180 south of Guadalupe PassU.S. Highway 62-180 south of Guadalupe Pass
Margin of submarine fan channel incised Margin of submarine fan channel incised into "overbank". Channel fill with into "overbank". Channel fill with amalgamation as well as flowage & injection amalgamation as well as flowage & injection of sand into the surrounding strata of the of sand into the surrounding strata of the channel walls.channel walls.
Kendall PhotoKendall Photo
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Pelagic Depositional SystemsPelagic Depositional Systems Form in the open ocean or open (large) lakes and seasForm in the open ocean or open (large) lakes and seas Small sediment flux, very low sedimentation rateSmall sediment flux, very low sedimentation rate Suspended load current transport Suspended load current transport
Surface wavesSurface wavesTidal waves (not tsunami!)Tidal waves (not tsunami!)Fluvial inputFluvial inputTurbidity currents & sub-aqueous debris flowsTurbidity currents & sub-aqueous debris flows
Suspension fall-out deposition Suspension fall-out deposition Fine-grained (clay, mud and silt) depositionFine-grained (clay, mud and silt) deposition
CarbonatesCarbonatesSiliciclastic mudstonesSiliciclastic mudstones
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Pelagic SedimentsPelagic Sediments
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Deep Marine SedimentationDeep Marine Sedimentation
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Pelagic SedimentsPelagic Sediments
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Calcareous MicrofossilsCalcareous Microfossils
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
CCDCCD
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Abyssal PlainsAbyssal Plains
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Siliceous MicrofossilsSiliceous Microfossils
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Siliceous Microfossils Siliceous Microfossils Chert Chert
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Siliceous Microfossils Siliceous Microfossils Chert Chert
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Aeolian DustAeolian Dust
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Aeolian DustAeolian Dust
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Aeolian DustAeolian Dust
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
DropstonesDropstones
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Types of Depositional SystemsTypes of Depositional Systems
marinemarine ocean, sea ocean, sea
transitionaltransitional part land, part ocean part land, part ocean
terrestrialterrestrial land land
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Terrestrial Depositional SystemsTerrestrial Depositional Systems
Alluvial Fan Alluvial Fan FluvialFluvial GlacialGlacial EolianEolian LacustrineLacustrine PlayaPlaya
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Terrestrial Depositional SystemsTerrestrial Depositional Systems
Alluvial Fan Alluvial Fan FluvialFluvial GlacialGlacial EolianEolian LacustrineLacustrine PlayaPlaya
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Alluvial Fan System Characteristics Alluvial Fan System Characteristics Sediments fine upward within fan lobesSediments fine upward within fan lobes Sand bodies form lobes perpendicular to basin marginSand bodies form lobes perpendicular to basin margin Formed by a mix of fluvial input, and mass sediment movementFormed by a mix of fluvial input, and mass sediment movement FaciesFacies
Subdivided erosion surfaces formed during Subdivided erosion surfaces formed during – Migrating fan lobe fillMigrating fan lobe fill– Dropping in base levelDropping in base level
Local channelsLocal channels– Rising in base levelRising in base level
Poor to well sorted litharenite boulders, gravels and sands commonPoor to well sorted litharenite boulders, gravels and sands commonSedimentary structures Sedimentary structures
– Fining upward cycles that coarsen up as depo-center of lobes progrdesFining upward cycles that coarsen up as depo-center of lobes progrdes– Up dip channel cut and fillUp dip channel cut and fill– Gently seaward dipping thin parallel lobate sheets Gently seaward dipping thin parallel lobate sheets
Geometries Geometries – Confined incised channelsConfined incised channels– Open lobate sheets perpendicular and occasionally parallel to Mt front Open lobate sheets perpendicular and occasionally parallel to Mt front
Fauna & floraFauna & flora– Terrestrial flora can be common in over bank lobes Terrestrial flora can be common in over bank lobes
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Alluvial Fan Depositional SystemsAlluvial Fan Depositional Systems Form upon exit of drainage basin from a mountain frontForm upon exit of drainage basin from a mountain front Mix of sediment gravity flow & fluid flow depositional Mix of sediment gravity flow & fluid flow depositional
processesprocessesDebris flowsDebris flowsHyperconcentrated flowsHyperconcentrated flowsFluvial channelsFluvial channelsSheetfloodsSheetfloods
Lobe-switching processes produce coneLobe-switching processes produce cone Radial sediment dispersalRadial sediment dispersal Decreasing grain size downslopeDecreasing grain size downslope
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
exit gorge
active lobes
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Drainage & Depositional BasinsDrainage & Depositional Basins
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Alluvial Fan ArchitectureAlluvial Fan Architecture
Spearing, 1974Spearing, 1974
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Alluvial Fans Alluvial Fans
Blair & McPherson. 1994Blair & McPherson. 1994
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Alluvial Fan ArchitectureAlluvial Fan Architecture
Kelly & Olson, 1993Kelly & Olson, 1993
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Alluvial and Fluvial FansAlluvial and Fluvial Fans ‘‘Stream-dominated’ Alluvial FansStream-dominated’ Alluvial Fans D = ~10 Km; S = 5-15D = ~10 Km; S = 5-15ºº
‘‘Gravity-flow’ Alluvial FansGravity-flow’ Alluvial Fans D = ~10 Km; S = 5-15D = ~10 Km; S = 5-15ºº
Talus ConesTalus Cones D < 1 Km; S = 10-30D < 1 Km; S = 10-30ºº
Fluvial MegafansFluvial Megafans D = 50 -100s Km; S < 1D = 50 -100s Km; S < 1ºº
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Alluvial Fan StratigraphyAlluvial Fan Stratigraphy
Nemec & Steel, 1984Nemec & Steel, 1984
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Stream-dominated AF StratigraphyStream-dominated AF Stratigraphy
Boothroyd, 1972Boothroyd, 1972
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Gravity-Flow AF StratigraphyGravity-Flow AF Stratigraphy
Blair, 1987Blair, 1987
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Alluvial Fan ArchitectureAlluvial Fan Architecture
Gloppen & Steel, 1980Gloppen & Steel, 1980
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Terrestrial Depositional SystemsTerrestrial Depositional Systems
Alluvial Fan Alluvial Fan FluvialFluvial GlacialGlacial EolianEolian LacustrineLacustrine PlayaPlaya
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Fluvial System Characteristics Fluvial System Characteristics Sediments fine upward within channel fillSediments fine upward within channel fill Sand bodies fine distally from channelsSand bodies fine distally from channels Formed by a mix of fluvial bedload, and fine suspended sedimentFormed by a mix of fluvial bedload, and fine suspended sediment FaciesFacies
Subdivided erosion surfaces formed during Subdivided erosion surfaces formed during – Migrating channel fillMigrating channel fill– Dropping in base levelDropping in base level
Local channelsLocal channels– Rising in base levelRising in base level
Poor to well sorted litharenite gravels, sands and shales commonPoor to well sorted litharenite gravels, sands and shales commonSedimentary structures Sedimentary structures
– Fining upward cycles that fill channelsFining upward cycles that fill channels– Up dip channel cut and fillUp dip channel cut and fill– Gently dipping thin parallel lobate sheets perpendicular to channelsGently dipping thin parallel lobate sheets perpendicular to channels
Geometries Geometries – Confined incised channelsConfined incised channels– Open lobate sheets perpendicular and occasionally parallel to channelsOpen lobate sheets perpendicular and occasionally parallel to channels
Fauna & floraFauna & flora– Terrestrial flora can be common in over bank sediments Terrestrial flora can be common in over bank sediments
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Fluvial Depositional SystemsFluvial Depositional Systems Dominant conduit from regions of sediment Dominant conduit from regions of sediment
production (mountains) to sediment storage production (mountains) to sediment storage (oceans, basins)(oceans, basins)
Characterized by channel patternCharacterized by channel patternMeanderingMeanderingBraidedBraidedAnastomozingAnastomozing
Characterized by sediment loadCharacterized by sediment loadBedloadBedloadSuspended loadSuspended loadMixed loadMixed load
Unidirectional sediment dispersalUnidirectional sediment dispersal
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Fluvial Channel PatternsFluvial Channel Patterns
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Fluvial Channel PatternsFluvial Channel Patterns
Schumm & Khan, 1972Schumm & Khan, 1972
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Meandering StreamsMeandering Streams
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Meandering Fluvial SystemMeandering Fluvial System
Allen, 1964Allen, 1964
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
ThalwegsThalwegs
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
AvulsionAvulsion
Cross et al., 1989Cross et al., 1989
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Meandering Fluvial ArchitectureMeandering Fluvial Architecture
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Braided Fluvial ArchitectureBraided Fluvial Architecture
Nemec, 1992Nemec, 1992
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Fluvial ChannelsFluvial Channels
HirstHirst, , 19911991
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
MaturityMaturity
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Fluvial CharacterizationFluvial Characterization
Schumm, 1981Schumm, 1981
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Fluvial Channel PatternsFluvial Channel Patterns
Orton & Reading, 1993Orton & Reading, 1993
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Terrestrial Depositional SystemsTerrestrial Depositional Systems
fluvialfluvial alluvial fanalluvial fan glacialglacial eolianeolian lacustrinelacustrine playaplaya
GLACIERSGLACIERSAND AND GLACIATIONGLACIATION
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Past Glacial PeriodsPast Glacial Periods Pre-Cambrian at end of Neoproterozoic eonPre-Cambrian at end of Neoproterozoic eon End of the OrdovicianEnd of the Ordovician Late Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian] Late Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian]
through Permianthrough Permian PleistocenePleistocene
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Glacial PeriodsGlacial Periods
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
The Snowball EarthThe Snowball Earth
During last ice age max, 21,000 years ago, North During last ice age max, 21,000 years ago, North America & Europe covered by glaciers over 2 America & Europe covered by glaciers over 2 kilometers thick, sea level dropped 120 meters. kilometers thick, sea level dropped 120 meters. Global chill : land & sea ice covered 30 %t of Earth, Global chill : land & sea ice covered 30 %t of Earth, more than at other times in last 500 million yearsmore than at other times in last 500 million years
Near end of Neoproterozoic eon (1000-543 million Near end of Neoproterozoic eon (1000-543 million years ago), glaciation immediately preceded first years ago), glaciation immediately preceded first appearance of recognizable animal life some 600 appearance of recognizable animal life some 600 million years agomillion years ago
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Paul Hoffman & Daniel Schrag - Paul Hoffman & Daniel Schrag - Snowball EarthSnowball Earth Sun abruptly cooled or Earth tilted on its axis or Sun abruptly cooled or Earth tilted on its axis or
experienced an orbital blip that reduced solar experienced an orbital blip that reduced solar warmth or carbon dioxide increased?warmth or carbon dioxide increased?
ice sheets covered continents & seas froze ice sheets covered continents & seas froze almost to equator, events that occurred at least almost to equator, events that occurred at least twice between 800 million & 550 million years twice between 800 million & 550 million years agoago
Each glacial period lasted millions of years & Each glacial period lasted millions of years & ended under extreme greenhouse conditions. ended under extreme greenhouse conditions. Climate shocks triggered evolution of Climate shocks triggered evolution of multicellular animal life, & challenge long-held multicellular animal life, & challenge long-held assumptions regarding the limits of global assumptions regarding the limits of global changechange
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
SnowballSnowballEarthEarth
-- Rocky cliffs Rocky cliffs
along along Namibia's Namibia's Skeleton Skeleton
Coast.Coast.
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
SnowballSnowballEarthEarth
-- Drop Drop
StonesStones
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Glacial System CharacteristicsGlacial System Characteristics Signal extremes in local climate & sea level positionSignal extremes in local climate & sea level position Stratigraphic markers of glacial eventsStratigraphic markers of glacial events Source of Source of tillite (pebbles & larger fragments supported in tillite (pebbles & larger fragments supported in
fine-grained matrix ) deposited from glaciers. fine-grained matrix ) deposited from glaciers. Massive tillite inferred deposited below ice sheets or dropping Massive tillite inferred deposited below ice sheets or dropping from marine supported ice in submarine settingfrom marine supported ice in submarine settingBanded tillite may be deposited by ice sheetsBanded tillite may be deposited by ice sheets
Laminites common in lakes (Varve), Loess dust on landLaminites common in lakes (Varve), Loess dust on land Supraglacial & pro-glacial deposits with stratified Supraglacial & pro-glacial deposits with stratified
conglomerates & sandstoneconglomerates & sandstone U Shaped valleys & glacial striae U Shaped valleys & glacial striae Mountain glaciation could be source of much downslope Mountain glaciation could be source of much downslope
fluvial sedimentfluvial sediment
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Simplified Glacial Systems signalsSimplified Glacial Systems signals Sediment signal a mix of:Sediment signal a mix of:
Glacial carried & dumped in morainesGlacial carried & dumped in morainesWater born fluvial sedimentWater born fluvial sedimentLacustrian varvesLacustrian varvesAeolian loessAeolian loess
Erosion: Erosion: U-shaped valleysU-shaped valleysEroded rock surfaceEroded rock surface– GroovedGrooved– Plucked Plucked – StriatedStriated
Base level: changes in sea level.Base level: changes in sea level.
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Glacial Setting Glacial Setting
Develop where all of annual snow doesn’t melt away Develop where all of annual snow doesn’t melt away in warm seasonsin warm seasons
Polar regionsPolar regionsHeavy winter snowfall Heavy winter snowfall e.g. Washington Statee.g. Washington StateHigh elevations High elevations e.g. even equatore.g. even equator85% in Antarctica85% in Antarctica10% in Greenland10% in Greenland
Currently forms 10% of earths’s surface, Pleistocene Currently forms 10% of earths’s surface, Pleistocene reached 30%, but in Pre Cambrian could have reached 30%, but in Pre Cambrian could have reached 100%reached 100%
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Adelie Penguins Taking a DiveAdelie Penguins Taking a Dive
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Glacial ErosionGlacial Erosion Under glacierUnder glacier
Abrasion & pluckingAbrasion & pluckingBedrock polished & striatedBedrock polished & striatedRock flour washes out of glacierRock flour washes out of glacierPolishing and roundingPolishing and rounding
– ““Sheep Rocks”Sheep Rocks”
Striations- scratches & grooves on rockStriations- scratches & grooves on rock Above glacierAbove glacier
Frost wedging takes placeFrost wedging takes placeErosion by glaciers steepens slopesErosion by glaciers steepens slopes
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Roche Moutone – Ice Sheet PluckingRoche Moutone – Ice Sheet Plucking
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Glacial Scarring Glacial Scarring Of Bedrock Of Bedrock
--Findelen Findelen
GlacierGlacierSwitzerlandSwitzerland
--MatterhornMatterhorn
In In BackgroundBackground
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Glacial SedimentsGlacial Sediments Facies of continental glacial settings Facies of continental glacial settings
Grounded Ice FaciesGrounded Ice FaciesGlaciofluvial facies Glaciofluvial facies Glacial lacustrine faciesGlacial lacustrine facies
– Facies of proglacial lakesFacies of proglacial lakes– Facies of periglacial lakesFacies of periglacial lakes
Cold-climate periglacial faciesCold-climate periglacial facies
Facies of marine glacial settingsFacies of marine glacial settingsProximal faciesProximal faciesContinental Shelf faciesContinental Shelf faciesDeepwater faciesDeepwater facies
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Glacial DepositionGlacial Deposition TillTill
Unsorted debris in fine matrixUnsorted debris in fine matrix ErraticErratic Moraine- body of tillMoraine- body of till
Lateral MoraineLateral MoraineMedial Moraine- where tributaries joinMedial Moraine- where tributaries joinEnd moraine-End moraine-
– Terminal Terminal – RecessionalRecessional
Ground moraineGround moraineDrumlinDrumlin
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Twenty Mile Medial MoraineTwenty Mile Medial Moraine
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Robinson Tumbling Glacier Brit. ColumbiaRobinson Tumbling Glacier Brit. Columbia
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Ground and End MorainesGround and End Moraines
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
GlacialGlacialLakesLakes
--IrelandIreland
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Glacial SedimentsGlacial Sediments
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
VarvesVarves
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Glaciation Subdividing SurfacesGlaciation Subdividing Surfaces
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Glacial SedimentsGlacial Sediments Facies of continental glacial settings Facies of continental glacial settings
Grounded Ice FaciesGrounded Ice FaciesGlaciofluvial facies Glaciofluvial facies Glacial lacustrine faciesGlacial lacustrine facies
– Facies of proglacial lakesFacies of proglacial lakes– Facies of periglacial lakesFacies of periglacial lakes
Cold-climate periglacial faciesCold-climate periglacial facies
Facies of marine glacial settingsFacies of marine glacial settingsProximal faciesProximal faciesContinental Shelf faciesContinental Shelf faciesDeepwater faciesDeepwater facies
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Glacial Systems - Conclusions Glacial Systems - Conclusions Signal extremes in local climate & sea level positionSignal extremes in local climate & sea level position Stratigraphic markers of glacial eventsStratigraphic markers of glacial events Source of Source of tillite (pebbles & larger fragments supported in tillite (pebbles & larger fragments supported in
fine-grained matrix ) deposited from glaciers. fine-grained matrix ) deposited from glaciers. Massive tillite inferred deposited below ice sheets or dropping Massive tillite inferred deposited below ice sheets or dropping from marine supported ice in submarine settingfrom marine supported ice in submarine settingBanded tillite may be deposited by ice sheetsBanded tillite may be deposited by ice sheets
Laminites common in lakes (Varve), Loess dust on landLaminites common in lakes (Varve), Loess dust on land Supraglacial & pro-glacial deposits with stratified Supraglacial & pro-glacial deposits with stratified
conglomerates & sandstoneconglomerates & sandstone U Shaped valleys & glacial striae U Shaped valleys & glacial striae Mountain glaciation could be source of much downslope Mountain glaciation could be source of much downslope
fluvial sedimentfluvial sediment
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Simplified Conclusions Glacial SystemsSimplified Conclusions Glacial Systems Sediment signal a mix of:Sediment signal a mix of:
Glacial carried & dumped morainesGlacial carried & dumped morainesWater born fluvial sedimentWater born fluvial sedimentLacustrian varvesLacustrian varvesAeolian loessAeolian loess
Erosion: Erosion: U-shaped valleysU-shaped valleysEroded rock surfaceEroded rock surface– GroovedGrooved– Plucked Plucked – StriatedStriated
Base level: changes in sea level.Base level: changes in sea level.
AEOLIANAEOLIANAND AND DESERTSDESERTS
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Sandy Desert – N. Africa – Sandy Desert – N. Africa – GoingGoing
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Aeolian System – Desert & CoastAeolian System – Desert & Coast Distribution of Aeolian systems – Holocene & Distribution of Aeolian systems – Holocene &
AncientAncient Deserts: Transport & Depositional Sytems Deserts: Transport & Depositional Sytems
Wind & Fluvial ActionWind & Fluvial Action Deposits of Modern DesertsDeposits of Modern Deserts
DunesDunesInterdunesInterdunesSheet SandsSheet Sands
Aeolian SystemsAeolian Systems Bounding SurfacesBounding Surfaces Ancient DepositsAncient Deposits
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Simplified Desert Systems signalsSimplified Desert Systems signals Sediment signal a mix of:Sediment signal a mix of:
Aeolian sediment – dunes and sheetsAeolian sediment – dunes and sheetsWater born intermittent fluvial sedimentWater born intermittent fluvial sedimentPlayas and lakesPlayas and lakesAeolian loessAeolian loess
Erosion: Erosion: Water table “Stokes Surfaces” marks limitWater table “Stokes Surfaces” marks limitIncised valleysIncised valleysGravel remnantsGravel remnantsRock pavementsRock pavementsVentifactsVentifacts
Base level: changes in ground water level.Base level: changes in ground water level.
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
DesertDesertRegion with low precipitationRegion with low precipitation
Usually less than 25 cm rain per yearUsually less than 25 cm rain per yearDistributionDistribution
Most related to descending airMost related to descending airBelts at 30 degrees North & South latitudeBelts at 30 degrees North & South latitudeRain shadow of mountainsRain shadow of mountainsGreat distance from oceansGreat distance from oceansTropical coasts beside cold ocean currentsTropical coasts beside cold ocean currentsPolar dessertsPolar desserts
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Earth'sEarth'sGeneralGeneral
CirculationCirculation
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Rain Shadow Deserts Rain Shadow Deserts
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Deserts – Dune FactoriesDeserts – Dune Factories
Lack of through-flowing streamsLack of through-flowing streams Internal drainageInternal drainageLocal base levelsLocal base levelsDesert thunderstormsDesert thunderstorms
Flash floodsFlash floods– MudflowsMudflows
Common characteristics:-
Dominated by water transportation
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Deserts – Depositional SystemsDeserts – Depositional Systems
Margin rimmed by incised seasonal streams Margin rimmed by incised seasonal streams (Wadiis or Arroyo)(Wadiis or Arroyo)
In turn flanked by alluvial fans and rock In turn flanked by alluvial fans and rock pavements or bajada pavements or bajada
Intermittent drainage supplying sedimentIntermittent drainage supplying sediment Dunes Dunes PlayasPlayas
Dunes fed by water transported sediment
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Bajada Bajada “Pediment”“Pediment”
&&AlluvialAlluvial
Fans Fans --
NamibiaNamibia
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Alluvial fans – Death Alluvial fans – Death ValleyValley
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Salt Pan & Alluvial Fans – Death ValleySalt Pan & Alluvial Fans – Death Valley
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Sediment Source - Deserts & CoastsSediment Source - Deserts & Coasts Abundant sediment supply (sand, silt)Abundant sediment supply (sand, silt) Favorable wind regimesFavorable wind regimes Grain transport in windGrain transport in wind Transport populations & resultant depositsTransport populations & resultant deposits
i. Traction (deflation pavements)i. Traction (deflation pavements)ii. Saltation (sand dunes)ii. Saltation (sand dunes)iii. Suspension (loess)iii. Suspension (loess)III. Subenvironments of eolian dune systemsIII. Subenvironments of eolian dune systems
Dominated by water transportation
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Wind Erosion and TransportationWind Erosion and Transportation
SandSandMoves along ground- saltationMoves along ground- saltationSandstormsSandstormsSandblasting up to 1 meterSandblasting up to 1 meter
– VentifactVentifactDeflationDeflation
BlowoutBlowoutDust stormsDust storms
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Sand Movement Sand Movement
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Brice Canyon - UtahBrice Canyon - Utah
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Arches National Park – UtahArches National Park – Utah
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Wind Erosion and TransportationWind Erosion and Transportation
Dust stormsDust stormsSandSand
Moves along ground- saltationMoves along ground- saltationSandstormsSandstormsSandblasting up to 1 meterSandblasting up to 1 meter
– VentifactVentifactDeflationDeflation
BlowoutBlowout
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Wind ActionWind ActionStrong in desert because:Strong in desert because:
Low humidityLow humidityGreat temperature rangesGreat temperature rangesMore effective because of lack of More effective because of lack of vegetationvegetation
Effective erosion in deserts because Effective erosion in deserts because sediment is drysediment is dry
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Wind Erosion and TransportationWind Erosion and Transportation
SandSandMoves along ground- saltationMoves along ground- saltationSandstormsSandstormsSandblasting up to 1 meterSandblasting up to 1 meter
– VentifactVentifactDeflationDeflation
BlowoutBlowoutDust stormsDust storms
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Wind Erosion and TransportationWind Erosion and Transportation
SandSandMoves along ground- saltationMoves along ground- saltationSandstormsSandstormsSandblasting up to 1 meterSandblasting up to 1 meter
– VentifactVentifactDeflationDeflation
BlowoutBlowoutDust stormsDust storms
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
RedSeaDustStorm
Red Sea Dust StormRed Sea Dust Storm
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
North Africa - Sea Dust StormNorth Africa - Sea Dust Storm
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Wind Erosion and TransportationWind Erosion and Transportation
Dust stormsDust stormsWind-blown dust accumulates in the deep Wind-blown dust accumulates in the deep
ocean floor at a rate of 0.6 x 1014 g/year.ocean floor at a rate of 0.6 x 1014 g/year.
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
LoessLoess
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Wind DepositionWind Deposition
LoessLoessGravel PavementsGravel Pavements
Desert varnish & “petroglyphs”Desert varnish & “petroglyphs”Sand DunesSand Dunes
Well-sorted, well-rounded sand grainsWell-sorted, well-rounded sand grainsSlip faceSlip face
– Angle of reposeAngle of repose
Wind ripplesWind ripples
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Desert Pavement FormationDesert Pavement Formation
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Wind DepositionWind Deposition
LoessLoessGravel PavementsGravel Pavements
Desert varnish & “petroglyphs”Desert varnish & “petroglyphs”Sand DunesSand Dunes
Well-sorted, well-rounded sand grainsWell-sorted, well-rounded sand grainsSlip faceSlip face
– Angle of reposeAngle of repose
Wind ripplesWind ripples
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Wind DepositionWind Deposition
LoessLoessGravel PavementsGravel Pavements
Desert varnish & “petroglyphs”Desert varnish & “petroglyphs”Sand DunesSand Dunes
Well-sorted, well-rounded sand grainsWell-sorted, well-rounded sand grainsSlip faceSlip face
– Angle of reposeAngle of repose
Wind ripplesWind ripples
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Barchan Dunes - JordanBarchan Dunes - Jordan
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Zion National Park - UtahZion National Park - Utah
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Wind DepositionWind Deposition
LoessLoessGravel PavementsGravel Pavements
Desert varnish & “petroglyphs”Desert varnish & “petroglyphs”Sand DunesSand Dunes
Well-sorted, well-rounded sand grainsWell-sorted, well-rounded sand grainsSlip faceSlip face
– Angle of reposeAngle of repose
Wind ripplesWind ripples
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Dune EvolutionDune Evolution
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Hierarchies exhibited by aeolian Hierarchies exhibited by aeolian and associated sedimentsand associated sediments GrainsGrains RipplesRipples Dunes Dunes Interdune unconfined sheetsInterdune unconfined sheets Confined bodies of wadii channel fillsConfined bodies of wadii channel fills Playa unconfined sheets of heterogenous Playa unconfined sheets of heterogenous
chemical, wind and water transported chemical, wind and water transported clastic sedimentsclastic sediments
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Mechanisms of Aeolian Mechanisms of Aeolian TransportationTransportation Rolling: 2-4 mmRolling: 2-4 mm Surface creepSurface creep 20-25% of sand moves by grains shifted by 20-25% of sand moves by grains shifted by
impacting saltating grains < 2 mmimpacting saltating grains < 2 mm Suspension: fine sand, silt, claySuspension: fine sand, silt, clay Grains 0.1 mm are most easily moved by Grains 0.1 mm are most easily moved by
wind; mostly > 2 m above the ground wind; mostly > 2 m above the ground surfacesurface
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Mice Tracks & Mice Tracks & RipplesRipples
White Sands, NMWhite Sands, NM
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Ripples on DuneRipples on Dune
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Wind DepositionWind Deposition
Types of dunesTypes of dunesBarchanBarchanTransverse duneTransverse duneParabolic duneParabolic duneLongitudinal duneLongitudinal dune
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Salt Pan – West Texas, El CapitanSalt Pan – West Texas, El Capitan
BARCHAN LONGITUDINAL
TRANSVERSE PARABOLIC
BARCHINOID STAR
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
North Africa - Sea Dust StormNorth Africa - Sea Dust StormStar Dunes – NamibiaStar Dunes – Namibia
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Sahara – Barchans & CamelsSahara – Barchans & Camels
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Navajo SandstoneNavajo Sandstone
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Cross-bedded Navaho SandstoneCross-bedded Navaho Sandstone
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
NavajoNavajoSandstoneSandstone
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Quaternary of UAE – Stokes SurfaceQuaternary of UAE – Stokes Surface
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
NavajoNavajoSandstoneSandstone
Base level change punctuates the sandstone with erosion surfaces!
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
NavajoNavajoSandstoneSandstone
Base level change punctuates the Base level change punctuates the sandstone with erosion surfaces!sandstone with erosion surfaces!
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
NavajoNavajoSandstoneSandstone
Base level change punctuates the Base level change punctuates the sandstone with erosion surfaces!sandstone with erosion surfaces!
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Some characteristics of desertsSome characteristics of deserts
Stream channels normally dryStream channels normally drycovered with sand & gravelcovered with sand & gravelNarrow canyons with vertical wallsNarrow canyons with vertical walls
Resistance of rocks to weatheringResistance of rocks to weatheringDesert topography typically steep and angularDesert topography typically steep and angular
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Aeolian Aeolian Sediment -Sediment - Critical Character Critical Character Aeolian sediments evidenced by x-bedding with Aeolian sediments evidenced by x-bedding with
high angle (30-34 degrees) high angle (30-34 degrees) Horizontal thin laminae common locallyHorizontal thin laminae common locally Sand rounded and frostedSand rounded and frosted Quartz coated by iron oxide suggests hot arid Quartz coated by iron oxide suggests hot arid
and/or seasonally humid climate (exceptions)and/or seasonally humid climate (exceptions) Well Sorted: often unimodal but if bimodal two Well Sorted: often unimodal but if bimodal two
populations presentpopulations present Silt and clay minimalSilt and clay minimal
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Small & large scale cross bedding, with multiple Small & large scale cross bedding, with multiple orientations within horizontal beddingorientations within horizontal bedding
Grains in laminae well sorted, especially finer Grains in laminae well sorted, especially finer sizes, sharp differences in size between laminasizes, sharp differences in size between lamina
Size ranges from silt (60 mu) to coarse & (2mm)Size ranges from silt (60 mu) to coarse & (2mm) Max size transported by wind 1 cm but rare grains Max size transported by wind 1 cm but rare grains
over 5 mmover 5 mm Larger grains (0.5 - 1.mm) often well rounded Larger grains (0.5 - 1.mm) often well rounded Sands free of clay and clay drapes rareSands free of clay and clay drapes rare Uncemented sands have frosted surfacesUncemented sands have frosted surfaces Mica usually absentMica usually absent
Aeolian Aeolian Sediment -Sediment - Critical Character Critical Character
Rules of thumb - Glennie1970
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Aeolian sediment interpretationAeolian sediment interpretation Analyse sedimentology & internal architecture Analyse sedimentology & internal architecture
with outcrop, cores and downhole imaging with outcrop, cores and downhole imaging Identify & seperate single aggradational units Identify & seperate single aggradational units
bounded by regional deflation surfaces (deep-bounded by regional deflation surfaces (deep-scoured to flat surfaces) scoured to flat surfaces)
Genetic models from cyclic recurrence in facies Genetic models from cyclic recurrence in facies Aggradation characterises near- continuous Aggradation characterises near- continuous
accumulationaccumulation Internal facies evolution related to differences in Internal facies evolution related to differences in
sediment budget & moving water table sediment budget & moving water table Palaeosols provide evidence of climate change Palaeosols provide evidence of climate change
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Conclusions - Desert Systems - Simplified Conclusions - Desert Systems - Simplified Sediment signal a mix of:Sediment signal a mix of:
Aeolian sediment – dunes and sheetsAeolian sediment – dunes and sheetsWater born intermittent fluvial sedimentWater born intermittent fluvial sedimentPlayas and lakesPlayas and lakesAeolian loessAeolian loess
Erosion: Erosion: Water table “Stokes Surfaces” marks limitWater table “Stokes Surfaces” marks limitIncised valleysIncised valleysGravel remnantsGravel remnantsRock pavementsRock pavementsVentifactsVentifacts
Base level: changes in ground water level.Base level: changes in ground water level.
LAKE LAKE AND AND ORGANICSORGANICS
Lakes Lakes Are Are
EphemeralEphemeral
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Lacustrian SystemsLacustrian Systems Critical characteristics of system?Critical characteristics of system? Geomorphologic & tectonic setting Geomorphologic & tectonic setting Dominant sedimentary processesDominant sedimentary processes FaciesFacies
Subdividing surfacesSubdividing surfacesLithologyLithologySedimentary structuresSedimentary structuresGeometries – Confined versus open Geometries – Confined versus open Fauna & floraFauna & flora
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Lake Systems – Simplified Signals Lake Systems – Simplified Signals Sediment signal a mix of:Sediment signal a mix of:
Lake Center –sheets and incised & unconfined turbidite cyclesLake Center –sheets and incised & unconfined turbidite cyclesMargins marked by alluvial fans & fluvial sedimentMargins marked by alluvial fans & fluvial sedimentReducing setting that favors organic preservationReducing setting that favors organic preservationSignal cycles in order from:Signal cycles in order from:
– CClastics & organicslastics & organics– Limestone & organicsLimestone & organics– Evaporites & organics Evaporites & organics
Base level: changes in ground water levelBase level: changes in ground water level Origin of large lakes:Origin of large lakes:
Continental break upContinental break upContinental collision Continental collision Sags on cratonSags on craton
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Significance of Lake Systems Significance of Lake Systems Signal extremes in local climate & geochemistrySignal extremes in local climate & geochemistry Stratigraphic markers (Organics trap radioactive minerals)Stratigraphic markers (Organics trap radioactive minerals) Major source of hydrocarbons along Atlantic MarginsMajor source of hydrocarbons along Atlantic Margins Major source of oil shale & gas in western USA & CanadaMajor source of oil shale & gas in western USA & Canada Major source ofMajor source of
Trona (Hydrated Sodium Bicarbonate Carbonate)Trona (Hydrated Sodium Bicarbonate Carbonate)Borax (Hydrated Sodium Borate)Borax (Hydrated Sodium Borate)Sulfohalite (NaSulfohalite (Na66ClF(SOClF(SO44))22))
Hanksite (Sodium Potassium Sulfate Carbonate Chloride)Hanksite (Sodium Potassium Sulfate Carbonate Chloride)
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Lake Geomorphologic & Tectonic Setting Lake Geomorphologic & Tectonic Setting
Major rifted, & faulted (Break-up) continental terrains – Major rifted, & faulted (Break-up) continental terrains – E. AfricaE. Africa Major final fill of foreland basin – Major final fill of foreland basin – Caspian & AralCaspian & Aral Continental sags – Continental sags – Victoria, Kenya, Uganda, and EyreVictoria, Kenya, Uganda, and Eyre Glacial features including:Glacial features including:
Moraine damming and/or ice scouring – Moraine damming and/or ice scouring – Great LakesGreat Lakes Ice dammingIce damming
Landslides or mass movementsLandslides or mass movements Volcanic activity including: Volcanic activity including:
Lava dammingLava dammingCrater explosion and collapse – Crater explosion and collapse – Crater LakeCrater Lake
Deflation by wind scour or damming by wind blown sand - Deflation by wind scour or damming by wind blown sand - FayumFayum Fluvial activity includingFluvial activity including
Oxbow lakes Oxbow lakes Levee lakes, Levee lakes, Delta & barrier island entrapmentDelta & barrier island entrapment
Temporary features forming 1% of earths’s land surface, filling:-Temporary features forming 1% of earths’s land surface, filling:-
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Initial Initial BreakupBreakupA Salt A Salt Filled Filled BasinBasinMay be May be CreatedCreated
Mix of Mix of high high salinity to salinity to fresh fresh water, water, organic organic rich to rich to evaporitievaporiticc
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Lake TanganyikaLake Tanganyika
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Lake TanganyikaLake Tanganyika
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Lake levels have varied historical and earlierLake levels have varied historical and earlier Fossil and living stromatolites abundant around Fossil and living stromatolites abundant around
the margins of Lake Tanganyika, Africa provides a the margins of Lake Tanganyika, Africa provides a source of paleolimnologic and paleoclimatic source of paleolimnologic and paleoclimatic information for the late Holoceneinformation for the late Holocene
late Holocene carbonates suggests that the late Holocene carbonates suggests that the surface elevation of the lake has remained near surface elevation of the lake has remained near the outlet level, with only occasional periods of the outlet level, with only occasional periods of closureclosure
In past the lake draw down encouraged In past the lake draw down encouraged evaporites evaporites
Lake TanganyikaLake Tanganyika
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Lakes formed Lakes formed between between splitting splitting
continentscontinents
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Restricted Restricted Entrances Entrances
To SeaTo Sea
Isolated linear
Isolated linear
Belt of interior
Belt of interiordrainage
drainage Regional Regional Drainage Drainage
Away Away From MarginFrom Margin
Arid Tropics Air System Arid Tropics Air System
Wide Envelope of surrounding continentsWide Envelope of surrounding continents
Organic Rich Lake FillOrganic Rich Lake Fill
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Lakes flanking Major Mountain ChainsLakes flanking Major Mountain Chains
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Bodies of fresh to saline water trapped on Bodies of fresh to saline water trapped on craton behind major mountain chainscraton behind major mountain chains
Tend to act as traps to clastics, carbonates Tend to act as traps to clastics, carbonates and evaporitic sedimentsand evaporitic sediments
Climatic change is recorded in the record Climatic change is recorded in the record of the sediment fillof the sediment fill
Water draw down encourages evaporites Water draw down encourages evaporites
Caspian and the Arral SeaCaspian and the Arral Sea
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
CaspianCaspian
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Aral SeaAral Sea
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Great LakesGreat Lakes
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Bodies of fresh water trapped on glacially Bodies of fresh water trapped on glacially scoured depressions on craton behind scoured depressions on craton behind glacial moraines glacial moraines
Act as traps to clastic sedimentsAct as traps to clastic sediments Climatic change is recorded in record of Climatic change is recorded in record of
sediment fillsediment fill Water draw down encourages precipitates Water draw down encourages precipitates
Great Lakes Great Lakes
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Lake Constance - Lake Constance - SwitzerlandSwitzerland
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Ice Dammed Lake – AlaskaIce Dammed Lake – Alaska
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Lake Response to StratificationLake Response to Stratification
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Lake Sedimentary faciesLake Sedimentary facies Sedimentary signal like that of a foreshortened Sedimentary signal like that of a foreshortened
Marine settingMarine setting Narrow shores with beaches and deltasNarrow shores with beaches and deltas Finer sediments and turbidites fill the lake center Finer sediments and turbidites fill the lake center
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Lake Sedimentary faciesLake Sedimentary facies Presence of freshwater fossilsPresence of freshwater fossils Lake sediments commonly better sorted than fluvial and periglacial Lake sediments commonly better sorted than fluvial and periglacial
sedimentssediments May (or may not) display a tendency toward fining upward and May (or may not) display a tendency toward fining upward and
inward towards the basin centerinward towards the basin center Lake sediments are predominantly fine grained sediments either Lake sediments are predominantly fine grained sediments either
siliciclastic muds but may be carbonate sediments and evaporates siliciclastic muds but may be carbonate sediments and evaporates Typical sequence may produced as the lake dries up with a Typical sequence may produced as the lake dries up with a
coarsening upward sequence from laminated shales, marls and coarsening upward sequence from laminated shales, marls and limestones to rippled and cross-bedded sandstone and possibly limestones to rippled and cross-bedded sandstone and possibly conglomeratesconglomerates
Lake sediment fill often shows cyclic alternation of laminaeLake sediment fill often shows cyclic alternation of laminae Varves produced by seasonal variations in sediment supply and Varves produced by seasonal variations in sediment supply and
lake circulation which changes the chemistry of the lakeslake circulation which changes the chemistry of the lakes
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Lacustrian sedimentary geometriesLacustrian sedimentary geometries Shore marked by linear beachesShore marked by linear beaches Coarse to fine slopeCoarse to fine slope Deeper water lake laminae and turbiditesDeeper water lake laminae and turbidites Eclectic clastic and evaporitic sedmentsEclectic clastic and evaporitic sedments
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
GreenGreenRiver River LakeLake
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Green River Lake FillGreen River Lake Fill
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Green Green RiverRiver
– – Systems Systems
&&FaciesFacies
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Green River SectionGreen River Section
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Green River SectionGreen River Section
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Green River Green River SectionSection
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Green River Green River Fauna & FloraFauna & Flora
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
East African Lake MarginEast African Lake Margin
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Green River SectionGreen River Section
“Clastic Hierarchies”Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Conclusions - Lake Systems Conclusions - Lake Systems Sediment signal a mix of:Sediment signal a mix of:
Lake Center –sheets and incised & unconfined turbidite cyclesLake Center –sheets and incised & unconfined turbidite cyclesMargins marked by alluvial fans & fluvial sedimentMargins marked by alluvial fans & fluvial sedimentReducing setting that favors organic preservationReducing setting that favors organic preservationSignal cycles in order from:Signal cycles in order from:
– CClastics & organicslastics & organics– Limestone & organicsLimestone & organics– Evaporites & organics Evaporites & organics
Base level: changes in ground water levelBase level: changes in ground water level Origin of large lakes:Origin of large lakes:
Continental break upContinental break upContinental collision Continental collision Sags on cratonSags on craton
Lakes Lakes Are Are
EphemeralEphemeral
End of the LectureEnd of the Lecture
Lets go for lunch!!!Lets go for lunch!!!