CLASS 4.5 USER's MANUALclass.wceruw.org/documents/class/CLASS Documentation.pdf · analysis of...

CLASS 4.5 USER's MANUAL

A WINDOWS LAPTOP-COMPUTER SYSTEM FOR THE

IN-CLASS ANALYSIS OF CLASSROOM DISCOURSE

Martin Nystrand

Programming by Yen-Ju Chen, Andrew Olney, & David Woods

Editorial Assistance by Samantha Caughlan, Xiaoyi Sun, & Brooke Ward

The Wisconsin Center for Edu cation Research

University of Wisconsin-Madison

CLASS 4.5 USER's MANUAL

A WINDOWS LAPTOP-COMPUTER SYSTEM FOR THE

IN-CLASS ANALYSIS OF CLASSROOM DISCOURSE

15 December 2015

Martin Nystrand

Programming by Yen Ju Chen, Andrew Olney, and David Woods

Editorial Assistance by Samantha Caughlan, Xiaoyi Sun, and Brooke

Ward

This program and documentation were prepared at the University of Wisconsin atMadison’s Wisconsin Center for Education Research (WCER). The Center is sup-ported by the U. S. Department of Education's Institute of Education Sciences (IES)(Award #R305A130030). However, the views expressed herein are those of theauthor(s) and do not necessarily represent the views of the department. For moreinformation, contact Martin Nystrand, [email protected], 608 335-9429.

mailto:[email protected],

Classroom Discourse Is . . .

• The language of learning (Courtney Cazden)

• The ocean on which all else floats (James Britton)

Talking to Learn Is . . .

• A struggle to organize . . . thoughts and feelings, to come up withwords that . . . shape an understanding (James Britton)

Table of Contents

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3§1. CLASS 4.5 Program Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

§1.1. Starting the Program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4§1.2. When Class Session Starts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5Keystroke Commands at a Glance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9§1.3. Entering and Coding Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9§1.4. Reviewing and Editing Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11§1.5. Saving a Class Session. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12§1.6. Datafile Names. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

§2. Rules for Classifying & Coding Classroom Discourse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

§2.1. Discourse Episodes and Segments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13§2.2. Approach to Question Coding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14§2.3. Non-Instructional Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2.3.1. Rhetorical Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142.3.2. Procedural Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142.3.3. Discourse-Management Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

§2.4. Aborted and Repaired Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15§2.5. Authentic vs.Test Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

§2.5.1. Authentic Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15§2.5.2. “What Else?”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

§2.6. Uptake.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16§2.6.1. Uptake by Ellipsis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17§2.6.2. Missing Uptake. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17§2.6.3. Types of Uptake. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

§2.7. Cognitive Level.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18§2.7.1. Reporting vs. Thinking.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18§2.7.2. Generalization/Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18§2.7.3. Factors Affecting Cognitive Level. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

§2.8. Coding Ambiguous Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20§2.8.1. Preformulated Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20§2.8.2. Homework Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20§2.8.3. Redirected Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

CLASS 4.5

§2.9. Coding Responses to Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22§2.9.1. Principal Coding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22§2.9.2. Teacher Evaluation/Followup.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22§2.9.3. Teacher Response to Student Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . 22

§2.10. Classifying Instructional Activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22§2.10.1. Lecture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22§2.10.2. Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23§2.10.3. Student Presentation.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23§2.10.4. Reading Aloud. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23§2.10.5. Role Play or Simulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24§2.10.6. Game. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24§2.10.7. Class Interruption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24§2.10.8. Seatwork.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

§2.10.8.1. Writing Without Composing: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24§2.10.8.2. Composing.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24§2.10.9. Small Group Work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

§2.10.10. Discipline.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25§2.10.11. Ambiguous Activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

§3. Editing Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26§3.1. Basic Editing Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27§3.2. Proofreading and Cleaning Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28§3.3. Time Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28§3.4. Calculate Statistics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29§3.5. Question Plot. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30§3.6. CLASS 4.5 Question Editor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32§3.7. Segment Editor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

§4. Interpreting CLASS Files. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Introduction

CLASS 4.5 is a Windows laptop-computer program for the in-classanalysis of classroom discourse. The unit of analysis in this programis the question, and to operate CLASS 4.5, the classroom observertypes in and codes each nonprocedural question that teachers and theirstudents ask during the course of a class period. Procedural questions,e.g., questions about pages to be read as homework, are not includedin this analysis since they are peripheral to instruction and learning.

Questions, of course, presume answers, and question-answerexchanges dominate classroom interactions in English Language Artsinstruction. Hence, for purposes of analysis, the questions teachersand their students ask during class effectively index the entire discus-sion, and we may build profiles of instruction and study classroomdiscourse by focusing on the questions.

In using CLASS 4.5, the observer is prompted to code each ques-tion for (a) source (who asks the question: teacher or student); (b)response (whether or not there is a response); (c) whether or not aquestion is non-instructional (procedural and rhetorical questions); (d)authenticity (questions for which have no prespecified answers); (e)serial (if the question is repeated); (f) uptake (uptake occurs when thespeaker, e.g., the teacher incorporates a previous answer (e.g., astudent answer in a subsequent question); (g) cognitive level (reportor high level [generalization/analysis]); (h) teacher evaluation ofstudent response (elaborated, unelaborated or none); and (i) howteacher responds to student answers (merely answers, closes offfurther student response, or opens the floor for discussion).

Unlike previous versions of CLASS, CLASS 4.5 codes responses toquestions for (a) extent of elaboration, (b) audience for the response(teacher or class), and (c) relation of response to other responses. Inaddition, small group that is characterized by ignificant student

CLASS 4.5

2 CLASS 4.5 USER's MANUAL

interaction defining shape of task and outcome, even if the teachermight have been able to predict results before group work, will nowbe counted as discussion.

Because of the importance of student questions (Nystrand, Wu,Gamoran, Zeiser, & Long, D. [2003]), CLASS 4.5 also prompts theobserver to code the teacher’s response to student questions, checkingwhether the teacher uses the question to open up discussion or man-ages it in such a way as to table it.

When data collection is completed, the observer can use theprogram to proofread, edit, insert missed questions, fully transcribeeach question and response, as well as use the on-screen wavform tomark the starting and end points of each, and revise the file for incom-plete and inappropriate codings and compute basic statistics for eachepisode and class.

CLASS 4.5 is premised on a view of instruction not as what teach-ers provide or do to students but rather as what teachers and studentscollaboratively negotiate. High-quality classroom discourse is charac-terized by substantive reciprocity between teachers and their students. In such instruction, students and not just teachers have a lot of inputinto the business of the classroom and hence what is learned. CLASS

4.5 provides a number of measures designed to assess the quality ofinteraction between teachers and their students. A fuller discussion ofthis view of instruction as discourse is presented in Nystrand (1997),Applebee (1996), and Langer (1995).

Reading and writing experiences are best supported through conversations inwhich students’ growing and changing understandings guide “the questionswe ask and the ways we teach.” Judith Langer

CLASS 4.5 PROGRAM OPERATION 3

Successful teachers follow their students’ voices “into neighborhood corners andalley ways, off the beaten path of the curricular road, where the social action is,”as Anne Haas Dyson so eloquently puts it—listening carefully and openingdialogue. Phrasing instruction according to students’ abilities, interests, andexperience, they take their students seriously, finding—sometimes creating—ways tolet their students know that what they think counts. Martin Nystrand, OpeningDialogue, p. 108.

§1. CLASS 4.5 Program Operation

§1.1. Starting the Program

To start the program, turn the computer on, and click on the Class 4.5desktop icon. When the program opens, you will see the screen shown below. Enter your initials in the box below.

To start collecting data, click on the Open Document icon, which is thefirst icon in the top left corner of the screen :

Next, you will be asked to enter the coder ID and you will enter yourinitials. When you have entered your initials, you may begin collecting

CLASS 4.5


and coding data. The program will automatically note the date and timeof the coding session.

§1.2. When Class Session Starts

The data collection session will begin as soon as you enter yourinitials. In order to create an episode, hit ; an episode box will appear.E

You will be prompted to enter an initial description (typically, you willtype, “Getting started” for the first episode). Don’t worry if you’re notsure exactly what’s going on when you first describe the episode; youwill have plenty of opportunities to revise and expand your description. Indeed, you will want to make changes as each episode unfolds. Theepisode description box will also give you the option of addingfieldnotes to provide additional context for the observation.

We define an episode as any coherent classroom activity centeringaround a particular purpose or topic. A new episode starts when theteacher addresses a new purpose or topic. Sometimes episodes willconsist of two or more activities. For example, in addressing a particularobjective, the teacher may initiate a question-and-answer session whichis then interrupted by periodic, brief lectures, and culminates with ahomework assignment. When something like this happens, we say thatthe episode is divided into segments. A segment is any coherent part ofan episode which differs from other activities constituting an episode. It may help to think of an episode as a “chapter” and a segment as a“paragraph” within a chapter.

The initial episode and segment numbers will both be 1 when youstart, of course, and the segment number will advance each time youindicate a new type of activity within the episode.

To create a new segment. The segment box allows you to identifythe segment type and subtype and to add a fieldnote. Segment typesinclude the following:

C Procedures and directionsC Discipline


To adjust start time, drag thegreen bar with the cursor

To adjust end time,drag the red bar

C Class interruption C Lecture/film/ video/music C Question/answerC Discussion C Student presentation C Small group work C Reading aloud C Silent reading C Role play or simulation C Game Test or quiz C SeatworkC Other

Some segment types will require further description and if so, optionswill appear in a subtype box. (Student presentation, for example requiresyou to identify if the presentation was group or solo, quick or careful,and structured by the teacher or student).

Additionally, discussion segments will include a wavform that can beadjusted to capture student and teacher interactions as well as a box inwhich transcripts can be entered. You can drag the green colored verticaldivider with the mouse to mark the starting time of an utterance; drag thered vertical divider to mark the end. Note: You can also create adiscussion segment directly by using the key.D

When the first episode/segment ends, you will need to click or EPISODE

to mark the end of the current activity episode or segment andSEGMENT

the start of a new one.


Menu functions available include:

initiates a new episode. This option ends the current episodeEpisode

and starts a new episode. When the first episode ends, you will need

to click box to start a new episode, which allows you toEpisode

enter the description of the episode in the Event box. After theepisode description is entered, click "Ok" to save the information.

initiates a new segment. When the first segment ends, youSegment

will need to click the to start a new segment. Upon clickingSegment

the segment box, you will be prompted to choose the segment type.After the selected segment type is highlighted, click "Ok" to save theinformation.

Double-click the question that you want to edit. EditQuestion review

the question text in the "Event window." Modify the codings of thequestion. Click "Ok" to save the change.

Place the cursor on the edge of the episode and drag itMerge episodes

to the end of the other episode that you want to merge. Click "Ok" tosave the change.

Place the cursor on the edge of the segment and dragMerge segments

it to the end of the other segment that you want to merge. Click "Ok"to save the change.

can be used to provide additional context and informationFieldnotes

during a classroom observation, but they can also provide a means of

accounting for and describing anomalies and uncertainties. Fieldnote

allows you to make notes at any time during the observation concern-ing items of interest not handled by CLASS. They may be useful,among other notes, for:


Anomalies: When something important comes up that can't behandled by the program, make a fieldnote.

Uncertainties: When you are unsure of how to code something, makea fieldnote so you can reconsider it when you listen to the audio andedit the CLASS file. Whenever the program or the class sessionunfolds in surprising ways, make a fieldnote.

Here is an example from an observer:

FIELDNOTE: "I didn't know how to handle the "organization" valuesfor group presentations and seatwork. At what point do we move thepointer move from T to S? For example, in one lesson, a teachergave the class a prompt to write about whether and how they usedwhat they were learning in this class in other classes, and if theyweren't using it, why not? They wrote for about fifteen minutes, andshe read them aloud. Although they all answered the prompt, theywere quite individual. Is this T organization, or S?"

This question about the student organization of group presentationsand seatwork is a perfect example of fieldnote use.

CLASS 4.5 includes an adjustable wavform that allows the observerto capture the start and end of student and teacher utterances in a mannerthat bounds classroom events while automatically time stamping them.The expand buttons on the left and right allow the observer to increaseor decrease the size of the wav file being played. Buttons that allow theobserver to play, pause, and fast forward are located at the bottom leftof the wavform box.

By taking students seriously, techers elicit the best from students by expecting themost. Martion Nystrand, Opening Dialogue, p. 92.


Keystroke Commands at a Glance

Use the following keystrokes to create episodes, segments, questions,and fieldnotes:

EpisodeE

Segment G

Teacher QuestionT

Student QuestionS

Procedural QuestionP

Ditto Question"

Discussion SegmentD

FieldnoteF

§1.3. Entering and Coding Questions

To enter a question, the coder will type for a teacher question or forT S

a student question. A question box will appear.

You will be prompted to enter the question event, including the question,the response, and the evaluation (if there is one). You will also identify


SOURCE, NON-INSTRUCTIONAL QUESTIONS, RESPONSE, SERIAL QUESTION, AUTHENTICITY, UPTAKE, COGNICITY,UPTAKE, COGNITIVE LEVEL, EVALUATION, AND TEACHERRESPONSE. The NORMAL button will automatically apply defaultcodes shown in bold italics. In the Q/A screen, the cursor will promptyou to Enter 1 (Question #1). The program will not let you continue ifyou fail to type in a question and press ENTER. In coding each question,the options for each variable are shown in parentheses. One of theseoptions is starred.

The default values for the normal teacher questions are:

C SOURCE: teacherC RESPONSE IDENTITY: studentC AUTHENTICITY: noC UPTAKE: noC COGNITIVE LEVEL: lowC EVALUATION: unelaboratedC SERIAL QUESTION: no

The default values for the normal student questions are:

C SOURCE: studentC RESPONSE IDENTITY: teacherC AUTHENTICITY: yesC UPTAKE: yesC COGNITIVE LEVEL: low C EVALUATION: none C SERIAL QUESTIONS: no

Note that these options will not appear if a question is coded asnon-instructiona l. For non-instructional questions, the other values willgray out. (For full explanation of coding rules for questions, see §2.Rules for Classifying and Coding Classroom Discourse). Using the "key duplicates the previous question and the codings for that question.It should be used when a teacher repeats a question (e.g., to anotherstudent).


Question-answer exchanges, which dominate instruction in American EnglishLanguage Arts instruction, occupied 30% of class time in the eighth-gradeclasses Nystrand and his colleagues studied and 42% of the ninth-grade classes. They play a key role in both accommodating and excluding student voices in thepublic, authoritative discourse of the classroom, and they are the centralinstructional mechanism in American classrooms for assigning epistemic rolesto students. As such, they significantly regulate the extent to which teacher-student interaction can be dialogic. Opening Dialogue, p. 36

At the bottom of the question box, you will see a wavform. When thewavform is present, the observer can manipulate bars on the wavform toindicate the boundaries of student and teacher questions as well asteacher evaluation and feedback.

§1.4. Reviewing and Editing Questions

You may review and edit any questions or codings by clicking on thatquestion. The question box will appear and you can change the question,response, and values of the question within the box just as you wouldwhen completing initial coding during a classroom observation.


The word is a two-sided act. It is determined equally by whose word it is and forwhom it is meant. As word, it is precisely the product of the reciprocalrelationship between speaker and listener, addresser and addressee . . . . I givemyself verbal shape from another’s point of view, ultimately from the point ofview of the community to which I belong. A word is a bridge thrown betweenmyself and another . . . . A word is territory shared by both addresser andaddressee. Valentin Vološinov, 1973, p.86.

If questions are being edited from a previous observation, click on theOpen Document icon on the top left corner of the CLASS 4.5 screen.Select the file you want to edit, and the file will open in CLASS 4.5.(Note that the EPS/CLASS file must be in the same folder on yourcomputer as the wav file in order for the wavform to appear in CLASS4.5.)

CLASS 4.5 will indicate that question's coding is complete by turningthe question box green. A blue question box indicates that coding for aquestion is incomplete.

§1.5. Saving a Class Session

In order to save the class session, click the small SAVE icon at the topleft of the screen. You will be prompted to name your file and save it.The save icon is the third icon in the top left corner of the screen.

§1.6. Datafile Names

EPS & WAV Files. Data are saved under a file name that is a compila-tion of School-Class-Observation numbers, plus the extension, e.g.,*.EPS (for episode data). For example, data for School 23-class 42-Observation 4 will be saved as 23-32-4.EPS. In addition, class creates aseparate file for matrices data (*.SUR files), and backup (*.BAK) file. The backup is compiled sequentially as each question is typed, entered,and coded. Each entered item is time stamped in the file itself. If forany reason you are unable to finish a class session using the program(e.g., you run out of battery power), this backup file will preservewhatever data you created prior to the problem. Finally, CLASS 4.0allows observers to compile free form fieldnotes. These will be savedin *.NTE files.

§2. Rules for Classifying & Coding

Classroom Discourse

15 DECEMBER 2015

§2.1. Discourse Episodes and Segments

An episode is a coherent classroom activity centering around a particularpurpose or topic. A new episode starts when the teacher addresses a newpurpose or topic. High school lessons typically begin and end withprocedural episodes “Getting started” and “Preparing to leave.” Betweenthese episodes, we typically find one or more instructional episodes,which often consist of two or more activities. For example, in teachinga lesson on Roll of Thunder, Hear My Cry, a teacher may begin byreviewing the previous night’s reading assignment in a question-and-answer session, which develops into an open discussion or leads tosmallgroup work, which culminates in in-class writing as students writetheir reactions to the exchange of views elicied during discussion; theteacher views this writing as a head start of that night’s homeworkassignment, which is to read the next chapter. CLASS treats sequencesof activities like this as a series of segments comprising an instructionalepisode. The episodic structure for the lesson just mentioned is:

Episode 1: Getting startedEpisode 2: Roll of Thunder, Hear My Cry

Segment 1: Q/ASegment 2: DiscussionSegment 3: Seatwork/monitoring

Episode 3: Preparing to leave

An activity is defined by how it develops or is realized. If a teacher’splanned review turns into a discussion, it is to be coded as a Q/Asegment followed by a discussion segment, even if the teacher plannedonly a review. Similarly, if students are doing silent reading startwriting answers to homework questions about the reading, it is to becoded as a silent reading segment followed by a seatwork segment.


Two rules:

• Activities are defined by how they are enacted.• If some students are engaged in one activity, e.g., silent reading, and

others are doing something else, answering homework questions,code the activity which most of the students are doing.

§2.2. Approach to Question Coding

CLASS question coding treats questions as sites of interaction, i.e.,question events. As Heritage & Roth (1995) and Schegloff (1984)contend, the character of any unit of discourse and related interaction isa function of the participants’ understanding. Following this principle,you are to code not questions per se but rather the participants’ under-standings of their interactions as manifest by their discourse moves. Tojudge the authenticity of a question, for example, requires that you takeyour cues not only from how students answered the questions, but alsohow the teacher responded to the students’ answers. As with authentic-ity, cognitive level is to be coded according to the level of cognitivefunctioning the question elicited, not the question by itself. In all cases,code not the questions directly but rather the character of socialinteraction involving, valorized, and elicited by the questions.

§2.3. Non-Instructional Questions

The observer will transcribe non-instructional questions, includingrhetorical, procedural, and discourse management questions. These areto be coded for source (teacher or student) and then as noninstructional;coding these questions as non-instructional will cause other values togray out and thus eliminate the possibility of further coding the question.The other values will be grayed out. Noninstructional questions include:

§2.3.1. Rhetorical Questions. Be alert to rhetorical questions. They aretranscribed and coded only for source and response.

§2.3.2. Procedural Questions. Questions like "Does that answer yourquestion?" and "Do you have any questions?" are procedural, notsubstantive. They are to be transcribed and coded only for source andresponse.

LEARNING IS OFTEN BUILT ON SURPRISES. ROBERT GUNDLACH

§2.3.3. Discourse-Management Questions. Questions like (a) "What?","Did we talk about that?", or "Where are we [in the text]?", whichmanage classroom discourse, and (b) "Do you remember our discussionfrom yesterday?", which initiate discourse topics, should be transcribedand coded only for source and response.

§2.4. Aborted and Repaired Questions

A question-and-answer sequence is a negotiation of sorts. In asking aquestion, a conversant in effect enters (or sustains) a negotiation withconversants, and the question posed must work in terms of the knowl-edge, experience, and expectations of the other conversants, i.e., it mustinitiate or sustain a shared balance of discourse (Nystrand, 1986).Ifteachers ask questions that elicit no answer, this is an aborted question;click ‘N’ (No) when prompted for RESPONSE (Y*/N: the asteriskindicates that Y is the default; requiiring you only to press <ENTER>). Note that an aborted question is different from a repaired question,which is a question the teacher asks and, without giving students achance to answer, revises. When someone repairs a question, you needto transcribe the series of repaira but only code the final version of thequestion.

The proportion of teacher questions that fails to elicit an answer is anindex of the extent to which the teacher incorrectly anticipates thecapabilities and knowledge of the class. If the teacher asks too manyquestions that students are unable to answer or don’t know how toanswer, it means that the teacher has misjudged the students in somefundamental way; the question indexes a mismatch.

Alternately, these may be rich questions challenging students to proposeserious and considerable thought, but if so the teacher will wait for ananswer.

§2.5. Authentic vs.Test Questions

§2.5.1. Authentic Questions are questions whose answers are notprespecified by the teacher. By contrast, an inauthentic question,sometimes called a test question, allows students no control over the


flow of the discussion, whereas an authentic question allows the studentsubstantial input, if not control over, the flow of the discussion.

§2.5.2. “What Else?”

Code the question "What else?" as:

C Inauthentic (test) when it is used for negative evaluation, i.e.,when a student gives a wrong answer and the teacher continuesto look for the correct one by saying, "What else?"; or

C Authentic when used during brainstorming, i.e., when anyanswer is satisfactory.

§2.6. Uptake

Uptake is the speaker’s incorporation of a previous answer into asubsequent question (Collins, 1982). It is often marked by the use ofpronouns:

How did it work?What causes this?What city grew out of this?

In such questions, the pronoun (technically a deictic reference) refers toa previous response.

To qualify as uptake, a question must incorporate a previous answer,not a previous question. Normally, this incorporation of a previousanswer will involve actual quoting. Questions that are repeated do notqualify as uptake.

Less obvious deictics include:

then: e.g., "And then what happened?" Here then means "after that,"i.e., "after what you just said."

so: e.g., "So which value was given to them?" Here so means "Giventhat," i.e., "Given what you just said, which value was given to them?"

maybe: e.g., "Maybe. What do you think?" where maybe should be readmaybe so.

though: e.g.,"Per item though?" where teacher follows up a studentresponse to get a more specific answer (previous question was

RULES OF CODING 17

"Which has higher overhead?"): though here means "despite orbeyond what you said."

§2.6.1. Uptake by Ellipsis. Uptake may be characterized by ellipsis. Forexample, if, when a teacher asks a question and a student answers, theteacher then asks "Why?", the "Why?" is to be scored positive foruptake; "Why?" incorporates the previous student answer by ellipsis."Because . . .?” as a follow up question works the same way.

§2.6.2. Missing Uptake. In the following sequence, there is no uptake:

Teacher question: What’s the first x?Student response: ...Teacher question: What’s the second x?

There is no uptake here because the teacher does not incorporate astudent’s answer into a subsequent question.

§2.6.3. Types of Uptake. Uptake will either be faux (test) uptake orauthentic uptake.

Authentic uptake: Teacher asks an unprescripted question about astudent response.

Test (faux) uptake:

• Teacher incorporates previous answer into an ongoing script. Forexample:

Teacher: What’s the subject of the sentence?Student: “Rabbit”Teacher: And the rabbit did what?

In this exchange, the teacher follows up on the student’s answer(“rabbit”), but the answer was entirely predictable.

• Teacher follows up a student answer to check (test) the student’sunderstanding.

§2.7. Cognitive Level

§2.7.1. Reporting vs. Thinking. We distinguish two levels of cognition:

R Recitations and reports: What happened? Don’t correspond toscreen prompts (default)

H High-level generalization or analysis, i.e., thinking: What happens?and Why?

As a general rule of thumb, lower-order questions (i.e., questionseliciting reports) result in answers that are known information whereashigher-order questions (i.e., questions eliciting generalizations, analyses,or speculations) result in answers that are new information.

Like authenticity, the cognitive level of questions cannot be judgedaltogether from words alone. In judging cognitive level, code the levelof cognitive functioning that the question seeks to elicit, not the questionby itself or its linguistic structure. Cognitive functioning is high to theextent that "the question cannot be answered through the routineapplication of prior knowledge" (Newmann, 1988). In Polanyi’s (1962)terms, low-level cognitive functioning is a routine performance whereashigh-level cognitive functioning is a heuristic act. Hence, though a why-question will ostensibly elicit an analysis, it will elicit a report if theteacher’s focus is the recitation of a textbook's analysis rather than theclass’s reflection, In such a situation, “Why?” really means, “Accordingto your text, why did it happen this way? Do you remember?”

§2.7.2. Generalization/Analysis. Generalization is the derivation orinduction of a general conception or principle from particulars, typicallyin response to an open-ended question. Analysis is the determination ofthe nature and relationship r of parts in a whole entailing two or morestipulated particulars or concepts a, b. In analysis the teacher typicallystipulates terms for consideration (e.g., "Given what we’ve just said [i.e.,given a and b], What’s the author’s point?") whereas in generalizationthe teacher does not stipulate terms for consideration; the students do(e.g., "What’s the point?").

Examples of generalization:What happens when you get to the nextstanza? Who are these people? What do you think is the message? What does it mean to be in shackles? What does a tornado do? What’sthe author saying here? What’s it all about? Contrastive example ofgeneralization and analysis:

RULES OF CODING 19

TEACHER: What did Robert Fulton do? What was the result? Howdid his success affect river travel? What’s a problem thatsome rivers have?

STUDENT: . . . TEACHER: So how did Fulton’s success affect river travel?

In the first question, which is a multiply repaired question, the teacheris working to stipulate the terms of an analysis he wants students to do. The question, "What’s a problem some rivers have?" is meant to elicita generalization in preparation for a particular analysis these questionsare driving towards: "So how did Fulton’s success affect river travel?"

§2.7.3. Factors Affecting Cognitive Level. The cognitive level of anyquestion is affected by: (a) the knowledgeability of the person answeringthe question, (b) nature of the instructional activity, and (c) the source ofinformation required by the question.

(a) Knowledgeability of the person answering of the question. Ques-tions are to be coded as reports when their answers elicit a routinecognitive operation. But note that "routine" varies depending onwhat the person answering the question knows: The very samequestion that elicits an analysis from one person may well elicit areport from another, more knowledgeable individual. This distinc-tion is especially germane to teacher or student questions. Forexample, "How did the French regain control of Canada?" may wellelicit an analysis from students (assuming, of course, that they haveto figure out the answer and not merely recite their textbook accounton the point), but it will elicit a report if a student asks the teacher,who already knows the answer. Of course, teachers may not havethe answers to all student questions at their fingertips, and if theteacher clearly thinks about a challenging student question, asindicated by a pregnant pause, for example, the question is to beconsidered as an instance of generalization or analysis. Nonetheless,most student questions addressed to teachers will elicit reports. Insome low-ability classes, spelling or even pronouncing new anddifficult words will require analysis whereas in other classes, wherestudents have already mastered the pronunciations and spellings ofthe same words, their spelling is a mere routine report.

(b) Nature of the instructional activity. When whole-class instructionis devoted to review, the normal expectation for the cognitive level


of the questions is report, even if the questions have the linguisticform of higher level questions. Sometimes, of course, you mayencounter teachers who use review as a basis for analysis andreflection, so take this situation into account in your coding.

(c) Source of information required by the question. We define "priorknowledge" as "prior to the previous night’s homework." Hence, ifa teacher asks students about the previous night’s reading, thequestion will normally elicit a report.

§2.8. Coding Ambiguous Questions

§2.8.1. Preformulated Questions (e.g., "Do you think that’s important?").In judging cognitive level of preformulated questions, disregard thepreformulator ("Do you think. . ."), and code the remainder of thequestion ("Is it important?"), i.e., code only the nuclear utterance (cf.French and Maclure, 1981). Superficially a question such as "Do youthink that’s important?" elicits a record (i.e., what the student is thinkingnow), but if the real purpose of the question is to elicit a higher cognitiveoperation (an analysis of what is important), it should be so coded. Hence:

"Do you think that’s important?"="Is that important?"=ANALYSIS

"Do you know what a catechism is?"="What is a catechism?"=REPORT

"Do you understand why #11 is a ‘b’?"="Why is #11 a ‘b?’= ANALY-SIS

"What do I mean by ‘transition’?"="What’s a transition?"=REPORT orANALYSIS, depending on context student to report. When in doubtabout cognitive level, always ask what mental operation thequestion is eliciting (not the literal meaning of the question). Hence, "Should I do anything more with it?" should be coded as"What more should I do with it?"

§2.8.2. Homework Questions. Sometimes teachers will ask questionsabout things students have already completed or considered, e.g.,homework. If, in answering these questions, students actually consulttheir homework, the question will elicit a report, since the students arereporting on what they have already done. If the students do not actuallyconsult their homework, however, the questions should probably be

RULES OF CODING 21

coded as if they had been asked the first time, i.e.,analysis/generalization.

When teachers ask questions about what students are thinking (and not just tosee if they have done their homework), and when they ask them questions abouttheir previous answers, they promote fundamental expectations for learning byseriously treating students as thinkers, i.e., by indicating that what students thinkis important and worth examining (Martin Nystrand)

§2.8.3. Redirected Questions. Whenever a teacher redirects a questionto another member of the class, code the new question with the samevalues as the original question; use . This includes uptake, authenticity,"

and cognitive level. For example:

Eugene, can you tell me a bit about it? T A ReportMike? T A Report


Meaning is realized only in the process of active, responsive understanding.... Only thecurrent of verbal intercourse endows a word with the light of meaning. Valentin Vološinov

§2.9. Coding Responses to Questions

§2.9.1. Principal Coding: Serial (repeated) question. One part of multipleresponse (y/n). When teachers encourage or allow multiple responsesto a single question without repeating the question, it can indicate atransition to dialogic interaction in the class.

§2.9.2. Teacher Evaluation/Followup: Elaborated vs. unelaborated. Elaborated responses show thinking and offer a rationale for the answergiven (two parts: answer + elaboration). Unelaborated responsesprovide just answers, typically with just the information the questiontargets.

§2.9.3. Teacher Response to Student Questions: Coding teacher responseto student questions.Whenever a student asks a question, you will beprompted to code the nature of the teacher’s response: T response(C/A*/O) where

C = Closing down: Tabling, changing the subject (perhaps with adifferent question)A* = Answering (default), either elaborated or unelaboratedO = Opening up: Asking for more information, rerouting question toclass.

§2.10. Classifying Instructional Activities

§2.10.1. Lecture. Lecture is to count as a segment only when the teachertalks uninterrupted for at least 30 seconds.

Lecture, film, video, music also refers to student consumption ofrecorded material, such as documentaries, fiction films or books on tape.

Lecture deals with English content, not with instructions for classactivities. Code as Lecture when teacher is talking about skills orknowledge which will be generally useful to the student in the future.

RULES OF CODING 23

Ms. Lindsay’s class wasabout figuring things out—inclass, face-to-face, teacher and

students together.Op e n in g Dialo g u e , p.

The bottom line for instruction is that the quality of student learning is closelylinked to the quality of classroom talk. Martin Nystrand

For example, “How to do a bibliography” may be Lecture, but “Youmay only have one Internet source in your bibliography for this paper”would be Procedures and Directions.

§2.10.2. Discussion. We define discussionprincipally as a free exchange of informa-tion among students and/or between at least3 participants that lasts longer than 30seconds. The three participants may includethe teacher, though the teacher may bedeliberately silent during some discussions. When discussion occurs in the midst of question-and-answer, itinterrupts or violates the normal initiation-response-evaluation sequenceof recitation. Discussions typically include relatively few questions;most often these questions clarify ideas and information ("By that do youmean . . . ?") and are consequently authentic since, rather than quizzingeach other, the conversants exchange only that information they actuallyneed to know. Discussion displays regular uptake so long as theconversants listen and respond appropriately to each other. Typicallydiscussion comes about in question-answer when a student volunteers anobservation (not a question) that substitutes for teacher evaluation.

Discussions can also happen in small groups in response to the teacher’sposing a rich, authentic question or issue to be discussed by the group,or whenever small groups engage in significant student interaction,including discussion, defining shape of task and the outcome.

§2.10.3. STUDENT PRESENTATION: QUICK VS CAREFUL

Quick: Students have only the class hour or less to prepare. Careful: Students have prepared at home or during previous classsessions, and it is clear that this counts as more than a daily grade.

§2.10.4. Reading Aloud generally refers to students reading aloud. Teachers reading aloud an excerpt to illustrate a lecture point counts as


lecture; however, teachers taking their “turn” in the reading aloud of aclass text counts as Reading Aloud. Tapes of someone reading aloudcount as “lecture, film, video, music.”

§2.10.5. Role Play or Simulation: An open-ended activity where studentstake on a role or put themselves in another’s place. Example: The classhaving a “town meeting” of characters in a story, or choosing lots beforereading “The Lottery.” Sitting in seats and reading parts from a play isreading aloud. Students preparing and then presenting a scene can beeither Student Presentation or Role Play, depending on how faithful theyare to the class text.

§2.10.6. Game: A structured activity with rules, points, winners, losers. Examples: Pictionary, Vocabulary BINGO.

§2.10.7. Class Interruption: An interruption originating outside the classinterrupts class activity. Examples: intercom announcements, visitor,CELA paperwork.

§2.10.8. Seatwork. Seatwork is coded according to Source, CognitiveLevel (see above, question coding), and Who organizes the product, aswell as Type of writing, if any.

§2.10.8.1. Writing Without Composing: all mechanical uses ofwriting:

C Multiple-choice exercisesC Fill-in-the blank exercises (answered with less than a senC Short-answer exercises (brief, one or two sentences per quesC Writing to show memorization (e.g., science or math calculaC spelling tests, written recitation)C Transcription from either written material (copying) or (dictaC Translation (copying words or short phrases from one lanC into another)C Other mechanical uses (diagraming, vocabulary exercises,

crossword puzzles, pre-first draft activities, e.g., conceptmapping)

§2.10.8.2. Composing: writing that is informational, personal orimaginative.

RULES OF CODING 25



§2.10.9. Small Group Work. Small group work is defined for any ofthe following though the observer should simply select Small GroupWork as a segment activity marking its start and end. Though we willno longer code various subtypes of small group work, they include:

Pairwork in which students work together on worksheets.Teacher-structured group work (i.e., collaborative seatwork). Taskparameters entirely defined by teacher. Task can be done withoutstudent interaction (e.g., worksheets); group setting is gratuitous.Pairwork is almost always teacher-structured group work.Prescripted task: Prescripted task with obligatory student interaction.Limited student interaction: Teacher gives students some latitude intheir interactions with each other, and group work involves spontane-ous student interaction concerning substance; students are on “shortleash.” For example, the teacher might define some general principlewhich students in groups must then apply.

Autonomous group work is to be coded as discussion: Teacher setsup group work without prescipting activities beyond askingauthentic questions and defining an issue to be discussed, e.g., "Inthe next 15 minutes, decide who is the main character. At the endof your discussion, be prepared to report and justify your decisionto the class as a whole."

§2.10.10. Discipline. We distinguish between admonitions, for example,asking some students to pay attention (“Helen, pay attention”), anddiscipline, when the teacher brings a halt to things (“Alright, that’s it!”)to straighten out a more serious problem. When the teacher seems to bedealing with a nuisance, it’s an admonition; when the teacher shifts gearsto address a problem, it’s discipline. CLASS is to be used only for notingdiscipline.

§2.10.11. Ambiguous Activities. When the teacher does one thing (e.g.,lecture) and students are allowed to do another (e.g., seatwork), classifythe activity most students do.

§3. Editing Data

Once coding is completed, EPS files can be edited.To edit an EPS file,first click on the "Open document"icon on the left corner of CLASS 4.5.The "Open document"icon is the second icon in the top left corner of theprogram.

Next enter the coder ID.The program will list the available files. Click onthe one you want to edit and click "open." At this point, you candouble-click "Episode" and edit the episode description. After editing theepisode description, click "ok." It is important to save your data;otherwise, the revision will not be made.

§3.1. Basic Editing Functions

The basic functions in the edit program are:

Review and edit questions: Double-click the question that you want toedit, which will then appear in the "Event window." Modify the codingsof the question (Source, Non-instructional question, Response Identity,Serial Question, Authenticity, Uptake, Cognitive level, Evaluation) belowthe Evaluation window.

Search the file for (a) incomplete codings and (b) invalid codings: Checkthe Question window on the right. The questions with incomplete codingsare marked as "In progress" in the Question window.

Merge episodes: Place the cursor on the edge of the episode, and drag itto the end of the other episode that you want to merge.

Merge segments: Place the cursor on the edge of the segment, and dragit to the end of the other segment that you want to merge.

Summary information: Click the Summary Information icon on the upperleft corner of the program. The time summary graph and Time summarytable show the time used for each segment. Time summary table alsoshows instructional time and non-instructional time.

Question/Answer statistics: Click the Summary Information icon on the

upper left. shows the number of questions inQuestion/Answer statistics

each category based on their codings. For instance, it shows how manyquestions are Normal teacher questions; how many questions areauthentic questions, etc.

Question Plot: QPlot displays a plot of question codings for any givenepisode with questions.

Save: The save icon on the upper left saves the dataset.

On average, in the eighth-grade classes Nystrand and his colleagues studied, 85% of each class day inboth eighth- and ninth-grades was devoted to a combination of lecture, question-and-answer recitation,and seatwork. Discussion and small-group work were rare. On average, discussion took 50 secondsper class in eighth grade and less than 15 seconds in grade 9. Opening Dalogue, p. 42

§3.2. Proofreading and Cleaning Data

Proofreading: the program will proofread data for the questions withmissing codings.The questions with missing codings will be marked as"In progress" in the window on the right.The fully-coded questions will "completed." Click the question with invalid or missing codings andrecode the question.

§3.3. Time Summary

The Time Summary table and Time Summary graph display a breakdownof times for each activity in the entire class sesstion. In all there are 17possible activity categories, and in the display, the ones actually usedduring the class session are highlighted.

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT TIME

Procedures & Directions 0:00:21

Discipline 0:00:00

Class interruption 0:00:00

DIRECT INSTRUCTION TIME

Lecturre, film, video, music 0:07:25

Question & Answer 0:33:43

Discussion 0:01:04

Student presentation 0:00:00

Reading aloud 0:06:13

Silent reading 0:05:10

Role play or simulation 0:00:00

Game 0:00:00

Other 0:00:00

SEATWORK & PAIRWORK TIME

Supervised/helping 0:00:00

Supervised/monitoring 0:21:51

Unsupervised 0:00:00

Small group & pairwork 0:00:00

TESTS & QUIZZES TIME

Test or Quiz 0:00:00

TIME SUMMARY TIME

Summary Instructional Time 1:16:26

Non-instructional time 0:00:21

Total Time 1:00:00

§3.4. Calculate Statistics

Question/Answer Statistics presents summary episode statistics, whichare available only for question-answer episodes. Statistics are reportedfor:

QUESTIONS

1 Number of questions2 Number and proportion of normal questions3 Number and proportion of teacher & student questions4 Number and proportion of questions exhibiting no uptake, test

uptake, & authentic uptake5 Number and proportion of authentic teacher questions

Starting a discussion is a little like starting a fire. With enough kindling of theright sort, accompanied by patience, ignition is possible, though perhaps not onthe first or second try. Martin Nystrand

6 Number and proportion of authentic student questions7 Number and proportion of high-level questions

RESPONSES

8 Number and proportion of elaborated & unelaborated studentresponses

9 Number and proportion of student responses related to previousresponses

10 Number and proportion of teacher responses to student questionsanswering, opening up, & closing down

11 Number and proportion of teacher responses to student questionsanswering, opening up, & closing down

OTHER

12 Pace, i.e., questions per minute

Statistics (proportions) are presented in individual bar graphs for eachinstructional variable. The actual number of instances of each variableappears next to the variable name. The scales below each bar allow visualinterpretation of each result relative to the scale on which it was mea-sured.

§3.5. Question Plot

Editing CLASS 4.5 Data 31

The Question Plot screen is a powerful utility that displays changes in thedialogic value of questions as they unfold over time in each instructionalepisode. These plots reveal clusters of questions forming dialogic andmonologic sequences and help to identify shifts from one state to theother. Dialogic spells, when present, are marked by vertical linesmarking its start and end. A dialogic spell is a stretch of whole classroomdiscourse starting with a student question and followed subsequently,though not necessarily immediately, by at least two more studentquestions. The spell is terminated by a series of three or more monologictest questions, or, as here, by the end of the episode. Dialogic spells,phases of interaction rich with potential for interpretive analysis and in-depth processing, are important because they often work as embryonicdiscussions.

By displaying dialogic values for sequences of questions, QPlot allowsCLASS users to investigate the antecedents and consequences of variouslines of questioning, e.g., by comparing plot shifts with the questions asthey are displayed in the Question Edit Screen. For more information ondialogic spells and discussion, see Nystrand, Wu, Gamoran, Zeiser, &Long, “Questions in Time” (2003).


§3.6. CLASS 4.5 Question Editor

The CLASS question editor allows you to change the text and the valuesof any question in the file. Special features include:

codes teacher and student normal questions with appropriateNORMAL

default values.

Normal teacher question defaults:C SOURCE: teacherC RESPONSE IDENTITY:studentC AUTHENTICITY: noC UPTAKE: noC COGNITIVE LEVEL: reportC SERIAL QUESTION: noC EVALUATION: unelaborated

Normal student question defaults:C SOURCE: studentC RESPONSE IDENTITY: teacherC AUTHENTICITY: yesC UPTAKE: authentic uptakeC COGNITIVE LEVEL: reportC SERIAL QUESTION: noC EVALUATION: no

puts the question text in the Event box.Event

puts the teacher/student response next to Response.Response

puts the teacher evaluation/follow up in the box nextEvaluation/Follow

to Evaluation/Follow up.

§3.7. Segment Editor

To recategorize any segments, e.g., changing Question/Answer toDiscussion), click SEGMENT and highlight the segment to be changedin the lower left window. Then click on the appropriate segment type inthe window of the Segment type List. Don't forget to immediately to

.SAVE DATA

Editing CLASS 4.5 Data 33

§4. Interpreting CLASS Files

CLASS 4.5 provides extensive data about instruction and classroomdiscourse and offers useful feedback to teachers. Some results are quitestraightforward. The Time Summary Screen (§3.6), for example, givesa useful breakdown of time spent in discussion, lecture, question/answer,and other activities. And the Question Statistics Screen (§3.5) providesthe CLASS program's most nuanced results, displaying the codedvariables for all questions in sequence during an instructional episode. In addition to the questions, other activities are shown in relation to thequestions themselves, making it possible to see how discussion, lecture,etc., fit into the context of question interaction.

In interpreting any question plot, the first thing to look for is a “pulse”(the qplots look a little like electroencephalograms, don’t they). Arecitation consisting completely of teacher test questions will generatea flat-line or near-flatline plot: all or nearly all the questions are askedby the teacher, they all get a response, none is authentic, none displaysuptake, and they all elicit reports from students. Such a plot reveals alesson without a dialogic pulse. While many lessons will generate shortqplot segments of this kind, many will display other patterns: a student

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Interpreting CLASS 4.5 Data 35

The linkage of human to human is, in the final analysis, the groundwork of allethics as a reflection on the legitimacy of the presence of others. H. R.Maturana & F. J. Varela

will ask a question, a follow up question by the teacher will be markedby uptake, perhaps some of the questions will be authentic, etc. Whensomething like this happens, the corresponding qplot gains “texture” asthe flat line of test questions begins to display a new pattern.

Be alert to “dialogic bids,” which are student questions, authenticquestions, uptake, and other devices that generate “dialogic spells.” Adialogic spell begins and ends with a student question, and defines asequence of classroom discourse uninterrupted by teacher test questions;CLASS automatically identifies, highlights, and labels them. Dialogicspells are important because they mark zones of heightened studentengagement; frequently they include discussions within them. Dialogicbids can precede both dialogic spells and discussions either immediately(e.g., the question before a discussion) or sometime earlier in theepisode. Our research shows that dialogic bids increase the probabilityof a spell or discussion; multiple instances increase the probability stillmore, so their effect is cumulative (Nystrand, Wu, Gamoran, Zeiser, &Long, 2003).

As you interpret qplots, carefully examine the relationship betweenboth dialogic spells and the discussions and the questions that work asdialogic bids and precede them. A central task of any qplot interpreta-tion is accounting for dialogic spells and discussions by inspecting thebids and pattern of questions and activities that generate them. Onceagain, it is important to work back and forth between the qplot and thequestion list.

35


References

Applebee, A. N. (1981). Writing in the secondary school. Urbana:National Council of Teachers of English.

––––––. (1996). Curriculum as conversation: Transforming traditionsof teaching and learning. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Britton, J., Burgess, A., Martin, N., McLeod, A., & Rosen, H. J. (1975).The development of writing abilities: 11-18. London: MacMillan.

Collins, J. (1982). Discourse style, classroom interaction and differentialtreatment. Journal of Reading Behavior, 14, 429-437.

French, P. and Maclure, M. (1981). Teachers’ questions, pupils’answers: An investigation of questions and answers in the infantclassroom. First Language, 2, 31-45.

Langer, J. (1995). Envisioning literature: Literacy understanding andliterature Instruction. New York: Teachers College Press.

Moffett, J. (1968). Teaching the universe of discourse. Boston:Houghton Mifflin.

Newmann, F. (1988). Can depth replace coverage in the high schoolcurriculum? Phi Delta Kappan, January, 345-348.

Nystrand, M. (1986). The structure of written communication: Studiesin reciprocity between writers and readers. Orlando and London:Academic Press.

––––––. (1997). Opening dialogue: Understanding the dynamics oflanguage and learning in the English classroom. Martin Nystrandwith Adam Gamoran, Robert Kachur, and Catherine Prendergast.New York: Teachers College Press.

––––––, Wu, L., Gamoran, A., Zeiser, S., & Long, D. (2001). Questionsin time: Investigating the structure and dynamics of unfoldingclassroom discourse. Paper presented at AERA.

Polanyi, M. (1962). Personal knowledge. London: Routledge & KeganPaul.

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Index

Aborted question 15Activity defined 13Admonition vs. discipline 25Ambiguous activities 25Analysis [cognitive level] 18, 19Authentic

question 15uptake 17

Backup file 12BROWSE mode 25Cognitive level 18Datafile names 12Deictics 16Dialogic

bid 35spell 31, 35

Discipline vs. admonition 25Discourse-maintenance question 15Discourse-management question 15Discussion 23Drill 22Editing

data 26Editing functions 27Ellipsis 17Episode, defined 5, 13File name 12Generalization vs. analysis 18Generalization [cognitive level] 18Heuristic act 18Higher-order question 18Inauthentic question 15Initiating discourse topics 15Low-ability classes 19Lower- vs. higher-order questions 18"maybe" 16Multiply repaired question 19Negative evaluation 16New information 18NTE files 12


Nuclear utterance 20Preformulated question 20Procedural question 14Proofing data 28QPLOT 30

flat-line 34pulse 34texture 35

Questionaborted 15authentic 15, 16discourse-initiation 15discourse-management 15higher-order 18homework 20inauthentic 15lower- vs. higher-order 18multiply-repaired 19preformulated 20procedural 14redirected 21repaired 15rhetorical 14test 15

Reciprocity between teachers and students 2Recitation 18Record versus analysis 20Repaired question 15Responses to questions

coding 22elaborated/unelaborated 22

Rhetorical question 14Routine performance 18Segment

defined 5"so" 16Source of information required by the question 19Student presentation 23

careful 23

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Interpreting CLASS 4.5 Data 39

quick 23Teacher evaluation/followup

elaborated vs unelaborated 22Teacher response to student questions 22Test

question 15uptake 17

"then" 16Time display 6Time Summary Screen 28Uptake 16, 17

authentic 17faux (test) 17

"Why?" 17

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