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Class 2_History of Devices
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Transcript of Class 2_History of Devices
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Introduction to
Semiconductor Devices and Circuits
Prof. Roy Paily
EEE Department, IIT GuwahatiAcademic Complex, Core II, G Block,
EEE Dept., Room 103, Phone 2512
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Inside a cell phone
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Different Areas of Electronics
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Some Electronics History
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1833 - First Semiconductor Effect is Recorded
Michael Faraday describes the "extraordinary case" of his discovery
of electrical conduction increasing with temperature in silver sulfidecrystals. This is the opposite to that observed in copper and other
metals.
Michael Faraday is renowned for hisdiscovery of the principles of electro-
magnetic induction and electro-
magnetic rotation, the interaction
between electricity and magnetism
that led to the development of theelectric motor and generator. The unit
of measurement of electrical
capacitance the farad (F) - is named
in his honor
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1937 - Telegraphy
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1966 - Transatlantic Cable
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Bell
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1874 - Semiconductor Point-Contact
Rectifier Effect
In the first written description of a semiconductor
diode, Ferdinand Braun notes that current flows
freely in only one direction at the contact between a
metal point and a galena (lead sulfide) crystal.
German physicist Ferdinand Braun, a 24-year old graduate of the Universityof Berlin had discovered the rectification effect at the point of contact
between metals and certain crystal materials.
It was used as the signal detector in a "crystal radio" set. The common
descriptive name "cats-whisker" detector is derived from the fine metallic
probe used to make electrical contact with the crystal surface.
Braun is better known for his development of the cathode ray tube (CRT)
oscilloscope in 1897, known as the "Braun tube in German. He shared the
1909 Nobel Prize with Guglielmo Marconi for his "contributions to the
development of wireless telegraphy," mainly the development of tunable
circuits for radio receivers.
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Fleming valve (Diode) - the first practical electronic device
Working in Thomas Edison's laboratory in 1883 William J. Hammer
noted rectifier effect when he added another electrode to a heatedfilament light bulb.
In 1904, John Fleming patented a one-way "oscillation valve" based
on the, so called, "Edison effect" that converted alternating radio
signal currents into direct currents in the earphones or speaker.
Known today as a diode, the Fleming valve was the first practical
electronic device.
Between 1902 and 1906, American Telephone and Telegraph
electrical engineer Greenleaf W. Pickard tested thousands of mineral
samples to assess their rectification properties. Silicon crystals fromWestinghouse yielded some of the best results.
In 1922-23 Russian engineer Oleg Losev of the Nizhegorod Radio
Laboratory, Leningrad used carborundum and zincite crystal rectifiers
in amplifiers and oscillators operating at frequencies up to 5 MHz
1901 S i d R ifi d "C '
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1901 - Semiconductor Rectifiers patented as "Cat's
Whisker" Detectors
Radio pioneer Jagadis Chandra Bose patents the use of a
semiconductor crystal rectifier for detecting radio waves
Jagadis Chandra Bose, a professor of physics
at Presidency College in Calcutta, India,
demonstrated the use of galena (lead sulfide)
crystals contacted by a metal point to detect
millimeter electromagnetic waves. In 1901
he filed a U.S patent for a point-contact
semiconductor rectifier for detecting radio
signals.
A Krows-Electric
Company
commercial
crystal detector
926 i ld ff S i d i
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1926 - Field Effect Semiconductor Device ConceptsPatented
Julius Lilienfeld files a patent describing a three-electrode amplifying
device based on the semiconducting properties of copper sulfide.Attempts to build such a device continue through the 1930s
Polish-American physicist and inventor
Julius E. Lilienfeld filed a patent in
1926, "Method and Apparatus for
Controlling Electric Currents," in which
he proposed a three-electrode
structure using copper-sulfidesemiconductor material.
Today this device would be called a
field-effect transistor.
1939 A lifi i i d t th th
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1939 - Amplifier using semiconductors rather thanvacuum is possible
Stimulated by research into copper-oxide rectifiers at Bell
Telephone Laboratories and by explanations of semiconductor
rectification by Mott and Schottky, William Shockley wrote in
December 1939 that "It has today occurred to me that an
amplifier using semiconductors rather than vacuum is in principle
possible." Under his direction, Walter Brattain and others performed
experiments on such three-electrode devices but did not achieve
amplification.
On his return to Bell Labs after the war in 1945 Shockley resumed
his work on semiconductor devices.
Again he failed to achieve his predicted results.
In 1946 physicist John Bardeen calculated that surface effects
could account for the failure of these attempts to build working
devices
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1940 - Discovery of the p-n Junction
Russell Ohl discovers the p-n junction and
photovoltaic effects in silicon that lead to
the development of junction transistors
and solar cells.
In the mid-1930s Russell Ohl, at Bell Telephone Labs in Holmdel, NJ,
began investigating the use of silicon rectifiers as radar detectors. He
found that increasing the silicon purity helped improve their
detection ability.
Russell Ohl (bow tie) with Jack Scaff (dark hair)
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Strange, surprising results on a silicon slab
On 23 February 1940, Ohl found that one of his purest
crystals nevertheless worked well, and interestingly, it had a
clearly visible crack near the middle.
However as he moved about the room trying to test it, thedetector would mysteriously work, and then stop again.
After some study he found that the behaviour was
controlled by the light in the roommore light caused more
conductance in the crystal.
When exposed to bright light, the current flowing through
the slab jumped appreciably.
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Concept of electrons and holes
opposite electrical effects
Ohl and colleague Jack Scaff found that a seam in the slab marked
the separation of the silicon into regions containing distinct kinds of
impurities. One impurity, the element phosphorus, yielded a slight
excess of electrons in the sample while the other, boron, led to a
slight deficiency (later recognized as "holes").
They called the regions n-type (for negative) and p-type (positive);the surface or "barrier" where these regions met became known as
a "p-n junction."
Light striking this junction stimulated electrons to flow from the n-
side to the p-side, resulting in an electric current.
William Shockleys conception of the junction transistor in 1948
derived from Ohls serendipitous (= happy accident) 1940 discovery.
The p-n junction became the most common form of rectifier used in
the electronics industry and has since become a fundamental
building block in the design of semiconductor devices.
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John Bardeen & Walter Brattain achieve transistor action in a Gepoint-
contact device in December 1947.
Bardeen and Brattain applied two closely-spaced gold
contacts held in place by a plastic wedge to the
surface of a small slab of high-purity germanium. The
voltage on one contact modulated the current flowing
through the other, amplifying the input signal up to100 times.
On December 23 they demonstrated their device to
lab officials - in what Shockley deemed a magnificent
Christmas present
Named the "transistor" by electrical engineer JohnPierce, Bell Labs publicly announced the revolutionary
solid-state device at a press conference in New York
on June 30, 1948. A spokesman claimed that "it may
have far-reaching significance in electronics and
electrical communication."
Bardeen, Brattain, and
Shockley (seated) on the
cover of Electronics
magazine September 1948
"Crystal Triode" issue
1947 - Invention of the Point-Contact Transistor
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They replaced the silicon with germanium,
which resulted in amplification 330 times
larger than before. But it only functionedfor low frequency currents, whereas phone
lines, for example, would need to handle
the many complicated frequencies of the
human voice
First point-contact transistor
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The First Transistor
While the device was constructed a
week earlier, Brattain's notes describethe first demonstration to higher-ups
at Bell Labs on the afternoon of 23
December 1947, often given as the
birthdate of the transistor.
The "PNP point-contact germaniumtransistor" operated as a speech
amplifier with a power gain of 18 in
that trial.
Known generally as a point-contact transistor today, John
Bardeen, Walter Houser Brattain, and William Bradford
Shockley were awarded the Nobel Prize in physics for their
work in 1956.
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On January 23, 1948, William Shockley conceives an improved transistor
structure based on a theoretical understanding of the p-n junction effect
Partly spurred by professional jealousy, as he
resented not being involved with the point-
contact discovery, Shockley also recognized that
its delicate mechanical configuration would be
difficult to manufacture in high volume withsufficient reliability.
Shockley also disagreed with Bardeens explanation of how their transistor
worked. He claimed that positively charged holes could also penetratethrough the bulk germanium material - not only trickle along a surface layer.
Called "minority carrier injection," this phenomenon was crucial to operation
of his junction transistor, a three-layer sandwich of n-type and p-type
semiconductors separated by p-n junctions. This is how all "bipolar" junction
transistors work today.
1948 - Conception of the Junction Transistor
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Wireless /Radio
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Titanic Boost in Radio
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First Audio Transmissions
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AM/FM Wireless Radio
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Digital Communications
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Devices
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Devices
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Semiconductor materials By far, silicon (Si) is the most widely used material in semiconductor devices.
Its combination of low raw material cost, relatively simple processing, and a
useful temperature range make it currently the best compromise among thevarious competing materials. Silicon is currently fabricated in diameter to
allow the production of 300 mm (12 in.) wafers.
Germanium (Ge) was a widely used early semiconductor material but its
thermal sensitivity makes it less useful than silicon. Today, germanium is
often alloyed with silicon for use in very-high-speed SiGe devices. Gallium arsenide (GaAs) is also widely used in high-speed devices but difficult
to form large-diameter thus making mass production of GaAs devices
significantly more expensive than silicon.
Silicon carbide (SiC) is used for blue light-emitting diodes (LEDs) which could
withstand very high operating temperatures and environments with thepresence of significant levels of ionizing radiation. IMPATT diodes have also
been fabricated from SiC.
Indium compounds (indium arsenide, indium antimonide, and indium
phosphide) are also being used in LEDs and solid state laser diodes. Selenium
sulfide is being studied in the manufacture of photovoltaic solar cells.
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Two-terminal devices
Avalanche diode (avalanche breakdown diode)
DIAC (diode for alternating current no gate, bi-directional) Diode (rectifier diode)
Gunn diode (TED only n-type)
IMPATT diode
Laser diode
Light-emitting diode (LED)
Photocell
PIN diode
Schottky diode
Solar cell
Tunnel diode
VCSEL (vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser)
VECSEL (vertical-external-cavity surface-emitting-laser)
Zener diode
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Three-terminal devices
Bipolar transistor
Darlington transistor
Field effect transistor
GTO (Gate Turn-Off)
IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor)
SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier)
SGCT (Switched Gate Commuted Thyristor)
Thyristor
TRIAC
Unijunction transistor
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Multi-terminal devices
Four-terminal devices:
Hall effect sensor (magnetic field sensor)
Multi-terminal devices:
Charge-coupled device (CCD)
Microprocessor
Random Access Memory (RAM)
Read-only memory (ROM)
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Applications of Semiconductor devices
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How does a transistor work?
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Basic Structure: MOS Capacitor
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CMOS
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Symbols
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The Gates
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The Amplifiers
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Voltage Amplification
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The Integrated Circuit
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Noyces IC Invention
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Why ICs were revolutionary
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2nd Generation
Semiconductor Devices, Diode and
single Transistor1st Generation
Valves
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3rd Generation
Small Scale Integrated Circuits (SSI): Less than 100 Transistors per Integrated Circuit or chip
Medium Scale Integrated Circuits (MSI): 100 to 1000 Transistors per Integrated Circuit or chip
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4th Generation
Large Scale Integrated Circuits (LSI):
1000 to 10000 Transistors per
Integrated Circuit or chip
Very Large Scale Integrated Circuits
(VLSI): 10000 to 1 million Transistors
per Integrated Circuit or chi
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5th Generation
Ultra Large Scale Integrated Circuits (ULSI)
Over 1 million Transistors per Integrated Circuit or Chip
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6th Generation ?
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Acknowledgements
Various articles from internet
History of Radio, Wikipedia
Ali Niknejad, Professor, Electrical Engineering
and Computer Sciences, EECS at UC Berkeley
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Thank You