Class 20:

Cognitive Dissonance

Social Exclusion and the Need to BelongWilliams, Cheung, & Choi, (2008) JPSP

Need to belong is powerful.

Groups punish members by excluding them.

Ostracism understood as potent social tactic, even in childhood.

Function: Keeps groups cohesive, but devastating to targets.

Reactions to ostracism: depression, loneliness, anxiety, frustration, invisibility, helplessness.

Frustrates four basic needs: Belonging, self-esteem, control, meaning.

Cyberball: Williams, K. D., & Jarvis, B. (in press). Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers.

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5

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Belonging Control Meaning Esteem Mood

Included

Partial Ost.

Total Ost

Effects of Ostracism on Basic NeedsWilliams, Cheung, & Choi, (2008) JPSP, Study 1

NOTE: Higher scores = worse outcome

Ostracism and Conformity Williams, Cheung, & Choi, (2008) JPSP, Study 2

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Belonging Need Trials Conformed Percent Ss conformed1 or more times

Included

Excluded

Ss ostracized, not ostracized

Ss complete Asch-like visual task, designated the "last" responder

Social Exclusion, Need to Belong, and Behavioral MimicryLakin, Chartrand, & Arkin, Psych Science (2008)

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0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

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0.35

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Excluded by In-Group

Excluded byOutgroup

No Exclusion

Prop

ortio

n Ti

me M

imick

ing

In-Group Mimicry Confed

Out-Group Mimicry Confed

Behavioral Mimicry: People automatically, unconsciously mimic behaviors of those with whom they interact.

Ss included or excluded by member of in-group (same gender) or out-group (diff. gender)

Ss interact with confed (same/diff gender) whose foot moves. Results?

Excluded by:

In-group

Out-group

Not Excluded

In-group "mover"

Out-group "mover"

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6

A Case Study in MirroringMarx, Marx, & Marx, 1933

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5lU52aWTJo

CD Defined: Cognitive Dissonance is a negative drive state that occurs when a person holds two inconsistent thoughts.

To reduce dissonance, person must:a. Change behaviorb. Change cognitions

Humans are not a rational animal, but a rationalizing one.

Leon Festinger

Cognitive Dissonance

Cognitive Dissonance Key Contributors

Leon Festinger Eliot Aronson

Daryl Bem (bete noire)

Kurt Lewin

When Prophesy Fails (Festinger, 1954): A (Late Night) Field Observation of CD

Festinger and associates read news article about doomsday cult:

Marian Keech (L.R. Hubbard associate) receives "automatic writing" message from Planet Clarion--world to end in great flood on 12/21/1954. Keech and followers prepare for rescuing flying saucer by leaving spouses, jobs, college, and giving away money and possessions.

Festinger et al. infiltrate cult to observe.

When Prophesy Fails (Festinger, 1954): Sequence of Events

Group develops belief system from automatic writing

Messages state world ends in great flood on 12/20/1954 at 7:00 AM, except for Keech and followers, to be rescued at midnight.

Dec. 20 -- Rescue Day: At midnight Visitors to rescue cult; all metallic items removed (watches, bras, belts, zippers)

12:05 -- No Visitors!!! Clock may be running fast; wait 5 more min.

12:10 -- No Visitors!!! Group sits in stunned silence. Cataclysm only 7 hrs away!!

4:00 -- Group sits in stunned silence. Keech begins to cry.

4:45 -- Another message via auto-writing: Destruction called off b/c of faith of little group of believers!!!

Afternoon -- Group no longer publicity shy; begins urgent campaign to spread its message.

Brehm (1956): Spreading of Alternatives Following Choice

Ss rate two appliances of near equal appeal (e.g., toaster, can-opener)

At later time, Ss choose between appliances.

Ss then re-rate how much they like chosen, dislike rejected.

Time 2 ratings compared to Time 1 Ratings. Finding?

Selected item liked more, rejected item liked less. Why?

Cognizance of selected items deficiencies, rejected items benefits, create dissonance. Dissonance alleviated by enhancing chosen, denigrating rejected.

Social, inter-group, interpersonal implications?

College Choice, Dissonance, and Theology

Colleague explains "Spreading of Alternatives” to her class.

Imagine you were accepted by two colleges, of near equal appeal, perhaps for different reasons. College A has better social life, College B has better academics.

You can only attend one. Creates a crisis. You pick College A.

After you make choice College A seems like a much better school, and College B seems less good. This is dissonance reduction.

Student approaches instructor, says had exactly this crisis.

Prayed for insight, and after making choice it all made sense. But, you're saying it wasn't The Lord, it was (pointing at PowerPoint slide) THAT!?!

1. Ss go through a difficult or easy initiation in order to qualify to join a sex-issues discussion group.

2. Group turns out to be dull and boring.

Which subjects experience the most dissonance?

Easy Initiation

Hard InitiationX

Which group is more likely to rate the dull discussion group as more interesting?

Easy Initiation

Hard InitiationX

Why? Paid high cost for unsatisfying outcome "Under-justification".

Aronson & Mills Initiation Study, 1959

1. Ss perform very dull task, repeatedly.

2. Ss asked to inform next subject that the task is interesting.

3. Ss offered low pay ($1) or high pay ($20) to lie.

4. Ss later asked to rate how interesting they found the task.

Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959"Believing Own Lies"

Which group experiences most dissonance?

$1$20

X

Which group rates the task as more interesting?

$1$20

X

Why? $1 = low justification dissonance

$20 = high justification no dissonance

1. Child rates toys, including desirable "Robbie the Robot".

2. E. leaves room, tells child "don't play w' Robbie, and if you do:"a. Low threat: I will be a little annoyed with you.b. High threat: I will be very angry, and will do something.

3. Child returns to study later, new E., can play with any toy including R. the R.

4. Which child plays w' R the R? Low threat or high threat? Why?

Low threat High threatX

Low threat = under-justification dissonance

Why?

Dissonance and Behavioral Control: Robbie the Robot Study Lepper, 1972

Dissonance Disrupts Behaviorism

Premise of behaviorism: Punishments are negatively reinforcing. Question: What conditions produce more liking of neutral stims?

Neutral Stimuli

Dull discussion group

Fill bin with spools

Mediocre toys

Reinforcement

Embarrassment

Low pay

Punishment threat

Dislike

Dislike

Dislike

Liking

Liking

Liking

Beh. Predicts CD Shows

Self Perception Theory Challenges Cog. Dissonance

Cog. Dissonance Theory: Discordance btwn. actions and beliefs creates negative arousal. Hence, dissonance is motivational/affective

Daryl Bem: No need to posit any underlying arousal. Could be purely self-perception. People evaluate own actions as they would others.

NOTE: Harks back to "Symbolic Interactionism"

No internal conflict or complex motives, just attributions based on self-observed behavior.

Testing Self-Perception Vs. Dissonance Bem & McConnell, 1970

Premise: We infer own attitudes from our most recent behavior. Beh. due to "insufficient justification", infer corresponding attitude.

After new attitude adopted, old attitude will be forgotten.

No "change in attitude" Instead earlier attitude "overwritten" by self-perceived new attitude.

Method: Counter-Attitudinal Essay, low justification vs. high justification

DV: Attitude recall

Result: Which group better recalls initial attitude, low or high justification?High justification. Why?

Saw selves voicing views under powerful external pressure. Views voiced under pressure probably not sincere.

Arousal as a Necessary Condition for Cog. Diss. and Attitude Change

Cooper, Zanna, & Taves, 1978

Premise: Damn you Bem, it is arousal!!!!

If arousal, then if arousal dampened, less CD; if arousal boosted, more CD

"Attitudes will change following counter-attitudinal behavior if and only if arousal accompanies behavior."

Method: Ss complete counter-attitudinal essay--"Should Richard Nixon be pardoned?" Either high-choice or low choice conditions.

Before essay, as part of "separate study" Ss ingest pill. Told it is placebo but in actuality it is either: tranquilizer, placebo, amphetamine

Predict: Attitude change in "high choice" but not if pill is _____________?Tranquilizer

Arousal as a Necessary Condition for Cog. Diss. and Attitude Change

Cooper, Zanna, & Taves, 1978

Tranq'zer