CLAS 2407 War and CLAS 2407 War and Society in the Roman Society in the Roman

WorldWorldSept 15, 2011Sept 15, 2011

Italy Before the RomansItaly Before the RomansThe Founding of RomeThe Founding of RomeWarfare in Early RomeWarfare in Early Rome

The many Cultures of archaic The many Cultures of archaic Italy Italy

c. 8c. 8thth century century

The Cultural Geography of The Cultural Geography of Early ItalyEarly Italy

Early Italy was home to many different cultures Early Italy was home to many different cultures and languages and languages

Local cultural traditions continued well into the 1Local cultural traditions continued well into the 1stst century AD century AD

Most important cultural and linguistic groups that Most important cultural and linguistic groups that occupied early Italy included: the Ligurians. occupied early Italy included: the Ligurians. Veneti, Gauls/Celts, Umbrian/Sabines, Oscans, Veneti, Gauls/Celts, Umbrian/Sabines, Oscans, Picentes, Latins, Etruscans, Greeks.Picentes, Latins, Etruscans, Greeks.

Over time Rome would incorporate all these Over time Rome would incorporate all these different cultures into its own - some by different cultures into its own - some by conquest, others by assimilation, others by conquest, others by assimilation, others by ‘persuasion’ ‘persuasion’

The Greaco-Roman WorldThe Greaco-Roman World Roman culture heavily influenced by Greek Roman culture heavily influenced by Greek

culture from its very beginning culture from its very beginning (Hellenization); intensified by later wars of (Hellenization); intensified by later wars of conquest conquest

Most important cultural influence came Most important cultural influence came from Etruscans –from Etruscans –

Rome situated between Latins (south) and Rome situated between Latins (south) and Etruscans (north) - Etruscans (north) -

From South influenced by Greek City From South influenced by Greek City States – States – Magna GraeciaMagna Graecia

The EtruscansThe Etruscans Non Indo-European people Non Indo-European people Called themselves “Rasenna.” (Called themselves “Rasenna.” (TusciTusci in Latin; in Latin; TyrsenoiTyrsenoi

in Greek)in Greek) Know most about them through archaeology Know most about them through archaeology

(elaborately painted housetombs) Greek and Roman (elaborately painted housetombs) Greek and Roman sources are generally hostile.sources are generally hostile.

Occupied much of the territory between the Tiber and Occupied much of the territory between the Tiber and the Po rivers (north of Rome); highly sophisticated the Po rivers (north of Rome); highly sophisticated agricultural society; their territory rich in metal agricultural society; their territory rich in metal deposits and timber.deposits and timber.

Etruscan civilization developed rapidly in the 8Etruscan civilization developed rapidly in the 8thth century BCE through trade contacts with Greeks and century BCE through trade contacts with Greeks and PhoeniciansPhoenicians; significant influence on Romans; significant influence on Romans

Etruscans: Political Etruscans: Political OrganizationOrganization

Not a unified single state - but loose league of 12 Not a unified single state - but loose league of 12 independent Etruscan cities.independent Etruscan cities.

Each city ruled by a king.Each city ruled by a king. Kings were supported by a landed aristocracy; Kings were supported by a landed aristocracy; Power was in hands of a few aristocratic families;Power was in hands of a few aristocratic families; many cities formed Republican governments run many cities formed Republican governments run

by magistrates elected from the aristocratic class by magistrates elected from the aristocratic class (similar developments in Rome in 6(similar developments in Rome in 6thth century). century).

Agricultural economy Agricultural economy Land worked by peasants without political rights.Land worked by peasants without political rights.

Etruscan Social and Cultural Etruscan Social and Cultural LifeLife

Many cultural developments stimulated by contacts with Greeks Many cultural developments stimulated by contacts with Greeks

and Phoenicians.and Phoenicians. Adopted and adapted the Greek alphabet (we cannot decipher Adopted and adapted the Greek alphabet (we cannot decipher

their language)their language) Art and Religion appears to have been heavily influenced by Art and Religion appears to have been heavily influenced by

Greeks and Phoenicians Greeks and Phoenicians Many aspects of Etruscan culture and politics would be adopted by Many aspects of Etruscan culture and politics would be adopted by

Romans; Etruscan rulers in Rome (# 5 Tarquinius Priscus616-578 Romans; Etruscan rulers in Rome (# 5 Tarquinius Priscus616-578 BCE, # 7 Tarquinius Superbus 534-510 BCE)BCE, # 7 Tarquinius Superbus 534-510 BCE)

Politics: Curule chair, Lictors, Fasces.Politics: Curule chair, Lictors, Fasces. Religion: 1. Augury. 2. Haruspicia. 3. Pontifex (Pontifices – Religion: 1. Augury. 2. Haruspicia. 3. Pontifex (Pontifices –

Pontiffs). 3. Divine trio Jupiter, Juno, Minerva.Pontiffs). 3. Divine trio Jupiter, Juno, Minerva. Tria nominaTria nomina The three Roman names (i.e. Marcus Tullius Cicero); The three Roman names (i.e. Marcus Tullius Cicero);

PraenomenPraenomen, , nomennomen (of gens), c (of gens), cognomenognomen..

Greek Colonies in Archaic Greek Colonies in Archaic Italy and SicilyItaly and Sicily

770 BCE – Pithekousai – mother cities = Eretria and 770 BCE – Pithekousai – mother cities = Eretria and ChalkisChalkis

750 BCE – Rhegium – mother cities = Chalkis and 750 BCE – Rhegium – mother cities = Chalkis and ZankleZankle

734 BCE – Syracuse – mother city= Corinth734 BCE – Syracuse – mother city= Corinth 725 BCE – Cumae – mother cities= Pithekousai and 725 BCE – Cumae – mother cities= Pithekousai and

ChalkisChalkis 720 BCE – Sybaris – mother city = Achaea720 BCE – Sybaris – mother city = Achaea 709 BCE – Croton – mother city= Achaea709 BCE – Croton – mother city= Achaea 706 BCE – Tarentum – mother city = Sparta706 BCE – Tarentum – mother city = Sparta Region called Region called Magna GraeciaMagna Graecia by Romans by Romans

The Greeks of Magna The Greeks of Magna GraeciaGraecia

Reasons for founding colonies: overpopulation Reasons for founding colonies: overpopulation and land shortage, trade, civil wars, famines, and land shortage, trade, civil wars, famines, etc.,, etc.,,

– – not a unified Greek state collection of not a unified Greek state collection of independent city states (independent city states (polispolis) competing with ) competing with each other.each other.

Trade with peoples of Italy (esp. the Etruscans) Trade with peoples of Italy (esp. the Etruscans) stimulated cultural, economic, and political stimulated cultural, economic, and political developments of Italy.developments of Italy.

The Sources for Early RomeThe Sources for Early Romea) ancient Historiansa) ancient Historians

Livy (Titus Livius) Livy (Titus Livius) History of RomeHistory of Rome from from foundation to 9 BCE in 142 books (35 foundation to 9 BCE in 142 books (35 survived complete)survived complete)

Wrote during Augustus’ reign, died in Wrote during Augustus’ reign, died in AD 12 or AD 17AD 12 or AD 17

Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Roman Antiquities, Antiquities, Greek Historian, 20 books Greek Historian, 20 books (11 survived) wrote late first century (11 survived) wrote late first century BCEBCE

(See Southern, the Roman Army, p. 26)(See Southern, the Roman Army, p. 26)

Early Roman History:Early Roman History:Myth or History?Myth or History?

No history was written at Rome before the No history was written at Rome before the 33rdrd century B.C. century B.C.

Romans kept official records of annual Romans kept official records of annual magistrates and important events such as magistrates and important events such as wars, religious omens, catastrophes, etc. wars, religious omens, catastrophes, etc. beginning after the Roman Republic had beginning after the Roman Republic had been founded (after 510 BCD) been founded (after 510 BCD)

Many details of stories from the regal period Many details of stories from the regal period and early Republic such as names, dates, and early Republic such as names, dates, what people felt and said, etc., are not what people felt and said, etc., are not historical facts but traditions and are later historical facts but traditions and are later interpolationsinterpolations

Titus Livius (Livy) Titus Livius (Livy) and Early Roman Historyand Early Roman History

The historian Livy ( 59 B.C. – A.D. 17) The historian Livy ( 59 B.C. – A.D. 17) Work: Work: ab urbe conditaab urbe condita ( from the ( from the

founding of Rome) founding of Rome) an enormous history of an enormous history of Rome from its foundation to his own time, Rome from its foundation to his own time, contains many traditional stories about contains many traditional stories about early Roman history that are not historical early Roman history that are not historical facts!facts!

Stories reflect traditional Roman ideals Stories reflect traditional Roman ideals and values, not necessarily those of the and values, not necessarily those of the early Romans, but rather of later periods early Romans, but rather of later periods and of Livy’s own period (anachronism). and of Livy’s own period (anachronism).

Livy’s prologueLivy’s prologue ““Events before the city was founded or planned, Events before the city was founded or planned,

which have been handed down more as pleasing which have been handed down more as pleasing poetic fictions than as reliable records of historical poetic fictions than as reliable records of historical events, I intend neither to affirm nor to refute. To events, I intend neither to affirm nor to refute. To antiquity we grant the indulgence of making the antiquity we grant the indulgence of making the origins of cities more impressive by commingling the origins of cities more impressive by commingling the human with the divine, and if any people should be human with the divine, and if any people should be permitted to sanctify its inception and reckon the permitted to sanctify its inception and reckon the gods as its founders, surely the glory of the Roman gods as its founders, surely the glory of the Roman people in war is such that, when it boasts Mars in people in war is such that, when it boasts Mars in particular as its parent and the parent of its founder, particular as its parent and the parent of its founder, the nations of the world would as easily acquiesce in the nations of the world would as easily acquiesce in this claim as they do in our rule.” this claim as they do in our rule.”

The Founding of RomeThe Founding of RomeAccording to traditionAccording to tradition

Foundation legends in Livy Book 1 Foundation legends in Livy Book 1 Traditional stories, details fictional, similar to other myths Traditional stories, details fictional, similar to other myths

(i.e. Moses, Oedipus myth. Etc) (i.e. Moses, Oedipus myth. Etc) Foundation Stories: Foundation Stories: Aeneas and the Trojans; Latinus and the Latins; Lavinia and Aeneas and the Trojans; Latinus and the Latins; Lavinia and

Lavinium.Lavinium. Ascanius (aka. Iulus) and Alba Longa; The Alban Kings; Ascanius (aka. Iulus) and Alba Longa; The Alban Kings;

Aemulius and Numitor.Aemulius and Numitor. Founding of City: Story of Romulus and Remus - when Founding of City: Story of Romulus and Remus - when

grown up reclaimed their birthright with small group of grown up reclaimed their birthright with small group of warriorswarriors

fratricide – Romulus kills his own brotherfratricide – Romulus kills his own brother War with the Sabines over women War with the Sabines over women Although not historical – stories reflect Roman Although not historical – stories reflect Roman

understanding of their past, important for their identityunderstanding of their past, important for their identity

The Story of AeneasThe Story of Aeneas

Livy 1.1Livy 1.1 To begin with, it is generally admitted that To begin with, it is generally admitted that

after the capture of Troy, whilst the rest of after the capture of Troy, whilst the rest of the Trojans were massacred, against two the Trojans were massacred, against two of them-Aeneas and Antenor -the Achivi of them-Aeneas and Antenor -the Achivi refused to exercise the rights of war, refused to exercise the rights of war, partly owing to old ties of hospitality, and partly owing to old ties of hospitality, and partly because these men had always partly because these men had always been in favour of making peace and been in favour of making peace and surrendering Helen. surrendering Helen.

Livy 1.4 the parentage of Livy 1.4 the parentage of Romulus and RemusRomulus and Remus

But the Fates had, I believe, already decreed But the Fates had, I believe, already decreed the origin of this great city and the the origin of this great city and the foundation of the mightiest empire under foundation of the mightiest empire under heaven. The Vestal was forcibly violated and heaven. The Vestal was forcibly violated and gave birth to twins. She named Mars as their gave birth to twins. She named Mars as their father, either because she really believed it, father, either because she really believed it, or because the fault might appear less or because the fault might appear less heinous if a deity were the cause of it. But heinous if a deity were the cause of it. But neither gods nor men sheltered her or her neither gods nor men sheltered her or her babes from the king's cruelty; the priestess babes from the king's cruelty; the priestess was thrown into prison, the boys were was thrown into prison, the boys were ordered to be thrown into the river. ordered to be thrown into the river.

Myth and HistoryMyth and History

Details of stories belong to myth and Details of stories belong to myth and legendslegends

Reflect, however, historical tradition Reflect, however, historical tradition well established by late Republican well established by late Republican timetime

Reflect a tradition marked by violence - Reflect a tradition marked by violence - militaristic ideology militaristic ideology

Reflect values central to Roman cultureReflect values central to Roman culture Reflect nature of Roman culture Reflect nature of Roman culture

shaped by constant warfare shaped by constant warfare

Myth and historyMyth and history Basic outline of Rome’s foundation confirmed Basic outline of Rome’s foundation confirmed

by archaeology by archaeology Suggests that villages on Palatine, Capitoline Suggests that villages on Palatine, Capitoline

and Qurinal hills formed one urban centre and Qurinal hills formed one urban centre In 8In 8thth and 7 and 7thth centuries emergence of “public” centuries emergence of “public”

spacesspaces Marshes between seven hills drained to create Marshes between seven hills drained to create

public space (Roman Forum); Paving and public public space (Roman Forum); Paving and public buildings (i.e. buildings (i.e. RegiaRegia))

Evidence of monarchyEvidence of monarchy

The Site of Early RomeThe Site of Early Rome

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Roma_Romolo_753aC_png.png

The site of Rome The site of Rome Founded on easy crossing of TiberFounded on easy crossing of Tiber Available fresh water, fertile land to support Available fresh water, fertile land to support

populationpopulation No more than a few villages consisting of a No more than a few villages consisting of a

collection of huts collection of huts Important trade route - – access to sea (travel Important trade route - – access to sea (travel

and transport easiest on water ways = highways) and transport easiest on water ways = highways) access to interior regions - access to interior regions -

Whoever was in control of the crossing was in Whoever was in control of the crossing was in powerful position - spot could be easily defended powerful position - spot could be easily defended - but - but

Fostered development of militarism Fostered development of militarism

Iron Age Hut UrnsIron Age Hut Urns

http://www.vroma.org/images/jwalker_images/jw-13.jpg

The Rape of the Sabine The Rape of the Sabine WomenWomen

““There was a great gathering; people were eager to see the new There was a great gathering; people were eager to see the new City, all their nearest neighbours-the people of Caenina, City, all their nearest neighbours-the people of Caenina, Antemnae, and Crustumerium-were there, and the whole Sabine Antemnae, and Crustumerium-were there, and the whole Sabine population came, with their wives and families. They were invited population came, with their wives and families. They were invited to accept hospitality at the different houses, and after examining to accept hospitality at the different houses, and after examining the situation of the City, its walls and the large number of the situation of the City, its walls and the large number of dwelling-houses it included, they were astonished at the rapidity dwelling-houses it included, they were astonished at the rapidity with which the Roman State had grown. When the hour for the with which the Roman State had grown. When the hour for the games had come, and their eyes and minds were alike riveted on games had come, and their eyes and minds were alike riveted on the spectacle before them, the preconcerted signal was given and the spectacle before them, the preconcerted signal was given and the Roman youth dashed in all directions to carry off the maidens the Roman youth dashed in all directions to carry off the maidens who were present. The larger part were carried off who were present. The larger part were carried off indiscriminately, but some particularly beautiful girls who had indiscriminately, but some particularly beautiful girls who had been marked out for the leading patricians were carried to their been marked out for the leading patricians were carried to their houses by plebeians told off for the task.” (Livy, 1.9)houses by plebeians told off for the task.” (Livy, 1.9)

War and SynoikismWar and Synoikism ““Then it was that the Sabine women, whose wrongs had led to the war, Then it was that the Sabine women, whose wrongs had led to the war,

throwing off all womanish fears in their distress, went boldly into the midst throwing off all womanish fears in their distress, went boldly into the midst of the flying missiles with dishevelled hair and rent garments. Running of the flying missiles with dishevelled hair and rent garments. Running across the space between the two armies they tried to stop any further across the space between the two armies they tried to stop any further fighting and calm the excited passions by appealing to their fathers in the fighting and calm the excited passions by appealing to their fathers in the one army and their husbands in the other not to bring upon themselves a one army and their husbands in the other not to bring upon themselves a curse by staining their hands with the blood of a father-in-law or a son-in-curse by staining their hands with the blood of a father-in-law or a son-in-law, nor upon their posterity the taint of parricide. "If," they cried, "you are law, nor upon their posterity the taint of parricide. "If," they cried, "you are weary of these ties of kindred, these marriage-bonds, then turn your anger weary of these ties of kindred, these marriage-bonds, then turn your anger upon us; it is we who are the cause of the war, it is we who have wounded upon us; it is we who are the cause of the war, it is we who have wounded and slain our husbands and fathers. Better for us to perish rather than live and slain our husbands and fathers. Better for us to perish rather than live without one or the other of you, as widows or as orphans." The armies and without one or the other of you, as widows or as orphans." The armies and their leaders were alike moved by this appeal. There was a sudden hush their leaders were alike moved by this appeal. There was a sudden hush and silence. Then the generals advanced to arrange the terms of a treaty. It and silence. Then the generals advanced to arrange the terms of a treaty. It was not only peace that was made, the two nations were united into one was not only peace that was made, the two nations were united into one State, the royal power was shared between them, and the seat of State, the royal power was shared between them, and the seat of government for both nations was Rome. After thus doubling the City, a government for both nations was Rome. After thus doubling the City, a concession was made to the Sabines in the new appellation of Quirites, concession was made to the Sabines in the new appellation of Quirites, from their old capital of Cures.from their old capital of Cures.” (Livy, 1.13)” (Livy, 1.13)

The Rape of the Sabine WomenThe Rape of the Sabine Women (Livy 1.9-1.13) (Livy 1.9-1.13)

Rape - from Latin Rape - from Latin rapiorapio = capture, seize = capture, seize 1. Young community had not enough 1. Young community had not enough

women; no intermarriage with neighbours; women; no intermarriage with neighbours; young community despised by their young community despised by their neighbours neighbours

2. Romans invited the Sabines to a festival 2. Romans invited the Sabines to a festival in honour of Neptune, the Consualia, in honour of Neptune, the Consualia, Sabines came with their families. During Sabines came with their families. During festival the young unmarried girls were festival the young unmarried girls were seized by Romans and made their wives. seized by Romans and made their wives.

““As the games broke up in confusion As the games broke up in confusion and fear, the grieving parents of the and fear, the grieving parents of the maidens ran off, accusing the Romans maidens ran off, accusing the Romans of violating their sacred obligations as of violating their sacred obligations as hosts and invoking the god to whose hosts and invoking the god to whose festival and games they had been festival and games they had been deceitfully invited contrary to religion deceitfully invited contrary to religion and good faith. The abducted maidens and good faith. The abducted maidens had not better hope for their plight than had not better hope for their plight than had their parents, nor was their had their parents, nor was their indignation less.” (Livy 1.9)indignation less.” (Livy 1.9)

The benefits will make up for The benefits will make up for the wrongthe wrong

““Romulus repeatedly went about in person Romulus repeatedly went about in person to visit them, arguing that what had to visit them, arguing that what had occurred was due to the arrogance of their occurred was due to the arrogance of their parents who had refused intermarriage parents who had refused intermarriage with their neighbours. Despite this, he with their neighbours. Despite this, he promised that they would enjoy the rights promised that they would enjoy the rights of a proper marriage becoming partners in of a proper marriage becoming partners in all the fortunes the couple might share, in all the fortunes the couple might share, in Rome’s citizenship, and in the begetting of Rome’s citizenship, and in the begetting of children, the object dearest to every children, the object dearest to every person’s heart. …often he said, person’s heart. …often he said, thankfulness replaces a sense of wrong thankfulness replaces a sense of wrong over the course of time, ….”(Livy 1.9)over the course of time, ….”(Livy 1.9)

War with the SabinesWar with the Sabines ““..when the two sides renewed the general fight in the ..when the two sides renewed the general fight in the

valley …It was at this moment that the Sabine women, valley …It was at this moment that the Sabine women, whose abduction had caused the war, boldly whose abduction had caused the war, boldly interposed themselves amid the flying spears. Their interposed themselves amid the flying spears. Their misfortunes overcame womanish fear: with hair misfortunes overcame womanish fear: with hair streaming and garments rent, they made a mad rush streaming and garments rent, they made a mad rush from the sidelines, parting the battling armies and from the sidelines, parting the battling armies and checking their angry strife. Appealing to fathers on checking their angry strife. Appealing to fathers on one side and husbands on the other, they declared one side and husbands on the other, they declared that kin by marriage should not defile themselves with that kin by marriage should not defile themselves with impious carnage, nor leave the stain of blood upon impious carnage, nor leave the stain of blood upon descendants of their blood, grandfathers upon descendants of their blood, grandfathers upon grandson, fathers upon children. ..Their appeal moved grandson, fathers upon children. ..Their appeal moved both leaders and rank and file ….the commanders both leaders and rank and file ….the commanders then came forward to strike a treaty by which they not then came forward to strike a treaty by which they not only made peace but united the two peoples in a only made peace but united the two peoples in a single community.” (Livy 1.13)single community.” (Livy 1.13)

The function of the ‘Sabine The function of the ‘Sabine Women’ legendWomen’ legend

to pass on and reinforce important socialto pass on and reinforce important social ideals and ideals and values associated with marriage values associated with marriage

1. the importance of marriage and children to 1. the importance of marriage and children to ensure the future of the community; ensure the future of the community;

2. the importance of marriage as forging alliances; 2. the importance of marriage as forging alliances; bonds between kin considered the most important bonds between kin considered the most important ones. ones.

3. the important role of women for the perpetuation 3. the important role of women for the perpetuation of the state and to cement political alliancesof the state and to cement political alliances

4. story demonstrates what is the expected conduct 4. story demonstrates what is the expected conduct of women: they must be loyal both to their paternal of women: they must be loyal both to their paternal family and to their conjugal family: women as family and to their conjugal family: women as bridging the divide.bridging the divide.

Marriage by captureMarriage by capture, , a ritual practiced by the Spartans – a ritual practiced by the Spartans –

probably reenacting a similar probably reenacting a similar practice of capturing wives when practice of capturing wives when they first arrived and settled in the they first arrived and settled in the regionregion

Justification for violence Justification for violence

Story example of how relationship originally established by Story example of how relationship originally established by violence could turn into a mutually beneficial relationship. violence could turn into a mutually beneficial relationship.

Reflection of values (justification for the use of violence) of Reflection of values (justification for the use of violence) of later period of Roman conquest, when Romans forced other later period of Roman conquest, when Romans forced other people under their rule.people under their rule.

Also theme in Augustan period: civil wars ultimately Also theme in Augustan period: civil wars ultimately brought peace to Roman society and the brought peace to Roman society and the pax Romanum pax Romanum to to the world. the world.

Important values : the centrality of the state; justified Important values : the centrality of the state; justified violence violence

The value of Roman citizenship - The value of Roman citizenship - anachronistic – a later value projected back to Rome’s anachronistic – a later value projected back to Rome’s

earliest day.earliest day.

The 7 Kings of Rome The 7 Kings of Rome (according to tradition)(according to tradition)

1. Romulus - 753 BCE: founder of Rome rules 36 years.1. Romulus - 753 BCE: founder of Rome rules 36 years. 2. Numa Pompilius2. Numa Pompilius (Sabine) – rules 42 years. (Sabine) – rules 42 years. 3. Tullus Hostilius3. Tullus Hostilius (Latin) – 31 years. (Latin) – 31 years. 4. 4. Ancus MarciusAncus Marcius (Sabine) – 24 years. (Sabine) – 24 years. 5. 5. Tarquinius PriscusTarquinius Priscus (First Etruscan King of Rome) – 38 (First Etruscan King of Rome) – 38

years.years. 6. Servius Tullus6. Servius Tullus; (Latin) – 44 years.; (Latin) – 44 years. 7. Tarquinius Superbus7. Tarquinius Superbus (Last King of Rome; Etruscan) (Last King of Rome; Etruscan)

– 24 years– 24 years 510 BCE: 510 BCE: Expulsion of the Tarquins; End of monarchy, Expulsion of the Tarquins; End of monarchy,

establishment of Roman Republicestablishment of Roman Republic Not historical, chronology not confirmed by archaeological Not historical, chronology not confirmed by archaeological

evidence, stereotypes, similarities in Greek literary evidence, stereotypes, similarities in Greek literary tradition tradition

Type of ‘Warfare’ in the 8Type of ‘Warfare’ in the 8thth and 7and 7thth century century

small-scale raids on neighboring communitiessmall-scale raids on neighboring communities Cattle rustling Cattle rustling ‘‘Armies’ consisted of a leader (local strong Armies’ consisted of a leader (local strong

man) his relatives and followers man) his relatives and followers Leader was the most successful warriorLeader was the most successful warrior Leader fought for personal glory and his Leader fought for personal glory and his

followers out of loyalty to leader who was able followers out of loyalty to leader who was able to protect them and provided for themto protect them and provided for them

Type of warfare throughout Europe in archaic Type of warfare throughout Europe in archaic period similar to Homeric type of warfare - period similar to Homeric type of warfare -

Chigi Vase ca. 650 – 640 BCEChigi Vase ca. 650 – 640 BCEfound in Etruscan tombfound in Etruscan tomb

depicting hoplite formationdepicting hoplite formation

Chigi Vase 7Chigi Vase 7thth century century