Civilizations and Civilizations and world religionsworld religions

3. Lecture.3. Lecture.

The religious freedom The religious freedom

The elements of The elements of evolutionary theory of evolutionary theory of

religionreligion 1. The interpretation of the origins of religion by 1. The interpretation of the origins of religion by

the help of basic catherogies of evolution, (such as: the help of basic catherogies of evolution, (such as: inheritance, mutation, selection, adaptation, etc.)inheritance, mutation, selection, adaptation, etc.)

2a. The interpretation of religion as a social, 2a. The interpretation of religion as a social, „gadgeteered” construction, as an adaptation, (a „gadgeteered” construction, as an adaptation, (a function that helps the survival).function that helps the survival).

2b. The presentation of such functions, which helps 2b. The presentation of such functions, which helps the individuals and the group to solve certain the individuals and the group to solve certain problems in the actual situation, or in the actual problems in the actual situation, or in the actual level of evolution. (So, due to which function it is level of evolution. (So, due to which function it is an adaptation, and not a by-product or a „bug”).an adaptation, and not a by-product or a „bug”).

3. The understanding of „why” is the unfolding of 3. The understanding of „why” is the unfolding of evolutionary story that lead to the present, („just so evolutionary story that lead to the present, („just so story”). In evolution the answer to a question is story”). In evolution the answer to a question is always a story.always a story.

What is religion? What is religion? In the prespective of evolutionary In the prespective of evolutionary

theorytheory 1. Religion is a 1. Religion is a „cultural universal”„cultural universal”

– it could be found in every known – it could be found in every known present and past (after its material present and past (after its material mementos known) societies.mementos known) societies. Concerning sociologists (Durkheim, Concerning sociologists (Durkheim,

Murdock, Lévi-Strauss, Donald Brown, Murdock, Lévi-Strauss, Donald Brown, etc.) a „cultural universal” is an etc.) a „cultural universal” is an element, pattern, trait, or institution element, pattern, trait, or institution that is common to all human cultures that is common to all human cultures worldwide. worldwide.

The sacred and the The sacred and the profane.profane.

Initial remarksInitial remarks Every particular religion has religious texts and documents, Every particular religion has religious texts and documents, rituals, festivals, holy items, sacred places. Has a sacred rituals, festivals, holy items, sacred places. Has a sacred account about the totality of the world and being.account about the totality of the world and being.

This means, that every particular religion has its This means, that every particular religion has its institutionalized, canonized form of religious experience. At institutionalized, canonized form of religious experience. At the core of religious experience lie the distinctions between the core of religious experience lie the distinctions between sacred and profane, this-world and other-world. The positive sacred and profane, this-world and other-world. The positive religions give an institutionally articulated form to these basic religions give an institutionally articulated form to these basic distinctions. distinctions.

The conception of transcendence or the sacred is always The conception of transcendence or the sacred is always embedded into a special cultural context. This could be a embedded into a special cultural context. This could be a source of source of conflictsconflicts between different cultures. What one between different cultures. What one culture considers sacred, is not sacred for another cultural culture considers sacred, is not sacred for another cultural community, or even the antagonistic opposition of holy: the community, or even the antagonistic opposition of holy: the unholyunholy. Some religions regard other as . Some religions regard other as counter-religionscounter-religions, , and fanatics sometimes and fanatics sometimes desecratedesecrate the counter-religion’s holy the counter-religion’s holy symbols.symbols.

Conflict: American soldiers burnt Korans in Afghanistan a few Conflict: American soldiers burnt Korans in Afghanistan a few days ago, which caused a huge wave of protestation there.days ago, which caused a huge wave of protestation there.

Mircea Eliade.Mircea Eliade.Life and workLife and work

Mircea Eliade: born: Bucharest, 1907; deceased: Chicago, 1986. Mircea Eliade: born: Bucharest, 1907; deceased: Chicago, 1986. Romanian theorist and historian of religion, father of modern Romanian theorist and historian of religion, father of modern religious studies.religious studies.

Most essential works: Most essential works: The Sacred and the Profane: The Nature The Sacred and the Profane: The Nature of Religionof Religion (1956), (1956), History of Religious Ideas History of Religious Ideas I-III (1968), I-III (1968), The The Myth of Eternal Return: Cosmos and History Myth of Eternal Return: Cosmos and History (1969).(1969).

Other important works: „Other important works: „Yoga: Immortality and Freedom”, Yoga: Immortality and Freedom”, „Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy”, „Occultism, „Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy”, „Occultism, Witchcraft, and Cultural Fashions”, „Images and Symbols: Witchcraft, and Cultural Fashions”, „Images and Symbols: Studies in Religious Symbolism”. Studies in Religious Symbolism”.

Was a supporter and an ideologist of the romanian Iron Guard, Was a supporter and an ideologist of the romanian Iron Guard, in the 1930es. For this reason he had to spend three weeks in in the 1930es. For this reason he had to spend three weeks in prison, in 1938.prison, in 1938.

Because of his earlier radical rightist views he had to go to Because of his earlier radical rightist views he had to go to exile; on September 16,1945 he moved with his daughter to exile; on September 16,1945 he moved with his daughter to France. Due to his friendship with Georges Dumézil he got a France. Due to his friendship with Georges Dumézil he got a position of a lecturer in Paris, (position of a lecturer in Paris, (École pratique des hautes École pratique des hautes étudesétudes).).

In October 1956, he moved to the United States, settling in In October 1956, he moved to the United States, settling in Chicago, and became the professor of Chicago University. There Chicago, and became the professor of Chicago University. There has been organised a school of researchers around Eliade.has been organised a school of researchers around Eliade.

Main ideas.Main ideas.Basic structures of religious Basic structures of religious

experienceexperience According to Eliade the According to Eliade the ideaidea of a of a homogeneoushomogeneous space space

and time of the modern man is a result of a long cultural and time of the modern man is a result of a long cultural development. development.

The space and time of the modern man is homogeneous, The space and time of the modern man is homogeneous, every point of it is equal to the other.every point of it is equal to the other.

On the contrary: the archaic, premodern, religious man On the contrary: the archaic, premodern, religious man had an had an inhomogeneousinhomogeneous space and time. This means that space and time. This means that the space and time of archaic man had the space and time of archaic man had special special points.points.

For the archaicFor the archaic / /premodern/religious man it meant a premodern/religious man it meant a difference of difference of sacredsacred space and time as opposed to space and time as opposed to profaneprofane space and time. space and time.

Sacred spaceSacred space: the holy place, the sacred ground where : the holy place, the sacred ground where the religious man had a special connection with the religious man had a special connection with transcendence. transcendence. Sacred timeSacred time: the holy time, the religious : the holy time, the religious fest, when a special event of the religion’s mythical fest, when a special event of the religion’s mythical history returned.history returned.

The sacred and the The sacred and the profaneprofane

In Eliade’s opinion the most fundamental structure of religious In Eliade’s opinion the most fundamental structure of religious experience is the experience of the experience is the experience of the sacredsacred. The sacred is the . The sacred is the manifestation of the manifestation of the transcendencetranscendence. The difference of sacred . The difference of sacred and profane could be found in every known religion.and profane could be found in every known religion.

According to Eliade this structure of experience could be found According to Eliade this structure of experience could be found even at even at modernmodern, secular, non-religious man. The cult of , secular, non-religious man. The cult of politicians, politicians, political leaderspolitical leaders in totalitarian regimes, and pop- in totalitarian regimes, and pop-stars in modern popular culture is a reminiscence of this stars in modern popular culture is a reminiscence of this experience, (experience, („the sacred person”„the sacred person”). In Eliade’s interpretation ). In Eliade’s interpretation this is a sign that religious experience is in a way inherent to this is a sign that religious experience is in a way inherent to the human being, it is a necessary structure of human the human being, it is a necessary structure of human existence.existence.

The differentiation of sacred and profane comes originally The differentiation of sacred and profane comes originally from from Émile DurkheimÉmile Durkheim, („The elementary forms of religious , („The elementary forms of religious life”, 1912) – who used this distinction in his descriptions of life”, 1912) – who used this distinction in his descriptions of totem and taboo of natural, primitive religions. totem and taboo of natural, primitive religions.

But it was Eliade who worked out an overall conception on But it was Eliade who worked out an overall conception on the basis of this distinction, to characterize religion in its the basis of this distinction, to characterize religion in its essence, in general.essence, in general.

Hierophany, epiphany, Hierophany, epiphany, theophany.theophany.

Eliade used mostly the term Eliade used mostly the term „hierophany” „hierophany” to to characterize the phenomenon of the sacred. The term characterize the phenomenon of the sacred. The term hierophany signifies the hierophany signifies the manifestation of the manifestation of the sacredsacred. „Hierophany” is a greek expression: „hieros” . „Hierophany” is a greek expression: „hieros” – sacred, „phainein” – to reveal.– sacred, „phainein” – to reveal.

A strongly correlative term for hierophany is A strongly correlative term for hierophany is „epiphany”„epiphany”. Epiphany means in ancient greek . Epiphany means in ancient greek language: language: epiphaneiaepiphaneia, „manifestation, striking , „manifestation, striking appearance”. The epiphany is appearance”. The epiphany is „insight” or „insight” or „illumination through the divine” or the „illumination through the divine” or the supernaturalsupernatural..

„„Theophany”Theophany” is a more restrictive term for is a more restrictive term for hierophany. Theophany means: „the appearance of a hierophany. Theophany means: „the appearance of a god”. So: it is a more concrete understanding of god”. So: it is a more concrete understanding of hierophany, as hierophany, as it refers to a concrete form of it refers to a concrete form of transcendencetranscendence, namely: to a godly or , namely: to a godly or divine divine transcendencetranscendence..

The sacred placeThe sacred place For the ancient man there were sacred places in space, For the ancient man there were sacred places in space,

which were considered by them as central points in the which were considered by them as central points in the world. world.

Usually there were several central sacred places, and a Usually there were several central sacred places, and a hierarchy of these points. So: there was a centre of centres hierarchy of these points. So: there was a centre of centres or a or a highest centre highest centre for a certain religious community. for a certain religious community.

E.g.: three very favoured places of pilgrimage in Medieval E.g.: three very favoured places of pilgrimage in Medieval Christianity were: 3. the Purgatory of Saint Patrick Christianity were: 3. the Purgatory of Saint Patrick (Ireland), 2. Santiago de Compostella (Spain, the tomb of (Ireland), 2. Santiago de Compostella (Spain, the tomb of Apostle Saint James), 1. Rome, (Italy). But there was a Apostle Saint James), 1. Rome, (Italy). But there was a centre of centres: Jerusalem, (Israel). Jerusalem was also centre of centres: Jerusalem, (Israel). Jerusalem was also the highest centre for Judaic (Jewish) and Muslim religions.the highest centre for Judaic (Jewish) and Muslim religions.

But over and above these major and „highest” centre, But over and above these major and „highest” centre, there were, so to say „minor” centers: the there were, so to say „minor” centers: the church church and and templetemple for every single religious community. In medieval for every single religious community. In medieval communities the church counted as the centre of the communities the church counted as the centre of the particular community.particular community.

„„Axis mundi”Axis mundi” This symbolism of the centre, or of the centreThis symbolism of the centre, or of the centress, according to , according to

Eliade, goes back to a fundamental structure of religious Eliade, goes back to a fundamental structure of religious experience, which he called experience, which he called „axis mundi”„axis mundi” ( („axis of world”„axis of world”).).

For the proper religious community axis mundi was the For the proper religious community axis mundi was the centre of the entire world, and also a centre of the entire world, and also a channelchannel between the between the region of region of mortalsmortals and the region of and the region of deitiesdeities, of , of divine divine transcendencetranscendence. .

The The religious leaders religious leaders of the group in question (shamans, of the group in question (shamans, witch-doctors, clerics, priests etc.), those who know the witch-doctors, clerics, priests etc.), those who know the proper rituals, could easily proper rituals, could easily communicatecommunicate with the divine with the divine forces at these „world-centres”.forces at these „world-centres”.

All known religions knew centers of this kind. The more All known religions knew centers of this kind. The more archaic religions had these „highest” centre in a very archaic religions had these „highest” centre in a very concrete form: the mountain Olympus for the Greeks, or the concrete form: the mountain Olympus for the Greeks, or the Yggdrasil, the „World Tree” for the old Nordic, German, Yggdrasil, the „World Tree” for the old Nordic, German, Viking tribes. Viking tribes.

The more „developed” a religion was, the more abstract the The more „developed” a religion was, the more abstract the idea of this centre became. In monotheistic world-religions idea of this centre became. In monotheistic world-religions (on a certain degree of development) these centers gained a (on a certain degree of development) these centers gained a merely symbolic meaning.merely symbolic meaning.

Sacred time. The festivalSacred time. The festival The more important points (points of articulation, of The more important points (points of articulation, of

orientation) of time for religious person were religious orientation) of time for religious person were religious holidays or holidays or festivalsfestivals. .

Eliade criticized Carl Gustav Eliade criticized Carl Gustav JungJung, who claimed that the , who claimed that the religious person religious person commemoratedcommemorated the important events of the important events of the mythical history of the particular religion in the mythical history of the particular religion in question.question.

According to Eliade religious festivals were something According to Eliade religious festivals were something much more stronger than mere commemorations. In his much more stronger than mere commemorations. In his opinion festivals were a sort of opinion festivals were a sort of „Eternal Return”„Eternal Return”..

The ancient, premodern person did not only The ancient, premodern person did not only commemorate the fundamental events of his or her commemorate the fundamental events of his or her religion’s mythical pre-history. For him or her religion’s mythical pre-history. For him or her those those events returnedevents returned and and repeated repeated during the sacred time during the sacred time of festivals, in quite a literal way.of festivals, in quite a literal way.

As the sacred places, the sacred times too meant a As the sacred places, the sacred times too meant a channelchannel through the world into the through the world into the transcendent transcendent domaindomain..

Eternal Return and the Terror Eternal Return and the Terror of Historyof History

In Eliade’s interpretation the archaic/premodern man lived in In Eliade’s interpretation the archaic/premodern man lived in a rather cyclic world. For him/her the world was an Eternal a rather cyclic world. For him/her the world was an Eternal Return or repetition of days, seasons, years – and mythical Return or repetition of days, seasons, years – and mythical events. The born and death of Sun God, the born and death events. The born and death of Sun God, the born and death of barley (Eleusinian Mysteries!), the born and death of of barley (Eleusinian Mysteries!), the born and death of entire generations.entire generations.

The New Year ceremonies amongst Mesopotamians, The New Year ceremonies amongst Mesopotamians, Egyptians, and other Near Eastern peoples re-enacted their Egyptians, and other Near Eastern peoples re-enacted their cosmogonic myths. Each and every New Year ceremony cosmogonic myths. Each and every New Year ceremony was was the beginning of the World the beginning of the World in realin real..

According to Eliade, the linear view of history and time is a According to Eliade, the linear view of history and time is a modern construction, which is based on the modern construction, which is based on the Eschatology Eschatology of of major monotheistic religions, (Judaism, Islam, Christianity).major monotheistic religions, (Judaism, Islam, Christianity).

Eliade refers with the term Eliade refers with the term „The Terror of History”„The Terror of History” to the to the modern, secularized conception of historical time, which was modern, secularized conception of historical time, which was entirely empty of the sacred. In Eliade’s interpretation the entirely empty of the sacred. In Eliade’s interpretation the ancient man had a living connection with transcendence, due ancient man had a living connection with transcendence, due to its contact with the mythical age through the Eternal to its contact with the mythical age through the Eternal Return. Therefore the ancient people were in a way safe of Return. Therefore the ancient people were in a way safe of the Terror of History.the Terror of History.

Myths of origin. The origin Myths of origin. The origin of timeof time

According to Eliade in ancient man lived a strong According to Eliade in ancient man lived a strong „nostalgia for origins”, (Eliade, „nostalgia for origins”, (Eliade, Myths, Dreams and Myths, Dreams and MysteriesMysteries, 1967: 44 ). The ancient man made a , 1967: 44 ). The ancient man made a difference between his time and the mythical time, difference between his time and the mythical time, between his age and the mythical age. In the ancient between his age and the mythical age. In the ancient man’s view of world the man’s view of world the mythical time was the mythical time was the origin of time itselforigin of time itself..

The mythical time was the time of the Beginnings, the The mythical time was the time of the Beginnings, the time of myths of origins. In traditional societies, time of myths of origins. In traditional societies, Eliade says, Eliade says, mythsmyths represented „the absolute truth represented „the absolute truth about primordial time”, (Eliade, 1967: 23). about primordial time”, (Eliade, 1967: 23).

The myth of origins, as he states, „is always an The myth of origins, as he states, „is always an account of a account of a creationcreation”, (Eliade, 1967: 6). The mythical ”, (Eliade, 1967: 6). The mythical time was the time when Sacred first appeared and time was the time when Sacred first appeared and established the structure of the world. The myth of established the structure of the world. The myth of origin is an account about the origin of Sacred itself.origin is an account about the origin of Sacred itself.

„„Coincidentia oppositorum”Coincidentia oppositorum”The coincidence of The coincidence of

oppositionsoppositions According to Eliade the Sacred often united antagonistic According to Eliade the Sacred often united antagonistic

oppositions in itself. Eliade called the unity of opposition oppositions in itself. Eliade called the unity of opposition in one concrete form of the Sacred as „coincidentia in one concrete form of the Sacred as „coincidentia oppositorum” or the „coincidence of oppositions”.oppositorum” or the „coincidence of oppositions”.

„„Yahweh is both kind and wrathful; the God of the Yahweh is both kind and wrathful; the God of the Christian mystics and theologians is terrible and gentle at Christian mystics and theologians is terrible and gentle at once”, (Eliade, 1967: 450).once”, (Eliade, 1967: 450).

Coincidentia oppositorum represented, according to him, Coincidentia oppositorum represented, according to him, a strong union or unity of oppositions. It is a mythic a strong union or unity of oppositions. It is a mythic pattern that could be found again also in almost every pattern that could be found again also in almost every religions; so: in Far East, Oriental and ancient religions religions; so: in Far East, Oriental and ancient religions also. also.

E.g.: for the ancient Greeks E.g.: for the ancient Greeks Zeus Zeus is terrible and noble at is terrible and noble at the same time. In Buddhism the the same time. In Buddhism the KarmaKarma (which is the (which is the engine which drives the wheel of uncontrolled rebirth) engine which drives the wheel of uncontrolled rebirth) could be gentle and terrible at the same time. (But in could be gentle and terrible at the same time. (But in Buddhism the opposites appear only on the Buddhism the opposites appear only on the relative relative level level of sensuous phenomena, and they of sensuous phenomena, and they disappeardisappear in the in the absoluteabsolute space of enlightened consciousness space of enlightened consciousness).).

The Sky Father.The Sky Father.The pattern of High GodThe pattern of High God

According to Eliade in most archaic religions one could find a According to Eliade in most archaic religions one could find a central divine figure, around which the „community” of other gods central divine figure, around which the „community” of other gods is organized. is organized.

Eliade criticizes both the "evolutionistic" theory of Edward Burnett Eliade criticizes both the "evolutionistic" theory of Edward Burnett Tylor (1832-1917) and others, and Wilhelm Schmidt’s (1868-1954) Tylor (1832-1917) and others, and Wilhelm Schmidt’s (1868-1954) theory of a „theory of a „primalprimal monotheism” („Urmonotheismus”). monotheism” („Urmonotheismus”).

According to Tyler’s evolutionist theory of religion, there was a According to Tyler’s evolutionist theory of religion, there was a natural progress from animism to polytheism, and from polytheism natural progress from animism to polytheism, and from polytheism to monotheism. But in Eliade’s opinion this strict schema does not to monotheism. But in Eliade’s opinion this strict schema does not hold in the reality, and the figure of Sky Father could be found in hold in the reality, and the figure of Sky Father could be found in almost every tribal, „primitive” religion. „The most popular prayer almost every tribal, „primitive” religion. „The most popular prayer in the world is addressed to 'Our Father who art in heaven.' It is in the world is addressed to 'Our Father who art in heaven.' It is possible that man's earliest prayers were addressed to the same possible that man's earliest prayers were addressed to the same heavenly father.” – said Eliade, (Eliade, heavenly father.” – said Eliade, (Eliade, Patterns in Comparative Patterns in Comparative ReligionReligion, 1958: 38)., 1958: 38).

But he also criticized Schmidt’s conception about a strict But he also criticized Schmidt’s conception about a strict „primordial monotheism”. This theory, as Eliade thought, was „primordial monotheism”. This theory, as Eliade thought, was „rigid and unworkable”. Though archaic, tribal cults had a central „rigid and unworkable”. Though archaic, tribal cults had a central figure, they were nonetheless polytheistic, and their High God was figure, they were nonetheless polytheistic, and their High God was very different from the One God of „more developed” monotheistic very different from the One God of „more developed” monotheistic religions. (E.g.: the High God could manifest himself as an animal, religions. (E.g.: the High God could manifest himself as an animal, without losing his status as a celestial Supreme Being).without losing his status as a celestial Supreme Being).

Cosmos and chaos. Cosmos and chaos. Fundamental structure of the Fundamental structure of the

actual worldactual world The distinction of cosmos and chaos referred again to further The distinction of cosmos and chaos referred again to further

fundamental feature of the ancient man’s view of world at fundamental feature of the ancient man’s view of world at Eliade, Eliade, (The Sacred and the Profane(The Sacred and the Profane).).

These words came from the ancient Greek language. „Cosmos” These words came from the ancient Greek language. „Cosmos” signified „world” and „order” at the same time. For the ancient signified „world” and „order” at the same time. For the ancient man world meant an articulated world, with laws and order. man world meant an articulated world, with laws and order. „Chaos” was for him/her the counter-concept of cosmos: the „Chaos” was for him/her the counter-concept of cosmos: the lack of any order and law. Chaos was a lack of any order and law. Chaos was a rupturerupture in the texture in the texture of cosmos, of the world.of cosmos, of the world.

„„Cosmos”Cosmos” signified at Eliade the home-world of ancient man; signified at Eliade the home-world of ancient man; the world of laws, customs, habits, rituals which were familiar the world of laws, customs, habits, rituals which were familiar and accustomed for the premodern person. Cosmos was the and accustomed for the premodern person. Cosmos was the world of mortals and immortals: the world of mortals and immortals: the pantheonpantheon of the concrete of the concrete cultural community belonged to the home-world of this cultural community belonged to the home-world of this community also.community also.

The The „chaos”„chaos” meant the opposite of the world, it meant meant the opposite of the world, it meant „counter-world”, the lack of the world. Outside the particular „counter-world”, the lack of the world. Outside the particular world of the community, its laws do not hold anymore. Beyond world of the community, its laws do not hold anymore. Beyond the borders of the home-world of the particular group there is the borders of the home-world of the particular group there is the the other-worldother-world..

Criticism of Eliade’s Criticism of Eliade’s ideasideas

The main points of criticism concerning Eliade’s The main points of criticism concerning Eliade’s scholarship aimed at Eliade’s scholarship aimed at Eliade’s overgeneralizationsovergeneralizations. .

Eliade’s critics claimed that he tended to use his Eliade’s critics claimed that he tended to use his classifications and conceptions even in those cases in classifications and conceptions even in those cases in which he was actually had no satisfactory evidence. which he was actually had no satisfactory evidence. He tended to elide the principal differences between He tended to elide the principal differences between different religions.different religions.

According to these scholars (e.g.: Dougles Allen, According to these scholars (e.g.: Dougles Allen, Geoffrey Kirk, Wendy Doniger) even Eliade’s Geoffrey Kirk, Wendy Doniger) even Eliade’s speculations about the fundamental features of speculations about the fundamental features of religions implied to rigid categories, and every religions implied to rigid categories, and every religion has such particular moments which cannot be religion has such particular moments which cannot be described with Eliade’s own system of categories.described with Eliade’s own system of categories.

The complexity of particular religions cannot be so The complexity of particular religions cannot be so easily grasped with such as system of categories that easily grasped with such as system of categories that Eliade worked out.Eliade worked out.