Civil Society, Ethnicity Civil Society, Ethnicity and the State: a and the State: a

threefold relationshipthreefold relationship

An paper delivered by An paper delivered by GEORGE SCHOPFLIN at the GEORGE SCHOPFLIN at the

conference conference Civil Society in AustriaCivil Society in Austria, , 20-21 June 199720-21 June 1997

Reviewed by Dolores JosephReviewed by Dolores JosephSO203SO203

ThemeTheme

This article states that democracy is made up of three key This article states that democracy is made up of three key interdependent elements: Civil society, state and ethnicity. interdependent elements: Civil society, state and ethnicity.

Each of these elements have different functions and roles, Each of these elements have different functions and roles, sometimes overlapping and sometimes contradictory sometimes overlapping and sometimes contradictory attitudes and aspirations. They are reshaped through attitudes and aspirations. They are reshaped through continuous interaction. continuous interaction.

So civil society is not a static entity but a shifting one So civil society is not a static entity but a shifting one responsive to changes in politics and vulnerable to responsive to changes in politics and vulnerable to pressures. It is bound by other actors on the stage eg the pressures. It is bound by other actors on the stage eg the government and how civil society reacts to policies and government and how civil society reacts to policies and

regulations imposed on them. regulations imposed on them.

Main IssuesMain Issues Civil SocietyCivil Society

described in the Collins Dictionary of Sociology described in the Collins Dictionary of Sociology means market and economic relations (in contrast means market and economic relations (in contrast with the activity of the state); a realm intermediate with the activity of the state); a realm intermediate between the family and the state.between the family and the state.

Ethnicity Ethnicity Ethnicity as described by the Sociology dictionary Ethnicity as described by the Sociology dictionary

means a shared (perceived or actual) racial, linguistic means a shared (perceived or actual) racial, linguistic or national identity of a social group.or national identity of a social group.

The StateThe State as described by the Sociology dictionary is the as described by the Sociology dictionary is the

overall territory and social system which is subject to overall territory and social system which is subject to a particular rule or domination.a particular rule or domination.

Civil SocietyCivil Society

It is suggested that the stronger the state, the It is suggested that the stronger the state, the weaker the civil society. Some argue that the weaker the civil society. Some argue that the state oppresses civil society. However it is state oppresses civil society. However it is difficult to imagine the civil society operating difficult to imagine the civil society operating successfully without the state because the successfully without the state because the citizens are protected by the laws of the state.citizens are protected by the laws of the state.

The state provides the framework in which the The state provides the framework in which the civil society operates with a degree of coherencecivil society operates with a degree of coherence

Civil Society cont’dCivil Society cont’d

This framework includes the rule of law This framework includes the rule of law which is administered by the state which is administered by the state machinery namely the judiciary, legislature machinery namely the judiciary, legislature and executive and disciplined forcesand executive and disciplined forces

Equally the civil society must be free to Equally the civil society must be free to challenge the state in its rigid bureaucracy challenge the state in its rigid bureaucracy

EthnicityEthnicity Sociologists tend to regard social groups as Sociologists tend to regard social groups as

being identifiable in terms of cultural phenomena being identifiable in terms of cultural phenomena such as shared customs, institutions, rituals and such as shared customs, institutions, rituals and language.language.

Where a set of values and identity are shared Where a set of values and identity are shared between different social strata, where they between different social strata, where they regard one another as sharing certain regard one another as sharing certain commonalities, respond to the same symbols commonalities, respond to the same symbols and share certain key moral aims and and share certain key moral aims and obligations, the basis for redistribution of power obligations, the basis for redistribution of power becomes less hazardous. becomes less hazardous.

Ethnicity cont’dEthnicity cont’d Under pre-modern conditions the level of Under pre-modern conditions the level of

consent was lower, affected fewer people so that consent was lower, affected fewer people so that ethnic identities weren’t a major factor in the ethnic identities weren’t a major factor in the relationship between state and society but the relationship between state and society but the growth of state power and capacity generated growth of state power and capacity generated the need for a new basis of trust.the need for a new basis of trust.

If ethnic consent was absent, the redistribution If ethnic consent was absent, the redistribution of power could not take place or the state was of power could not take place or the state was divided, an example is the failure of the Royal divided, an example is the failure of the Royal Prussia as a state, German speaking but subject Prussia as a state, German speaking but subject to the Polish crown. to the Polish crown.

The State The State

The State is a set of institutions that possess The State is a set of institutions that possess authority to make laws which govern people in authority to make laws which govern people in one or more societies one or more societies

Where premodern states had subjects, modern Where premodern states had subjects, modern states have citizens – full members of political states have citizens – full members of political communities enjoying the right to vote, the right communities enjoying the right to vote, the right to stand for office, freedom of expression, to stand for office, freedom of expression, welfare rights. welfare rights.

Functions of the StateFunctions of the State

The State makes laws, policies, rules and The State makes laws, policies, rules and enforces legitimate use of forceenforces legitimate use of force

It is the legal and moral enforcer of laws, It is the legal and moral enforcer of laws, protects boundaries, is the impartial arbiter protects boundaries, is the impartial arbiter for conflict andfor conflict and

legitimises citizenship, relationships and legitimises citizenship, relationships and resources distribution (resources distribution (refer to Week 3 refer to Week 3 lecture notes)lecture notes)

CitizenshipCitizenship Citizenship is defined in this analysis as the package of Citizenship is defined in this analysis as the package of

legal, political, institutional, economic, social and cultural legal, political, institutional, economic, social and cultural relationships that bind society and the individual to the relationships that bind society and the individual to the state and which govern political relationships within state and which govern political relationships within society. society.

Citizenship is explicit, open to questioning directly and Citizenship is explicit, open to questioning directly and subject to continuous political engagement.subject to continuous political engagement.

It is through the rules of citizenship that civil society finds It is through the rules of citizenship that civil society finds expression and there are procedures, mechanisms and expression and there are procedures, mechanisms and provisions that make power transparent and predictable. provisions that make power transparent and predictable.

Citizenship cont’dCitizenship cont’d Without the stabilising element of citizenship, the Without the stabilising element of citizenship, the

exercise of power becomes arbitrary and generates exercise of power becomes arbitrary and generates insecurity; this insecurity then reacts on ethnicity and can insecurity; this insecurity then reacts on ethnicity and can give rise to a sense that one’s ethnic identity is give rise to a sense that one’s ethnic identity is threatened which can trigger off a deep-seated threatened which can trigger off a deep-seated intolerance born of the fear that one’s ethnic identity is in intolerance born of the fear that one’s ethnic identity is in danger. danger.

This happens when the state is too weak to protect civil This happens when the state is too weak to protect civil society or has no interest in doing so. society or has no interest in doing so.

The combination of state and ethnicity when used The combination of state and ethnicity when used against civil society is what usually leads to the shift against civil society is what usually leads to the shift towards nationalism when ethnicity becomes the major towards nationalism when ethnicity becomes the major issue in politics. issue in politics.

StrengthsStrengths

The key proposition in this analysis is that The key proposition in this analysis is that citizenship, ethnicity and the state exist in citizenship, ethnicity and the state exist in mutual interdependence.mutual interdependence.

The ideal situation is when a three-fold The ideal situation is when a three-fold equilibrium comes into being which is a equilibrium comes into being which is a necessary condition for democracy.necessary condition for democracy.

As is understood that threefold As is understood that threefold relationships are dynamic, the equilibrium relationships are dynamic, the equilibrium does not have to be perfect.does not have to be perfect.

Strengths cont’dStrengths cont’d A variety of solutions are possible:A variety of solutions are possible:

There are various models of democracy in Europe There are various models of democracy in Europe today for eg. France can be said to have a strong today for eg. France can be said to have a strong state, strong ethnicity and a civil society weaker than state, strong ethnicity and a civil society weaker than the state.the state.

In Italy there is an inefficient state but a well In Italy there is an inefficient state but a well articulated civil society and a strong ethnicity resulting articulated civil society and a strong ethnicity resulting in citizenship-driven social action without the in citizenship-driven social action without the equilibrating function of the state.equilibrating function of the state.

England has a high capacity state and growing England has a high capacity state and growing stronger, a weakening civil society and a strong stronger, a weakening civil society and a strong ethnicity with growing diversity of identities. ethnicity with growing diversity of identities. (Refer to (Refer to table of population from week 3 lecture 2)table of population from week 3 lecture 2)

Cont’dCont’d

Almost every European state is multi ethnic and Almost every European state is multi ethnic and creates difficulties in the area of political creates difficulties in the area of political management but the answer could be in the management but the answer could be in the form of powersharingform of powersharing

If they believe that in democratic states all If they believe that in democratic states all citizens have equal right to cultural reproduction citizens have equal right to cultural reproduction and share in material and symbolic goods then and share in material and symbolic goods then they identify fully with the state so the question they identify fully with the state so the question of suspicion and distrust doesn’t arise. of suspicion and distrust doesn’t arise.

WeaknessesWeaknesses

Challenges to the state bring the danger of state Challenges to the state bring the danger of state failure, the most common one being the collapse failure, the most common one being the collapse of a multi ethnic state eg Austria-Hungary, of a multi ethnic state eg Austria-Hungary, Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia.Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia.

In this analysis state failure is attributed to: In this analysis state failure is attributed to: complete disappearance (Montenegro); the loss complete disappearance (Montenegro); the loss or addition of territory; major upheaval like or addition of territory; major upheaval like foreign occupation; aftermath of civil war; foreign occupation; aftermath of civil war; decolonisation and the loss of empire. decolonisation and the loss of empire.

Weaknesses cont’dWeaknesses cont’d

The heart of the problem is that what is regarded The heart of the problem is that what is regarded as natural and normal like solidarity, loyalties as natural and normal like solidarity, loyalties and bonds are located in ethnic identity which and bonds are located in ethnic identity which obviously vary from one ethnic group to another. obviously vary from one ethnic group to another. For eg how we perceive another group, For eg how we perceive another group, stereotypes, mistrust which lead to racial stereotypes, mistrust which lead to racial divisions.divisions.

This implies that the political and institutional This implies that the political and institutional systems, citizenship must be set up in such a systems, citizenship must be set up in such a way to cope with the renegotiation of power way to cope with the renegotiation of power across an ethnic boundary. across an ethnic boundary.

Weaknesses cont’dWeaknesses cont’d The distribution of power must take into account the The distribution of power must take into account the

imperative for majorities and minorities to provide imperative for majorities and minorities to provide security for both. Economic and political problems arise security for both. Economic and political problems arise when one ethnic group dominates state power. Eg the when one ethnic group dominates state power. Eg the apartheid in South Africa, and other Asian and Pacific apartheid in South Africa, and other Asian and Pacific states states

Ethnicity is not necessarily destructive of democracy, Ethnicity is not necessarily destructive of democracy, however, it can undermine democracy when either the however, it can undermine democracy when either the state of civil society or both is too weak to contain it. For state of civil society or both is too weak to contain it. For eg ethnic conflicts in Malaysia, Fiji and Sri Lankaeg ethnic conflicts in Malaysia, Fiji and Sri Lanka

Without citizenship cultural reproduction is threatened, Without citizenship cultural reproduction is threatened, without the state the framework for citizenship cannot without the state the framework for citizenship cannot operate. operate.

Relevance to the courseRelevance to the course This paper is relevant to the course because it gives us a This paper is relevant to the course because it gives us a

historical analysis of how pre modern and modern states historical analysis of how pre modern and modern states came into being, how people from smaller countries came into being, how people from smaller countries have totally lost their identity by merging with another or have totally lost their identity by merging with another or being lost in a bigger empire. We are losing some being lost in a bigger empire. We are losing some cultural values as globalisation continues to make an cultural values as globalisation continues to make an impact in the lives of smaller nation states.impact in the lives of smaller nation states.

As social and cultural structures built over time are As social and cultural structures built over time are slowly eroding, the state and civil society have to find a slowly eroding, the state and civil society have to find a new role and new relationship as they are now targets of new role and new relationship as they are now targets of the impact of Globalisation which is eroding the tradition-the impact of Globalisation which is eroding the tradition-driven belief systems.driven belief systems.