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Transcript of City of Beaverton High Impact Business Writing CLIMB Center for Advancement Portland Community...
City of Beaverton
High Impact Business Writing
CLIMB Center for Advancement
Portland Community College
Facilitated by George Knox
Overview of Workshop Modules
Pre-Writing Analysis Organization, Style & Diction Strategies for Specific Documents Proofreading, Revising & Editing
Perception
Studies show that we all have preferred “perceptual styles”
Presenter’s preferences may be different than audience’s
Effective perception combines styles
Perceptual Styles(Adapted from Dunn and Dunn Learning Styles Model)
AuditoryFocuses on what is heardRemembers 75% heardDistracted by note-taking
VisualFocuses on what is seenRemembers 75% seenSummarizes with notes
TactileFocuses on what is
touched and manipulated
Remembers by touchingTakes both traditional
and visual notes
KinestheticFocuses on moving within contextual environmentRemembers by doingDistracted by note-taking
Perceptual Styles (Cont.)
Perceptual styles are only preferences Most people utilize more than one style Most people can learn to use different styles
SO
Recognize your preference, but learn to use the style(s) that work best for each situation
Prepare your documents with audience’s perceptual styles (multiple) in mind
Document Development
P.A.T.– Purpose – Audience – Technique
Purpose and Audience Determine Technique!
P. A. T. Purpose
– Topic– Goals (Inform,persuade, entertain, record, cite,
respond, etc.)– Requirements (Schedule, materials, budget, tools,
delivery, etc.) Audience
– Who? Multiple audiences?– Expectations (Content, style, delivery, etc.)– Requirements
Technique
Document Design: Focus
“The Rule of Ones”
– One idea per sentence– One topic sentence per paragraph– One thesis/main point per document
Document Design: Format
Informative Intro of
problem Main point Details Summary
(restating main point)
Persuasive Intro of problem Main point Supports Summary Request for action
Instructional Intro of problem Steps in sequential order Sources of further help
Document Design: Flow Front load vs. back load Roadmap
– Statement of purpose– Overview of content
Signposts (Text)– Transitional phrases and words
Cues (Visual)– Visual elements guiding reader– Headings, highlighted text, dividers, white space
Chunking (Grouping related elements) Parallel form
Document Design: Graphics
Integrate graphics into text– See Tips for Using Visuals
Maintain a graphic theme Generally do not use clip art or
extraneous graphics for formal documents
Follow corporate/publication guidelines Adhere to copyright law
Document Design: Other Issues
Headings, spacing, pagination, type Titles, length, submission Documentation of sources
All of these are dependent upon the publisher and style guide
Formatting Text
10-12 point type (body text) Serif vs. San Serif Consistent type styles (“Magic 3”) Bold/italics to emphasize Avoid all capitals Ragged right – justified left margins Text boxes, large size, color for emphasis
Style: Business vs. Technical
Business Writing: Purposeful Persuasive Flexible Economical Reader-focused
Technical Writing: Purposeful Informative Structured Economical Product/process-
focused
Style: Business WritingStrategies: Gain attention early Clarify benefits to
readers Always include a
“request for action” Front load a positive
message Back load a negative
message
Use keywords Explain technical or
unfamiliar terms Prepare for multiple
audiences Avoid conversational
and narrative styles Consider multiple
modes of delivery
Style: Technical WritingStrategies: Design document to be
“used” rather than “read”
Provide for document navigation
Front load most technical documents
Use appropriate technical & industry terms including acronyms
Use technical graphics whenever possible
Create distinct document sections based on use
Provide necessary caution and warning messages
Prepare document for use within technical setting
Consider multiple modes of delivery
Style: Proper Citation Use the correct style
– (Academic/industry standard, in-house guide, editor/reader preference)
Document your sources in progress– Take notes with source info– Place citations/short-cuts in drafts
Proofread for citations– Citations matched with sources?– Correct style and punctuation?
Diction: Barriers to Meaning
Misused words– See Commonly Confused Words
Nonspecific nouns– Area, factor, issue, problem, thing
Slang, regional expressions, figures of speech, inappropriate jargon
Euphemisms, pretentious language– Adult language, collateral damage, disadvantaged,
economic downturn, pre-owned, rightsizing
Sexist language
Diction: Barriers to Tone Inappropriate level of formality
– Contractions and acronyms
– Slang, jargon, figures of speech
– Proper or strict language
– I’d like to get that info you’ve got posted on your web page. VS. I would like a copy of the information posted on your web site.
Improper connotation– Images and emotions associated with a word or phrase
– The details he gave were fictional. VS. The details he gave were not factual. VS. The details he gave were incorrect.
Figures of speech, clichés
Diction: Barriers to Emphasis Multiple terms for same subject
– First term has emphasis and sets tone– My client is innocent. I am confident that the jury
will find him not guilty due to insufficient evidence.
Active vs. passive voice– Focus on actor or result– The company laid off 300 workers. VS. Three
hundred workers were laid off by the company.
Front load vs. back load
Diction: Editing and Revising
Consider PAT Proof for meaning, tone and emphasis Default to direct meaning and formal
tone (unless writing personal narratives and correspondence)
Generally avoid jargon and slang Check a dictionary and/or thesaurus
Diction: Editing and Revising
Consider the following statements: Your client is responsible for the accident. Your client caused the accident. Your client is liable for the accident.
What is the meaning of each sentence?
What is the connotation for each sentence?
Where is the emphasis in each sentence?
Liability Issues: Risks “Technical” Liability
– Negligence– Breach of Warranty– “Strict Liability in Tort(e)”
Marketing Liability– “Uniform Commercial Code”– Expressed Warranty of Description
Other Areas of Liability– Privacy– Financial– Employment
Liability Issues: Protections Accuracy
– Check for clear interpretations and findings– Do not suppress knowledge or data– Do not exaggerate claims or data
Ownership– Confirm copyright, trademarks, etc.
Public Domain– Most documents by public officials are in public domain
(w/ legal/privacy exceptions)– Consider documents as “published”
Liability Issues: Avoiding Problems Be accurate (factual, precise) Know your audience
– Needs and expectations– Abilities (“reasonable person”)– Risk
Document your work– Sources/Citations– Paper trail– Data records– Copies of correspondence
Get approval of your work– “Sign off”– Feedback from peers– Practical test with target audience
Use waivers/consent forms
Memo and E-mail
Purpose– Written record (paper or electronic)– Information re: policies and procedures– Request for internal action– Documentation of decisions or actions– “Paper trail”
Memo and E-mail Audience
– Internal (usually)– Individual, departmental or company-wide– Knowledge of company organization, values,
policies, procedures, etc.– Familiar with jargon and acronyms– Attention to internal communications?
Note: E-mail is becoming more common for external communications
Technique: Memos & E-mail
Procedure and Information Messages
Request and Reply Messages
Confirmation (or Denial) Messages
Other?
Procedure/Information Message Routine messages “Downward” flow Informational in nature Goal of employee participation and cooperation Direct or indirect depending on nature of
message (good news, bad news, etc.)
Tip: Tone is important for success.
Request and Reply Messages
Request for information and action
– Persuasive in nature
– Direct or indirect depending on nature of request and source of request
Reply to previous communication
– Direct response to initiator
– Indirect response to wider audience
Confirmation Messages
“Incident” or “To File” reports
Documentation of decisions, directives, and discussions
Names and titles of people involved
Major issues described
Request for confirmation of receipt
Direct message
Technique: Strategies Headings: Date, To, From, Subject
Single topic
Conciseness
Conversational tone
“Cues” and “Signposts”
Technique: Strategies Direct vs. Indirect message
– Direct (“Front loaded”) message places main point early in the document
– Indirect (“Back loaded”) message places main point late in the document
– Use direct approach for “good” news or when acceptance is assured
– Use indirect approach for “bad” news or when persuasion is necessary
Techniques: Delivery Memos – Use standard in-house
delivery unless otherwise requested E-mail
– Use in-house standards (company vs. personal web-based e-mail, stationary, HTML vs. text only, etc.) within company
– Contact outside audiences for restrictions Avoid common e-mail mistakes
Common E-mail Mistakes Address errors Long messages or attachments Misleading or vague subject lines Inappropriate content Lack of discretion in responses Inappropriate copying and forwarding
Source: John Edwards, “The Six Most Common Mistakes in Sending E-mail”, Bottom Line Business, October 1997.
Letters Purpose
– Written record (Paper)– Formal information, persuasive or
responsive communication– Documentation with “wet” signature– “Official” communication with letterhead– Contractual agreement– “Paper trail”
Letters Audience
– External (usually)– May be unfamiliar with internal
organization, values, procedures, etc.– May be unfamiliar with jargon and
acronyms– May be inattentive to communication– Seeking formal or “official” message
Technique: Kinds of Letters Routine Letters
– Request for information and action– Direct reply
Good News – Approved request– Commendation/Recommendation
Bad News Letters– Denied request– Criticism/disciplinary action/termination
Persuasive Letters– Sales -Proposals
Technique: Strategies Single topic
Formal style and tone
“Official” letterhead and signature
“Cues” and “Signposts”
Request for action
Technique: Strategies
Direct vs. Indirect message– “Front load” Routine and Good News
Letters– “Back load” Bad News Letters– For Persuasive Letters, use the message
that best fits the audience
Tip: If cost is involved, you probably should “back load”.
Communicating Bad News
Goals– Make the audience understand and accept– Maintain positive image of organization – Make message clear so additional
communication is unnecessary– Avoid creating legal liability
Communicating Bad News Strategies
– Indirect message• Buffer with a neutral or positive opening• Give reasons or causes for bad news• Clearly state bad news, providing alternatives
or “next steps” if possible• Close with a personal, future-looking statement
Tip: Use subordinating or passive language (“Although your claim cannot be processed under current guidelines, we can provide a list of alternative ….”)
Communicating Bad News
Strategies– Avoiding Liability
• Do not use abusive language (defamation) or careless language implying liability
• Do not state or imply views that run contrary to your organization
• Do not admit or imply responsibility without checking with legal counsel
• Do not use “official” documents or equipment to communicate your personal views
Persuasive Writing
Strategies: Gain attention
– Review problem and state action taken– Stimulate a question and offer an answer– State a benefit to the audience
Build interest– Offer strong supports– Suggest direct and indirect benefits– Avoid emotionality
Persuasive Writing
Strategies: Reduce resistance
– Counter possible arguments
– Demonstrate credibility Motivate action
– Request specific action and repeat benefits Reinforce business relationship
Instructions Purpose
– Technical documentation of a specific task– Directive with sequential steps– “Used” during task
Audience– Varying technical abilities– “Users”, not readers– May need hazard statements
Technique: Document Types User Manual (Step-by-step for novice) Tutorial (Mini-lessons for novice) Reference Manual (Indexed for expert) Quick Reference Guide (Indexed for expert) Procedural Guide (Step-by-step for novice &
expert, Primarily to document) Policy Manual (Categorized for novice &
expert, Primarily to document) On-Line Documentation (Tree
structures/topics for novice & expert)
Technique: Basic Format
1. Introduction
2. Required materials/tools
3. Sequential steps
4. Additional resources
Technique: Strategies
Keep language simple and direct– 2nd person imperative– Appropriate technical language– Active voice– Avoid future tense– Industry standards (e.g. ANSI)
Technique: Strategies
List steps sequentially– Numbered lists for ordered tasks– Bulleted lists for unordered tasks– Vertical lists usually easier to read than
horizontal lists– Introduce steps or groups of steps (e.g. “To
install the software, follow these steps:”)
Technique: Strategies
Emphasize tasks over results (user’s actions before reactions)
Describe any necessary parts, tools or equipment BEFORE giving directions
Include visuals when appropriate (especially for “visual perceivers” and international readers)
Technique: Hazard Statements
Place warnings before and near the hazardous task listed
Highlight warning w/ appropriate visual techniques (symbols, colors, bold, etc.)
Keep hazard statements direct, clear and accurate
Follow expected/required guidelines
Reports
Purpose– Document primary or secondary research– Aid decisions, qualify sources and record
work or activities Audience
– Expects summaries, methods, findings– May expect recommendations– Data may be scrutinized– Multiple audiences?
Technique: Basic Format
Front Matter– Cover– Title page– Abstract– Table of contents– List of figures and tables– Executive summary
Technique: Basic Format (cont.)
Introduction– Definition & scope of problem– Background– Methodology– Report organization
Technique: Basic Format (cont.)
Body– Project details (Data, method review)– Conclusion (Analysis of findings)– Recommendations– Notes
Technique: Basic Format (cont.)
Back Matter– Appendices – Glossary– Bibliography/References/Works Cited– Resume/Vitae– Index
Technique: Strategies
Primary research– Clear description of methodology– Summary of data gathered (in body)– Access to full data (usually Appended)– Cross references to other research– Secondary sources used in Background to
add credibility
Technique: Strategies
Secondary research– Verify your sources with clear
documentation– Explain/describe sources as necessary– Use citation style as required or expected
Executive Summary Purpose
– Introduce document– Give synopsis of contents– Persuade reader of validity and importance
of document Audience
– Multiple audiences: technical and non-technical
– Expect summary of major points and findings
– May be read as “stand alone” document
Technique: Basic Format
Mini-document– Organize around major sections of full
document– Condense material into suitable length
“Brochure”– Highlight major sections most relevant to
non-technical audience– Categorize and order by importance to
audience
Technique: Strategies
Length: Usually 1 page, but could be longer (1/16th rule?)
Highlight major sections with headings, bulleted lists, graphics, page design (e.g. multi-column), etc.
Language: Use key words and concepts, Explain technical terms and acronyms
Do NOT “cut and paste” or “summarize by list”
ProofreadingPurpose: Locate and mark errors and needed changes in a document.
Proof at least twice– Content (purpose, meaning, accuracy, emphasis,
tone)– Mechanics (grammar, spelling, punctuation, style,
document design) Mark errors, don’t fix them Organize your approach to proofing
– Proof in “chunks”– Read silently and aloud– Checklist?
Proofreading Tips
Accept that most drafts are not perfect Plan/schedule for proofreading Proof electronically AND hard copy Proofread multiple times Read your document aloud Have someone else proofread Practice proofreading
AND …
Proofreading Tips (Cont.)
Organize your proofreading:– Proof in sections. Complete a section
before moving on.– Proof for revision first. Make revisions.
Then proof for editing.– Proof general to specific (Paragraph –
Sentence – Word – Punctuation)– Read backwards (especially for editing)
Proofreading for RevisionPurpose: Check content and order for clarification or restatement
Read for overview Determine purpose of the document Find the main point or thesis Find the evidence or details Check paragraph order and “weight” Proof paragraphs for relevance and flow Repeat as necessary
Proofreading for EditingPurpose: Find sentence-level problems and mechanical errors
Proofread again after revising content Check your problem areas first Find topic sentences before supports Ensure 1 topic sentence per paragraph Check spelling separate from grammar Use but don’t trust writing assistants
Proofreading for Grammar (Sentence Level)
When proofing and editing, focus on meaning and clarity Know your grammatical weaknesses, and check those first Read a sentence aloud to confirm “verbal grammar” Look for shifts in voice, person and tense Identify subject, predicate, clauses and phrases within a
sentence Quickly cover the basics:
– Complete sentences (and ideas)– Agreement between elements– Clear and appropriate modifying phrases– Correct punctuation
Use the writing assistants to find likely errors (but check again for yourself)
Keep a good grammar guide handy
Revising Strategies Focus
– Clarify introduction of main “thesis”– Check for competing ideas– Delete unnecessary text
Content– Emphasize main ideas– Add facts, details, examples, definitions– Rethink central argument/insight
Point of View– Maintain consistency– Change POV?
Revising Strategies (Cont.) Organization
– Add/sharpen topic sentences– Move blocks of text– Re-paragraph
Audience Appeal– Use appropriate tone/language– Let the readers know why they are reading– Motivate the readers to read on
The “Rule of Ones”
Editing Strategies: Movement
Check paragraphs– Topic sentence followed by support sentences– Transitional sentences/phrases
Arrange paragraphs appropriately– Time (chronological, narrative, process)– Space (descriptive, setting)– Dramatic (build to climax, back load)– Logic (argument, essay)
Link ideas
Editing Strategies: Linking Ideas Use key words
– Repetition– Variety
Maintain parallel structures– Similar info presented in similar ways– “Visual” balance
Check for consistent style– Between paragraphs/chapters/sections– Subject identity– Perspective
Editing Strategies: Transitions Use “roadmap” sentences/paragraphs Choose appropriate phrases
– Addition (and, also, further, in addition to, moreover, next, too)– Compare (also, in the same manner, in this way, like, likewise,
similarly)– Contrast (although, but, even though, however, in contrast,
nevertheless, still)– Summary (In conclusion, in other words, in short, therefore, to
sum up)– Relation [time, order, place] (after, as, during, finally, later,
when, first, second, next, last, above, beyond, farther on, near, opposite)
– Logic (as a result, consequently, if, since, so, therefore, thus)
Editing Strategies: Sentence Level
Correct grammar– Sentence fragments– Run-on sentence (fused, comma splice)– Subject-Verb agreement– Pronoun references and agreement– Misused modifiers– Active vs. passive voice
Correct spelling and punctuation
Also Consider …
Utilizing a peer review Testing documents on sample audiences Requesting feedback from target audience(s) Developing measurements of effectiveness Rotating assignments to assess strengths
and weaknesses of writing staff Group writing for projects