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Marketing Intelligence & PlanningA model of behavioral intention to buy domestic versus imported products in a Confucian cultureJae-Eun Chung Dawn Thorndike Pysarchik

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A model of behavioral intention to buy domesticversus imported products in a Confucian culture

Jae-Eun ChungPhD Candidate, International Center, Michigan State University, Ann Arbor,Michigan, USADawn Thorndike PysarchikAssociate Professor and Associate Dean, International Center, Michigan StateUniversity, East Lansing, Michigan, USA

Introduction

Koreans' consumption of imported products

has rapidly increased in various product

categories since the Korean market recently

opened its doors to international marketers

(Chun, 1992). For example, according to the

International Trade Administration (1995),

the imported-apparel market has increased

30 per cent annually over the past two to

three years, and this trend is expected to

continue and accelerate in the future. There

is a need, therefore, to identify the

underlying factors influencing Korean

consumers' decision making practices so that

international and domestic marketers will be

able to develop informed marketing

strategies.

To better understand the behavioral

intentions of Koreans, Lee (1990) proposed a

modification of Fishbein's behavioral

intention model. Because Korea is a country

that is strongly influenced by Confucian

values (Jacobs, 1986), Lee (1990) incorporated

two salient Confucian concepts face saving

and group conformity to Fishbein's

behavioral intention model. Both of these

concepts have been found to influence the

attitudes and behaviors of consumers in

Confucian cultures (Hofstede, 1980; Yau,

1986). The purpose of the current study,

therefore, is to examine predictors of Korean

consumers' behavioral intentions toward

imported versus domestic products using

Lee's (1990) modified behavioral intention

model.

Theoretical framework andliterature review

To identify the underlying mechanism

determining Korean consumers' choice of

imported or domestic products, Lee's (1990)

modified Fishbein behavioral intention

model was employed. For a better

understanding of Lee's model, Fishbein's

model is reviewed briefly.

Fishbein's behavioral intention modelAs described below, Fishbein proposed that

behavioral intention (BI) leads to behavior

(B), and that behavioral intention (BI) is

determined by the consumer's attitudes

toward purchasing or using a brand (Aact)

and by a normative value or subjective norm

(SN) (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975).

B BI Aactw1 SNw2

where,

Aact Xni1

BiEi and SN Xkj1

NBjMCj

The personal attitudes toward the behavior

refer to whether the person is in favor of or

against performing the behavior in question.

The subjective norm is the person's

perception of the social pressures for or

against performing the behavior. The w1 and

w2 components represent empirically

determined regression coefficients.

The attitudes toward purchasing or using a

brand are, in turn, a function of the cognitive

belief structure (Pn

i1 BiEi). The cognitivebelief structure is a belief-evaluation

composite where Bi is the belief that

performance of the behavior will lead to a

specific outcome, i, and Ei is the evaluation of

each consequence, and n is the number of

salient outcomes. The subjective norm (SN)

is represented as a function of a normative

structure (Pk

j1 NBjMCj), where NBj is theperceived expectation that referent j thinks

the individual should or should not perform

the behavior. MCj is the consumer's

motivation to comply with referent j, and k is

the number of salient referents. Support for

The research register for this journal is available at

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The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at

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[ 281 ]

Marketing Intelligence &Planning18/5 [2000] 281291

# MCB University Press[ISSN 0263-4503]

KeywordsConsumer behaviour,

National cultures, Country of origin,

Confucianism

AbstractThis study examines the

predictors of Korean consumers'

behavioral intention to buy

imported and domestic products,

based on Lee's revised Fishbein

model. The revised model

incorporated two salient

Confucian concepts face saving

and group conformity. There were

two phases to the study,

qualitative (focus group

interviews) and empirical

(experimental survey design).

From the focus group data,

parallel self-report mail survey

instruments were developed and

sent to Korean students studying

temporarily at a large midwestern

university in the USA. Instruments

were randomly assigned to

subjects using a between-subject

experimental design. Findings

indicate that there is a positive

relationship between Korean

consumers' attitudes toward a

product and their product

evaluation. Further, there is a

positive relationship between their

attitudes and their intention to buy

either domestic or imported

products. The components of

cultural pressure, face saving and

group conformity have a weaker

influence on attitudes than

product evaluation, and they are

significant predictors for domestic

products but not for imported

products. Finally, managerial

implications and marketing

strategies are discussed for

multinational and domestic

marketers.

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the Fishbein model has been extensive in the

consumer behavior literature (Farley et al.,

1981; Ryan and Bonfield, 1980; Sheppard et al.,

1988). Its strong predictive power for Western

consumers has been demonstrated with a

variety of consumer products, such as dress

(Miniard and Cohen, 1983), toothpaste (Ryan,

1982), dog food and beer (Miniard and Cohen,

1983), mineral water (Knox and Chernatony,

1989) and facial tissue (Mitchell and

Olson, 1981).

Lee and Green (1991) examined the cross-

cultural applicability of Fishbein's

behavioral intention model. Their study used

student samples in Korea and the USA to

investigate a sample product, sneakers. They

found that the Fishbein model could be

employed to explain consumers' behavioral

intention formation in a Confucian culture as

well as in the USA. However, they also found

that the two samples exhibited substantial

differences in the relative importance of

subjective norms and personal attitudes

derived from product beliefs and product

evaluation. Korean consumers were more

strongly influenced by subjective norms than

personal attitudes, while US consumers were

more strongly influenced by personal

attitudes than by subjective norms.

Modified Fishbein's behavioral intentionmodel for Confucian consumersConfucian cultures in Far Eastern countries

are significantly different from Western

culture in terms of collectivism and

individualism (Hofstede, 1980). In the

following section, two fundamental concepts

of Confucian culture will be described in

detail.

Face saving`` Face'' is a concept of central importance

among people in Confucian cultures, and it

has a pervasive influence on their

interpersonal relationships (Yau, 1986). The

Chinese concept of face has two dimensions,

lien and mien-tzu (Hu, 1944). Mien-tzu

represents `` the kind of prestige that is

emphasized in America: a reputation

achieved through getting on in life, through

success and ostentation'' (Hu, 1944, p. 45).

Lien, on the other hand, represents `` the

confidence of society in the integrity of the

ego's moral character, the loss of which

makes it impossible for her/him to function

properly within the community. Lien is `` both

a social sanction for enforcing moral

standards and an internalized sanction'' (Hu,

1944, p. 45). These two concepts of face have

interdependent meanings. If one loses face

(mien-tzu), then the confidence of society in

one's moral integrity (lien) is also lost.

Face is lost when conduct or performance

falls below the minimum level considered

acceptable or when some essential

requirements corresponding to one's social

position are not satisfactorily met (Ho, 1977).

Moreover, the possibility of losing face may

arise from how an individual is expected to

act or to be treated by other members in his

or her group. Thus, interpersonal behavior in

Confucian culture will be determined by its

effect on others and on the individual's

reputation, dignity and integrity. People in

this culture are always under strong

constraints to act to meet the expectations of

others so as to maintain face.

Group conformityIn a Confucian society, the dominant

collectivist orientation calls for a primacy of

the goals and welfare of the laterally

extended group (Kluckhohn and Strodbeck,

1961). The collectivist nature of Confucian

society is reflected in strong relationships

among family members and within kinship

systems. The maintenance of group

cohesiveness and integrity is especially acute

(Hofstede, 1980). Chinese and Koreans

sacrifice themselves for benefits that largely

accrue to a particular social unit or even to

the whole society. Thus, most Koreans feel

strong social pressure to comply with the

group norms regardless of their own private

views.

Lee's modification of Fishbein's behavioralintention modelSince the concept of subjective norms (SN) (a

Western concept) does not capture the

behavioral impetus, the social pressure, or

the nature of personal moral obligation

aroused by the face-saving pressure in a

Confucian culture, Lee (1990) substituted face

saving and group conformity for the

subjective norms in Fishbein's model.

Furthermore, Lee (1990) added a causal

relationship between the social-influence

factor and personal attitudes, while Fishbein

and Ajzen (1975) assumed that there was no

linkage between such attitudes and the

social-influence variables. Lee (1990) argued

that, considering the strong social pressures

on Korean consumers, it is likely that

individuals' attitudes will be heavily

influenced by face saving (FS) and group

conformity (GC) motivations as well as by

personal beliefs and evaluations. Thus, as

indicated in Figure 1, Lee assumed that

beliefs about behavioral consequences (B)

and evaluations (E) have multiplicative

effects on attitudes (Aact), which, in turn,

influence behavioral intention (BI). However,

face saving (FS) and group conformity (GC)

were substituted for the expectations of

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Jae-Eun Chung andDawn Thorndike PysarchikA model of behavioralintention to buy domesticversus imported products in aConfucian culture


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others (NB6MC) and subjective norms (SN).A causal path is also assumed between the

social pressure variables (FS and GC) and the

formation of personal attitudes (Aact).

Hypotheses

In order to identify the predictors of Korean

consumers' intentions to buy domestic and

imported products, hypotheses are

formulated in the present study from four

aspects of Lee's (1990) model:

1 the relationship between attitudes (Aact)

and behavioral intention (BI);

2 the relationship between cognitive belief

structure (BiEi) and attitudes;

3 the effect of face saving (FS) on attitudes

and behavioral intention; and

4 the effect of group conformity (GC) on

attitudes and behavioral intention.

Relationship between attitudes (Aact) andbehavioral intention (BI)The relationship between attitudes and

behavioral intention in Fishbein's (1975)

model is retained in Lee's model (1990),

which is adapted for consumers in Confucian

cultures. As mentioned above, many

researchers have confirmed the association

between attitudes and intention in the

Fishbein model (Knox and Chernatony, 1989;

Lee and Green, 1991; Mitchell and Olson,

1981; Netemeyer and Bearden, 1992; Sheppard

et al., 1988). This relationship was also found

to be significant among Korean consumers

(Lee and Green, 1991).

Although few researchers have attempted

to examine the relationship between

attitudes and behavioral intention in regard

to the choice of domestic or imported

products among Korean consumers, previous

research indicated a strong relationship

between attitudes and behavioral intention

across product categories and cultural

backgrounds, as previously noted. Thus, the

first hypothesis is proposed as follows:

H1: Among Korean consumers, there will be

a positive relationship between attitudes

(Aact) and behavioral intention (BI) in

the choice of both domestic and

imported products.

Relationship between cognitive beliefstructure (BiEi) and attitudesThe relationship between the cognitive belief

structure (BiEi) and attitudes in Fishbein's

(1975) model is also retained in Lee's (1990)

model adapted for consumers in Confucian

cultures. Various studies examining the

efficacy of Fishbein's model have confirmed

the relationship between the cognitive belief

structure and attitudes (Knox and

Chernatony, 1989; Lee and Green, 1991;

Mitchell and Olson, 1981; Netemeyer and

Bearden, 1992; Sheppard et al., 1988). Lee and

Green (1991) also found that cognitive

structure was a significant predictor of

attitudes for both US and Korean samples.

Although no study has specifically

investigated the relationship between

cognitive belief structure and attitudes in

determining the choice of domestic or

imported products among Korean

consumers, the following hypothesis is

proposed based on the findings of previous

research:

H2: Among Korean consumers, there will be

a positive relationship between

cognitive belief structure (BiEi) and

attitudes in the choice of domestic and

imported products.

The effect of face saving (FS) on attitudesand behavioral intentionLee (1990) proposed that face saving is a

predictor of attitudes and behavioral

intention among consumers in Confucian

cultures, but it is questionable whether face

saving has a significant effect on attitudes

and behavioral intention in the choice of

imported products. In other words, face

saving could be a significant predictor of

Korean consumers' attitudes and behavioral

intentions to buy domestic products but not

imported products. The rationale for this

statement is as follows.

Since Korea opened its market to foreign

marketers, `` The Buy Domestic Products''

Figure 1Lee's (1990) revised model for Confucian consumers based on Fishbein'sbehavioral intention model

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movement among Korean consumers has

been pervasive to protect domestic industry

(The Economist, 1995; Hoon, 1994; Kang, 1993).

Thus, Korean consumers' motivation not to

lose face (reputation) or not to feel ashamed

by purchasing an imported product (when

people who are important to them in their

group expect them to purchase it) is in

conflict with the social pressure to support

domestic industries. On the other hand,

Korean consumers' motivation to save face

by purchasing domestic products is

consistent with the social pressure to

demonstrate loyalty to Korean products.

Therefore, face saving will be a significant

predictor of attitudes and behavioral

intention to choose domestic products, but it

will not be a significant predictor to choose

imported products. Based on these

arguments, the following hypotheses are

proposed.

Among Korean consumers:

H3a:Face saving will have a positive

relationship with attitudes and with the

intention to buy domestic products.

H3b:Face saving will not be related to

attitudes and the intention to buy

imported products.

The effect of group conformity (GC) onattitudes and behavioral intentionLee (1990) also proposed that group

conformity is a predictor of attitudes and

behavioral intention. However, it is doubtful

whether group conformity is significantly

related to Korean consumers' attitudes and

behavioral intention in the case of imported

products because there is a prevalent social

pressure to `` buy Korean'' (The Economist,

1995; Hoon, 1994; Kang, 1993). That is, Korean

consumers' motivation to comply with people

around them or to fit in with other people by

purchasing imported products is not

congruent with the social pressure to `` buy

Korean.'' Thus, group conformity would not

influence their attitudes and intentions to

buy imported products.

On the other hand, Korean consumers'

motivation to conform to their group by

purchasing domestic products is consistent

with this social pressure. Thus, group

conformity would be a predictor of Korean

consumers' attitudes and intentions to buy

domestic products. Therefore, the following

hypotheses are suggested.

Among Korean consumers:

H4a:Group conformity will be positively

related to attitudes and to the intention

to buy domestic products.

H4b:Group conformity will not be related to

attitudes and to the intention to buy

imported products.

Research methods

Research design and data collectionThere were two phases to the study, the

qualitative phase and the quantitative phase.

In the qualitative phase, focus group

interviews were conducted with Korean

students and their spouses to explore the

conceptual meaning and cultural context of

the target concepts of the study (Confucian

values; ethnocentrism; and product beliefs,

evaluations, attitudes, and behavioral

intention). These concepts were examined in

a product-specific context. Additionally,

salient product attributes and brand names

were discussed, along with quality/image

views about country of origin (COO) and

country of manufacture (COM).

Information gathered from the qualitative

phase was incorporated into the development

of the quantitative survey instrument. The

resulting quantitative study was a cross-

sectional, exploratory study using an

experimental design. The design used a self-

report mail survey instrument to collect

consumer behavior data from Korean

students studying temporarily in the USA in

1994. A cover letter explaining the purpose of

the study; directions for completion of the

survey; and a self-addressed, stamped return

envelope were mailed with the

questionnaire. Although the letter and

questionnaire were addressed to the Korean

student, the letter explained that any Korean

living in the household over the age of 18

could respond to the questionnaire.

Therefore, some respondents could have been

students' spouses.

SampleKorean undergraduate and graduate students

(and their spouses) studying at a large

midwestern university in the USA were

sampled to test the proposed relationships.

Several factors support the use of a student

sample to conduct a study in which the

primary interest is to investigate the effects

of culture on selected consumer behavior

concepts. Korea, a Confucian culture, has

been found to hold very strong Confucian

values when compared to other Asian

(Confucian) cultures (Chang, 1998). Given the

strength of these values, it would seem

unlikely that living in the US temporarily

could broadly change these views.

Several studies have found that

psychological acculturation is a long process,

even for immigrants who have moved and

plan to live in another country/region for the

remainder of their lives. Studies from

various disciplines (including economics,

psychology and education) found that

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immigrants who lived in the USA for several

generations retained the values from their

original culture (Carroll et al., 1994; Wang

and Phinney, 1998; Youn et al., 1999).

Similarly, other acculturation studies that

investigated the adjustment of immigrants to

new environments found that it took a

significant amount of time even

generations for immigrants fully to

acculturate to the new environment (Yang,

1991; Chen, 1996; Park-Adams, 1997).

In the present study, to determine if the

Korean students' values had been changed

due to the number of years they had lived in

the US, statistical tests were run. Regression

analysis results indicated that there were no

significant relationships between the

cultural variables (two face saving items and

two group conformity items) and the number

of years living in the USA for any of the three

products. Therefore, it appears that living in

the USA temporarily has not significantly

changed the deeply held cultural views of

this sample.

Other researchers found similar results.

Berry (1990) found that refugees and

sojourners (such as Korean students who are

studying in the US but plan to return to their

home country) are more likely to retain their

original cultural values because they are not

in an assimilation mode. In fact, in their

study of various dimensions of Confucian

values, Ko and Gentry (1991) found that there

was no relationship between the years that

Korean students spent in the US and

maintenance of their Confucian values.

Additionally, Korean students at the

midwestern university where the study was

undertaken have strong ties among

themselves by actively engaging in their

student organization, the Korean students

Organization; attending campus-based

Korean community churches; and

celebrating Korean cultural and religious

holidays (e.g. Chu-Suk on August 15 and

Ku-Jeong on January 1 on the moon

calendar) and activities with fellow Koreans

students.

The Korean students were randomly

selected from the membership lists of a

number of Korean student organizations at

the midwestern university, and randomly

assigned using a random numbers table to

one of the two survey instruments (see

discussion below). To increase the response

rate, follow-up telephone calls were made to

those students who had not returned the

survey within two weeks of receiving it. Of

the 388 questionnaires sent to Korean

students, 93 were returned and usable,

yielding a 24.2 percent response rate.

InstrumentTo test the proposed relationships, the

instrument was developed in a hypothetical

shopping scenario format. The Korean

students were asked to imagine that he/she

was visiting different stores in Korea (not in

the US) to compare various brands, features

and prices for each of three products (TV,

VCR, sweater). Subjects were presented with

various information about each of the

products and then asked to respond to

questions about each of the products using a

self-report written survey instrument. The

three target products and brand names were

selected based upon the outcome of focus

group interviews, as previously discussed.

The products were selected due to their

familiarity to a broad cross section of

students, varying levels of student

involvement/interest and technological

development. In the focus group interviews,

discussion ensued about brand names,

country of origin (COO) and country of

manufacture (COM). Researchers were

cautioned that the brand names, COOs and

COMs used in the study must be recognizable

and realistic to Korean consumers. Thus, the

following three products and corresponding

brand names were selected: a Samsung VCR

(domestic brand), Sony TV (foreign brand),

Ralph Lauren Polo sweater (foreign brand).

Two parallel survey instruments were

developed which contained identical

hypothetical Korean market scenarios about

the three products; the only difference was a

manipulation of the country of manufacture

(COM) cue. Subjects were randomly assigned

to one of the two treatments. The two

instruments were developed as follows:

(1) Instrument 1:. Sony TV (Japanese) manufactured in

Malaysia;. Samsung VCR (Korean) manufactured

in Korea;. Ralph Lauren Polo sweater (American)

manufactured in the US.

(2) Instrument 2:. Sony TV (Japanese) manufactured in

Japan;. Samsung VCR (Korean) manufactured

in China;. Ralph Lauren Polo sweater (American)

manufactured in Mexico.

Owing to the focus of this article, however,

the COM manipulation was not a variable of

interest. Therefore, only the data for each of

the three products with matching brand COO

and COM were analyzed. That is, the Sony

TV (Japanese) manufactured in Japan, the

Samsung VCR (Korean) manufactured in

Korea, and the Ralph Lauren Polo sweater

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(American) manufactured in the USA. No

special attention was given to the COM; it

was simply listed as one of several product

attributes (in random presentation). Once

developed, the instrument was pretested with

Korean students. Revisions were made to

improve question clarity, comprehension

and readability.

All of the measures used in this study,

including the measures of group conformity

pressure and face-saving pressure (Lee, 1990);

and the measures of beliefs, evaluations,

attitudes, and behavioral intention (Fishbein

and Ajzen, 1975) were previously established.

Beliefs (B). The respondents were asked to

evaluate salient attributes (listed below) for

each product (TV, VCR, and sweater).

Subjects answered the following question:

`` How likely is it that this (brand X product X)

(Sony TV/Samsung VCR/Polo sweater)

described above has the following

characteristics . . .'', measured on a five-point

Likert-type scale (`` 1 = very unlikely to 5 =

very likely'').

(1) Sony TV:. a sharp (clear) picture;. hi-fi stereo sound system;. prestigious brand name;. expensive;. easily accessible authorized service

centers;. manufactured with the latest

technology.

(2) Samsung VCR:. digital auto tracking;. simple programming;. prestigious brand name;. expensive;. easily accessible authorized service

center;. manufactured with the latest

technology.

(3) Ralph Lauren Polo Sweater:. fashionable;. easy care;. comfort;. prestigious brand name;. expensive;. manufactured with the latest

technology.

Evaluations (E). Prior to exposure to the

hypothetical buying scenarios, subjects'

product evaluations were measured by

asking respondents about the general

importance of selected attributes when they

shopped for each of the target products.

Subjects were asked: `` When purchasing any

(product X) (TV, VCR, sweater), how

important are each of the following

features. . .'' (subjects were provided with the

same product-specific lists as in the belief

section). The question was also measured on

a five-point Likert-type scale (`` 1 = not at all

important to 5 = very important'').

Attitudes toward the act (Aact).

Respondents were asked to rate two items on

a five-point Likert-type scale (`` 1 = highly

disagree to 5 = highly agree''). The statement

used for the first measure was `` After seeing

the product described above, my general

impression of (brand X product X) would be

good.'' The statement used for the second

measure was `` I believe that it would be wise

for me to buy the (brand X product X).''

Behavioral intention (BI). Behavioral

intention was measured by asking

respondents to answer the following

question, `` It is likely that I would buy the

(product X) described above,'' on a five-point

Likert-type scale (`` 1 = highly disagree to 5 =

highly agree'').

Face-saving pressure (FS). Respondents

were asked two questions to rate the pressure

they felt about losing face by buying brand X

product, using a 5-point (`` 1 = highly disagree

to 5 = highly agree'') semantic-differential

scale. The first measure used the following

statement: `` My decision to buy the (brand X

product X) described above would be

influenced by whether owning it would hurt

my reputation with the people who are

important to me.'' The statement for the

second measure was `` My decision to buy the

(brand X product X) would be influenced by

whether I feel ashamed when people who are

important to me see me owning this

product.''

Group conformity pressure (GC).

Respondents' perceived pressure to conform

to a group norm was measured via two items

on the same five-point scale used for

measuring face-saving pressure. The first

measure had the following statement: `` I feel

that most people around me expect me to

comply with their decision to buy the (brand

X product X).'' The statement used for the

second measure was `` The decision to buy the

(brand X product X) described above would

be influenced by whether owning it would

make me fit in with other people.''

Cognitive belief structure. This measure

was obtained by the formulaPn

i1 BiEi, whereBi is the belief that the target product will

have a specific attribute, i, Ei is the

evaluation of the importance for each

attribute, and n is the number of salient

attributes.

Data analysisData analysis of the self-report instrument

was conducted using the Statistical Package

of the Social Science (SPSS). To test the

proposed relationships, LISREL VII was

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employed. The averages of attitudes, group

conformity and face saving variables (two

items for each construct) were used in

LISREL.

Results

Sample characteristicsAs shown in Table I, the profile of the sample

reveals that the age of the respondents

ranged from 19 to 40 (mean age was 29).

Females constituted about 39 per cent of the

sample, about 54 per cent were married, and

the average number of years the respondents

had studied (lived) in the US was 4.84. Income

levels were reasonably balanced but

positively skewed.

Scale reliabilitiesThe reliabilities of the scales used to measure

the constructs in the model were examined.

The coefficient alpha for each scale was

calculated for each of the three products,

Samsung VCR, Sony TV, and Polo sweater.

Since beliefs, evaluations, and behavioral

intentions were measured with a single

measure, coefficient alpha was not calculated

for those variables. The reliabilities of face

saving and group conformity for all three

products were 0.73 and above, indicating an

acceptable internal consistency (Table II).

The reliabilities of the attitude measures for

all of the three products were between 0.65

and 0.67.

Predictors of Korean consumers'behavioral intention toward domesticversus imported productsThe results of LISREL VII analysis are

represented in Table III. Chi-square

statistics, goodness of fit indices (GFI), and

root mean square residuals (RMSR) indicate

the model's goodness of fit for the data.

Chi-square statistics for each of the three

products (Samsung VCR, Sony TV, and Polo

sweater) show that Lee's (1990) model for the

Polo sweater is the only one significant at p behavioral intention 0.674* 0.954* 0.741*Belief*evaluation > attitudes 0.898* 0.532* 0.445*Face saving > attitudes 0.266* 0.165 0.149Face saving > behavioral intention 0.257* 0.016 0.157Group conformity > attitudes 0.358* 0.047 0.056Group conformity > behavioral intention 0.161 0.204 0.309Chi square 1.90(1df) 1.36(1df) 4.16(1df)*P-value 0.168 0.244 0.041GFI 0.981 0.989 0.960AGFI 0.720 0.841 0.403RMSR 0.012 0.016 0.026

Notes: GFI = Goodness of Fit Index; AGFI = Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index; RMSR =Root Mean Square Residual; *Significant at p < 0.05, one-tailed test

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words, Korean consumers who felt less group

conformity had more positive attitudes

toward buying a Samsung VCR.

While these findings were unexpected,

studies in other disciplines have found

similar results. In studies of group decision-

making behavior in management (Chung and

Adams, 1997), self-perception in advertising

(Wilcox et al., 1996), and gender perception in

social psychology (Kashima et al., 1995),

researchers found that Hofstede's cultural

distinction of individualism/collectivism has

become blurred[2]. Especially in the study of

Wilcox et al. (1996), there was no significant

difference between US and Korean students

in the degree of individualism/collectivism.

Therefore, these studies may have detected

the changing nature of Korean consumers'

cultural values in their buying behavior.

That is, due to Korea's rapid economic

development, urbanization, and the infusion

of Western culture in today's globalized

world (Golden, 1988; Wilcox et al., 1996),

perhaps Korean consumers have become

more individualistic in their life styles.

It may be, however, that younger

populations worldwide have been more

impacted by Western cultural views through

increased exposure to advanced

communication technologies (e.g. Internet)

and various media (movies, songs, etc.).

Since the current study analyzed only the

views of college-age Koreans, it may be that

these results reflect a pervasive

Westernization trend among younger

populations globally (Czinkota et al., 1995).

Although the influence of the group

conformity (Confucian) value was

diminished in the current study, face saving,

another Confucian value was still powerful.

Specifically, this study found that face saving

was a significant predictor of Korean

students' attitudes and behavioral intentions

for the domestic product, Samsung VCR, but

not for the imported products (Sony TV and

Polo sweater). Thus, as proposed in the study,

face saving influences Korean consumers to

purchase domestic products due to the social

pressure to `` buy Korean''. Similarly, when

Koreans purchase imported products, face

saving has little effect. The amount of

influence of face saving on attitudes for

Samsung VCR, however, was quite small in

comparison with that of cognitive belief

structure (0.898 for cognitive belief structure

and 0.266 for face saving). Therefore, this

finding may reflect the stronger influence of

certain Confucian values within the dynamic

global changes occurring in Korean market

environments.

Conclusions and limitations

This study has examined the underlying

structure of Korean consumers' behavioral

intention to buy imported and domestic

products, based on Lee's (1990) revised

Fishbein model. In general, Lee's (1990)

model has an acceptable goodness of fit for

Korean consumers' behavioral intention to

buy domestic and imported products.

Specifically, Korean consumers who hold

positive attitudes toward either a domestic or

imported product have a greater intention to

buy the products. Similarly, Korean

consumers who evaluate a product more

positively also have more positive attitudes

toward the product. The components of social

(cultural) pressure, face saving and group

conformity, have a weaker influence on

attitudes than cognitive belief structure and

the significance of the effects varies

depending upon the country of origin

(domestic versus imported products).

Overall, face saving and group conformity

were found to be significant predictors for

domestic products, but not of imported

products.

There are several limitations in this study.

First, Korean students studying in the United

States were used as the sample, and only two

imported products (the Sony TV and the Polo

sweater) and one domestic product (the

Samsung VCR) were used as target products.

Different results may have been found if a

broader population base in Korea and other

products had been studied. A larger sample,

no doubt, also would have improved the

explanatory power of Lee's (1990) model.

Thus, caution should be exercised about the

generalization of the findings.

Implications and recommendations

Although this study is exploratory, the

findings may reveal new trends in Korea that

have implications for the domestic and

multinational electronics and apparel

industries, which are targeting young adult

consumers (20s and 30s). Korean consumers'

cognitive belief structures were strongly

related to their attitude formation, which

includes such cues as product quality,

service, or price. Thus, domestic marketing

managers in these industries should stress

the utilitarian aspects of products in

advertisements in order to appeal to these

market segments. Furthermore, since

consumers with positive attitudes toward

domestic products were also more influenced

by face saving, marketing managers in

Korean consumer products companies

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should focus their message on the

importance of `` buying Korean''.

For the imported products, neither face

saving nor group conformity was a

significant predictor of Korean consumers'

attitude formation. Thus, multinational

marketers may not wish to center their

promotional messages on such ethnocentric

characteristics but rather emphasize the

utilitarian aspects of products, such as

product quality.

The present study revealed that the

Confucian value of face saving still

influences Korean consumer behavior, but

group conformity might no longer be a strong

influencer. Such an interesting finding

requires more extensive research by

employing a larger and broader Korean

sample and different product categories,

since the effects could be product specific

(Assael, 1992; Mowen, 1990). Further study

should verify broader changes in Confucian

values and whether face saving and group

conformity still influence Korean consumers'

buying behaviors.

Each of the products studied was presented

in the context of a single well-known (global)

brand name. Future studies should

manipulate the brand names associated with

the products to determine the extent to which

brand influences consumers' beliefs about

products. Similarly, it also may be

instructive to study the moderating effect of

the perceived brand familiarity and image in

the relationship between attitudes and

behavioral intention.

Lastly, in this study, social pressure to

`` buy Korean'' was employed as an

explanatory variable in determining the role

of face saving and group conformity on

attitudes and behavioral intentions to buy

domestic and imported products. However,

this social pressure can be measured by the

concept of ethnocentrism of consumers.

Therefore, further study should examine the

moderating role of ethnocentrism on

consumers' purchasing behavior of domestic

and imported products.

Notes1 Lee (1990) substituted face saving and group

conformity for subjective norms as equivalent

cultural values between Western and

Confucian cultures.

2 Because no relationship was found between

the numbers of years the Korean students

lived (studied) in the US and the magnitudes of

face saving and group conformity, it would

appear this finding is not due to US

acculturation of the Korean students, as

previously noted.

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