Adoption Trends for Chromium Browsers | Akamai...adoption trends for chromium browsers
Chromium drugdesk
36
CHROMIUM POISINDEX ® Managements OVERVIEW LIFE SUPPORT A) This overview assumes that basic life support measures have been instituted. CLINICAL EFFECTS 0.2.1) SUMMARY OF EXPOSURE A) Chromium metal is considered to be relatively nontoxic. Also, there is little evidence of substantial toxicity from chromic (chromium III) or chromous (chromium II) salts, probably because of poor penetration of skin and mucous membranes. Chromium is an essential nutrient that is necessary for normal glucose tolerance. 0.2.4) HEENT A) Chromium particles can cause eye irritation. 0.2.6) RESPIRATORY A) Pulmonary fibrosis and bronchial asthma may occur. 0.2.14) DERMATOLOGIC A) Non-healing dermatitis and cutaneous granuloma have occurred in patients treated with orthopedic internal fixation devices, containing chromium and other metals. 0.2.19) IMMUNOLOGIC A) No evidence for an association between the use of chromium in dental materials and chromate allergy has been found. 0.2.20) REPRODUCTIVE A) At the time of this review, no data were available to assess the potential effects of exposure to this agent during pregnancy or lactation. 0.2.21) CARCINOGENICITY A) ACGIH has has classified metallic chromium as A4 (not classifiable as a human carcinogen). B) There is no evidence that exposure to trivalent chromium salts causes cancer in man. Soluble hexavalent chromates are considered human carcinogens, and insoluble chromates such as stainless steel welding fumes have been linked with increased risk for human lung cancer. LABORATORY/MONITORING
description
Transcript of Chromium drugdesk
CHROMIUM
POISINDEX® Managements
OVERVIEW
LIFE SUPPORT
A) This overview assumes that basic life support measures have been instituted.
CLINICAL EFFECTS
0.2.1) SUMMARY OF EXPOSURE A) Chromium metal is considered to be relatively nontoxic. Also, there is little evidence of substantial toxicity from chromic (chromium III) or chromous (chromium II) salts, probably because of poor penetration of skin and mucous membranes. Chromium is an essential nutrient that is necessary for normal glucose tolerance. 0.2.4) HEENT A) Chromium particles can cause eye irritation. 0.2.6) RESPIRATORY A) Pulmonary fibrosis and bronchial asthma may occur. 0.2.14) DERMATOLOGIC A) Non-healing dermatitis and cutaneous granuloma have occurred in patients treated with orthopedic internal fixation devices, containing chromium and other metals. 0.2.19) IMMUNOLOGIC A) No evidence for an association between the use of chromium in dental materials and chromate allergy has been found. 0.2.20) REPRODUCTIVE A) At the time of this review, no data were available to assess the potential effects of exposure to this agent during pregnancy or lactation. 0.2.21) CARCINOGENICITY A) ACGIH has has classified metallic chromium as A4 (not classifiable as a human carcinogen). B) There is no evidence that exposure to trivalent chromium salts causes cancer in man. Soluble hexavalent chromates are considered human carcinogens, and insoluble chromates such as stainless steel welding fumes have been linked with increased risk for human lung cancer.
LABORATORY/MONITORING
A) A number of chemicals produce abnormalities of the hematopoietic system, liver, and kidneys. Monitoring complete blood count, urinalysis, and liver and kidney function tests is suggested for patients with significant exposure.
TREATMENT OVERVIEW
0.4.5) DERMAL EXPOSURE A) OVERVIEW 1) Treatment is symptomatic and supportive.
RANGE OF TOXICITY
A) The minimum lethal human dose to this agent has not been delineated. Alloy steel plant workers exposed to 0.61 mg Cr (0)/ m(3) for an average of 7 years were found to have normal levels of urinary proteins and enzymes.
SUBSTANCES INCLUDED/SYNONYMS
THERAPEUTIC/TOXIC CLASS
A) Chromium is a metallic transition element found in nature as chromite. Chromite ore is reduced with aluminum, carbon, or silicon and then purified to make chromium metal.
SPECIFIC SUBSTANCES
A) No Synonyms were found in group or single elements 1.2.1) MOLECULAR FORMULA 1) Cr (Element)
AVAILABLE FORMS/SOURCES
A) FORMS 1) Chromium is a lustrous, steel-gray metal (Budavari, 2000; Sittig, 1991). 2) Chromium metal is brittle, hard, lustrous, and odorless. It is blue-white to steel gray in color (Ashford, 1994; NIOSH , 2002). 3) Chromium metal is difficult to work with. At low temperatures it is brittle. Using it in casts requires melting which requires very high temperatures (Bingham et al, 2001). 4) Chromium is a brittle, hard, semigray metal. Its name was derived from the Greek word for color (Lewis, 1997). 5) Metallic chromium can be purchased as granules, lumps, and powder. Chromium powder and crystals can be as high as 99.97% pure (Lewis, 1997). 6) Aluminothermic, ductile, and electrolytic chromium are available in the
United States (HSDB , 2002). 7) Chromium metals and alloys, including chromium metal, stainless steels, and other chromium-containing alloys, generally have a low order of toxicity compared to other valence forms (ACGIH, 1991). Chromium has 4 common isotopes: Cr(50), Cr(52), Cr(53), and Cr(54) (Kirk-Othmer, 1992). B) SOURCES 1) Elemental chromium does not occur naturally (ATSDR, 1993). 2) Chromite ore is reduced with aluminum, carbon, or silicon and then purified to make chromium metal. However, chromite ore is no longer mined in the United States. It is imported from South Africa, Turkey, and Zimbabwe (ATSDR, 1993). 3) Chromium exists naturally in the atmosphere as a result of continental dust flux, and volcanic dust and gas flux (ATSDR, 1993). 4) Man releases chromium into the atmosphere by burning natural gas, coal, oil, municipal wastes, and sewage sludge. Fugitive emissions from road dusts, wear and tear of asbestos brake linings, and vehicle catalytic converters are additional sources of atmospheric chromium (ATSDR, 1993). 5) Chromium is a metallic transition element found in nature as chromite (Lewis, 1998). 6) Chromium metal is made using a reduction process involving aluminum and chromium oxides. The Symplex process, involving chromium oxide and metallurgical coke may also be used. A third process, called the Elkem process, uses ferrochrome, sulfuric acid, and ammonium sulfate (Ashford, 1994). 7) Metallic chromium has been detected in cigarette smoke. The amount of chromium found depends on the soil conditions where the tobacco was grown and proximity of tobacco farms to refineries (Clayton & Clayton, 1993). 8) Chromium metal does not occur naturally. However, it can be derived from chromite, a chromium ore. In the Earth's crust the chromium concentration is 0.1 to 0.3 ppm (Bingham et al, 2001). 9) Chromium's abundance in the earth's crust ranges from 100 to 300 ppm (Budavari, 1996). 10) Chromium is typically found in concentrations of 5.0 to 3000 ppm in native soil. Its lowest native soil concentration is approximately 0.5 ppm and its highest is 10,000 ppm (Dragun, 1988). 11) Groundwater typically contains less than 1.0 to 5.0 ppm of chromium (Dragun, 1988). 12) Elemental chromium is not found naturally. It can be derived from spinel ore, chromite, or ferrous chromite, all of which are widely distributed across the earth's surface (ILO, 1998). 13) Chromium metal can be made from chromium oxide (ILO, 1998). 14) Chromium metal can be made by reducing chromite directly, by using finely divided aluminum or carbon to reduce chromium oxide, and by electrolysis of chromium solutions (Lewis, 1997). C) USES 1) Chromium is used to make stainless steel, alloy cast iron, nonferrous alloys, among other miscellaneous materials. It is also used in heat resistant
bricks that line high temperature industrial furnaces (Budavari, 2000) 2) Pure chromium is used mainly in equipment electroplating processes, including manufacture of automobile parts and electric equipment. It may also be combined with cobalt, copper, iron, nickel, niobium, titanium, and other metals to make alloys (ILO, 1998). 3) Pure chromium metal is used in creep resistant, high temperature alloys. It is also used as a refractory oxide, and in magnetite and magnetite-chromate refractory compositions (ILO, 1998). 4) Electroplating metals with chromium adds hardness and corrosion resistance (Lewis, 1998). 5) Chromium metal is used to increase the durability and corrosion resistance of metals. It is also used for chrome plating (Sittig, 1991). 6) Chromium metal is used to make alloys, such as cobalt-chromium stellite, cobalt-chromium tungsten, and nickel chromium. In turn, these are used to make extrusion dies, turbine blades, valve seats, cemented carbide cutting tools, jet engine parts, and electrical heating elements (Ashford, 1994). 7) Chromium is used in nuclear and high-temperature research (Lewis, 1997). 8) Chromium is used widely in chrome-steel, chrome-nickel-steel (stainless steel), cobalt-chromium stellite, and cobalt-chromium-tungsten alloys, and in chrome plating for greatly increasing the corrosion resistance and durability of metals. It is also used over plastic substrates and automotive accessories as a protective corrosion-resistant coating (Budavari, 2000; Ashford, 1994; Lewis, 1993). 9) Metal surface treatments and corrosion controls account for 25 percent of its use (Zenz, 1994). 10) It is used in the leather tanning and textile industries, in refractory products, in photographic fixing baths, in industrial water treatment systems, in catalysts for halogenation, alkylation, and catalytic cracking of hydrocarbons, in fuel and propellant additives, in ceramics, in toners for copiers, in magnetic tapes, and as a chemical intermediate (Bingham et al, 2001; Hathaway et al, 1996; HSDB , 2002).
CLINICAL EFFECTS
SUMMARY OF EXPOSURE
A) Chromium metal is considered to be relatively nontoxic. Also, there is little evidence of substantial toxicity from chromic (chromium III) or chromous (chromium II) salts, probably because of poor penetration of skin and mucous membranes. Chromium is an essential nutrient that is necessary for normal glucose tolerance.
HEENT
3.4.1) SUMMARY A) Chromium particles can cause eye irritation. 3.4.3) EYES
A) Chromium particles can cause eye irritation (Sittig, 1991).
RESPIRATORY
3.6.1) SUMMARY A) Pulmonary fibrosis and bronchial asthma may occur. 3.6.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS A) FIBROSIS OF LUNG 1) PNEUMOCONIOSIS - Spotty, moderately severe non-nodular pneumoconiosis has been described (Taylor & Davies, 1977). 2) Inhalation has an irritant effect in the lower respiratory tract and may result in pulmonary fibrosis and emphysema (Dingle, 1992).
DERMATOLOGIC
3.14.1) SUMMARY A) Non-healing dermatitis and cutaneous granuloma have occurred in patients treated with orthopedic internal fixation devices, containing chromium and other metals. 3.14.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS A) IMMUNE HYPERSENSITIVITY REACTION 1) Non-healing dermatitis and cutaneous granuloma have occurred in patients treated with orthopedic internal fixation devices, containing chromium and other metals. These lesions resolved only after removal of the prostheses (Macias & Palacios, 1986; Rostoker et al, 1987; Thomas et al, 1987). B) CHEMICAL BURN 1) Systemic symptoms and death have occurred after external burns, with a delay of onset of GI symptoms of hours or days. Burns initially resemble first and second degree burns, but extend to subcutaneous tissue within a couple of days (Kelly et al, 1982; Schiffl et al, 1982).
MUSCULOSKELETAL
3.15.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS A) INCREASED MUSCLE TONE 1) Muscle cramps may be noted (Wang et al, 1985).
IMMUNOLOGIC
3.19.1) SUMMARY A) No evidence for an association between the use of chromium in dental materials and chromate allergy has been found. 3.19.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS A) IMMUNE SYSTEM FINDING 1) LACK OF EFFECT a) DENTAL MATERIALS - No evidence for an association between the use of chromium in dental materials and chromate allergy has been found (Yontchev et al, 1986; Burrows, 1986).
REPRODUCTIVE
3.20.1) SUMMARY A) At the time of this review, no data were available to assess the potential effects of exposure to this agent during pregnancy or lactation. 3.20.2) TERATOGENICITY A) ANIMAL STUDIES 1) Injected chromium trioxide caused birth defects and resorptions in hamsters (Gale, 1974; Gale & Bunch, 1979). Chromium chloride and trioxide were teratogenic in mice (Iijima, 1975; Iijima, 1979). Sodium dichromate was mildly teratogenic in chickens (Ridgway & Karnofsky, 1952). 3.20.3) EFFECTS IN PREGNANCY A) ANIMAL STUDIES 1) Transplacental transfer of chromium chloride has been shown in mice (Friberg et al, 1986), and chromium levels in the human fetus are ten times those found in adults (HSDB , 2002). The embryonic and fetal uptake of chromate was ten times greater than that of trivalent chromium in rats (Friberg et al, 1986).
CARCINOGENICITY
3.21.1) IARC CATEGORY A) IARC Carcinogenicity Ratings for CAS7440-47-3 (IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2006; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2007; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010a; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2008; IARC, 2004):
1) IARC Classification a) Listed as: Chromium, metallic b) Carcinogen Rating: 3 1) The agent (mixture or exposure circumstance) is not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans. This category is used most commonly for agents, mixtures and exposure circumstances for which the evidence of carcinogenicity is inadequate in humans and inadequate or limited in experimental animals. Exceptionally, agents (mixtures) for which the evidence of carcinogenicity is inadequate in humans but sufficient in experimental animals may be placed in this category when there is strong evidence that the mechanism of carcinogenicity in experimental animals does not operate in humans. Agents, mixtures and exposure circumstances that do not fall into any other group are also placed in this category. 2) IARC Classification a) Listed as: Chromium VI compounds b) Carcinogen Rating: 1 1) The agent (mixture) is carcinogenic to humans. The exposure circumstance entails exposures that are carcinogenic to humans. This category is used when there is sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in humans. Exceptionally, an agent (mixture) may be placed in this category when evidence of carcinogenicity in humans is less than sufficient but there is sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals and strong evidence in exposed humans that the agent (mixture) acts through a relevant mechanism of carcinogenicity. 3.21.2) SUMMARY/HUMAN A) ACGIH has has classified metallic chromium as A4 (not classifiable as a human carcinogen). B) There is no evidence that exposure to trivalent chromium salts causes cancer in man. Soluble hexavalent chromates are considered human carcinogens, and insoluble chromates such as stainless steel welding fumes have been linked with increased risk for human lung cancer. 3.21.3) HUMAN STUDIES A) LUNG CANCER 1) Increased incidence of LUNG CANCER among workers in the manufacture of chrome pigments has been reported in Germany, Norway, Canada, and the United States (ACGIH, 1996a; (HSDB , 2002). Exposures were generally mixed, involving both trivalent and hexavalent chromium compounds. Relative risk for lung cancer has been in the range of 3- to 50-fold, with a latent period of as much as 36 years (Clayton & Clayton, 1994). An increased incidence of lung cancer was reported in a study of workers exposed to chromium while working in the ferrochromium industry in Slovakia. No significant effect from smoking was found in this study (Halasova et al, 2005).
2) In a retrospective mortality study of employees at the largest chromate manufacturing site in the USA, a subgroup with previous high-level exposure at another older site had an elevated risk of cancer (odds ratio = 1.22 for each 3 years of high-level exposure). Employees who had worked exclusively at the newer facility did not have an increased incidence of cancer deaths (Pastides et al, 1994). 3) Risk of lung cancer mortality for former chromate production workers was elevated, and increased with increasing duration of employment and latency since first employment. The risk was still elevated more than 20 years after last exposure. Cancer deaths of the nasal cavity/sinus were also increased. This study did not have information on smoking habits, but absence of other smoking-related diseases points to a lack of smoking effect (Rosenman & Stanbury, 1996). B) ORAL CANCER 1) Exposure to hexavalent chromium compounds may be a risk factor for squamous cell cancer of the tongue (Tisch & Maier, 1996). C) LYMPHOMA 1) Two cases of Hodgkin's disease were found in a small population with high environmental exposure to chromium, making an observed risk of 65 to 92 times that for non-exposed populations. This may be a chance occurrence, but is worthy of further investigation (Bick et al, 1996). D) CARCINOMA 1) The solubility of chromium compounds has some influence on carcinogenicity (Lee & Goh, 1988; Levy et al, 1987) Petrille & de Flora, 1987; US Dept of Health Education & Welfare, 1975).
GENOTOXICITY
A) Trivalent chromium compounds have generally not been genotoxic unless purified DNA is exposed directly to the test substance. Hexavalent chromium compounds have been mutagenic in bacteria, have caused chromosome aberrations in mammalian cells, and have been associated with increased frequencies of chromosome aberrations in lymphocytes from chromate production workers.
LABORATORY/MONITORING
MONITORING PARAMETERS/LEVELS
4.1.1) SUMMARY A) A number of chemicals produce abnormalities of the hematopoietic system, liver, and kidneys. Monitoring complete blood count, urinalysis, and liver and kidney function tests is suggested for patients with significant exposure.
TREATMENT
LIFE SUPPORT
A) Support respiratory and cardiovascular function.
MONITORING
A) A number of chemicals produce abnormalities of the hematopoietic system, liver, and kidneys. Monitoring complete blood count, urinalysis, and liver and kidney function tests is suggested for patients with significant exposure.
ORAL EXPOSURE
6.5.1) PREVENTION OF ABSORPTION/PREHOSPITAL A) EMESIS/NOT RECOMMENDED - 1) DO NOT INDUCE VOMITING - Spontaneous emesis and caustic burns may occur if a toxic dose has been ingested. B) DILUTION - 1) DILUTION: Immediately dilute with 4 to 8 ounces (120 to 240 milliliters) of water or milk (not to exceed 4 ounces or 120 milliliters in a child). 2) The patient should take nothing by mouth following initial dilution until medical/surgical evaluation is complete. C) ACTIVATED CHARCOAL - 1) Activated charcoal has not been evaluated in chromate poisoning. Activated charcoal may induce vomiting and obscure endoscopy findings; it is not recommended.
DERMAL EXPOSURE
6.9.2) TREATMENT A) SUPPORT 1) Treatment is symptomatic and supportive.
RANGE OF TOXICITY
SUMMARY
A) The minimum lethal human dose to this agent has not been delineated. Alloy steel plant workers exposed to 0.61 mg Cr (0)/ m(3) for an average of 7 years were found to have normal levels of urinary proteins and enzymes.
THERAPEUTIC DOSE
7.2.1) ADULT A) GENERAL/SUMMARY 1) Although the role of chromium as an essential nutrient in humans is not fully delineated, the estimated requirement for chromium in humans is about 1 microgram/day (Clinical Nutrition Cases, 1988). 2) Chromium is important in glucose and lipid metabolism, and chromium deficiency may be one factor associated with the development of atherosclerosis (Schroeder et al, 1970).
MAXIMUM TOLERATED EXPOSURE
A) GENERAL/SUMMARY 1) Alloy steel plant workers exposed to 0.61 mg Cr (0)/ m(3) for an average of 7 years were found to have normal levels of urinary proteins and enzymes (ATSDR, 1993). 2) Chromium metal does not cause allergic contact dermatitis, chrome ulcers, or nasal septal perforation (Hathaway et al, 1996). 3) Metallic chromium has low toxicity. A nodular type of pulmonary disease occurred in workers exposed to an airborne concentration of 0.26 mg/m(3) of chromium from ferrochrome alloys, but the effects could not be attributed to chromium exposure alone (Hathaway et al, 1996). 4) Levels of 12 different chromium aerosols from 1.5 to 40 mcg/m(3) were tested in 250 volunteers. Shock and irritation of the upper respiratory tract resulted from even brief exposure to airborne levels from 10 to 24 mcg/m(3) (HSDB , 2002). 5) Chromium metal fumes were generated with a plasma flame thrower and inhaled by Sprague-Dawley rats. The concentrations generated ranged between 1.84 mg Cr (0)/ m(3) for 5 H/D, 5 D/W for 1 W to 0.55 mg Cr (0)/ m(3) for 5 H/D, 5 D/W for 2 months. The rats had an increased number of chromosomal aberrations and sister chromatid exchanges in peripheral lymphocytes. Bone marrow cells remained unchanged. The method used to generate the metal fumes may have oxidized the chromium (ATSDR, 1993). 6) "Studies in rats by intratracheal, intramuscular and intrafemoral administration, in mice and rats by intrapleural and intraperitoneal administration and in mice, rats and rabbits by intravenous injections were inadequate to evaluate the carcinogenicity of chromium metal as a powder" (IARC, 1997). 7) Chromium metal implanted in the eyes of rabbits did not cause damage (Grant & Schuman, 1993).
WORKPLACE STANDARDS
A) ACGIH TLV Values for CAS7440-47-3 (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 2010): 1) Editor's Note: The listed values are recommendations or guidelines developed by ACGIH(R) to assist in the control of health hazards. They should only be used, interpreted and applied by individuals trained in
industrial hygiene. Before applying these values, it is imperative to read the introduction to each section in the current TLVs(R) and BEI(R) Book and become familiar with the constraints and limitations to their use. Always consult the Documentation of the TLVs(R) and BEIs(R) before applying these recommendations and guidelines. a) Adopted Value 1) Chromium, and inorganic compounds, as Cr, metal and Cr III compounds a) TLV: 1) TLV-TWA: 0.5 mg/m(3) 2) TLV-STEL: 3) TLV-Ceiling: b) Notations and Endnotes: 1) Carcinogenicity Category: A4 2) Codes: Not Listed 3) Definitions: a) A4: Not Classifiable as a Human Carcinogen: Agents which cause concern that they could be carcinogenic for humans but which cannot be assessed conclusively because of a lack of data. In vitro or animal studies do not provide indications of carcinogenicity which are sufficient to classify the agent into one of the other categories. c) TLV Basis - Critical Effect(s): URT and skin irr d) Molecular Weight: Varies 1) For gases and vapors, to convert the TLV from ppm to mg/m(3): a) [(TLV in ppm)(gram molecular weight of substance)]/24.45 2) For gases and vapors, to convert the TLV from mg/m(3) to ppm: a) [(TLV in mg/m(3))(24.45)]/gram molecular weight of substance e) Additional information: b) Adopted Value 1) Chromium, and inorganic compounds, as Cr, water-soluble Cr VI compounds a) TLV: 1) TLV-TWA: 0.05 mg/m(3) 2) TLV-STEL: 3) TLV-Ceiling: b) Notations and Endnotes:
1) Carcinogenicity Category: A1 2) Codes: BEI 3) Definitions: a) A1: Confirmed Human Carcinogen: The agent is carcinogenic to humans based on the weight of evidence from epidemiologic studies. b) BEI: The BEI notation is listed when a BEI is also recommended for the substance listed. Biological monitoring should be instituted for such substances to evaluate the total exposure from all sources, including dermal, ingestion, or non-occupational. c) TLV Basis - Critical Effect(s): URT irr; cancer d) Molecular Weight: Varies 1) For gases and vapors, to convert the TLV from ppm to mg/m(3): a) [(TLV in ppm)(gram molecular weight of substance)]/24.45 2) For gases and vapors, to convert the TLV from mg/m(3) to ppm: a) [(TLV in mg/m(3))(24.45)]/gram molecular weight of substance e) Additional information: c) Adopted Value 1) Chromium, and inorganic compounds, as Cr, insoluble Cr VI compounds a) TLV: 1) TLV-TWA: 0.01 mg/m(3) 2) TLV-STEL: 3) TLV-Ceiling: b) Notations and Endnotes: 1) Carcinogenicity Category: A1 2) Codes: Not Listed 3) Definitions: a) A1: Confirmed Human Carcinogen: The agent is carcinogenic to humans based on the weight of evidence from epidemiologic studies. c) TLV Basis - Critical Effect(s): Lung cancer d) Molecular Weight: Varies 1) For gases and vapors, to convert the TLV from ppm to mg/m(3): a) [(TLV in ppm)(gram molecular weight of substance)]/24.45 2) For gases and vapors, to convert the TLV from mg/m(3) to ppm: a) [(TLV in mg/m(3))(24.45)]/gram molecular weight of substance e) Additional information:
B) NIOSH REL and IDLH Values for CAS7440-47-3 (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2007): 1) Listed as: Chromium metal 2) REL: a) TWA: 0.5 mg/m(3) b) STEL: c) Ceiling: d) Carcinogen Listing: (Not Listed) Not Listed e) Skin Designation: Not Listed f) Note(s): See Appendix C 3) IDLH: a) IDLH: 250 mg Cr/m3 (as Cr) b) Note(s): Not Listed C) Carcinogenicity Ratings for CAS7440-47-3 : 1) ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 2010): A4 ; Listed as: Chromium, and inorganic compounds, as Cr, metal and Cr III compounds a) A4 :Not Classifiable as a Human Carcinogen: Agents which cause concern that they could be carcinogenic for humans but which cannot be assessed conclusively because of a lack of data. In vitro or animal studies do not provide indications of carcinogenicity which are sufficient to classify the agent into one of the other categories. 2) ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 2010): A1 ; Listed as: Chromium, and inorganic compounds, as Cr, water-soluble Cr VI compounds a) A1 :Confirmed Human Carcinogen: The agent is carcinogenic to humans based on the weight of evidence from epidemiologic studies. 3) ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 2010): A1 ; Listed as: Chromium, and inorganic compounds, as Cr, insoluble Cr VI compounds a) A1 :Confirmed Human Carcinogen: The agent is carcinogenic to humans based on the weight of evidence from epidemiologic studies. 4) EPA (IRIS, 2004): Not Listed 5) IARC (IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2006; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2007; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010a; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2008; IARC, 2004): 3 ; Listed as: Chromium, metallic a) 3 : The agent (mixture or exposure circumstance) is not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans. This category is used most commonly for
agents, mixtures and exposure circumstances for which the evidence of carcinogenicity is inadequate in humans and inadequate or limited in experimental animals. Exceptionally, agents (mixtures) for which the evidence of carcinogenicity is inadequate in humans but sufficient in experimental animals may be placed in this category when there is strong evidence that the mechanism of carcinogenicity in experimental animals does not operate in humans. Agents, mixtures and exposure circumstances that do not fall into any other group are also placed in this category. 6) IARC (IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2006; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2007; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010a; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2008; IARC, 2004): 1 ; Listed as: Chromium VI compounds a) 1 : The agent (mixture) is carcinogenic to humans. The exposure circumstance entails exposures that are carcinogenic to humans. This category is used when there is sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in humans. Exceptionally, an agent (mixture) may be placed in this category when evidence of carcinogenicity in humans is less than sufficient but there is sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals and strong evidence in exposed humans that the agent (mixture) acts through a relevant mechanism of carcinogenicity. 7) NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2007): Not Listed ; Listed as: Chromium metal 8) MAK (DFG, 2002): Category 2 ; Listed as: Chromium(VI) compounds (as dusts/aerosols), with the exception of those practically insoluble in water such as lead chromate, barium chromate (but zinc chromate Section III Category 1) a) Category 2 : Substances that are considered to be carcinogenic for man because sufficient data from long-term animal studies or limited evidence from animal studies substantiated by evidence from epidemiological studies indicate that they can make a significant contribution to cancer risk. Limited data from animal studies can be supported by evidence that the substance causes cancer by a mode of action that is relevant to man and by results of in vitro tests and short-term animal studies. 9) NTP (NTP, 2005): K ; Listed as: Chromium Hexavalent Compounds a) K : KNOWN = Known to be a human carcinogen D) OSHA PEL Values for CAS7440-47-3 (29 CFR 1910.1000, 2006): 1) Listed as: Chromium (II) compounds (as Cr) 2) Table Z-1 for Chromium (II) compounds (as Cr): a) 8-hour TWA: 1) ppm:
a) Parts of vapor or gas per million parts of contaminated air by volume at 25 degrees C and 760 torr. 2) mg/m3: 0.5 a) Milligrams of substances per cubic meter of air. When entry is in this column only, the value is exact; when listed with a ppm entry, it is approximate. 3) Ceiling Value: 4) Skin Designation: No 5) Notation(s): Not Listed 3) Listed as: Chromium (III) compounds (as Cr) 4) Table Z-1 for Chromium (III) compounds (as Cr): a) 8-hour TWA: 1) ppm: a) Parts of vapor or gas per million parts of contaminated air by volume at 25 degrees C and 760 torr. 2) mg/m3: 0.5 a) Milligrams of substances per cubic meter of air. When entry is in this column only, the value is exact; when listed with a ppm entry, it is approximate. 3) Ceiling Value: 4) Skin Designation: No 5) Notation(s): Not Listed 5) Listed as: Chromium metal and insol salts (as Cr) 6) Table Z-1 for Chromium metal and insol salts (as Cr): a) 8-hour TWA: 1) ppm: a) Parts of vapor or gas per million parts of contaminated air by volume at 25 degrees C and 760 torr. 2) mg/m3: 1 a) Milligrams of substances per cubic meter of air. When entry is in this column only, the value is exact; when listed with a ppm entry, it is approximate. 3) Ceiling Value: 4) Skin Designation: No 5) Notation(s): Not Listed
TOXICITY INFORMATION
7.7.1) TOXICITY VALUES
A) References: (ACGIH, 1996; Lewis, 2000 RTECS, 2002) 7.7.2) RISK ASSESSMENT VALUES A) References: (ACGIH, 1996; Lewis, 2000 RTECS, 2002) 1) NOAEL- (INHALATION)RABBIT: a) 0.6 or 3.1 mg Cr (0)/m(3) for 6H/D, 5D/W, for 4W (ACGIH, 1996)
PHYSICOCHEMICAL
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
A) Brittle, hard, odorless solid with lustrous, blue-white or steel-gray appearance (NIOSH , 2001). B) Chromium is an odorless, steel-gray, semi-gray, or blue-white, lustrous, brittle metal with a body-centered cubic structure. It is as hard as corundum and less fusible than platinum (Budavari, 1996; Ashford, 1994; Lewis, 1997; HSDB , 2001). C) Note: The physical/chemical information listed is for elemental chromium only. For additional information on chromium compounds, please refer to individual HAZARDTEXT documents.
PH
A) Elemental chromium is amphoteric (HSDB , 2001). B) Bivalent chromium compounds are basic, the trivalent compounds are amphoteric, and the hexavalent compounds are acidic (Clayton & Clayton, 1994).
MOLECULAR WEIGHT
A) 52.00
REFERENCES
GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY
1) 29 CFR 1910.1000: Occupational Safety and Health Administration - Limits for Air Contaminants. National Archives and Records Associations (NARA) and the Government Printing Office (GPO), Washington, DC. Final rules current as of Apr 3, 2006. 2) 29 CFR 1910.119 - App. A: Occupational Safety and Health Administration - List of Highly Hazardous Chemicals, Toxics, and Reactives. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Printing Office (GPO), Washington, DC. Final rules current as of Apr 3, 2006. 3) 40 CFR 261.33 e-f: Environmental Protection Agency - Discarded commercial chemical products, off-specification species, container residues, and spill residues thereof, Acutely Hazardous Wastes and Toxic Wastes.
National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Printing Office (GPO), Washington, DC. Final rules current as of Apr 3, 2006. 4) 40 CFR 302.4 - App. B: Environmental Protection Agency - List of Hazardous Substances and Reportable Quantities, Appendix B: Radionuclides. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Printing Office (GPO), Washington, DC. Final rules current as of Apr 3, 2006. 5) 40 CFR 302.4: Environmental Protection Agency - List of Hazardous Substances and Reportable Quantities. National Archives and Records Association (NARA) and the Government Printing Office (GPO), Washington, DC. Final rules current as of Apr 3, 2006. 6) 40 CFR 355 - App. B: Environmental Protection Agency - List of Extremely Hazardous Substances and Their Threshold Planning Quantities (CAS Number Order). National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Printing Office (GPO), Washington, DC. Final rules current as of Apr 3, 2006. 7) 40 CFR 372.28: Environmental Protection Agency - Toxic Chemical Release Reporting, Community Right-To-Know, Lower thresholds for chemicals of special concern. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Printing Office (GPO). Washington, DC. Final rules current as of Apr 3, 2006. 8) 40 CFR 372.65: Environmental Protection Agency - Toxic Chemical Release Reporting, Community Right-To-Know, Chemicals and Chemical Categories to which this part applies. National Archives and Records Association (NARA) and the Government Printing Office (GPO), Washington, DC. Final rules current as of Apr 3, 2006. 9) 49 CFR 172.101 - App. B: Department of Transportation - Table of Hazardous Materials, Appendix B: List of Marine Pollutants. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Printing Office (GPO), Washington, DC. Final rules current as of Aug 29, 2005. 10) 62 FR 58840: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 1997. 11) 65 FR 14186: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2000. 12) 65 FR 39264: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2000. 13) 65 FR 77866: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government
Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2000. 14) 66 FR 21940: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2001. 15) 67 FR 7164: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2002. 16) 68 FR 42710: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2003. 17) 69 FR 54144: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2004. 18) ACGIH: Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure Indices, 6th ed, Am Conference of Govt Ind Hyg, Inc, Cincinnati, OH, 1991. 19) AIHA: 2006 Emergency Response Planning Guidelines and Workplace Environmental Exposure Level Guides Handbook, American Industrial Hygiene Association, Fairfax, VA, 2006. 20) ATSDR: Toxicological Profile for Chromium (Update), Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, US Dept of Health and Human Services, Atlanta, GA, 1993. 21) Alcedo JA, Misra M, & Hamilton JW: The genotoxic carcinogen chromium(VI) alters the metal-inducible expression but not the basal expression of the metallothionein gene in vivo. Carcinogenesis 1994; 15:1089-1092. 22) American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists : ACGIH 2010 Threshold Limit Values (TLVs(R)) for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents and Biological Exposure Indices (BEIs(R)), American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati, OH, 2010. 23) Ashford R: Ashford's Dictionary of Industrial Chemicals, Wavelength Publications Ltd, London, England, 1994. 24) Avnstorp C: Risk factors for cement eczema. Contact Dermatitis 1991; 25:81-88. 25) Bick RL, Girardi TV, & Lack WJ: Hodgkins disease in association with hexavalent chromium exposure. Internat J Hematol 1996; 64:257-262. 26) Bingham E, Cohrssen B, & Powell CH: Patty's Toxicology, Vol 3. 5th ed, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, 2001. 27) Blasiak J & Kowalik J: A comparison of the in vitro genotoxicity of tri- and hexavalent chromium. Mutat Res 2000; 469:135-145. 28) Bonde JP & Ernst E: Sex hormones and semen quality in welders exposed to hexavalent chromium. Human Exp Toxicol 1992; 11:259-263.
29) Borges KM & Wetterhahn: Chromium bound to DNA alters cleavage by restriction endonucleases. Chem Res Toxicol 1991; 4:638-641. 30) Budavari S: The Merck Index, 12th ed, Merck & Co, Inc, Whitehouse Station, NJ, 1996, pp 374. 31) Budavari S: The Merck Index, 12th ed. on CD-ROM. Version 12:3a. Chapman & Hall/CRCnetBASE. Whitehouse Station, NJ. 2000. 32) Bukowski JA, Goldstein MD, & Korn LR: Biological markers in chromium exposure assessment: confounding variables. Arch Environ Health 1991; 46:230-236. 33) Burrows D: Hypersensitivity to mercury, nickel and chromium in relation to dental materials. Internat Dent J 1986; 36:30-34. 34) Chen J & Thilly WG: Use of denaturing-gradient gel electrophoresis to study chromium-induced point mutations in human cells. Environ Health Perspect 1994; 102(Suppl 3):227-229. 35) Chowdhuri DK, Narayan R, & Saxena DK: Effect of lead and chromium on nucleic acid and protein synthesis during sperm-zona binding in mice. Toxicol In Vitro 2001; 15:605-613. 36) Clayton GD & Clayton FE: Patty's Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology, Vol 2C, Toxicology, 4th ed, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, 1994. 37) Clinical Nutrition Cases: Is chromium essential for humans?. Nutr Rev 1988; 46:17-20. 38) Constan AA, Yang RSH, & Baker DC: A unique pattern of hepatocyte proliferation in F344 rats following long-term exposures to low levels of a chemical mixture of groundwater contaminants. Carcinogenesis 1995; 16:303-310. 39) DFG: List of MAK and BAT Values 2002, Report No. 38, Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Commission for the Investigation of Health Hazards of Chemical Compounds in the Work Area, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, Federal Republic of Germany, 2002. 40) DOE: ERPGs and TEELs for Chemicals of Concern, Revision 21. U.S. Department of Energy, Subcommittee on Consequence Assessment and Protective Actions. Washington DC. 2005. Available from URL: http://www.eh.doe.gov/chem_safety//teel.html. As accessed Oct 25, 2005. 41) Danadevi K, Rozati R, Reddy PP, et al: Semen quality of indian welders occupationally exposed to nickel and chromium. Reprod Toxicol 2003; 17:451-456. 42) Dingle AF: Nasal disease in chrome workers. Clin Otolarygol 1992; 17:287-288. 43) Dragun J: The Soil Chemistry of Hazardous Materials, Hazardous Materials Control Research Institute, Silver Spring, MD, 1988. 44) Dushenkov V, Kumar P, & Motto H: Rhizofiltration: the use of plants to remove heavy metals from aqueous streams. Environ Sci Technol 1995; 29:1239-1245. 45) EPA: Conversion of Hazardous Chromium Plating Sludge into Aluminothermic Chromium Metal. Contract Number: 68D50098. U.S. Environment Protection Agency. Washington, DC, USA. 1995. Available from URL: http://es.epa.gov/ncerqa_abstracts/sbir/95/hazwatestream/topic0022.html. As accessed Accessed Jan 24, 2001. 46) EPA: Search results for Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) Inventory
Chemicals. US Environmental Protection Agency, Substance Registry System, U.S. EPA's Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics. Washington, DC. 2005. Available from URL: http://www.epa.gov/srs/. 47) ERG: Emergency Response Guidebook. A Guidebook for First Responders During the Initial Phase of a Dangerous Goods/Hazardous Materials Incident, U.S. Department of Transportation, Research and Special Programs Administration, Washington, DC, 2004. 48) Finley BL, Scott PK, & Norton RL: Urinary chromium concentrations in humans following ingestion of safe doses of hexavalent and trivalent chromium -- implications for biomonitoring. J Toxicol Environ Health 1996; 48:479-499. 49) Freeman HM: Standard Handbook of Hazardous Waste Treatment and Disposal, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, NY, 1989. 50) Friberg L, Norberg GF, & Vouk V: Handbook on the Toxicology of Metals, 2nd ed, Elsevier Science Publishers, New York, NY, 1986. 51) Gale TF & Bunch JD: Teratology 1979; 19:81-86. 52) Gale TF: Teratology 1974; 9:A17. 53) Gao M, Binks SP, & Chipman JK: Hexavalent chromium produces DNA strand breakage but not unscheduled DNA synthesis at sub-cytotoxic concentrations in hepatocytes. Toxicology 1993; 77:171-180. 54) Gennart JP, Baleux C, & Verellendumoulin C: Increased sister chromatid exchanges and tumor markers in workers exposed to elemental chromium-containing, cobalt-containing and nickel-containing dusts. Mutat Res 1993; 299:55-61. 55) Grant WM & Schuman JS: Toxicology of the Eye, 4th ed, Charles C Thomas, Springfield, IL, 1993. 56) Gulanowski B, Swiatek J, & Kozlowski H: Impact of chromium ions on nucleoside triphosphates and nucleic acids. J Inorg Biochem 1992; 48:289-298. 57) HSDB : Hazardous Substances Data Bank. National Library of Medicine. Bethesda, MD (Internet Version). Edition expires 2001; provided by Thomson Healthcare Inc., Greenwood Village, CO. 58) HSDB : Hazardous Substances Data Bank. National Library of Medicine. Bethesda, MD (Internet Version). Edition expires 2004; provided by Thomson Healthcare Inc., Greenwood Village, CO. 59) HSDB : Hazardous Substances Data Bank. National Library of Medicine. Bethesda, MD (Internet Version). Edition expires 8/31/2002; provided by Thomson Healthcare Inc., Greenwood Village, CO. 60) Halasova E, Baska T, Kukura F, et al: Lung cancer in relation to occupational and environmental chromium exposure and smoking. Neoplasma 2005; 52:287-291. 61) Hathaway GJ, Proctor NH, & Hughes JP: Chemical Hazards of the Workplace, 3rd ed, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co, New York, NY, 1991, pp 178-181. 62) Hathaway GJ, Proctor NH, & Hughes JP: Chemical Hazards of the Workplace, 4th ed, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, NY, 1996. 63) Huvinen M, Uitti J, & Zitting A: Respiratory health of workers exposed to low levels of chromium in stainless steel production. Occup Environ Med 1996; 53:741-747. 64) IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to
Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: 1,3-Butadiene, Ethylene Oxide and Vinyl Halides (Vinyl Fluoride, Vinyl Chloride and Vinyl Bromide), 97, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2008. 65) IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Formaldehyde, 2-Butoxyethanol and 1-tert-Butoxypropan-2-ol, 88, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2006. 66) IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Household Use of Solid Fuels and High-temperature Frying, 95, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2010a. 67) IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Smokeless Tobacco and Some Tobacco-specific N-Nitrosamines, 89, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2007. 68) IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Some Non-heterocyclic Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Some Related Exposures, 92, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2010. 69) IARC: List of all agents, mixtures and exposures evaluated to date - IARC Monographs: Overall Evaluations of Carcinogenicity to Humans, Volumes 1-88, 1972-PRESENT. World Health Organization, International Agency for Research on Cancer. Lyon, FranceAvailable from URL: http://monographs.iarc.fr/monoeval/crthall.html. As accessed Oct 07, 2004. 70) ILO: Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety, 4th Edition, Vol. 3, International Labour Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 1998. 71) IRIS: Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) Substance Reports. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, National Center for Environmental Assessment. Washington, DCAvailable from URL: http://www.epa.gov/iris/subst/index.html. As accessed October 11, 2004. 72) Iijima S: Teratology 1975; 12:198. 73) Iijima S: Teratology 1979; 20:152. 74) Ishii N, Takahashi K, & Kawaguchi H: Genetic control of delayed-type hypersensitivity to chromium chloride. Internat Arch Allergy Immunol 1993; 100:333-337. 75) Itoh S & Shimada H: Micronucleus induction by chromium and selenium, and suppression by metallothionein inducer. Mutat Res 1996; 367:233-236. 76) Jacobs JJ, Skipor AK, & Doorn PF: Cobalt and chromium concentrations in patients with metal on metal total hip replacements. Clin Orthopaed Rel Res 1996; 329(Suppl S):S256-S263. 77) Kanojia RK, Junaid M, & Murthy RC: Chromium induced teratogenicity in female rat. Toxicol Lett 1996; 89:207-213. 78) Katsifis SP, Kinney PL, & Hosselet S: Interaction of nickel with mutagens in the induction of sister chromatid exchanges in human lymphocytes. Mutat Research 1996; 359:7-15. 79) Katz SA & Salem H: The toxicology of chromium with respect to its chemical speciation -- a review. J Appl Toxicol 1993; 13:217-224.
80) Kelly WF, Ackrill P, & Day JP: Cutaneous absorption of trivalent chromium: tissue levels and treatment by exchange transfusion. Br J Ind Med 1982; 39:397-400. 81) Kurosaki K, Nakamura T, & Mukai T: Unusual findings in a fatal case of poisoning with chromate compounds. Forens Sci Internat 1995; 75:57-65. 82) Lee HS & Goh CL: Occupation dermatosis among chrome platers. Contact Dermatitis 1988; 18:89-93. 83) Levy LS, Martin PA, & Venitt S: Carcinogenicity of chromium and its salts. Br J Ind Med 1987; 44:355-356. 84) Lewis RA: Lewis' Dictionary of Toxicology, Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, 1998. 85) Lewis RJ: Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary, 12th ed, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, NY, 1993, pp 280. 86) Lewis RJ: Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary, 13th ed, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, New York, NY, 1997. 87) Lewis RJ: Sax's Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, 10th ed, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, NY, 2000. 88) Lewis RJ: Sax's Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, 9th ed, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, NY, 1996. 89) Liu S & Dixon K: Induction of mutagenic DNA damage by chromium(VI) and glutathione. Environ Molec Mutagen 1996; 28:71-79. 90) Lukanova A, Toniolo P, & Zhitkovich A: Occupational exposure to Cr(VI) -- comparison between chromium levels in lymphocytes, erythrocytes, and urine. Internat Arch Occup Environ Health 1996; 69:39-44. 91) Lumens ME, Ulenbelt P, & Geron HM: Hygienic behaviour in chromium plating industries. Internat Arch Occup Environ Health 1993; 64:509-514. 92) Macias JMP & Palacios AS: Artifact lesions and metal sensitivity after insertion of osteosynthesis material. Contact Dermatitis 1986; 14:260. 93) Manning FCR, Xu J, & Patierno SR: Transcriptional inhibition by carcinogenic chromate -- relationship to DNA damage. Mol Carcinogen 1992; 6:270-279. 94) Marcotrigiano GO & Storelli MM: Heavy metal, polychlorinated biphenyl and organochlorine pesticide residues in marine organisms: risk evaluation for consumers. Vet Res Commun 2003; 27 Suppl 1:183-195. 95) Mirsalis JC, Hamilton CM, & O'Laughlin KG: Chromium (VI) at plausible drinking water concentrations is not genotoxic in the in vivo bone marrow micronucleus or liver unscheduled DNA synthesis assays. Environ Molec Mutagen 1996; 28:60-63. 96) Munch D: Concentration profiles of arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, nickel, zinc, vanadium and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in forest soil beside an urban road. Sci Total Environ 1993; 138:47-55. 97) Murthy RC, Junaid M, & Saxena DK: Ovarian dysfunction in mice following chromium(VI) exposure. Toxicol Lett 1996; 89:147-154. 98) NFPA: Fire Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials, 12th ed, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 1997. 99) NFPA: Fire Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials, 13th ed., National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 2002. 100) NIOSH : Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards, (Internet Version). National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Cincinnati, OH
(Internet Version). Edition expires 2001; provided by Thomson Healthcare Inc., Greenwood Village, CO. 101) NIOSH : Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Cincinnati, OH (Internet Version). Edition expires 2002; provided by Thomson Healthcare Inc., Greenwood Village, CO. 102) NRC: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals - Volume 1, Subcommittee on Acute Exposure Guideline Levels, Committee on Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Commission of Life Sciences, National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2001. 103) NRC: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals - Volume 2, Subcommittee on Acute Exposure Guideline Levels, Committee on Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Commission of Life Sciences, National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2002. 104) NRC: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals - Volume 3, Subcommittee on Acute Exposure Guideline Levels, Committee on Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Commission of Life Sciences, National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2003. 105) NRC: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals - Volume 4, Subcommittee on Acute Exposure Guideline Levels, Committee on Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Commission of Life Sciences, National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2004. 106) NTP: Report on Carcinogens, Eleventh Edition. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program. Research Triangle Park, NC. 2005. Available from URL: http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/roc/toc11.html. As accessed Feb 7, 2005. 107) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,2,3-Trimethylbenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006k. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d68a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12. 108) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006m. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d68a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16. 109) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,2-Butylene Oxide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648083cdbb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-
08-12. 110) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,2-Dibromoethane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064802796db&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-18. 111) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006l. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d68a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16. 112) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 2-Ethylhexyl Chloroformate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648037904e&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12. 113) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Acrylonitrile (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648028e6a3&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12. 114) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Adamsite (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16. 115) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Agent BZ (3-quinuclidinyl benzilate) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064803ad507&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-18. 116) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Allyl Chloride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648039d9ee&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-
08-12. 117) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Aluminum Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16. 118) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Arsenic Trioxide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007m. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480220305&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16. 119) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Automotive Gasoline Unleaded (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7cc17&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12. 120) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Biphenyl (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064801ea1b7&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16. 121) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Bis-Chloromethyl Ether (BCME) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006n. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648022db11&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16. 122) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Boron Tribromide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064803ae1d3&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12. 123) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Bromine Chloride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648039732a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
124) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Bromoacetone (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064809187bf&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12. 125) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Calcium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16. 126) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Carbonyl Fluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064803ae328&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12. 127) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Carbonyl Sulfide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648037ff26&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12. 128) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Chlorobenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064803a52bb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12. 129) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Cyanogen (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064809187fe&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15. 130) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Dimethyl Phosphite (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7cbf3&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12. 131) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for
Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Diphenylchloroarsine (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007l. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16. 132) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Ethyl Isocyanate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648091884e&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15. 133) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Ethyl Phosphorodichloridate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008i. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480920347&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15. 134) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Ethylbenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064809203e7&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15. 135) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Ethyldichloroarsine (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16. 136) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Germane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963906&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15. 137) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Hexafluoropropylene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064801ea1f5&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15. 138) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for
Ketene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020ee7c&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15. 139) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Magnesium Aluminum Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16. 140) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Magnesium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16. 141) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Malathion (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009k. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064809639df&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15. 142) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Mercury Vapor (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a8a087&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12. 143) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyl Isothiocyanate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008k. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963a03&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15. 144) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyl Parathion (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008l. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963a57&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12. 145) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyl tertiary-butyl ether (Proposed). United States Environmental
Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064802a4985&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15. 146) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methylchlorosilane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5f4&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15. 147) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyldichloroarsine (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007i. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16. 148) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyldichlorosilane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c646&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15. 149) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Mustard (HN1 CAS Reg. No. 538-07-8) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d6cb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15. 150) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Mustard (HN2 CAS Reg. No. 51-75-2) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d6cb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15. 151) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Mustard (HN3 CAS Reg. No. 555-77-1) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d6cb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15. 152) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for
Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Tetroxide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008n. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648091855b&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12. 153) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Trifluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009l. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963e0c&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12. 154) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Parathion (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008o. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963e32&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12. 155) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Perchloryl Fluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7e268&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12. 156) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Perfluoroisobutylene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7e26a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15. 157) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phenyl Isocyanate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008p. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096dd58&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12. 158) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phenyl Mercaptan (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020cc0c&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16. 159) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for
Phenyldichloroarsine (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007k. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16. 160) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phorate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008q. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096dcc8&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12. 161) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phosgene (Draft-Revised). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a8a08a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12. 162) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phosgene Oxime (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7e26d&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12. 163) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Potassium Cyanide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7cbb9&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15. 164) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Potassium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16. 165) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Propargyl Alcohol (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020ec91&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16. 166) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Selenium Hexafluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection
Agency. Washington, DC. 2006f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020ec55&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16. 167) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Silane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d523&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16. 168) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Sodium Cyanide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7cbb9&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15. 169) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Sodium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005i. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16. 170) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Strontium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16. 171) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Sulfuryl Chloride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020ec7a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16. 172) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Tear Gas (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008s. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096e551&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12. 173) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Tellurium Hexafluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009i. Available from URL:
http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7e2a1&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12. 174) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Tert-Octyl Mercaptan (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008r. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096e5c7&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12. 175) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Tetramethoxysilane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d632&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-17. 176) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Trimethoxysilane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006i. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d632&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16. 177) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Trimethyl Phosphite (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7d608&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12. 178) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Trimethylacetyl Chloride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008t. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096e5cc&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12. 179) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Zinc Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16. 180) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for n-Butyl Isocyanate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008m. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000
64808f9591&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12. 181) National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health: NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Cincinnati, OH, 2007. 182) National Research Council : Acute exposure guideline levels for selected airborne chemicals, 5, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2007. 183) National Research Council: Acute exposure guideline levels for selected airborne chemicals, 6, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2008. 184) National Research Council: Acute exposure guideline levels for selected airborne chemicals, 7, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2009. 185) National Research Council: Acute exposure guideline levels for selected airborne chemicals, 8, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2010. 186) OHM/TADS : Oil and Hazardous Materials/Technical Assistance Data System. US Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC (Internet Version). Edition expires 2001; provided by Thomson Healthcare Inc., Greenwood Village, CO. 187) OSHA: Personal Protective Equipment for General Industry. 59 FR 16334-16364, 59, Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration, Washington, DC, 2000, pp 16334-16364. 188) Pastides H, Austin R, & Lemeshow S: A retrospective-cohort study of occupational exposure to hexavalent chromium. Am J Ind Med 1994; 25:663-675. 189) Paustenbach DJ, Hays SM, & Brien BA: Observation of steady state in blood and urine following human ingestion of hexavalent chromium in drinking water. J Toxicol Environ Health 1996; 49:453-461. 190) Paustenbach DJ, Rinehart WE, & Sheehan PJ: The health hazards posed by chromium-contaminated soils in residential and industrial areas: conclusions of an expert panel. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 1991; 13:195-222. 191) Petersen R, Mikkelsen S, & Thomsen OF: Chronic interstitial nephropathy after plasma cutting in stainless steel. Occup Environ Medicine 1994; 51:259-261. 192) Rasanen L, Sainio H, & Lehto M: Lymphocyte proliferation test as a diagnostic aid in chromium contact sensitivity. Contact Dermatitis 1991; 25:25-29. 193) Ridgway LP & Karnofsky DA: Ann Acad Sci 1952; 55:203-215. 194) Rosenman KD & Stanbury M: Risk of lung cancer among former chromium smelter workers. Am J Ind Med 1996; 29:491-500. 195) Rostoker G, Robin J, & Binet O: Cutaneous granuloma over a vitallium plate. Contact Dermatitis 1987; 16:175-178. 196) Schiffl H, Weidmann P, & Weiss M: Dialysis treatment of acute chromium intoxication and comparative efficacy of peritoneal versus hemodialysis in chromium removal. Mineral Electrolyte Metab 1982; 7:28-35. 197) Schroeder HA, Nason AP, & Tipton IH: Chromium deficiency as a factor in atherosclerosis. J Chron Dis 1970; 23:123-142.
198) Sittig M: Handbook of Toxic and Hazardous Chemicals and Carcinogens, 3rd ed, Noyes Publications, Park Ridge, NJ, 1991. 199) Snow ET: Effects of chromium on DNA replication in vitro. Environ Health Perspect 1994; 102( Suppl 3):41-44. 200) Stern AH, Bagdon RE, & Hazen RE: Risk assessment of the allergic dermatitis potential of environmental exposure to hexavalent chromium. J Toxicol Environ Health 1993; 40:613-641. 201) Stridsklev IC, Hemmingsen B, & Karlsen JT: Biologic monitoring of chromium and nickel among stainless steel welders using the manual metal arc method. Internat Arch Occup Environ Health 1993; 65:209-219. 202) Sugden KD, Campo CK, & Martin BD: Direct oxidation of guanine and 7,8-dihydro-8-oxoguanine in DNA by a high-valent chromium complex: a possible mechanism for chromate genotoxicity. Chem Res Toxicol 2001; 14:1315-1322. 203) Susa N, Ueno S, & Furukawa Y: Protective effects of thiol compounds on chromate-induced toxicity in vitro and in vivo. Environ Health Perspect 1994; 102(Suppl 3):247-250. 204) Taioli E, Zhitkovich A, & Kinney P: Increased DNA-protein crosslinks in lymphocytes of residents living in chromium-contaminated areas. Biol Trace Elem Res 1995; 50:175-180. 205) Taylor DM & Davies JCA: Ferro-alloy workers's disease: a report of a recent case against the background of twelve years' experience. Cent Afr J Med 1977; 23:28-32. 206) Taylor MM, Diefendorf EJ, & Thompson CJ: Extraction and characterization of "chrome-free" protein from chromium-containing collagenous waste generated in the leather industry, in: Polymers from Agricultural Coproducts, American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, 1994, pp 171-187. 207) Thomas RHM, Rademaker M, & Goddard NJ: Severe eczema of the hands due to an orthopaedic plate made of vitallium. Br Med J 1987; 294:106-107. 208) Tisch M & Maier H: Squamous cell cancer of the tongue following occupational exposure to hexavalent chromium compounds. Laryngorhinootologie 1996; 75:455-458. 209) Tsapakos MJ & Wetterhahn KE: The interaction of chromium with nucleic acids. Chem Biol Interact 1983; 46:265-277. 210) United States Environmental Protection Agency Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Vinyl Acetate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d6af&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16. 211) Urben PG: Bretherick's Handbook of Reactive Chemical Hazards, Volume 1, 5th ed, Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, Oxford, England, 1995. 212) Wang XW, Davies JWL, & Sirvent RLZ: Chromic acid burns and acute chromium poisoning. Burns 1985; 11:181-184. 213) Wise JP, Wise SS, & Little JE: The cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of particulate and soluble hexavalent chromium in human lung cells. Mutat Res 2002; 517:221-229.
214) Yontchev E, Meding B, & Hedegard B: Contact allergy to dental materials in patients with orofacial complaints. J Oral Rehabil 1986; 13:183-190. 215) Zhitkovich A, Lukanova A, & Popov T: DNA-protein crosslinks in peripheral lymphocytes of individuals exposed to hexavalent chromium compounds. Biomarkers 1996; 1:86-93.
Last Modified: June 09, 2009
COPYRIGHT © 1974- 2011 Thomson Reuters. All rights reserved.
