China’s Ancient Political System-

The Mandate of Heaven & the Civil Service Examinations

Wanli Hu, Ph.D.

The University of Massachusetts Boston

Questions

• Why does the U.S. adopt a democratic system?

• Why does China adopt an authoritarian system?

• What are the essential factors that determine a country’ political system?

Why has China’s authoritarian rule lasted for thousands of years, even continuing today?

I. The relationship between China’s geographic conditions and the authoritarian rule• Geographic determination• Historical legend II. The foundation of the

authoritarian rule • Ideology: the Mandate of Heaven • Institution: the Civil Service ExaminationsIII. A comparison between the Mandate

of Heaven and John Locke’s Natural Rights theory

I-1. The Relationship between Geographic Conditions and the Authoritarian Rule

Karl Marx: the “Oriental” society, “Asiatic mode of production”“ 东方社会” “亚细亚生产方式”

Karl Wittfogel: “Hydraulic society,” “Oriental despotism” “ 水系社会”“东方专制制度”

Chinese civilization is a big river civilization. The Yellow River gave birth to this civilization, and affected its way of life and its political development.

The Yellow River - China’s Sorrow- is a suspended river that flooded more than 1590 times and changed course 26 times from 602 BCE to 1938 CE

Part of the Yellow River in Kaifeng

Dujiangyan Irrigation Project, 256 BCE

Built largely in the 7th and 13th centuries, the Grand Canal of China connects the cities of Beijing and Hangzhou. The canal covers a distance of 1,900 km (1,200 mi) and is still in use today.

Conclusion

The needs of controlling flooding of the Yellow River, irrigation projects and water transportation required a strong and centralized government

Da Yu, Yu the Great, the founder of the Xia Dynasty (ca. 2205-1766), the beginning of the family rule, and authoritarian rule.

I-2. A legendary story about the birth of the authoritarian rule

Three sage kings: •Yao • Shun•Yu

II-1. The foundation of China’s Political System: the Mandate of Heaven and the Civil Service

The legitimacy and power of the ruler comes from Heaven on the condition that he should follow the will of Heaven. Heaven would be displeased and give the Mandate of Heaven to someone else if the ruler fails his commitment.

Duke of Zhou (ca. 1122-221 BCE.), a younger brother of King Wu, and regent of King Cheng, is said to create this concept.

Confucius (551-479 BCE)

“Let the ruler be a ruler and the subject a subject; let the father be a father and the son a son.” The ruler - father’s role

Basic concept that good government was fundamentally a matter of ethics. He did not question the hereditary right of the lords to rule, but he insisted that their first duty was to set a proper example of sound ethical conduct.

Mencius (370-290 BCE)

Kingly way, a moral king is characterized by his benevolence toward his people.

The relationship between the ruler and his people is that between a boat and water

Dong Zhongshu (179-104 BCE)

Farming ceremony in spring in the Qing Dynasty

Mao Lost his Mandate of Heaven in 1976• Premier Zhou Enlai passed away on January 8, 1976

• The Tiananmen Square demonstration against the Gang of Four and Mao’s Cultural Revolution

• The earthquake at Tangshan on July 28 killed 250,000 people

• Mao passed away on September 9, 1976

Questions

• What are advantages of the authoritarian rule

• What are its disadvantages?• What do Chinese respect “rule by a saint?”

• Why do Americans respect “rule by law?”

• What is their different understanding of human nature between Chinese & Americans?

Civil Service Recruitment through Examinations

Chart of Civil Service Examination

The Civil Service ExaminationsHistoryOriginated in 124 BCE (the Western Han)Reformulated in the 6th century (the Sui, 581-618 CE)Institutionalized in the Tang Dynasty (618-917 CE)Ended in 1905 CE (the Qing Dynasty)

Curricula Classics with focus on ConfucianismFive classics: Classic of Changes, Classic of Poetry, Classic of RitesClassic of History, and Spring and Autumn Annals （周易、诗经、尚书、礼记、春秋）Four Books: Great Learning, Doctrine of the Mean, Analects of Confucius, and Mencius

( 大学，中庸，论语，孟子）law, calligraphy and Math

Significance

Meritocracy replaced aristocracy and it institutionalized

governmental organization and management *See the film

Questions

• What are advantages of the Civil Service Examination?

• What are its disadvantages?• What are its impact on Chinese culture and society?

中国科举文化之意义• 中国科学制度是中国历史上的考试选拔官员的一种基本制度。他渊源于汉朝

，创始于隋朝，确立于唐朝，完备于宋朝，兴盛于明、清两朝，废除于清朝末年，历经隋、唐、宋、元、明、清。根据史书记载，从隋朝大业元年（ 605 ）的进士科算起到光绪三十一年（ 1905 ）正式废除，整整绵延存在了 1300 周年。

• 中国科举制度的产生是历史的必然和一大进步，它所一直坚持的是“自由报名、公开考试、平等竞争、择优取仕”的原则，它对我国古代社会的选官制度，特别是对汉代的察举和征辟制、魏晋南北朝的九品中正制，是一个直接有力的替代和否定，给广大中小地主和平民百姓通过科举的阶梯而入仕以登上历史的政治舞台，提供了一个公平竞争的平台、机会和条件。因此说，科举制度是中国历史上，也是世界历史上最具开创性和平等性的官吏人才选拔制度。

• 在漫长的 1300 年的科举考试中，曾产生出 700 多名状元、近 11 万名进士、数百万名举人（至于秀才就更不计其数了）。隋唐以后，几乎每一位知识分子都与科举考试有着不解之缘和密切关系，从未参加过科学考试的是极少数。中国历史上，善于治安邦的名臣、名相，有杰出贡献的政治家、思想家、文学家、艺术家、科学家、外交家、军事家等大都出自状元、进士和举人之中。 http://www.ccnt.com.cn/htm/kjwh/show.php?col=01&file=01_0001

The Impact of the Civil Service upon the West

France: 1789: Introduced the civil service to replace royal service1840s: Reestablished

Britain:1806: The British East India Company adopted this system1853: The Organization of the Permanent Civil Service1855: The First Civil Service Commission

The U.S.:1868: Thomas A. Janckes proposed to adopt civil service

Ralph Waldo Emerson supported this proposal1883: The Congress passed the law of civil service

Part III. A comparison between the Mandate of Heaven & John Locke’s Natural Rights theory (1632-1704 CE)

"...he that will not give just occasion to think that all government in the world is the product only of force and violence, and that men live together by no other rules but that of beasts, where the strongest carries it...must of necessity find another rise of government, another original of political power..."---from The Second Treatise of Civil Government

The Natural Rights vs. the Divine Rights of Kings

III. A Comparison between the Mandate of Heaven & John Locke’s Natural Rights Theory

The Mandate of Heaven John Locke’s Natural Rights(12th Century BCE) 17th Century CE)

1. Power comes from Heaven, a God- Power comes from the ruled

like deity

2. Maintain harmony between Maintain the order of the society

Heaven, Earth and Mankind Serve people’s interests and welfare

Bring benevolence to the people

3. People are justified to overthrow People are justified to overthrow

the ruler through rebellions if he fails the ruler through rebellions if he fails

his duty his duty

4. China’s dynastic cycle Justified the British Revolution and the American Revolution

•Where does the ruler’s power come from?•What is the ruler’s responsibility?•How is transition of power made if the ruler fails his duty?

Function of the Mandate of Heaven and the Civil Examination Service

China’s authoritarian rule is largely a product of China’s geographic conditions. The Mandate of Heaven is an ideology that not only empowers the ruler legitimacy to rule, but also makes the government be responsible to his subjects and people.

The civil service through examinations is an institutional guarantee for a ruler to draw into his government talented and learned individuals who might be otherwise a potential threat.

Disadvantages: The Mandate of Heaven led to rule of man rather than rule of law.The civil service stresses classics and moral principles, and it gives little attention to officials’ capacity to solve practical problems. The government would be in crisis when foreign invasions or social disturbances happens. There is not breakthrough in society. The best solution is dynastic cycle.

ConclusionThe authoritarian rule of China is largely a product of its geographic conditions & historical tradition.

The Mandate of Heaven and the Civil Service Examinations facilitated to implement this political rule.

The authoritarian rule needs changes and improvement, but it works in China.