Child Spacing

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CHAPTER ONE

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The concept of informed choice in family planning can be applied to a wide range

of sexual and reproductive health decisions. It focuses on whether to seek to avoid

pregnancy, whether to space and time ones childbearing, whether to use

contraception, what family method to use, and whether and when to continue or

switch methods. The term family planning choice could also refer to a family

decision-making, Diaz, Jasis, Pachauri, Pine, Planta, Ruminjo, Steele, Tabbut-

Henry and Widyantoro (1999). The principle of informed choice focuses on the

individual. Yet most peoples family planning decisions also reflect a range of

outside influences. Social and cultural norms, gender roles, social networks,

religion, and local beliefs influence peoples choices (Bosveld, 1998). To a large

extent, these community norms determine individual childbearing preferences and

sexual and reproductive behaviour. Community and culture affect a persons

attitude towards family planning, desired sex of children, preferences about family

size, family pressures to have children and whether family planning accords with

customs and religious beliefs, Dixon-Meuller (1999); Greenwell (1999) and

Vickers (1974). Community norms also prescribe how much autonomy individuals

have in making family planning decisions. The larger the differences in


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reproductive intentions within a community, the more likely that community norms

support individual choices Bosveld (1998) and Dixon-Mueller (1999). Household

and community influences can be so powerful that they can obscure the line

between individual desires and community norms. For instance, in some culture,

many women reject contraception because bearing and raising children is the path

to respect and dignity in the society; International Planned Parenthood Federation

(1996); Cherkaovi (2000); and Barnett (2001). In either countries most women use

contraception because having small families is the norm, Mkangi (2001); and Lutz

(2003). People are often unaware that such norms influences their choices. In other

cases they are particularly aware. For example, young people often decide not to

seek family planning because they do not want their parents or other adults to

know that they are sexually active. Many fear ridicule, disapproval and hostile

attitude from service providers and others, Jejebhoy (2004). A persons social

environment usually has more influence on family planning decisions than do the

attributes of specific contraceptives. In Kenya, for example, when new clients were

asked to give a single reason for their choice of a specific family planning method,

most cited the attitudes of their spouse or their peers, or their religion or value,

Kim, Kols, Mucheka (1998). In many countries family planning programs are part

of national economic and social development efforts. Efforts to foster equity in

decision-making and raise awareness about reproductive right of the family,


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community, and society also promote informed choice of family planning,

Jacobnson (2000). As women gain more autonomy, they are better able to claim

their rights as individuals, including the right to act to protect their own

reproductive health, Heise, Ellsberg and Gottemeller (1999). Everybody belongs to

informal social networks that influence their behaviour to some degree,

Montgometry (2000); Panel on Population Projections, Committee on Population

and National Research Council (2000); Roger (1999); and Valente (1995). Social

networks include the extended family, friends, neighbours, political groups, church

group, youth groups, and other formal and informal associations. During the course

of the day, women often speak to other women about family planning and

experience with contraceptive use. For many women, informal communication is a

primary source of family planning information, Rutenberg and Watkins (2002).

The influence of social networks is crucial to informed choice. Most people seek

the approval of others and modify their own behaviour to please others or to meet

others expectations, Bongaarts (1996), Stash (2000); and Valente, Watkins, Jato,

Vanderstraten and Tsitsol (2000). Individual health behaviour is influenced by how

a person thinks that others view their behaviour, Rutenberg and Watkins (2000). In

Nigeria and other West African Countries for example, some women said that, it

was difficult for them to use family planning because their relatives or friends were

not using it. These women were reluctant to be the first in their social group to use


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family planning, Stash (2000). People choose contraceptive methods that are

commonly used in their community because they know that it is socially

acceptable to do so, and they tend to know more about these methods, Rogers and

Kincaid (2004); and Valente, Watkins, Jato, Vanderstraten and Tsitsol (2000).

Many women use the same family planning method that others in their social

networks use, Godley (2001). A 1998 study in urban Nigeria found that the more

widely used a method was, the more attractive it became to others in the cities and

villages - Entuisle, Rindfuss, Guilkey, Chamrathrithirong, Curran and Sawangdee

(1999). Entire communities may encourage one type of contraceptive based on the

choices of early contraceptive users, rather than individual needs - Potter (1999).

Even when people are aware of the side effects or failures experienced by other

users of a method, sometimes they still prefer it because it is familiar, Entwisle,

Rindfuss, Guikey, Chamtratrithirong, Curran and Sawangdee (1999). While social

networks exerts a strong influence on more peoples reproductive attitudes and

behaviour, family planning programs themselves influence social norms through

the diffusion of new ideas about contraceptive use - Cleland, and Mauldin (2001).

Based on a review of studies over the previous two decades, research in 1996

found that programs have helped convert peoples interest in having fewer children

into a definite demand for contraception. They have done so largely by making


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contraceptive use more accessible, common and acceptable in many communities -

Freedman (1997). Family planning programs are often the deciding factor for

people who want to avoid pregnancy but who feel uncertain about using family

planning - Jainn (1999); and Magnani, Hotchkiss, Florence and Shafer (1999). The

role of social networks in the diffusion of new ideas about family planning has

been recognized for several decades - Retherford and Palmore (1999). As more and

more people decide to use family planning, it has become increasingly acceptable

for others to choose to do so as well, Cleland and Wilson (2004). In Nigeria, most

research on family planning choices have been based exclusively on family

planning methods, scarcely do we have studies linking family planning choices to

socio-cultural and norms factors. It is therefore not to the knowledge of the

researcher that studies linking family planning choices to couples socio-cultural

norms have been carried out. It is against this background that this study becomes

relevant in filling such missing gaps in our knowledge in the issue of socio-cultural

and norm factors and family planning choices among couples in Ibadan metropolis,

in Nigeria.

When studying families, women's fertility is one of those topics that is sort of a

constant drumbeat in the background. Sociologists around the world have fretted

about this for decades; they want us to care. We read things like the fact that the


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current fertility rate around the world is so low, that the United Nations has

decided it is "unprecedented in human history." And while we were impressed by

how as dramatic a statement that was, still, falling total fertility rates and

replacement rates just seemed too abstract for us to get all that worked up about.

The fertility rates are at or under the replacement rate in every developed nation in

the world, and fall as those in less-developed nations increase the literacy and

educational attainment of their populations. However, education and literacy alone

do not appear to be the sole determinant of fertility rates. For example, educational

attainment has dramatically risen in some Arab and Asian nations, but the fertility

rates of those nations have not changed as much as was expected. So there must be

other cultural, social and economic factors may diminish or even outweigh the

education factor. Similarly, the general theory is that a rise of women's

educational attainment will delay the women's age at first childbirth. The women

will put off starting a family because they are in school or in work, or perhaps it is

just because the education included lessons about contraception. But literacy rates

in Cuba are some of the highest in the world. And while Cuba's fertility rate is one

of the lowest in the world, the increased literacy hasn't seemed to have any other

effect. Conversely, the age at which women are having children is declining, when

it would usually be expected to be rising. In a study of employed Cuban women,


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all of whom had easily available birth control and abortions, 50 percent of them

had had a child before the age of 20.

Actually, in many countries, women's actual fertility rate is consistently below

their average desired number of children. Meaning women have less children than

the number they consider to be ideal. And often, no matter what size of family the

woman has, she always thinks that a larger number of children is actually the ideal.

And that holds true the bigger the family she has.

1.2 SCOPE AND LIMITATION

This study is delimited to the adults in the three Local Governments considered.

Mushin is a suburb ofLagos, located inLagos State,Nigeria, and is one of

Nigeria's 774 Local Government Areas. It is located 10 km north of the Lagos city

core, adjacent to the main road toIkeja,and is a largely a congested residential area

with inadequate sanitation and low-quality housing. It had 633,009 inhabitants at

the 2006 Census. Amuwo Odofin is one of the 57 Local Government Councils that

make up Lagos State , which was created out of the old Amuwo Odofin Local

Government on 27 October 2003. It covers land mass of 100q.km, divided into two

distinct geographical spheres of Upland and Riverine areas. For political

expediency, the Local Government is divided into three geo-political zones, that is,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagoshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagos_Statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikejahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikejahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagos_Statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagos


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the Riverine, the Middle Belt and the Upper Belt. The Riverine area comprises

Towns and Villages such as Tomaro, Ilado, Okun Glass, Sankey, Igbo Alejo,

Igbologun etc. The middle belt begins with the Local Government boundary

adjacent to Apapa Local Government through the Tincan Coconut area, Beach-

land Estate. The Upper belt comprises Amuwo Odofin Estate, Raji Rasaki Estate,

Amuwo Odofin New Town, Festac Town , Abule Ado, Trade-fair Complex among

others. The Local Government, with a population of over 1,500,000 according to

the 2006 Census shares its boundaries with Ajeromi and Ifelodun Local

Government in the East, Oriade Local Government in the West, the Badagry Creek

to the South and Isolo/Igando Local Government to the North.

Ikeja is an outer-ring suburb of the city ofLagos and capital ofLagos State. It is

also one of Nigeria's 774Local Government Areas (LGAs). TheMurtala

Mohammed International Airportis located there. Prior to the emergence of

military rule in the early 1980s, Ikeja was a well planned, clean and quiet

residential environment with shopping malls, pharmacies and government

reservation areas. Ikeja is also home to theFemi Kuti's Africa Shrine andLagbaja's

Motherlan', both live music venues.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagoshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagos_Statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_Government_Areas_of_Nigeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murtala_Mohammed_International_Airporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murtala_Mohammed_International_Airporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femi_Kutihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagbajahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagbajahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femi_Kutihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murtala_Mohammed_International_Airporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murtala_Mohammed_International_Airporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_Government_Areas_of_Nigeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagos_Statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagos


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1.3 AIMS and OBJECTIVES

1. To identify the family planning practice in the study area.

2. To determine the relationship between family practices and size of the

family

3. To determine whether the family planning practices depends on occupation.

4. To determine whether family planning practices depends on religion.

1.5 LITERATURE REVIEW

Ware (1974) revealed that there is no measure that provides an equal effective

index of the potential for change in family size in developing countries. Reflection

of norms and culture of a place, particularly those that are related to the value of

children affect decisions of people on family size, (Kent & Larson 1982).

Ware (1975) in his article on the limits of acceptable family size in western Nigeria

drew data from interviews with a stratified probability sample of 2996 Yoruba men

and women aged 17 or above living in Lagos and Western States in JuneJuly

1973. Although drawing upon other material from the 1 -hour interviews the

discussion concentrates upon the family size ideals of these individuals. In addition

to the customary measures of ideal family size, new measures of the limits of


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acceptable family size are described, together with the reactions of the whole

sample to a wide range of statements relating to family size and the value of

children. It is shown that the smallest family which would be acceptable to any

appreciable proportion of the population is four children, which would be

acceptable to 18% of all respondents. Comparative data from elsewhere in the

developing world are presented to show that African family size ideals are amongst

the highest in the world. Age, educational and occupational differentials in

perceptions of different family sizes are also discussed.

Lucas and Ukaegbu (1977) in their paper on other limits of acceptable family size

in Sourthern Nigeria compared the results of questions about the best number of

children and the desire for more children from three Nigerian sample surveys of

adult females: in the Lagos metropolis (1973), in West Nigeria (1973), and among

the Ngwa Ibo in the East Central State (1974). In Lagos and West Nigeria support

for the small family (of four children or, rarely, less) is more prevalent amongst

the younger, urban bred and educated women: when these achieve their preferred

family size a decline in fertility may be implemented. Among the Ngwa Ibo four

children are seen as too few and the desire to stop childbearing only receives

majority support from wives with seven or more surviving children. Economic

constraints on family size have less impact on the Ngwa Ibo but glimmerings of


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interest in family limitation, albeit at high parities, are apparent among the

educated Ngwa wives.

Adams (1981) in his presentation on family size and the quality of children in a

Presidential address to the population association of America noted that if couples

decide to have fewer children in order to achieve higher quality offspring, are

they correct in assuming that the quality of children bears an important and inverse

relation to family size? If they are correct, how does number of children operate to

affect individual quality? This research (using U.S. whites primarily) takes

educational attainment (among adults) and college plans (among youngsters) as the

principal indicators of quality, but also directs some attention to measures of

intelligence. The analysis supports the dilution model (on average, the more

children the lower the quality of each child) and indicates that only children do not

suffer from lack of siblings, and that other last-borns are not handicapped by a

teaching deficit. Number of siblings (relative to other background variables) is

found to have an important detrimental impact on child quality-an impact

compounded by the fact that, when couples are at a stage in life to make family-

size decisions, most background factors (however important to the quality of their

children) are no longer readily manipulatable. A special path analysis of college

plans among boys uses a modification of Sewells Wisconsin Model as its base.

The results show that number of siblings is a negative influence on intervening


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variables affecting college plans. In general, the research documents the

unfavorable consequences for individual siblings of high fertility, even in a country

that is (at least for whites) as socially, economically, and politically advantaged as

the United States.

Oyewole et al (1983) in their write-up on desired family size and sex of children in

Nigeria stated that in 1981, sex ratio data and preferences for family size and for

combinations and permutations of children were provided by 333 Nigerian

students at the University of ilorli, liorin, Nigeria. For the present and parental

generations cornblned, the seconcia, sex ratio was estimated to be 95.8 males:100

females. In the projected families, preferences for family sizes resulted in an

average of 4.88 children per family. The most preferred family consisted of fot,

children-a 2m2f combination in a mimi order, whereas the second most perferred

family consisted of five children-a 3m2f combination In a mfmfm order. Also

expressed was a strong preference for permutations of sexes, resulting In a male

child as first-born followed by an alternation of sexes. A eater preference for male

children was indicated by the combined sex ratio of 167 males:100 females for the

preferred families.


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Axinn and Thornton (1984) in a journal on family and household investigate the

influence of parents marital dissolutions on their childrens attitudes toward

several dimensions of family formation. Hypotheses focus on the role of parents

attitudes as a mechanism linking parents behavior to their childrens attitudes. We

test these hypotheses using intergenerational panel data that include measures of

parents attitudes taken directly from parents and measures of childrens attitudes

taken directly from children. Results demonstrate strong effects of parental

divorce, remarriage, and widowhood on childrens attitudes toward premarital sex,

cohabitation, marriage. childbearing, and divorce. The results also show that

parents own attitudes link their behavior to their childrens attitudes, although

substantial effects of parental behavior remain after controlling for parents

attitudes. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the 1994 annual

meetings of the American Sociological Association, held in Los Angeles. The

authors wish to thank the National Science Foundation (Grant SES-9257724) and

the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (Grant UO1

HD30928-01) for their financial support of this research. We wish to thank

Jennifer Barber for her assistance with analyses reported here and her helpful

comments on the manuscript. We also thank Kazuo Yamaguchi for his helpful

answers to statistical questions. Finally, we would like to thank the anonymous
http://www.springerlink.com/content/?Author=William+G.+Axinnhttp://www.springerlink.com/content/?Author=Arland+Thorntonhttp://www.springerlink.com/content/?Author=Arland+Thorntonhttp://www.springerlink.com/content/?Author=William+G.+Axinn


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reviewers for their helpful comments and suggestions. Any errors or omissions

remain the responsibility of the authors alone.

Ascadi and Ascadi (1990) revealed that in societies where fertility is controlled by

lineage, ancestors and gods agents who do not recognize individual desire in

fertility decision making, and where fertility controls are not widespread; their

response to ideal family size will be altered by the variables mentioned.

Belmont and Marolla (1990) in his article on Birth Order, Family Size, and

Intelligence, the relation of birth order and family size to intellectual performance,

as measured by the Raven Progressive Matrices, was examined among nearly all of

400,000 19-year-old males born in the Netherlands in 1944 through 1947. It was

found that birth order and family size had independent effects on intellectual

performance. Effects of family size were not present in all social classes, but

effects of birth order were consistent across social class.

Victor (1992) in a journal on Chance, Child Traits, and Choice of Family Size

Uses a model of maximization of expected utility, where utility depends on the

number and traits of children, as well as consumption. The model is applied to the

case when the sex of children is the relevant trait of children to explore questions

of family size. The model generates qualitative predictions linking sex composition

of children to the propensity to have more children. It is expected that families with


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either a larger or smaller proportion of boys than they desire or expect in the next

birth tend toward larger families than those whose experience conforms more

closely to the desired and expected composition. In cases where families modify

the expected sex of children in light of the sex composition of their own children,

this result depends on the assumption that the demand for children has a price

elasticity lower than unity. Data for the United States and East Pakistan are

consistent with these predictions. The same theoretical framework is applied to

infant survival.

Zick and Xiang (1994) explained that the relationship between income and demand

for children is not necessarily linear; and an increase in income may not

necessarily lead to an increase in demand for children because individuals may

choose to invest in the quality of surviving children. NDHS (2003) summits that

most families based their family size on their economic status especially wealth.

For instance, most opulent men, irrespective of their residence, married wives and

even deviate from tamable family size because of their level of opulence. But most

highly rich families have the lowest family size. Meanwhile, the lowest wealth

quintile has high family mean.

Filtop (1998) in his article on Family size and the quality of children noted If

couples decide to have fewer children in order to achieve higher quality


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offspring, are they correct in assuming that the quality of children bears an

important and inverse relation to family size? If they are correct, how does number

of children operate to affect individual quality? This research (using U.S. whites

primarily) takes educational attainment (among adults) and college plans (among

youngsters) as the principal indicators of quality, but also directs some attention to

measures of intelligence. The analysis supports the dilution model (on average,

the more children the lower the quality of each child) and indicates that only

children do not suffer from lack of siblings, and that other last-borns are not

handicapped by a teaching deficit. Number of siblings (relative to other

background variables) is found to have an important detrimental impact on child

qualityan impact compounded by the fact that, when couples are at a stage in life

to make family-size decisions, most background factors (however important to the

quality of their children) are no longer readily manipulable. A special path analysis

of college plans among boys uses a modification of Sewells Wisconsin Model as

its base. The results show that number of siblings is a negative influence on

intervening variables affecting college plans. In general, the research documents

the unfavorable consequences for individual siblings of high fertility, even in a

country that is (at least for whites) as socially, economically, and politically

advantaged as the United States.


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Family size limitation and birth spacing considered Two models of fertility change

in the initial stages of decline are explored: (1) fertility changes occur among older

women in response to changes in long-term family-size targets (stopping effects);

(2) family-size changes reflect decisions at each parity level to delay or prevent the

birth of the next child (spacing effects). The "stopping" and "spacing" effects are

examined among Asian and African immigrants in Israel. The data show important

spacing effects among these immigrants that relate mainly to socioeconomic

change rather than cultural factors. Comparisons with other subpopulations suggest

that there are no general, universal rules of spacing or stopping patterns in the

transition to lower fertility.

Psacharopoulos et al (2000) in their paper on family size, schooling and child

labour in Peru analyzes the effects of being indigenous, number of siblings, sibling

activities and sibling age structure on child schooling progress and child non-

school activity. The analysis is based on the Peru 1991 Living Standards Survey.

The analysis shows that family size is important. However, the analysis also

demonstrates the importance of taking into consideration the activities of siblings.

The number of siblings not entrolled in school proves to be an important control

variable in at least one specification of the empirical model. However, more

research is needed on the interactions between siblings, their activities and their

age structure. In other words, an attempt must be made to find ways of taking into


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account the life cycle effects of ones siblings on their schooling performance

and labor force activity. The analysis also shows that the age structure of siblings is

important, but in conjunction with their activities. That is, having a greater number

of younger siblings implies less schooling, more age-grade distortion in the

classroom and more child labor.

Keep and Dewilde (2002) in their article on Contraceptive choice in the completed

family used a 2-page questionnaire; the 1st part was self-administered while the

2nd half of the questionnaire allowed for the physician to interview the

respondents. The survey studied the demographic characteristics of the respondents

and the relationship of these characteristics to contraceptive choice, family size and

possible future choice in contraception. Demographic information assayed

included age and occupation and religion of the respondent and the number of

unplanned children. 235 of the 359 respondents (2/3) considered their family

complete. 70% of those surveyed used some form of contraception with oral

contraceptives and female sterilization being the most popular currently used

methods and oral contraceptives and condoms being the most popular ever used

method. Motivations for contraceptive choice were also evaluated (family health,

age, socioeconomic conditions, etc). Although a large number of unplanned

pregnancies were reported, they were not necessarily unwanted. The failure a

contraceptive method may account for this. Over 80% of those surveyed had used


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oral contraceptives at some time. Although the couples agreed on family size, the

reasoning behind their decision was obtuse and not well planned. Sterilization

created mixed emotions among both partners. Its popularity stems from the

standard recommendation of discontinued use of oral contraceptives after age 35.

However, doctors need to be considerate of the ambivalent feelings of their

patients and recommend choices that leave options open without presenting health

risks.

Vopel et al (2004) in their article on citation, family size, opposition and the value

of patent rights combined estimates of the value of patent rights from a survey of

patent-holders with a set of indicator variables in order to model the value of

patents. Our results suggest that the number of references to the patent literature as

well as the citations a patent receives are positively related to its value. References

to the non-patent literature are informative about the value of pharmaceutical and

chemical patents, but not in other technical fields. Patents which are upheld in

opposition and annulment procedures and patents representing large international

patent families are particularly valuable.

Singarepore (2005) paper and analysis statistical snippet revealed that family size

is becoming smaller in the average number of children born to the ever married

females, and that there was a negative correlation between family size and


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educational attainment of the mother. Graduate mothers had on average 1.3 - 1.4

children, while those with below secondary education had 3.3 - 3.4 children.

Singarepore identified two factors which contribute to the phenomenon. These are:

1. Delay child bearing of graduates

2. Termination of smaller size by graduate mother

The fertility deferential between graduate mothers with those below secondary

education is larger at younger age groups but narrowed with age. This shows both

the delay in child bearing of graduate mothers vis--vis below secondary

education mothers, and the catching up time progresses. Though, there is a catch-

up process by graduate mothers, the eventual family size [with reference to another

aged 50 and above] below secondary mothers is still much higher than graduate

mothers. This supports the McCarthy and Oni (1987) that the number of surviving

children, womens education, and sex preferences significantly affect desired

family size. Meanwhile, young people in Kenya revealed significant negative

effect of age, education, mass media exposure, and modern orientation, on ideal

family size; of these variables education and age have the strongest effect,

(Musyok, 1983). Men in Nigeria want more children than women. Ideal family size

among urban men is lower than that of rural men with 6.6 and 9.8 respectively.


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Regional difference is also high because men in the northwest versus south west

revealed 12.8 & 4.8 respectively, (NDHS 2003).

Park (2005) submitted that poverty, unemployment, and social isolation are

features of family in which children are abused. When family well-being is

hampered, violence comes into such families. Generally, family violence refers to

any rough and illegitimate use of physical force, aggression, or verbal abuse by one

family member towards another.

Kalesanwo and Emmanuel (2009) in their article on Assessment of Adults`

Opinion On The Ideal Family Size And Family Well-being In Ogun State, Nigeria

noted that family can be taken to mean a unit consisting of husband and wife, and

their children, (Moses and Adewale 2002). Moses, Patric and Olarenwaju (2001)

quoting Otite and Ogion (1981) reported that family as a bio-social group, meaning

that family has both biological and social aspects. Moses and Adewale (2002)

quoting Murdrock (1965) defines family as a social group characterized by

common residence, economic, cooperation, and reproduction. They reported that

family is a group of persons united by ties of marriage, blood, or adoption

constituting a single house hold; interacting and communicating with each other in

their respective social role of husband and wife, mother and father, brother and

sister, as well as maintaining a common culture. Moses, Patrick, and Olarenwaju


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(2001) classified family into extended and nuclear family based on the kinship

system; this system is based on blood relation and marriage. Based on Lifecycle

family, they also grouped family into family of orientation and family of

procreation. While on the basis of modernization, they further grouped family into

traditional family, modern family, and post-modern family. It is basically a

microcosm of larger society, so any tension in family creates tension in the society

at large.

Yeatman and Trinitapoli (2010) in their write-up on the relationship between

religion and family planning in rural Malawi noted that despite the centrality of

religion and fertility to life in rural Africa, the relationship between the two

remains poorly understood. The study presented here uses unique integrated

individual- and congregational-level data from rural Malawi to examine religious

influences on contraceptive use. In this religiously diverse population, we find

evidence that the particular characteristics of a congregation-leaders positive

attitudes toward family planning and discussion of sexual morality, which do not

fall along broad denominational lines-are more relevant than denominational

categories for predicting womens contraceptive use. They further find evidence

for a relationship between religious socialization and contraceptive behavior.


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Olajide (2010) in his article on Socio-Cultural and Norms Factors Influencing

Family Planning Choices among Couples in Ibadan Metropolis, Nigeria

established the influence of socio-cultural and norms factors on couples family

planning choices. Couples involved in the study were randomly selected from five

different professions in Ibadan constituted the sample for the study. The two

instruments used were author-constructed questionnaires with 0.62 and o.69

reliability co-efficient respectively. The data obtained were analyzed using chi-

square statistics and multiple regression analysis. The results indicated that

significant relationship existed between social and cultural factors (252.959);

gender roles (176.849); social networks (95.424); religion (125.742); and local

belief factors (205.196). The results further indicated that a combination of the five

independent variables significantly predicted couples family planning choices

yielding a co-efficient multiple regression (R) of 0.467 and F-ratio of 57.241. The

results further revealed that significant relationship existed between each of the

independent variables except local belief factors. Based on the results of this

finding, it was recommended that those in the helping professions should take

cognizance of those variables that have been found to influence family planning

choices among couples.


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Fayehun et al (2011) in his article on sex of preceding child and birth spacing

among Nigerian ethnic groups was of the view that in seeking for more effective

ways of fertility control and improvement of maternal and child health through

birth spacing in a predominantly patrilineal society like Nigeria, this study explores

how the sex of a previous child affects birth interval among ethnic groups,

controlling for demographic and socioeconomic variables. The study utilized birth

history data from the 2008 Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey. The findings

showed that the effect of sex of prior births on the birth interval is slightly

significant among the Igbo and the Southern minorities, who tend to desire to have

a male child sooner if preceding births were female. Among all the ethnic groups,

women who are yet to meet their ideal sex preference have a shorter birth interval

than those who have. Apart from the evident sex preferences, these results suggest

that Nigerian parents also undertake sex balancing among their children. There is a

consistent and strong relationship between the survival of a child and subsequent

birth interval, which suggest that women have a short birth interval, and hence a

large family size, because they are not certain that their children would survive.


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CHAPTER TWO

2.0 DATA COLLECTION

The instrument for this study is a self-structured questionnaire that covers 3 items

(finance, religion and literacy) that serve as the basis for choice on family size and

child spacing was used to collect data to test the hypotheses raised for this study

(see appendix A for questionnaire). Mushin has a population of 1,121,697 people,

Amuwo-Odofin has a population of 956,543 people and Ikeja has a population of

786,178 people (Nigeria news- Nigeria Population 2006). Two hundred

respondents were randomly chosen from each Local Government (cluster) using

simple random sampling techniques summing to 600 respondents. The sampling

covered both the rural and urban segment of the locality with interest on the adults.

The data obtained were collated and analyzed using inferential statistics of chi-

square to test the acceptance and non-acceptance of the hypotheses.


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CHAPTER THREE

3.0 DATA ANALYSIS

The data obtained were analyzed using inferential statistics of chi-square.

Inprobability theory andstatistics, the chi-squared distribution (also chi-

square or-distribution) with kdegrees of freedom is the distribution of a sum of

the squares of kindependentstandard normal random variables. It is one of the

most widely usedprobability distributions ininferential statistics, e.g.,

inhypothesis testing or in construction ofconfidence intervals. When there is a

need to contrast it with thenon-central chi-squared distribution,this distribution is

sometimes called the central chi-squared distribution.

The chi-squared distribution is used in the commonchi-squared tests forgoodness

of fit of an observed distribution to a theoretical one, the independence of two

criteria of classification ofqualitative data, and in confidence interval estimation

for a populationstandard deviation of a normal distribution from a sample standard

deviation. Many other statistical tests also use this distribution, like Friedman's

analysis of variance by ranks.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chi_(letter)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chi_(letter)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chi_(letter)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degrees_of_freedom_(statistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independence_(probability_theory)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_normalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_distributionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inferential_statisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothesis_testinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confidence_intervalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noncentral_chi-squared_distributionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chi-squared_testhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goodness_of_fithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goodness_of_fithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_independencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confidence_intervalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_deviationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedman_testhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedman_testhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedman_testhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedman_testhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_deviationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confidence_intervalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_independencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goodness_of_fithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goodness_of_fithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chi-squared_testhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noncentral_chi-squared_distributionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confidence_intervalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothesis_testinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inferential_statisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_distributionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_normalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independence_(probability_theory)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degrees_of_freedom_(statistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chi_(letter)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_theory


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The procedure of the chi-square test is as follows:

1. Formulate the null hypothesis

2. Compute the expected frequencies of the cells

3. Expected frequency

Cij= Ri* CJ

N

r c r c

N =Ri = Cj = = Oij

1 1 1 1

Where

Ri = ith rows marginal frequencies

Cj= jth columns marginal frequencies

N = total number of observation


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4. Compute the test statistic

r c

2

= (oijeij)

2

1 1 eij

Where

oij= observed frequency

eij= expected frequency

4. Decide the -level of significance and read from table2()df

Where df = (r-1)(c-1)

5. Decision rule: reject Ho if 2>2()df and accept if otherwise.

6. Conclude appropriately.


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3.1.1 Test on Family Size

Family Size Entry

1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5

Ho= Theres a statistical significant association between Child spacing and family

size. i.e the years for child spacing considered do not equally affect the family

sizes.

H1 = Theres no statistical significant association between Child spacing and

family size. i.e the years for child spacing considered equally affect the family

sizes.


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Case Processing Summary

Cases

Valid Missing Total

N Percent N Percent N Percent

Child_Spacing *

Family_Size

1800 100.0% 0 .0% 1800 100.0%

D.R: Accept H0if (Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)) is 0.05 and reject otherwise.

Chi-Square Tests

Value df

Asymp. Sig. (2-

sided)

Pearson Chi-Square 649.964a 16 .000

Likelihood Ratio 692.749 16 .000

Linear-by-Linear Association 21.662 1 .000

N of Valid Cases 1800

a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected

count is 15.68.

Conclusion: Since = .000 < .005, we accept H0that theres a statistical significant

association between Child spacing and family size. i.e the years for child spacing

considered do not equally affect the family sizes.


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Symmetric Measures

Value Approx. Sig.

Nominal by Nominal Phi .601 .000

Cramer's V .300 .000


Phi and Cramer's V are both tests of the strength of association. At = .601,the

strength of association between the variables is not very strong.

Post-Hoc Analysis

When there is a difference in the performance of samples from the same

population, the post-hoc test in SPSS points out the different variable. This is done

using the standardized residual it has approximately a standard normal distribution.

Values of the standardized residual outside the range -2 S.R 2, shows a really

big difference with the observed value.


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Child_Spacing * Family_Size Crosstabulation

Family_Size

Total1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00

Child_Spacing 1.00 Count 123 68 41 9 1 242

Std. Residual 13.6 -2.2 -1.4 -4.5 -5.1

2.00 Count 82 191 128 202 169 772

Std. Residual -3.7 -5.4 -2.7 8.1 8.4

3.00 Count 9 209 98 55 39 410

Std. Residual -7.0 4.9 1.3 -.8 -1.2

4.00 Count 45 106 87 3 0 241

Std. Residual 1.1 1.9 5.1 -5.5 -5.3

5.00 Count 27 83 25 0 0 135

Std. Residual 1.2 4.8 -.6 -4.5 -4.0

Total Count 286 657 379 269 209 1800

Results

Parents with three (3) children who choose to space their children with a year led

to the unequal choice of family size.

Equal choices was observed by Parents planning 2 years child spacing.


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Parents with three (3) and five (5) children respectively who choose to space their

children with 3 years led to the unequal choice of family size.

Parents with one (1) and two (2) children respectively who choose to space their

children with 4 years led to the unequal choice of family size.

Parents with one (1) child who choose to space their children with a year led to the

unequal choice of family size.


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3.1.2 Test on Income

Income Entry

#50,000 1

#51,000 - #80,000 2

#81,000 - #100,000 3

#100,000 < 4

Ho = Theres a statistical significant association between Child spacing and

income. i.e the years for child spacing considered do not equally affect the income.


income. i.e the years for child spacing considered equally affect the income.


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Cases

Valid Missing Total


Child_Spacing_3 * Income 1767 98.2% 33 1.8% 1800 100.0%


Chi-Square Tests

Value df

Asymp. Sig. (2-

sided)






count is 15.10.


association between Child spacing and income. i.e the years for child spacing

considered do not equally affect the income.


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Symmetric Measures

Value Approx. Sig.




Phi and Cramer's V are both tests of the strength of association. At = .330,the

strength of association between the variables is not very weak.

Post-Hoc Analysis







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Child_Spacing_3 * Income Crosstabulation

Income

Total1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00

Child_Spacing_3 1.00 Count 109 96 85 23 313

Std. Residual -1.7 1.5 1.3 -.9

2.00 Count 221 124 71 93 509

Std. Residual .8 -.9 -4.5 7.1

3.00 Count 76 67 20 7 170

Std. Residual .7 3.3 -3.2 -2.1

4.00 Count 112 80 140 31 363

Std. Residual -3.0 -1.6 5.8 -.2

5.00 Count 208 98 103 3 412

Std. Residual 3.0 -1.0 .5 -5.6

Total Count 726 465 419 157 1767

Results

Parents choose to space their children with a year irrespective of their income

Parents whose income is below #80,000 prefer a 2 years spacing period leading to

unequal choice of the 3 years spacing period.


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Parents whose income is below #50,000 prefer a 3 years spacing period leading to

unequal choice of the 3 years spacing period.

Parents whose income is below #80,000 and above #100,000 prefer a 4 years

spacing period leading to unequal choice of the 3 years spacing period.

Parents whose income is between #50,000 and #100,000 prefer a 5 years spacing

period leading to unequal choice of the 3 years spacing period.


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3.1.3 Test on Religion

Religion Entry

Christian 1

Muslim 2

Traditional 3

Others 4


Religion. i.e the years for child spacing considered do not equally affect the

Religion.


Religion. i.e the years for child spacing considered equally affect the Religion.


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Cases

Valid Missing Total


Child_Spacing_2 * Religion 1800 100.0% 0 .0% 1800 100.0%


Chi-Square Tests

Value df

Asymp. Sig. (2-

sided)






count is 11.80.


association between Child spacing and religion. i.e the years for child spacing

considered do not equally affect the religion.


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Symmetric Measures

Value Approx. Sig.




Phi and Cramer's V are both tests of the strength of association. At = .323, the

strength of association between the variables is very weak.

Post-Hoc Analysis







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Child_Spacing_2 * Religion Crosstabulation

Religion

Total1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00

Child_Spacing_2 1.00 Count 28 146 98 64 336

Std. Residual -2.2 -1.6 .4 5.4

2.00 Count 40 201 138 44 423

Std. Residual -1.9 -.6 1.8 .4

3.00 Count 113 350 98 54 615

Std. Residual 4.0 2.6 -5.6 -.8

4.00 Count 26 123 150 7 306

Std. Residual -2.0 -2.3 7.0 -4.2

5.00 Count 21 72 19 8 120

Std. Residual 1.5 1.6 -2.5 -1.1

Total Count 228 892 503 177 1800

Results

Muslim and traditional believers of the respondents who choose to space their

children with a year led to the unequal choice of child spacing.

Traditional believers and the respondents of other religion who choose to space

their children with 2 years led to the unequal choice of child spacing.


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Respondents of other religion who choose to space their children with 3 years led

to the unequal choice of child spacing.

Religion did not affect the response of parents with 4 years child spacing plan.

Traditional believers of the respondents who choose to space their children with 5

years led to the unequal choice of child spacing.


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3.1.4 Test on Literacy

Literacy Entry

FSLC 1

SSCE 2

Diploma/OND/NCE 3

BSC/BED 4

Masters 5

PHD 6


literacy. i.e the years for child spacing considered do not equally affect the literacy.


literacy. i.e the years for child spacing considered equally affect the literacy.


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Cases

Valid Missing Total


Child_Spacing_1 * Literacy 1800 100.0% 0 .0% 1800 100.0%


Chi-Square Tests

Value df

Asymp. Sig. (2-

sided)





a. 3 cells (7.1%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected

count is 3.83.


association between Child spacing and family size. i.e the years for child spacing

considered do not equally affect the family sizes.


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Symmetric Measures

Value Approx. Sig.

Nominal by Nominal Phi 1.119 .000



Phi and Cramer's V are both tests of the strength of association. At = 1.119, the

strength of association between the variables is very strong.

Post-Hoc Analysis







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Child_Spacing_1 * Literacy Crosstabulation

Literacy

Total.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00

Child_Spacing_1 .00 Count 92 0 0 0 0 0 0 92

Std. Residual 40.3 -6.0 -4.5 -3.8 -2.8 -2.3 -2.0

1.00 Count 0 41 43 21 9 14 0 128

Std. Residual -2.6 -1.4 2.9 .3 -.6 2.5 -2.3

2.00 Count 0 108 87 65 53 0 0 313

Std. Residual -4.0 -1.4 2.4 2.4 5.1 -4.2 -3.6

3.00 Count 0 411 131 81 34 15 75 747

Std. Residual -6.2 6.7 -2.4 -3.2 -3.7 -4.2 7.9

4.00 Count 0 99 106 70 52 74 0 401

Std. Residual -4.5 -4.7 2.1 1.1 3.1 10.7 -4.1

5.00 Count 0 53 21 40 5 0 0 119

Std. Residual -2.5 .9 -.9 5.1 -1.6 -2.6 -2.2

Total Count 92 712 388 277 153 103 75 1800

Results

Parents with FSLC, Diploma, OND, NCE, BSC and BED who choose to space

their children with a year led to the unequal choice of child spacing.


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Parents with FSLC who choose to space their children with 2 years led to the

unequal choice of child spacing.

Parents who choose to space their children with a 3 years are not affected by their

educational level or background.

Parents with SSCE, Diploma, OND and NCE who choose to space their children

with 4 years led to the unequal choice of child spacing.

.

Parents with FSLC and SSCE who choose to space their children with 5 years led

to the unequal choice of child spacing.


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CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations

4.1 Summary

This study looked into the role of child spacing as it is affected by family size,

income, religion and literacy level in Mushin, Amuwo-Odofin and Ikeja all in

Lagos State. For this purpose, a well-structured questionnaire (see appendix 5) was

constructed and distributed to 600 respondents (Parents) in each cluster. Analysis

was done using SPSS17.

4.2 Conclusion

Four hypotheses were tested and in all of which the null hypothesis was accepted

indicating that the various family sizes, income groups, religion, and literacy levels

influences parent choice on appropriate child spacing in most cases unequally as

shown below:


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Results from Family size

Parents with three (3) children who choose to space their children with a

year led to the unequal choice of family size.

Equal choices was observed by Parents planning 2 years child spacing.

Parents with three (3) and five (5) children respectively who choose to space

their children with 3 years led to the unequal choice of family size.

Parents with one (1) and two (2) children respectively who choose to space

their children with 4 years led to the unequal choice of family size.

Parents with one (1) child who choose to space their children with a year led

to the unequal choice of family size.


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Results from Income

Parents choose to space their children with a year irrespective of their

income

Parents whose income is below #80,000 prefer a 2 years spacing period

leading to unequal choice of the 3 years spacing period.

Parents whose income is below #50,000 prefer a 3 years spacing period

leading to unequal choice of the 3 years spacing period.

Parents whose income is below #80,000 and above #100,000 prefer a 4 years


Parents whose income is between #50,000 and #100,000 prefer a 5 years



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Results from Religion

Muslim and traditional believers of the respondents who choose to space

their children with a year led to the unequal choice of child spacing.

Traditional believers and the respondents of other religion who choose to

space their children with 2 years led to the unequal choice of child spacing.

Respondents of other religion who choose to space their children with 3


Religion did not affect the response of parents with 4 years child spacing

plan.

Traditional believers of the respondents who choose to space their children

with 5 years led to the unequal choice of child spacing.


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Results from Literacy level

Parents with FSLC, Diploma, OND, NCE, BSC and BED who choose to

space their children with a year led to the unequal choice of child spacing.

Parents with FSLC who choose to space their children with 2 years led to the

unequal choice of child spacing.

Parents who choose to space their children with a 3 years are not affected by

their educational level or background.

Parents with SSCE, Diploma, OND and NCE who choose to space their

children with 4 years led to the unequal choice of child spacing.

.

Parents with FSLC and SSCE who choose to space their children with 5



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4.3 Recommendation

Based on the findings and conclusion above, the following are recommended:

1. Teaching of Family life education must continue in every home and

community through qualified personnel.

2. Government and private bodies should collaborate to provide family

planning facilities in all parts of the state and encourage their utilization.

3. Family planning facilities should be made available and easily accessible to

the rural dwellers.

4. Family life education must be extended to all areas to enhance their birth

control awareness.

Child Spacing

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